The yellow perch (Perca flavescens), commonly referred to as perch, striped perch or preacher is a freshwater perciform fish native to much of North America. The yellow perch was described in 1814 by Samuel Latham Mitchill from New York. It is closely related, and morphologically similar to the European perch (Perca fluviatilis); and is sometimes considered a subspecies of its European counterpart.

Latitudinal variability in age, growth rates, and size have been observed among populations of yellow perch, likely resulting from differences in day length and annual water temperatures. In many populations, yellow perch often live 9 to 10 years, with adults generally ranging from  in length.

The world record for a yellow by weight is ), and was caught in May 1865 in Bordentown, New Jersey by Dr. C. Abbot.  It is the longest-standing record for a freshwater fish in North America.

Description
The yellow perch has an elongate, laterally compressed body with a subterminal mouth and a relatively long but blunt snout which is surpassed in length by the lower jaw.  Yellow perch have many fine teeth.  Their bodies are rough to the touch because of their ctenoid scales.  Like most perches, the yellow perch has two separate dorsal fins. The anterior, or first, dorsal fin contains 12–14 spines while the second has 2–3 spines in its anterior followed by 12–13 soft rays. The anal fin has 2 spines and 7–8 soft rays. The opercula tips are spined, and the anal fin has two spines.  The pelvic fins are close together, and the homocercal caudal fin is forked.  Seven or eight branchiostegal rays are seen.

The upper part of the head and body varies in colour from bright green through to olive or golden brown. The colour on the upper body extends onto the flanks where it creates a pattern of 6–8 vertical bars over a background of yellow or yellowish green. They normally show a blackish blotch on the membrane of the first dorsal fin between the rearmost 3 or 4 spines. The colour of the dorsal and caudal fins vary from yellow to green while the anal and pelvic fins may be yellow through to silvery white; in spawning season, males develop pronounced red or yellow color on their lower fins. The pectoral fins are transparent and amber in colour. The ventral part of the body is white or yellow. The juvenile fish are paler and can have an almost whitish background colour. The maximum recorded total length is —although they are more commonly around —and the maximum published weight is .

Distribution
Yellow perch are native to the tributaries of the Atlantic Oceans and Hudson Bay in North America, particularly the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence River and Mississippi River basins.  In Canada, its native range extends throughout Nova Scotia and Quebec north to the Mackenzie River. It also is common in the northwest to Great Slave Lake and west into Alberta.   In the United States, the native range extends south into Ohio and Illinois, and throughout most of the northeastern United States. Native distribution was driven by postglacial melt from the Mississippi River.  It is also considered native to the Atlantic Slope basin, extending south to the Savannah River. There is also a small, likely native population in the Dead Lakes region of the Apalachicola River system in Florida.

The yellow perch has also been widely introduced for sport and commercial fishing purposes. It has also been introduced to establish a forage base for bass and walleye. These introductions were predominantly performed by the U.S. Fish Commission in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.  However, unauthorized introductions have likely occurred from illegal introductions, dispersal through connected waterways, and use as live bait. The current native and introduced range in the United States is through northern Missouri to western Pennsylvania to South Carolina and north to Maine, with introduced populations in the northwest and southwest portions of the United States.   It has been extirpated in Arkansas.  Introductions in Canada have been less intense than in the United States. It was primarily limited to the lakes in the Peace River drainage of British Columbia, but has currently expanded to other bordering areas since.  A population in Swan Lake of the Peace River drainage, however, may be indigenous.  The yellow perch has been introduced to China and Japan.

Habitat
Yellow perch are commonly found in the littoral zones of both large and small lakes, but also inhabit slow-moving rivers and streams, brackish waters, and ponds. Due to human intervention, they are currently found in many man-made lakes, reservoirs, and river impoundments. The perch are most abundant in lakes that may be warm or cool and are extremely productive in smaller  lakes where they can dominate unless controlled by predation.

Biology

Yellow perch typically reach sexual maturity in 2–3 years for males and 3–4 years for females.  They are iteroparous, spawning annually in the spring when water temperatures are between . Spawning is communal and typically occurs at night. Yellow perch are oviparous, as eggs are fertilized externally. Eggs are laid in a gelatinous strand (commonly 10,000–40,000), a characteristic unique among North American freshwater fishes. Egg strands are commonly draped over weeds, the branches of submerged trees or shrubs, or some other structure. Eggs hatch in 11–27 days, depending on temperature and other abiotic factors.  They are commonly found in the littoral zones of both large and small lakes, but they also inhabit slow-moving rivers and streams, brackish waters, and ponds. Yellow perch commonly reside in shallow water, but are occasionally found deeper than  or on the bottom.

In the northern waters, perch tend to live longer and grow at a slower rate. Females in general are larger, grow faster, live longer, and mature in 3–4 years compared to males, which mature in 2–3 years at a smaller size. Most research has showed the maximum age to be about 9–10 years, with a few living past 11 years. The preferred temperature range for the yellow perch is , with an optimum range of  and a lethal limit in upwards of  and a stress limit over . Yellow perch spawn once a year in spring using large schools and shallow areas of a lake or low-current tributary streams. They do not build a redd or nest. Spawning typically takes place at night or in the early morning. Females have the potential to spawn up to eight times in their lifetimes.

A small aquaculture industry in the US Midwest contributes about  of yellow perch annually, but the aquaculture is not expanding rapidly.
The yellow perch is absolutely crucial to the survival of the walleye and largemouth bass in its range. Cormorants feed heavily on yellow perch in early spring, but over the entire season, only 10% of their diet is perch.

According to VanDeValk et al. (2002), "Cormorant consumption of adult yellow perch was similar to angler harvest, but cormorants consumed almost 10 times more age‐2 yellow perch and only cormorants harvested age‐1 yellow perch. Cormorants and anglers combined harvested 40% of age‐1 and age‐2 yellow perch and 25% of the adult yellow perch population. Total annual mortality of adult percids has not changed since cormorant colonization. Although cormorant consumption of adult percids has little effect on harvest by anglers, consumption of subadults will reduce future angler harvest of yellow perch and, to a lesser extent, walleyes."

Life history

Yellow perch spawn once a year in spring using large schools and shallow areas of a lake or low-current tributary streams. They do not build a redd or nest.  Females have the potential to spawn up to eight times in their lifetimes. Two to five males go to the spawning grounds first and are with the female throughout the spawning process. The female deposits her egg mass, and then at least two males release their milt over the eggs, with the total process taking about five seconds. The males stay with the eggs for a short time, but the females leave immediately. No parental care is provided for the eggs or fry. The average clutch size is 23,000 eggs, but can range from 2,000 to 90,000. The egg mass is  jelly-like, semibuoyant, and can reach up to 2 m long. The egg mass attaches to some vegetation, while the rest flows with the water current. Other substrate includes sand, gravel, rubble, and submerged trees and brush in wetland habitat. Yellow perch eggs are thought to contain a chemical in the jelly-like sheath that protects the eggs and makes them undesirable since they are rarely ever eaten by other fish. The eggs usually hatch in 8–10 days, but can take up to 21 days depending on temperature and proper spawning habitat. Yellow perch do not travel far during the year, but move into deeper water during winter and return to shallow water in spring to spawn. Spawning occurs in the spring when water temperatures are between 6.7 and 12.8 °C. Growth of fry is initiated at 6–10 °C, but is inactive below 5.3 °C. Larval yellow perch survival is based on a variety of factors, such as wind speed, turbidity, food availability, and food composition. Immediately after hatching, yellow perch head for the pelagic shores to school and are typically 5 mm long at this point. This pelagic phase is usually 30–40 days long.

Sexual dimorphism is known to occur in the northern waters where females are often larger, grow faster, live longer, and mature in 3–4 years. Males mature in 2–3 years at a smaller size. Perch do not grow as large in the northern waters, but tend to live longer. Maximum age estimates vary widely. The age of the perch is highly based on the condition of the lake. Most research has shown the maximum age to be approximately 9–10 years, with a few living past 11 years. Yellow perch have been proven to grow the best in lakes where they are piscivorous due to the lack of predators. Perch do not perform well in cold, deep, oligotrophic lakes. Seasonal movements tend to follow the 20 °C isotherm and  water temperature is the most important factor influencing fish distribution. Yellow perch commonly reside in shallow water, but are occasionally found deeper than 15 m or on the bottom. Their optimum temperature range is 21–24 °C, but have been known to adapt to warmer or cooler habitats. The common lethal limit is 26.5 °C, but some research has shown it to be upwards of 33 °C with a stress limit at anything over 26 °C. To grow properly, yellow perch prefer a pH of 7 to 8. The tolerable pH ranges have been found to be about 3.9 to 9.5. They also may survive in brackish and saline waters, as well as water with low dissolved oxygen levels.

Ecology
Primarily, age and body size determine the diets of yellow perch. Zooplankton is the primary food source for young and larval perch. By age one, they shift to macroinvertebrates, such as midges and mosquitos. Large adult perch feed on invertebrates, fish eggs, crayfish, mysid shrimp, and juvenile fish. They have been known to be predominantly piscivorous and even cannibalistic in some cases. About 20% of the diet of a yellow perch over 32 g (1.1 oz) in weight consists of small fish. Maximum feeding occurs just before dark, with typical consumption averaging 1.4% of their body weight.

Their microhabitat is usually along the shore among reeds and aquatic weeds, docks, and other structures. They are most dense within aquatic vegetation, since they naturally school, but also prefer small, weed-filled water bodies with muck, gravel, or sand bottoms. They are less abundant in deep and clear open water or unproductive lakes. Within rivers, they only frequent pools, slack water, and moderately vegetated habitat. They frequent inshore surface waters during the summer. Almost every cool- to warm-water predatory fish species, such as northern pike, muskellunge, bass, sunfish, crappie, walleye, trout, and even other yellow perch, are predators of the yellow perch. They are the primary prey for walleye Sander vitreus, and they consume 58% of the age zero and 47% of the age one yellow perch in northern lakes. However, in shallow natural lakes, largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides may be most influential in structuring the quality of yellow perch populations. In Nebraska's Sandhill lakes, the mean weight and quality of yellow perch is not related to invertebrate abundance, but is related to the abundance of largemouth bass. The three primary factors influencing quality panfish populations are predators, prey, and the environment.

In eastern North America, yellow perch are an extremely important food source for birds such as double-crested cormorants. The cormorants specifically target yellow perch as primary prey. Other birds also prey on them, such as eagles, herring gulls, hawks, diving ducks, kingfishers, herons, mergansers, loons, and white pelicans. High estimates show that cormorants were capable of consuming 29% of the age-three perch population.  Yellow perch are effective at escaping predation seasonally by lake trout and other native fishes during summer, perhaps due to the high thermal tolerance of yellow perch.

Perch are commonly active during the day and inactive at night except during spawning, when they are active both day and night. Perch are most often found in schools. Their vision is necessary for schooling and the schools break up at dusk and reform at dawn. The schools typically contain 50 to 200 fish, and are arranged by age and size in a spindle shape. Younger perch tend to school more than older and larger fish, which occasionally  travel alone, and males and females often form separate schools. Some perch are migratory, but only in a short and local form. They also have been observed leading a semianadromous life. Yellow perch do not accelerate quickly and are relatively poor swimmers. The fastest recorded speed for a school was 54 cm/s (12.08 mph), with individual fish swimming at less than half that speed.

Some examples of parasites and diseases that afflict yellow perch include the epizootic bacterium Flavobacterium columnare, red worm Eustrongylides tubifex, cnidarians of subphylum Myxozoa including brain parasite Myxobolus neurophilus,
broad tapeworm Diphyllobothrium latum, and parasitic copepods Ergasilus spp.

Current management
Managers employed management techniques at Drummond Island, Michigan, such as harassing the cormorants and killing them as needed. Overall, the harassment deterred 90% of cormorant foraging attempts, while killing less than 6% on average at each site; yellow perch abundance increased significantly due to their being the predominant prey of cormorants by total number and weight at that lake. Lakes in South Dakota without suitable spawning substrate have had conifers introduced, such as short-needle spruce, to increase both spawning habitat and hatching success. Managers have identified seven key unauthorized pathways for the introduction of the yellow perch to non-native regions: shipping, recreational and commercial boating, construction of new canals and water diversions, releases from live food fish markets, releases from the aquarium and water garden trade, use of live bait, and illegal introductions to create new fisheries. The most likely unofficial pathways are illegal introductions, dispersal through connected waterways, and live bait. Many authorized introductions by natural resources agencies have taken place, as well, due to the sport-fishing demand.

In 2000, the parasite Heterosporis spp. was discovered in yellow perch on the Eagle River Chain of Lakes in Vilas County in Wisconsin, and has since been found in Minnesota, Michigan, and Ontario. The parasite does not infect people, but can infect many important sport and forage fish including the yellow perch. It does not kill the infected fish, but the flesh of a severely infected fish becomes inedible when the fish dies and the spores are then spread through the water to infect another fish. That concerns commercial fisherman in the Great Lakes regions that depend on these fish. The infected perch are not marketable. The current infection rates are 5% of harvest. Viral hemorrhagic septicemia is another serious disease in perch in the Great Lakes region.  It has already killed thousands of drum in Lake Ontario and caused a large die-off of yellow perch in Lake Erie in 2006. Ontario is restricting commercial bait licenses as a precaution against this disease. Outside its native range, very few diseases or parasites have been found.

Fishing

Yellow perch are a popular sport fish, prized by both recreational anglers and commercial fishermen for their delicious, mild flavor. Because yellow perch are among the finest flavored pan fish, they are occasionally misrepresented on menus within the restaurant industry. White perch, rock bass, and many species of sunfish (genus Lepomis) are sometimes referred to as "perch" on menus.
The voracious feeding habits of yellow perch make them fairly easy to catch when schools are located, and they are frequently caught by recreational anglers targeting other species. Perch at times attack lures normally used for bass such a 3" tubes, Rapala minnows, and larger curl tail grubs on jigheads, and small, brightly colored casting spoons, but the simplest way to catch them is to use light line, 4 to 8# test and light, unpainted jig heads, 1/32–1/16 oz. Too many small soft plastic lure designs to mention can catch all panfish, but minnow-shaped lures with a quivering tail work much of the time, so long as the retrieval speed is slow and the lure is fished at the depth the perch are swimming. Thin, straight-tail grubs require the slowest speed of retrieval and are preferred when the bite is slow, which is much of the time.

Some good baits for perch include worms, live and dead minnows, small freshwater clams, crickets, and any small lure resembling any of these. Larger perch are often caught on large live minnow on a jighead, especially when fished over weed beds. Bobbers, if used, should be spindle type for the least resistance when the bait is struck, but small, round bobbers work well, too,  yet indicate any slight pull of the bait. Raising the rod tip is usually more than enough force to set the hook.

Some yellow perch fisheries have been affected by intense harvesting, and commercial and recreational harvest rates often are regulated by management agencies. In most aquatic systems, yellow perch are an important prey source for larger, piscivorous species, and many fishing lures are designed to resemble yellow perch.

Aquaculture

Yellow perch is a viable species for aquaculture. This species has shown a net weight gain between 37 and 78 grams over a three-year period in a study that raised yellow perch in outdoor ponds. Yellow perch meet several characteristics that make a species fit for aquaculture. Some such characteristics are as follows: they are low on the food chain, needing an optimal protein content of 21-27%, are accepting of pelleted fish feed, grow well in high densities due to their schooling nature, and the fish do not turn cannibalistic at high densities. When grown in ponds or tanks, yellow perch do not exhibit off flavors compared to wild caught yellow perch. These fish become sexually mature before they reach market size under natural conditions. Yellow perch rely on environmental cues, such as cooler temperatures, to mature. Controlling the temperature of the system allows yellow perch to be grown to market size before they mature.

Market

For over 100 years, Canada and the United States have been commercially harvesting yellow perch in the Great Lakes with trapnets, gillnets, and poundnets. In Canada, the estimated catch in 2002 was 3,622 tons with a value of $16.7 million, second only to walleye at $28.2 million. The greatest demand in the United States is in the north-central region, where nearly 70% of all yellow perch sales in the US occur within 80 km (49.7 mi) of the Great Lakes. Yellow perch is one of the easiest fish to catch, and can be taken in all seasons, and tastes great. Therefore, it is a desirable sport fish in some locations within the US and Canada. It even makes up around 85% of the sport fish caught in Lake Michigan.

The market demand for wild yellow perch has decreased due to overfishing in the 1960s and 1970s but farmed perch has become more popular. Farmed yellow perch reduce the need for mass harvesting from bodies of water. In 2000 farmed perch on the domestic and international markets were often the same or similar quality to wild perch.

Etymology
According to Brown, Runciman, Bradford and Pollard (2009), the genus name, Perca, is derived from ancient Greek for "perch" and the specific epithet, flavescens, is Latin for "becoming gold" or "yellow colored".  Perca may also mean "dusky".

References

yellow perch
Freshwater fish of North America
Fish of the Great Lakes
Nearctic realm fauna
Taxa named by Samuel L. Mitchill
yellow perch

Yellow perch


is a semi-retired Japanese professional wrestler and the current acting president of Pro Wrestling Zero1 (Zero1). He is currently inactive from pro-wrestling competition due to a cervical spine injury sustained in April 2022. A product of the New Japan Pro Wrestling (NJPW) dojo, Otani is best known for his longtime association with Zero1, a promotion he founded in 2001 along with Shinya Hashimoto.

Starting his career in NJPW as a junior heavyweight, Otani gained a reputation as a gutsy underdog and would go on to hold several championships during his nine-year run with the promotion, including the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship and the J-Crown, as well as forming a successful tag team with dojo classmate Tatsuhito Takaiwa, twice holding the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship. After jumping to the heavyweight division in 2001, Otani would leave New Japan the same year, joining Shinya Hashimoto as one of the founders of Pro Wrestling Zero1 (Zero1). Following the departure of Hashimoto in 2004, Otani was pushed as one of the promotions top stars, becoming a six time Intercontinental Tag Team Champion, a one time World Heavyweight Champion and a four-time winner of the Fire Festival. In addition to his role as a wrestler, Otani has also served as acting company president since 2007.

Professional wrestling career

Early life (1972–1992)
Otani was born in Yamaguchi and was a big pro wrestling fan during his youth, specifically Antonio Inoki's New Japan Pro Wrestling (NJPW). He attended the only two events NJPW ran in Yamaguchi yearly and idolised Kengo Kimura. At one point during his childhood, he snuck into a hotel in a bid to try and meet Antonio Inoki; initially stopped by security, they allowed him in upon Inoki's instruction, who signed Otani's "闘魂" (fighting spirit) hachimaki, after which the young Otani vowed to Inoki that he would one day make it to NJPW.

Otani was successful in amateur wrestling during high school, and upon graduation, he planned to move almost 600 miles from Yamaguchi to Tokyo to join a professional wrestling dojo. Otani's dream was strongly opposed by his parents, which resulted in him running away from home in January 1992 at the age of 19, leaving for Tokyo with only between ¥50,000-¥60,000 of otoshidama money to his name. After being homeless for a brief period of time, Otani finally found a place to stay, a small tatami-like dwelling for ¥24,000, located next to a public toilet and without a futon to sleep on. At the time, the only wrestling school Otani knew of was Animal Hamaguchi's dojo, where he would travel and introduce himself to Hamaguchi. Hamaguchi accepted Otani into his dojo where he began his training, in addition to feeding him and getting Otani a part-time job in a local liquor store, which allowed him to pay for better living quarters. Hamaguchi bought Otani to the NJPW dojo in February 1992 and he enrolled soon after, training in the same class as Tatsuhito Takaiwa and Yuji Nagata. As part of his rookie duties, Otani would also spend two years working closely with Shinya Hashimoto as his assistant, which led to the two developing a long-lasting friendship.

New Japan Pro Wrestling (1992–2001)

Early career (1992–1996)

Otani made his in-ring debut on June 25, 1992, losing to Hiroyoshi Yamamoto at a house show in Fukushima. His televised debut came a little under a month later, losing to Osamu Nishimura in Gifu. Early in his career, Otani became known for his springboard dropkick, his corner face wash, and developed a reputation as a likeable underdog thanks to his sympathetic performances and his willingness to challenge senior wrestlers, in particular Jushin Thunder Liger. The two met for the first time on May 25, 1993, in a Top of the Super Juniors tournament match in Korakuen Hall, with Liger victorious. Otani would struggle throughout his first foray into the tournament, failing to advance past the first stage but managing to earn a solitary win over Eddie Guerrero in Hamamatsu. He spent much of 1992 and 1993 trading wins and losses with fellow dojo classmates such as Tatsuhito Takaiwa, Tokimitsu Ishizawa and Yuji Nagata, customary for younger wrestlers in Japan as they develop and earn their place within the company. He represented NJPW during their feud with Wrestle Association-R (WAR) on January 16, 1994, losing to Masao Orihara at a WAR's Super Revolution event. He would once again enter the renamed Best of the Super Juniors tournament that summer and performed much better, defeating the likes of Taka Michinoku and Black Tiger, however also once again losing to Jushin Liger and failing to advance to the finals. In October, he partnered up with Wild Pegasus for the Super Grade Junior Heavyweight Tag League. The two would reach the semi-finals on October 18, beating Dean Malenko and Tokimitsu Ishizawa to book their place in the final, where they defeated Black Tiger and The Great Sasuke in a highly acclaimed bout to win the tournament, giving Otani his first taste of success in the company. His strong performances throughout 1994 earned him his first IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship opportunity on October 30, however, he was unable to overcome champion Norio Honaga and lost by referee's decision at Ryogoku Kokugikan. He received a big opportunity at the annual "Dream Win" card on October 30, where he was defeated by Keiji Muto, one of the top stars of New Japan in a singles match.

Otani won the first championship of his career on December 13, 1994, beating Norio Honaga to win the UWA World Welterweight Championship. After two successful defences, he dropped the title to IWGP Junior Heavyweight Champion Koji Kanemoto in a double title match on April 16 in Hiroshima. Otani would turn his attention to the Best of the Super Juniors tournament in June where he would have his best outing to date, making it all the way to the final where he was narrowly defeated by former partner Wild Pegasus.

Championship success (1996–2000)
By 1996, Otani had firmly established himself as a serious contender for the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship, and unsuccessfully challenged Jushin Thunder Liger for the title in the main event of a card in Amagasaki on March 17. Just days later on March 20, he defeated Wild Pegasus to become the inaugural WCW Cruiserweight Champion; he held the title until May 2, when he was defeated by Dean Malenko in Orlando, Florida (the match would air on the May 18, 1996 edition of WCW Worldwide). On June 17, he captured the vacant UWA World Junior Lightweight Championship, beating UWFi representative Kazushi Sakuraba. He held the title until August, when he was one of the wrestlers who entered their championship into the J-Crown; his defeat to Ultimo Dragon in the semi-final of the inaugural J-Crown Champion tournament meant that he relinquished the UWA World Junior Lightweight Championship. Almost a year later on August 10, 1997, he would capture the J-Crown for himself, defeating El Samurai in Nagoya. After his third successful defence against Wild Pegasus in November, the World Wrestling Federation ordered its Light Heavyweight Championship to be returned to them; in the aftermath, Otani relinquished all belts except for the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship, returning all other titles to their respective promotions and effectively dissolving the J-Crown. Otani would continue to solely defend the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship until February 1998, when he dropped the title to Jushin Thunder Liger. After an unsuccessful Best of the Super Juniors tournament in the summer, Otani turned his attention to the emerging junior tag team division in New Japan; with the introduction of the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championships, a tournament was announced to crown the inaugural champions in July, where Otani would partner dojo classmate Tatsuhito Takaiwa, with the two of them defeating Koji Kanemoto and Dr Wagner Jr in the finals to become the first ever holders of the belts. On December 11, Takaiwa and Otani travelled to Wrestle Association R where they defeated Masaaki Mochizuki and Masao Orihara to win the vacant International Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship, making themselves double champions. Their days as double champions didn't last long, however, as they would lose the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship to Kendo Kashin and Dr Wagner Jr at Wrestling World 1999. Later in the year they would regain the championships, defeating Jushin Thunder Liger and The Great Sasuke in July. In 2000, both Otani and Takaiwa took part in the Best of the Super Juniors tournament, with both men winning their blocks and reaching the final, where, on June 9, Takaiwa defeated Otani to win the 2000 Best of the Super Juniors. Later in the month after just under a year as champions, Otani and Takaiwa lost the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championships to the Junior Stars (Koji Kanemoto and Minoru Tanaka). After dropping the titles, both men would go their separate ways, with Takaiwa focusing on the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship and Otani beginning to be groomed for a run as a heavyweight.

Division change and departure (2000–2001)

After a largely lacklustre summer of 2000, Otani was sent on excursion by New Japan officials in August, with the intention of him gaining weight and returning as a heavyweight. Otani toured with All Star Wrestling (ASW) in the United Kingdom and spent time training under Tokyo Joe in Canada, where he developed his new King Cobra Clutch finishing move. Otani returned to New Japan on January 4, 2001, teaming with Keiji Muto as a member of Muto's new Bad Ass Translate Trading stable, to convincingly defeat Manabu Nakanishi and Jushin Thunder Liger, who, like Otani, had also been converted into a heavyweight; Otani would submit Liger for the win with his new King Cobra Clutch. The following month, he would unsuccessfully challenge Kensuke Sasaki for the IWGP Heavyweight Championship on February 16 in Ryogoku Kokugikan. This would go on to be Otani's last match signed to the company, as he would depart New Japan after nine years soon after to help Shinya Hashimoto found his new promotion, Pro Wrestling Zero-One.

Pro Wrestling Zero1 (2001–present)

Formation (2000–2004)

In November 2000, during Otani's time spent overseas, it was announced by longtime associate and former ace of NJPW Shinya Hashimoto, who had recently been fired by the company, that Otani was one of the names that would be joining him in his new promotion, Zero-One. At the time, Otani had not yet agreed to join the promotion, and in 2019, he said that this premature announcement was what led to him leaving New Japan, the promotion he had loved since his childhood, so suddenly. Hashimoto would meet with Otani and apologise for using his name without permission upon his return to Japan, but said that he had only done so because Otani was the main person he wished to see compete in Zero1, and that Otani was free to stay with New Japan if he wished. Otani, convinced by Hashimoto's words and concerned about Hashimoto feeling alone after his firing from New Japan, agreed to join Zero1 as one of the founders. Otani would relay his decision to New Japan officials soon after, who accepted his decision; he was also told by then head-booker Riki Choshu that the door was always open for a potential return in the future.

Otani competed on the inaugural Zero1 card on March 2, 2001, remaining a heavyweight and beginning his feud with MMA fighter turned pro-wrestler Kazunari Murakami. Otani lost their first meeting by referee's decision, a wild and scrappy brawl that lasted less than five minutes. As a result of Zero1's working relationship with Battlarts, Otani would have a brief run with the promotion around this time, where he formed an alliance with Yuki Ishikawa. The two would also team up in Zero1, defeating Steve Corino and Mike Rapada to win the NWA Intercontinental Tag Team Championship on July 12 in Tokyo. In September, Otani entered the inaugural Himatsuri (火祭り), "fire festival" tournament, remaining undefeated on his way to the final where he defeated Kohei Sato. As a result of winning, Otani was presented with the Fire Sword for the first time, an accessory that would go on to be commonly associated with his ring entrance. Otani and Ishikawa would vacate their championships in October 2001, after Ishikawa's departure from the promotion. Otani would instead form a new tag team with Masato Tanaka, collectively known as "Emblem". The duo won the vacant championships on January 6, 2002, defeating Samoa Joe and Tom Howard. In singles action, Otani entered the now round-robin Fire Festival once again in August, winning all but one of his matches and defeating Tetsuhiro Kuroda in the final to become a two-time Fire Festival winner, retaining the Fire Sword for another year. After ten months and five successful defences as champions, Otani and Tanaka dropped their titles to John Heidenreich and Nathan Jones in Korakuen Hall on October 20. By this time, the two had established themselves as one of the best tag teams in Japan, and were invited by All Japan Pro Wrestling (AJPW) to compete in its Real World Tag League in late 2002. Four wins and a solitary defeat to Keiji Muto and Animal Warrior was enough to see them through to the final, where they were defeated by Satoshi Kojima and Taiyo Kea in the main event at Nippon Budokan on December 6. The two would also briefly tour with Mitsuharu Misawa's Pro Wrestling Noah in January 2003, the highlight of their run being a memorable if unsuccessful GHC Tag Team Championship match against Jun Akiyama and Akitoshi Saito in Budokan.

Back in Zero1, Otani looked to win his third successive Fire Festival tournament and again made it to the final, though, this time, he was defeated by AJPW representative Satoshi Kojima. Otani would get his revenge over in AJPW on September 6, when he defeated Kojima in the semi-final of the vacant Triple Crown Heavyweight Championship tournament, though he was later defeated by Toshiaki Kawada in the final.

Main event push (2004–2007)
As 2004 progressed, Otani began to be pushed as one of Zero1's top stars, starting in April when he was narrowly defeated by former partner and then-current NWA United National Heavyweight Champion Masato Tanaka, the beginning of a rivalry between the former partners. The two would have several steel cage matches against each other throughout the summer, as Otani formed an alliance with Takao Omori after he was betrayed by former ally Wataru Sakata, who instead formed a new tag team with Tanaka. This culminated in a sixty-minute, ten-man elimination cage death match on October 16 in Sapporo, as Otani's team of himself, Omori, Ikuto Hidaka, Minoru Fujita and Tomohiro Ishii defeated Tanaka, Sakata, Jun Kasai, Tetsuhiro Kuroda and Yoshihito Sasaki after Hidaka last eliminated Kuroda for the win. Upon Hashimoto's departure from Zero1 in late 2004, after which he retained the rights to the Zero1 name, Otani would take over Hashimoto's role as owner of the promotion in 2005 and re-introduced it in Korakuen Hall as Pro-Wrestling Zero-One Max. In August 2005, Otani would enter the fifth annual Fire Festival, again reaching the final where he defeated Kensuke Sasaki to win his third tournament.

After taking over Zero1, he would establish a working partnership with Dream Stage Entertainment, which led to Otani making regular appearances in DSE's comedy wrestling promotion, Hustle. Initially appearing under his own name, Otani was later renamed to Achichi Otani, a character that seemed to gain the power of fire, as Otani would seemingly burn opponents and partners with a single touch. Otani would also establish a working relationship between Zero-One Max and New Japan Pro Wrestling, which led to Otani appearing in a New Japan ring for the first time since February 2001 on October 8, 2005, in the Tokyo Dome. Otani and his Zero-One Max team of Kamikaze, Ryoji Sai and Kohei Sato were defeated by Hiroyoshi Tenzan, Takashi Iizuka, Naofumi Yamamoto and Yutaka Yoshie. He would again return to New Japan on January 4, 2006, in the same venue, re-igniting his feud with old rival and ally Koji Kanemoto where Otani was victorious in singles action. Back in Zero-One Max, Otani defeated Steve Corino on January 22 to win the AWA World Heavyweight Championship, the first major heavyweight singles title of Otani's career. Otani held the title until April 1, when he dropped it to Takao Omori.

Championship pursuits (2007–2015)

On December 24, 2007, it was announced by Zero-One Max's parent company, First On Stage, that Otani would solely take over from Yoshiyuki Nakamura as president of Zero-One Max, taking office on January 23, 2008, as Nakamura became the new director of First On Stage. After taking over as president, Otani further expanded the promotion's working deal with NJPW, which led to an inter-promotional feud between the two beginning in 2008. As a result of this, Otani would enter his first G1 Climax in August 2008, where he earned 7 points, though a defeat against Hiroshi Tanahashi prevented him from advancing past the first stage. On February 27, 2009, at a Zero-One Max event in Korakuen Hall, he defeated former NJPW dojo classmate Yuji Nagata to become the new World Heavyweight Champion. Otani held the belt until March, successfully defending it against Steve Corino and Orlando Colón before dropping it to Ryoji Sai on March 29. On October 12, 2009, at Masahiro Chono's 25th anniversary event in Ryogoku Kokugikan, Otani received his first opportunity at the IWGP Heavyweight Championship in over nine years, challenging Shinsuke Nakamura. Despite entering to a mixed reaction as an outsider, Otani's performance would prompt a loud reaction from the audience, who, by the end, were cheering for Otani, even though he was narrowly defeated by Nakamura.

In late 2009, Otani formed a new partnership with former sumo wrestler Akebono, prior to the upcoming Furinkazan tag tournament, dubbing themselves "Kazan" (火山, volcano). The two reached the final on December 19, where they defeated Masaaki Mochizuki and Otani's former Emblem partner Masato Tanaka to win the tournament. A month later in Tokyo, they beat Ikuto Hidaka and Munenori Sawa to win the NWA Intercontinental Tag Team Championship. In August 2010, he entered the Fire Festival tied with Masato Tanaka for the most tournament wins at three; Otani progressed to the final, where he defeated Tanaka to become the first ever four-time winner of the tournament. Otani would try and once again capture the World Heavyweight Championship in November, but fell to champion Daisuke Sekimoto. On March 6, 2011, Otani competed in the main event of Zero1's special 10th anniversary card in Ryogoku Kokugikan, where he would lose to Yoshihiro Takayama. This event also saw the debut of Daichi Hashimoto, the son of Otani's since deceased longtime associate Shinya Hashimoto. Both Otani and Masahiro Chono handled his training, and Otani would go on to become a frequent tag team partner for the young Hashimoto during his early career in Zero1.

Otani would unite with former rivals Koji Kanemoto and Osamu Nishimura in NJPW for one night only in October 2011, where they were defeated by the reunited Okami Gundan team of Hiroyoshi Tenzan, Masahiro Chono and Hiro Saito, in the main event of Tenzan's 20th anniversary event in Korakuen Hall. He would later reunite with Keiji Muto in the Tokyo Dome, at Wrestle Kingdom 7, replacing the injured Daichi Hashimoto as the two were defeated by Tencozy (Hiroyoshi Tenzan and Satoshi Kojima). Beginning in September 2015, Otani downgraded himself back to the junior heavyweight division, proclaiming that the division had "lost its way" and "needed more heart". On September 23, he reformed his junior heavyweight team with Tatsuhito Takaiwa and defeated NWA International Lightweight Tag Team Champions Takuya Sugawara and Brother Yasshi to win the titles, the team's fourth tag team title overall and their first in 15 years. On October 11 Otani defeated Minoru Tanaka (who had defeated him and Takaiwa in 2000, along with Koji Kanemoto, to end their second IWGP junior tag reign) to win both the Zero1 International and NWA World Junior Heavyweight Championships. After three successful defenses, he lost the titles to Kotaro Suzuki on February 3, 2017.

Later career and injury (2016–2022)
After Otani won Real Japan Pro Wrestling (RJPW)'s Legend Championship in 2016, he again began occasionally competing in the heavyweight division. He held the title until June 2017, when he dropped it to Masakatsu Funaki, the man he initially defeated to win the title. On June 22, 2019, at 46 years old, he challenged Daisuke Sekimoto for the World Heavyweight Championship. Otani was defeated after a hard-fought 22 minute match, but earned plaudits from the crowd for the strong effort he displayed. He again returned to New Japan Pro Wrestling on January 4, 2020, taking part in one of Jushin Thunder Liger's retirement matches, where he, Tatsuhito Takaiwa, Ryusuke Taguchi and Naoki Sano defeated Liger, Tatsumi Fujinami, The Great Sasuke and Tiger Mask. In December, Otani allied himself with Yumehito Imanari for the upcoming Furinkazan, where the NWA Intercontinental Tag Team Championship would be awarded to the winner. Otani and Imanari defeated the Kubota Brothers (Yasu and Hide) in the final to win the tournament and the titles. In August 2021 he entered what would be his last Fire Festival, reaching the final where he fell to Takuya Sugawara.

On April 10, 2022, Otani was booked to challenge Pro Wrestling Noah (Noah)'s Takashi Sugiura for Zero1's World Heavyweight Championship at Zero1's anniversary event in Ryogoku Kokugikan. At one point in the match, Otani became unresponsive after taking a German suplex into the turnbuckles. Otani was transported to hospital, where he awoke, however, he was unable to move his limbs; he was diagnosed with a cervical spinal injury. It was later announced he would undergo surgery on April 13, which was successful, after which Otani was moved to another hospital to begin further treatment and rehabilitation for his injuries.

Personal life

Otani married his wife Eriko on February 16, 2014.

Championships and accomplishments

Hustle
Hustle King Hashimoto Memorial Six-Man Tag Tournament (2006) – with Tadao Yasuda and Masato Tanaka
New Japan Pro-Wrestling
IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Tatsuhito Takaiwa
J-Crown (1 time)
NWA World Welterweight Championship (2 times)
UWA World Junior Light Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
UWA World Welterweight Championship (1 time)
WCW Cruiserweight Championship (1 time, inaugural)
WWA World Junior Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
WWF Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Super Grade Junior Heavyweight Tag League (1994) – with Wild Pegasus
One Night Eight Man Tag Team Tournament (1994) – with El Samurai, Gran Hamada and Great Sasuke
Yuke's Cup Tag Tournament (2008) – with Hiroyoshi Tenzan
Nikkan Sports
Fighting Spirit Award (2002)
Premier Wrestling Federation
PWF Universal Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Masato Tanaka
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him #125 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the "PWI Years" in 2003
PWI also ranked him #42 of the 100 best tag teams of the "PWI Years" with Tatsuhito Takaiwa in 2003
Pro Wrestling Zero1
AWA Superstars of Wrestling World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
International Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
NWA Intercontinental Tag Team Championship (7 times) – with Yuki Ishikawa (1), Masato Tanaka (2), Akebono (1), Takao Omori (1), Kamikaze (1) and Yumehito Imanari (1)
NWA International Lightweight Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Tatsuhito Takaiwa
NWA World Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Fire Festival (2001, 2002, 2005, 2010)
Furinkazan (2009) – with Akebono (2009)
Real Japan Pro Wrestling
Legend Championship (1 time)
Tokyo Sports
Best Tag Team Award (2002) – with Masato Tanaka
Rookie of the Year (1993) – tied with Jinsei Shinzaki
Wrestle Association "R"
WAR International Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Tatsuhito Takaiwa
Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards
Best Technical Wrestler  (1999)
Tag Team of the Year (1998) with Tatsuhito Takaiwa

1The championship was won in Tokyo, Japan as part of an interpromotional card between New Japan Pro-Wrestling and World Championship Wrestling.

References

External links
Zero1 profile

1972 births
Japanese male professional wrestlers
Living people
People from Yamaguchi (city)
IWGP Junior Heavyweight champions
IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Champions
WCW/WWE Cruiserweight Champions
NWA World Welterweight Champions
20th-century professional wrestlers
21st-century professional wrestlers
British Commonwealth Junior Heavyweight Champions
UWA World Welterweight Champions
UWA World Junior Light Heavyweight Champions
International Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Champions
J-Crown champions
WWF Light Heavyweight Champions

Shinjiro Otani


Buzzards Bay is a bay of the Atlantic Ocean adjacent to the U.S. state of Massachusetts. It is approximately 28 miles (45 kilometers) long by 8 miles (12 kilometers) wide. It is a popular destination for fishing, boating, and tourism. Since 1914, Buzzards Bay has been connected to Cape Cod Bay by the Cape Cod Canal. In 1988, under the Clean Water Act, the Environmental Protection Agency and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts designated Buzzards Bay to the National Estuary Program, as "an estuary of national significance" that is threatened by pollution, land development, or overuse.

Geography
It is surrounded by the Elizabeth Islands on the south, by Cape Cod on the east, and the southern coasts of Bristol and Plymouth counties in Massachusetts to the northwest. To the southwest, the bay is connected to Rhode Island Sound. The city of New Bedford, Massachusetts is a historically significant port on Buzzards Bay; the Port of New Bedford the world's most successful whaling port during the early- and mid-19th century, and has been the nation's most productive fishing port for the last several years.

Geology
Buzzards Bay was created during the latter portion of the Pleistocene epoch through the interplay of glacial and oceanic processes. Beginning fifty thousand to seventy thousand years ago, the edges of the continental ice sheet covering much of North America began to fluctuate, leaving moraines to mark the former extent of the receded ice. One such moraine forms Cape Cod, which is most of the eastern shoreline of Buzzards Bay.

In addition to the moraines, the melting ice sheet produced extensive outwash plains composed of mixed sediments and ice that bordered the bay to the northwest and west. Melting ice blocks in the outwash deposits formed distinctive circular features called kettle lakes. Numerous examples of kettle lakes can be found to the northwest of the Cape Cod Canal. Finally, waters released from the melting ice sheet raised sea level by sixty to one-hundred-twenty meters (198–396 feet) and drowned preexisting outwash channels. Toward the end of the last ice age, fifteen thousand years ago until about six thousand years ago, Buzzards Bay was still dry land. During the past six thousand years, sea level has risen an average of one foot per century, and until about four thousand years ago, the landward boundary of Buzzards Bay extended only to about the current thirty-foot bathymetric contour, forming a coastline two-thirds of the way up the current bay, between West Falmouth and Mattapoisett.

The bay's current configuration, a well-mixed central bay and fringing shallow drowned-river valleys, with their shallow depth, tidal action, and surface waves, promotes mixing of the estuarine waters to create a productive aquatic ecosystem. Like many estuaries, however, increasing development and land-use changes by the surrounding communities are accompanied by nutrient runoff leading to eutrophication (an increase in nutrient levels leading to oxygen depletion) in the smaller embayments. Decreases in eelgrass, scallops, and herring have also been noted, but direct cause-and-effect relationships are not clear. Coordinated management efforts in Buzzards Bay have helped to decrease shellfish closures, conserve habitat for sea birds, and preserve open space.

History

Buzzards Bay was first named Gosnold's Hope by Captain Bartholomew Gosnold. The modern name was presumably given by colonists who saw a large bird that they called a buzzard near its shores. The bird was actually an osprey. After a downturn caused by DDT, today increasing numbers of osprey breed along the shores of the bay thanks to restoration efforts led by the Buzzards Bay Coalition and longtime Westport residents Gil and Josephine Fernandez.

The first naval engagement of the American Revolution, the Battle off Fairhaven, occurred in Buzzards Bay when patriots retrieved two vessels that were captured by the British sloop of war Falcon. On 14 May 1775, American Captain Daniel Egery and Capt. Nathaniel Pope of Fairhaven in the sloop Success (40 tons, 30 men) retrieved two vessels captured by the British crew of Captain John Linzee (Lindsey), Royal Navy commander of HMS Falcon (14 guns, 110 men). Crew member Noah Stoddard and the others took the first naval prisoners of the war, 13 British crew; two were wounded and one died.

The bay was the location, in 1936, of one of only five documented fatal shark attacks in the commonwealth's history.

In 1987, researchers from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution experimented with a new growth structure allowing Blue mussels to grow above the Benthic Turbidity Zone leading to a new commercial scale mariculture technique.

In 1991, towns located on Buzzards Bay suffered the worst effects from the storm surge of Hurricane Bob.

The Buzzards Bay disaster happened on April 27, 2003. An oil spill of 98,000 gallons of oil leaked from a barge, destroying much of the shellfish business and killing many birds.

Ra Ra Riot's John Pike's body was found in Buzzard's Bay. He had disappeared from a party in Fairhaven, Massachusetts in June 2007, and was found several weeks later in the bay.

On January 7, 2018, due to the 2017–18 North American cold wave, part of the bay froze over.

Islands
Amrita Island
Bassetts Island
Bird Island
Elizabeth Islands
Bachelor Island
Baret Island
Cuttyhunk Island
Nashawena Island
Naushon Island
Nonamesset Island
Pasque Island
Penikese Island
Uncatena Island
Veckatimest Island
Weepecket Islands
Gull Island
Monohansett Island
Onset Island
West Island
Wickets Island

See also
List of islands of Massachusetts for a more-or-less complete listing of the islets, rocks, and ledges within the bay.

References

Further reading

High-resolution Geophysical Data from the Inner Continental Shelf: Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts United States Geological Survey

External links
The Buzzards Bay watershed.
The Buzzards Bay National Estuary Program.
1906 Bird's Eye View of Buzzards Bay
Buzzards Bay Coalition
Sailing Buzzards Bay: Photographs

Estuaries of Massachusetts
Estuaries of Barnstable County, Massachusetts
Bays of Massachusetts
Massachusetts natural resources
Intracoastal Waterway
Bodies of water of Barnstable County, Massachusetts
Bodies of water of Bristol County, Massachusetts
Bodies of water of Dukes County, Massachusetts
Bays of Plymouth County, Massachusetts

Buzzards Bay


The Citadel Outlets are an outlet mall in the City of Commerce, California, along the Santa Ana Freeway southeast of Downtown Los Angeles, which features the Exotic Revival architecture of a tire factory, whose partial remnants the complex occupies, built in the style of an Assyrian castle of King Sargon II.

In 1929, architects Morgan, Walls and Clements, who also designed Los Angeles' Mayan Theater, built the Samson Tire and Rubber Co. factory; the factory closed in 1978 and the Commerce government bought the site for $14 million in 1983. In 1990, Trammell Crow Co. was hired for the site's $118 million redevelopment into an outlet center and adjacent 201-room Wyndham Garden Hotel (now a Doubletree).

After the partnership defaulted on its ground lease the city sold the complex to Craig Realty bought for $50 million in July 2002, with the condition that Craig would double the size of the mall.

A  expansion was completed in 2010.

It is also the site of Black Friday on Thanksgiving, which led to longer lines since there are discounted prices on merchandise. There are some security measures implemented recently.

In 2019, there was a proposed expansion of shopping center that would include both hotel towers and monorail while linking the sprawling property. This focuses new development on three sites. It would also include construction of multiple new retail buildings. The two story building would be used for Adventure Experiential Retail.

In July 1, 2022, it would unveil "Los Angeles: Home of Champions", with paying homage to Los Angeles' world champion sports teams. This would feature Super Bowl LVI Champions, Los Angeles Rams, as well as World Series Champions. This would start through July 1 through Labor Day, September 6.

Proposed LA Metro Station
As part of the LA Metro Gold Line Eastside Transit Corridor, a station at the Citadel Outlets is planned. The line is projected to break ground in 2029, with start of operations in 2035 as part of the E Line.

References

External links
"Samson Tire and Rubber Factory" at Pacific Coast Architecture Database

Outlet malls in the United States
Shopping malls in Southeast Los Angeles County, California
Commerce, California
Morgan, Walls & Clements buildings

Citadel Outlets


Bread and salt  are offered to guests in a ceremony of welcome, in cultures around the world. This pair of foods is particularly significant in Slavic countries, but is also notable in Nordic, Baltic, Balkan and other European cultures as well as in Middle Eastern cultures.  Bread and salt as a traditional greeting remains common in Albania, Armenia, and among the Jewish diaspora. This tradition has been extended to spaceflight.

Background

Salt is an essential nutrient, and has long held an important place in religion and culture. For example, it is mentioned in the Bible dozens of times, including as a covenant of salt. Bread is a staple food,  leavened or unleavened. It is usually made of wheat, but other grains can be used. In many cultures, bread is a metaphor for basic necessities and living conditions in general.

Etymology
The tradition is known locally by its Slavic names, all literal variants of "bread and salt": , , , , , , , , , . It is shared with some of the neighbouring non-Slavic peoples—the Latvians and Lithuanians (both Baltic nations), Romanians (Romance) as well as some Finno-Ugric peoples like the Karelians—all of whom are culturally and historically close to their Slavic neighbours: , , , . It is also common in Albania (), Armenia (, agh u hats), among the Jewish diaspora, and within parts of the Middle East under different names.

Cultural associations
Bread and salt as a traditional greeting is shared with some non-Slavic nations—Lithuanians, Latvians (both Baltic), Romanians (Romance) as well as some Finno-Ugric peoples like the Karelians—all of which are culturally and historically close to their Slavic neighbours.

Albania
Bread, salt and heart () is a traditional Albanian way of honoring guests, it dates back from the Kanun of Lekë Dukagjini, chapter 18 - para. 608: "The Guest shall be welcomed with Bread, salt and heart". Heart in the context is related with hospitality, the concept is based on giving the most expensive thing of that time which was salt to the awaited guest. Nowadays it is not commonly practiced in daily life.

Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine

When important, respected, or admired guests arrive, they are presented with a loaf of bread (usually a korovai) placed on a rushnyk (embroidered ritual cloth). A salt holder or a salt cellar is placed on top of the bread loaf or secured in a hole on the top of the loaf. On official occasions, the "bread and salt" is usually presented by young women dressed in national costumes (e.g., sarafan and kokoshnik).

The tradition gave rise to the Russian word that expresses a person's hospitality:  (literally: "bready-salty"). In general, the word "bread" is associated in Russian culture with hospitality, with bread being the most respected food, whereas salt is associated with long friendship, as expressed in a Russian saying "to eat a pood of salt (together with someone)". Also historically the Russian Empire had a high salt tax that made salt a very expensive and prized commodity (see also the Moscow uprising of 1648).

There also is a traditional Russian greeting "" (). The phrase is to be uttered by an arriving guest as an expression of good wish towards the host's household. It was often used by beggars as an implicit hint to be fed, therefore a mocking rhymed response is known:  "Khleb da sol!" — "Yem da svoy!" (Хлеб да соль — ем да свой! "Bread and salt!" — "I am eating and it is my own!").

In Russian weddings, it is a traditional custom for the bride and groom to be greeted after the ceremony by family, usually the matriarch, with bread and salt in an embroidered cloth. This confers good health and fortune unto the newlyweds. In the Russian Orthodox Church, it is customary to greet the bishop at the steps of the church when he arrives for a pastoral visit to a church or monastery with bread and salt.

Bulgaria
Bread and salt () is a traditional Bulgarian custom expressing hospitality, showing that the guest is welcomed. The bread and salt is commonly presented to guests by a woman.  Bulgarians usually make a certain type of bread for this occasion called pogacha, which is flat, fancy, and decorated. Regular bread is not usually used, although it may have been historically, but pogacha is much more common in this custom.

Usually, guests are presented with the pogacha, and the guest is supposed to take a small piece, dip into the salt and eat it. This custom is common for official visits regardless of whether the guest is foreign or Bulgarian. One notable example of this custom is when the Russians came to liberate Bulgaria from the Ottomans at the end of the 19th century. A common scene from that period was of a Bulgarian village woman welcoming Russian soldiers with bread and salt as a sign of gratitude.

Poland
In Poland, welcoming with bread and salt ("") is often associated with the traditional hospitality ("") of the Polish nobility (szlachta), who prided themselves on their hospitality. A 17th-century Polish poet, Wespazjan Kochowski, wrote in 1674: "O good bread, when it is given to guests with salt and good will!" Another poet who mentioned the custom was Wacław Potocki. The custom was, however, not limited to the nobility, as Polish people of all classes observed this tradition, reflected in old Polish proverbs. Nowadays, the tradition is mainly observed on wedding days, when newlyweds are greeted with bread and salt by their parents on returning from the church wedding.

North Macedonia
In the North Macedonia, this tradition still is practiced occasionally as a custom expressing hospitality. A certain type of bread, similar to that in Bulgaria and also by the same name—pogača (from ) is prepared.

The notable Macedonian and ex-Yugoslav ethno-jazz-rock group of the world music guitarist Vlatko Stefanovski had the name "Leb i Sol", which means "bread and salt" and speaks itself about this term of hospitality as something basic and traditional.

Romania and Moldova
As in the neighbouring Slavic countries, bread and salt is a traditional Romanian custom expressing hospitality, showing that the guest is welcomed. In Transylvania bread and salt are served to protect against weather demons.

Serbia
Bread and salt () is a traditional welcoming of guests, being customary to offer it before anything else, with bread having an important place in Serbian tradition, used in rituals. The traditional bread, pogača, is a symbol of family unity and goodness, and salt prosperity and security for the guest.  It is part of the state protocol, in use since the Principality of Serbia, often used when welcoming foreign representatives.

Slovakia and Czechia
The long-tradition of the Slovakia and the Czech Republic as Slavic countries is to welcome important visits with bread and salt. An example is the welcome of Pope Francis in Bratislava 2021 by president Zuzana Čaputová.

Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania
In Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, bread and salt were traditionally given as a symbol of blessing for a new home. Instead of white bread, dark fiber-rich rye bread was used. The tradition is still kept alive in Eastern Karelia and in Ingria by the minor Baltic Finnic peoples.

Germany
Bread and salt are given away for different reasons:
 to the wedding for a lasting alliance between spouses
 to move into a house to wish prosperity and fertility

In northern Germany and Bohemia (Czech Republic) bread and salt are traditionally put into the diaper of a newborn.

Arab culture
Arab culture also has a concept of "bread and salt" ( or ), not in the context of welcoming, but as an expression of alliance by eating together, symbolizing the rapprochement between two persons. Eating bread and salt with a friend is considered to create a moral obligation which requires gratitude. This attitude is also expressed by Arab phrases such as "there are bread and salt between us" ( or ), and "salt between them" () which are terms of alliance.

Jewish culture
A similar practice also exists among Jews in the Diaspora and in Israel. After the ceremony of kiddush, a piece of challah is dipped in salt and eaten. The challah is a staple food eaten on special occasions, like holidays and weddings, as well as every shabbat. Bread and salt were also used in the past at welcoming ceremonies, given to respected persons.

Iranian culture
In the Iranian culture when a guest is welcomed into the home, it is said that they have eaten bread and salt, and this leads to loyalty of the guest.

United Kingdom
In Northern England and Scotland the tradition is observed on New Year's Day, where the first individual to enter a house may be required by tradition to bring bread, salt and coal.

In space
With the advent of the Soviet space program, this tradition has spread into space, where appropriately small packages of bread and salt are used nowadays. It was observed at the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project and the Salyut programme, when crackers and salt tablets were used in the spaceship.  Bread chunks and salt were used as a welcome at the Mir space station, a tradition that was extended on the International Space Station. Bread and salt are also used to welcome cosmonauts returning to Earth.

In fiction

The custom of serving bread and salt to guests is a recurring reference in George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire novels, where the welcome ritual serves not only as a Westerosi tradition of hospitality, but also a formal assurance of "guest right", a sacred bond of trust and honor guaranteeing that nobody in attendance, hosts and guests alike, shall be harmed.  Violating the guest right is widely considered among the highest moral crimes, an affront worthy of the worst damnation, rivaled only by kinslaying. Game of Thrones, the associated television series, prominently features the tradition in season three, episode 9, "The Rains of Castamere".

In Season 2, Episode 4 of Peaky Blinders, Alfie Solomons offers Charles Sabini bread and salt as Sabini offers a white flag of truce.

Rudyard Kipling referenced bread and salt in a number of works. In The Ballad of East and West, leavened bread and salt is mentioned as binding an oath of blood brothership.  At the beginning of Puck of Pook's Hill Puck establishes his credentials with the child protagonists by asking them to sprinkle plenty of salt on their shared meal. ""That'll show you the sort of person I am."

In Rosemary Sutcliff's historical novel Outcast, bread and salt is referred to as a sign of belonging to a tribe: "You are my people, my own people, by hearth fire and bread and salt".

In The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas, Chapter 72 is titled "Bread and Salt". The character Mercedes attempts to coax the main character into eating fruit, as part of an Arabian custom to ensure that those who have shared food and drink together under one roof would be eternal friends.

Bread and salt are given as a housewarming gift in one scene of the 1946 film It's a Wonderful Life.

In The Solar War, the first book belonging to Black Library's The Siege of Terra series, the character Malcador the Sigillite offers bread and salt to a weary Emperor of Mankind.

References

Bibliography

External links

Culture of Albania
Slavic culture
Greetings
Traditions
Religious food and drink
National symbols of Belarus
National symbols of Russia
National symbols of Serbia
National symbols of Ukraine
Guest greeting food and drink
Albanian traditions
Lithuanian traditions
Serbian traditions
Edible salt
Bread in culture
Food combinations

Bread and salt


The First Presbyterian Church in Jamaica is located in Jamaica, Queens, a neighborhood of New York City. Organized in 1662, it is the oldest continuously serving Presbyterian church in the United States.

History

The church was first organized in 1662 by Reverend Richard Denton III. Most of its founders came from Halifax, West Yorkshire, England. Though there are older churches on Long Island, this congregation has never stopped service. In 1699, a stone church was built on what is now Jamaica Avenue, paid for by tax dollars. In 1702, the congregations of Grace Episcopal and First Reformed split off. A new church was constructed in 1813 near what is now 163rd Street. It was moved, along with a manse built in 1824, in 1920 to the present location at 89-60 164th Street. Two years later, a bronze tablet was erected to mark the 260th anniversary. In 1925, a church house, now known as the Magill Memorial Building, was erected to accommodate the growing church's need for office and classroom space. In 1959, Donald Trump was confirmed here and attended services in his formative years.  In April 2008, the church celebrated its 345th anniversary. Later that year, the church turned down landmark recognition by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission.

Ministries and community outreach
Internal ministries include communications within the church (e.g. newsletter, bulletin, etc.); drama within the church (e.g. Christmas pageants); small group ministries centering on personal interests; Brothers on the Move, the men's ministry; Presbyterian Women; and the Alice Horn Gift Shop, including the Pastor's Book of the Month Club.

The church has many community outreach programs, including blood drives, prostate cancer screenings, sponsoring Girl Scouts and Cub Scouts, and running the Bread of Life Food Pantry, which serves the nearly 39% of homes in Queens afflicted by hunger. It also partners with many organizations, including Alcoholics Anonymous, Blood Services of New York City, the Cornell University Extension Program, and the New York City Department of Youth and Community Development.

The church also partners with YouthWorks, which allows young people from all over the world to experience the wonderful diversity of culture and worship styles found in Jamaica.

Tree of Life Center
The Tree of Life Center is an outreach program to economically empower Jamaica, and make individuals in the community self-sufficient. Programs at the Center include GED, ESL, and SAT preparation, financial literacy and job readiness classes, and hunger relief. The center also complements existing social service providers.

See also
Jamaica First German Presbyterian Church
Sidewalk clock on Jamaica Avenue

References

External links

Presbyterian churches in New York City
1662 establishments in the Dutch Empire
1662 establishments in North America
Establishments in New Netherland
19th-century Presbyterian church buildings in the United States
Churches in Queens, New York
Jamaica, Queens

First Presbyterian Church in Jamaica


Mary Ann Shaffer (née Fiery; December 13, 1934 – February 16, 2008) was an American writer, editor, librarian, and a bookshop worker. She is noted for her posthumously published work The Guernsey Literary and Potato Peel Pie Society, which she wrote with her niece, Annie Barrows.

Biography
Mary Ann Fiery was born on December 13, 1934, in Martinsburg, West Virginia. She had an older sister, Cynthia. They were raised in nearby Romney, West Virginia, but moved back to Martinsburg and went to high school there. Mary Ann was an alumna of Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. She married Carl Richard Shaffer in 1956, and in 1958 they moved to California, where they raised two daughters, Morgan and Liz. She worked in the public libraries of San Anselmo, Larkspur, and San Rafael during her career. She also worked as an editor at Harper & Row, and as a bookseller at bookstores in Larkspur and Corte Madera. She died at her home in San Anselmo, California on February 16, 2008.

References

1934 births
2008 deaths
21st-century American novelists
American book editors
American historical novelists
American librarians
American women librarians
American women novelists
Writers from Martinsburg, West Virginia
People from Romney, West Virginia
Novelists from West Virginia
21st-century American women writers
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American women writers
Women historical novelists
People from San Anselmo, California
Novelists from California
Librarians from West Virginia

Mary Ann Shaffer


Rothéneuf is a village in the north west of France, situated north-east from Saint-Malo, about five kilometres alongside the coast. Administratively, it is part of the commune of Saint-Malo, in the département of Ille-et-Vilaine.

The village is a seaside resort but is famous for its sculpted rocks, "rochers sculptés". Abbé Fouré (1839-1910), having suffered a stroke at the age of 30, which left him paralyzed on one side, retreated to a life as a hermit in the cliffs of Rothéneuf. He carved over 300 grotesque and bizarre faces and figures into the rock.

The navigator and explorer Jacques Cartier, who is credited with being the first European discoverer of the St. Lawrence River and the first European to make a map of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, was born in Rothéneuf, where he spent the last years of his life as well. His estate, Limoëlou, in Rothéneuf, was turned into museum.

References

External links

Villages in Brittany

Rothéneuf


The ADC Theatre is a theatre in Cambridge, England, and also a department of the University of Cambridge. It is located in Park Street, north off Jesus Lane. The theatre is owned by the Cambridge University Amateur Dramatic Club (CUADC) but leased to the University, operating as one of the smallest departments and run by four full-time and three part-time staff. It is a producing theatre with CUADC as its resident company.

The auditorium seats a maximum of 228 audience members in rows of 14, except for the back row which seats 18, though typical configurations generally seat slightly fewer than this. The front row is accessible step-free from the street via a passenger lift. The theatre has a bar, which opens 45 minutes before shows and often stays open into the early hours of the morning. The bar is famous for its cocktails themed around the current week's show.

The ADC Theatre is notable for its very unusual safety curtain which rises up from the floor, rather than falling down from the fly tower as is common in almost all other theatres.

History
When CUADC was formed in 1855, its performances took place in rented rooms in the Hoop Hotel on Jesus Lane. By 1882, the Club's members had raised sufficient funds to buy the freehold. This building was subsequently developed into the ADC Theatre over an extended period of time. There was a disastrous fire in 1933, which gutted the building. The theatre was quickly rebuilt to a design by Harold Tomlinson and W. P. Dyson, reopening in 1935. The building was not changed again substantially until the redevelopment programme that started in 2002.

The theatre was run by the CUADC until the club ran into financial difficulties in 1974 when the University of Cambridge began to lease the premises from the CUADC and run the theatre, an arrangement that continues to this day.

Many famous actors and comedians acted in the theatre at the start of their careers, including Sir Ian McKellen, Tony Church, Emma Thompson, Marius Goring, Sir Derek Jacobi, Dan Stevens, Rebecca Hall, Stephen Fry, Hugh Laurie, Hattie Morahan, Tom Hollander, Tilda Swinton, Jan Ravens, Julie Covington, Tom Hiddleston, Eddie Redmayne, Richard Ayoade, Ellie Nunn, Liam Williams, David Mitchell, Robert Webb, Phil Wang, Simon Bird and Joe Thomas. Among famous directors to have gained early experience there are Sir Peter Hall, Sir Trevor Nunn and Sam Mendes. Viral comedian Ken Cheng performed multiple times at the ADC Theatre in his early career.

In 2011, the ADC Theatre took over the management of the Corpus Playroom, the theatre space of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.

Redevelopment
In 2002, a redevelopment appeal was launched to improve the building. The bar had been refurbished in summer 2000, prior to the appeal being launched.

Phase 1
In summer 2003, the first phase of the redevelopment was undertaken. This phase resulted in no visible change to the theatre's facilities as it consisted of necessary groundwork to underpin the building and move services such as water and gas in preparation for the next phase.

In 2004, the major modifications to the public areas of the theatre were undertaken. A new toilet block was constructed on an area that was part of the theatre's yard. A large amount of the ground floor was remodelled, resulting in an enlarged foyer and new box office for the public, and new management offices, clubroom, production office and backstage kitchen. The theatre's facade was also completely changed.

Phase 2
In summer 2005, a lift was installed to give disabled access to the bar and auditorium. In addition, a corridor was constructed to give audience access to both sides of the auditorium. A bar extension and bar roof terrace were constructed on top of the toilet block built in the previous phase. The installation of the lift meant that the previous ladder access to the lighting and sound boxes could no longer be used. The lighting and sound boxes were rebuilt to allow access to them from the lift.

Latter work during the summer of 2008 concentrated on the backstage areas: new dressing rooms, a new set workshop, a rehearsal room and a green room. Offices for the Theatre's full-time staff and resources for those producing shows were rearranged and expanded. Additionally, the auditorium floor was rebuilt and new seating installed, increasing audience comfort and providing a better view of the stage from all seats.

The Theatre reopened after the final phase in October 2008 with a Gala Celebration event, at which a number of theatre alumni were present including Peter Hall and Trevor Nunn.

Subsequent renovation
In the summer of 2018, the theatre again closed for renovations, the most substantial of which was the re-roofing of the auditorium and replacement of the auditorium ceiling. mechanical ventilation and new seating was installed, a small extension was made to office space and additional points above the auditorium for rigging lights were installed. A number of electrical services were also replaced including the fitting of several new mains electricity distribution boards and new dimmers.

Shows
During the term-time of Cambridge University, there are normally two shows per night: a Mainshow starting at 7:45pm, and a Lateshow starting at 11pm. On Tuesdays, the late slot is normally filled by a one-night show that can range from comedy (such as Smokers produced by the Cambridge Footlights) to "fringe" drama such as original writing. This format is subject to change and notably performances often take place in the theatre bar on Sunday evenings.

Outside term-time, the theatre often holds one show per week, and closes for periods during the summer and, to a lesser extent, the Christmas and Easter holidays. These closures allow essential maintenance work to be undertaken in the theatre.

Groups that frequently use the theatre
During term-time, Cambridge University drama societies such as CUADC, Footlights and CUMTS use the theatre, as well as college drama societies.

Outside term-time, the theatre is typically used by drama societies based in the city of Cambridge such as BAWDS, the Combined Actors of Cambridge and WriteOn.

References

External links
 ADC Theatre website
 CUADC website
 BAWDS website
 Combined Actors website
 WriteOn website

1881 establishments in England
Theatres in Cambridge
Non-School institutions of the University of Cambridge
Student theatre in the United Kingdom

ADC Theatre


Glasshayes House is a historic country house in Lyndhurst, in The New Forest, Hampshire. Used in the 20th century as the Grand Hotel, then the Lyndhurst Park Hotel, it exists today in the form of a 1912 redesign by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. The building and estate was purchased in 2014 by developers who sought to demolish it wholesale. A 2017 application to have the hotel listed may avert demolition.

History

18th century
Glasshayes is first mentioned by name a conveyance document of 1728. At this stage in its history the land is mainly agricultural, with a cluster of smaller 17th and 18th century vernacular properties in the location of the current house. In 1763 the estate was purchased by Arthur Phillip, along with Black Acre and Vernalls, and he lived in the area with his first wife Charlotte, farming the land until 1769 when Phillip returned to service in Australia.

19th century
The present Glasshayes House was built sometime between 1806 and 1816 by George Buck (esquire), utilising material from the earlier buildings, as a countryside retreat for he and his wife (who died at the house in 1826, and supposedly still haunts it).

In the 1840s Glasshayes "consisted of a house, offices, garden and pleasure ground on six acres and four acres of adjoining fields, three of which was pasture"; in 1846 it had become the English seat of Richard Fitzgeorge de Stacpoole, 1st Duc de Stacpoole, who made considerable extensions to the house (though retained the "Gothick" aesthetic and octagonal tower of George Buck). From the house the Duc ran a local smuggling ring, and lived openly with his married mistress, Mrs Louisa Graves. He died there on the 7 July 1848, and according to local tradition his ghost can still be sighted.

On the Duc's death the house was inherited by Louisa Graves, who later sold the house to a Mr and Mrs Fussell (who do not appear to have taken residence). The land was later purchased by a local grocer and draper, William Beale Bugden, who farmed the land but did not take residence at the house. During this period of dereliction the house was in regular use by smugglers.

In 1862 Charles Castleman moved to Glasshayes with his third wife Isabel Swinburne, and whilst in residence gifted the clock to the clocktower of the newly built local St. Michael and All Angels church, in exchange for the closing of an insalubrious public road which ran directly behind the house.

In 1874 the house became the seat of Colonel Alexander Caldcleugh Macleay, a local magistrate and commander of the Seaforth Highlanders, and was the childhood home of Sir James William Ronald Macleay and his sister Lina MacLeay (who would later marry Sir Robert Arbuthnot). Glasshayes was used as the original headquarters of the Lyndhurst Golf Club, established in 1889, and in 1893 a bazaar was held at the mansion to raise £1000 for a new roof at the local church.

20th century

Grand Hotel
In 1895 Glasshayes House was sold as the prospective "Grand Hotel," and by the 20th century this new venture had begun operation. Around 1905 the house had another floor added, and it is during this building work that sightings of the "Ghosts of Glasshayes" are first reported. Officers from local regiments used the hotel during both world wars, and numerous celebrity guests during later decades included Margaret Thatcher and the Beatles.

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle had, by the early 20th century, become a regular visitor to "the Grand." It was during a stay at the hotel in March 1912 that he sketched out designs for a third storey extension and altered front facade to the building. Work on the extension began in Autumn of that year, and the building as it survives today is a near perfect expression of Doyle's plans.

Lyndhurst Park Hotel
In 1970 the house was bought as an ongoing concern by Forestdale Hotels Ltd and renamed as the Lyndhurst Park Hotel, receiving multiple unsympathetic extensions throughout the 1970s and 1980s which developed it into a 60-bed hotel. In 2014 the hotel was purchased by the St James Hotel group, and later that year it was closed and bought by developers PegasusLife, who plan to demolish the property in order to build retirement flats on the land, despite local opposition. Prior to closure it employed 13 full-time staff and 8 casual workers.

Folklore

The Ghosts of Glasshayes
According to local tradition, the building is haunted by a number of ghosts, known as the "Ghosts of Glasshayes." The most sighted is that of Richard Fitzgeorge de Stacpoole, the first Duc de Stacpoole. Sightings have been reported by builders working on extensions to the site, both at the beginning of the 20th century and in the 1970s, apparently berating and sometimes attacking them for disturbing his property. Supposedly, every year on the night of his death (July 7) strange music can be heard in certain rooms, and folklore has it that this is from a grand ball that the Duc holds annually for the dead. During the 1912 extensions, workers on the site added the seven "Glasshayes Devil Squares" over the entrance, each one signifying a separate ghost sighting during construction. Other ghost sightings have included that of Mrs Buck, for whom Glasshayes was built (and who died there in 1826) and of a chamber maid, who (according to legend) hanged herself after an affair with a cook. The reputation for hauntings is thought to what first attracted Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, a committed Spiritualist who held seances in the hotel.

Smuggling
From its earliest incarnation Glasshayes has been notable for its eccentric "octagonal tower," built as an original feature by George Buck to serve as a lookout for local smuggling operations (common within the New Forest area). When the Duc de Stacpoole purchased the property he continued to run the area smuggling ring from the house, also using his yacht "the Gipsey Queen" to transport illicit goods. A raid was carried out by excise agents in 1847, during which the Duc barricaded himself into the octagonal tower with a military saber, and the siege was widely reported in national papers of the time. The house continued to be used for smuggling activities during its years of non-residence after the Duc's death, but seems to have ceased the association from Charles Castleman's tenure beginning 1862. Local tradition reports numerous smuggling caches and hollows throughout the original portion of the property (particularly in the floor and behind the wooden paneling of the surviving octagonal room). There are even stories of a sealed up network of old tunnels connecting the house with nearby pubs, for the easy transport of illegal liquor.

Development and demolition

In 2014 the hotel and estate was closed and bought by developers PegasusLife, who plan to demolish the house in order to build retirement flats on the land, despite local opposition.

The proposed demolition has been refused twice, the first in February 2017 and the latest being in December 2017.

In view of the recently discovered connection with novelist Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who designed the garden facade, a new application was made in 2017 to list the hotel.

Notable residents
Arthur Phillip
Richard Fitzgeorge de Stacpoole, 1st Duc de Stacpoole
Charles Castleman

References

Country houses in Hampshire
History of Hampshire
New Forest
English folklore
Hampshire folklore
Hotels in Hampshire
Hotels established in 1895
Hotels established in 1970
1895 establishments in England
New Forest folklore

Glasshayes


Jošt of Rožmberk (, , ; 11 November 1430 – 12 December 1467 in Nysa) was a Bohemian nobleman.  He was Bishop of Wrocław and Grand Prior of the Order of St. John for Austria and Bohemia.

Life
Jošt was a member of the south Bohemian noble Rosenberg family.  His parents were Ulrich II of Rosenberg and Catherine of Wartenberg.  After studying in Prague, he joined the Order of St. John; in 1451, he was documented as its Grand Prior. Already in 1450, he had achieved the dignity of provost in the St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague.  On 24 August 1453, he was ordained as priest in Salzburg.

After the death of Bishop Peter II of Wrocław in 1456, the cathedral chapter elected him as their new bishop, on the recommendation of King Ladislaus the Posthumous.  The fact that his older brother Henry was governor of Upper Silesia, may have played a rôle in his election.  At the same time, the chapter passed a statute limiting the power of future bishops.  His election was confirmed by Pope Calixtus III on 9 June 1456.  The Pope also granted him dispensation, as he had not yet reached the age of 30, the minimum age to become bishop under canon law.

After the death of King Ladislaus in 1457, George of Poděbrady was one of the candidates to succeed him.  Many people in Silesia, especially the clergy in Wrocław, opposed him.  Jošt's brother John was a supporter of George's candidacy; Jošt himself tried to remain neutral and represent the interests of the Holy See.  He nevertheless got into a difficult position when he tried to take the interests of the Bohemian King into consideration during his negotiations with the Vatican and the council of Wrocław.

In 1458, George of Poděbrady was elected King of Bohemia.  Mamy people in Bohemia preferred him over the other candidates, who were all foreigners.  However, the citizens of Wrocław refused to recognize him as King.  After lengthy negotiations, Pope Pius II intervened via Jošt, who was his representative Silesia.  Only in December 1459 did the city finally recognize George as King.

In 1461, he delivered a sermon with the title About the blood of God.  This sermon angered the citizens of Prague and he had to seek refuge in the King's Hory castle.  His relationship with the King worsened in 1462, bowever, he was still able to mediate between the Roman Curia and the discontented utraquist nobility, who were more and more turning away from Rome.  In an attempt to prevent renewed fighting, Jošt tried to convert King George back to Catholicism and he also tried to win Queen Joanna for his position.  In 1467, he urged his brother John, who had become governor of Sileasia in 1457, after their eldest brother Henry had died, to switch to the Catholic Alliance again.  In the same year, Jošt founded an anti-Hussite league.  However, Rudolf of Rüdesheim, who was Bishop of Lavant and also the papal legate in Wrocław, and later Jošt's successor as bishop, soon gained control of this league.

Jošt divided his time between Wrocław, Nysa, the seat of his bishopric, Strakonice, the seat of his Grand Priory of the Order of St. John, and Český Krumlov, the family seat of the House of Rosenberg.  He was responsible for the addition of the western vestibule to Wrocław Cathedral.

He died in his episcopal residence in Nysa in 1467, at the age or 37 and was buried in Wrocław Cathedral.  He was succeeded as Bishop of Wrocław by Rudolf of Rüdesheim.

Footnotes

References

 J. Jungnitz: Die Grabstätten der Breslauer Bischöfe, J. Max & C., Breslau, 1895
 Karl Kastner: Breslauer Bischöfe, Ostdeutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Breslau, 1929
 Anna Kubíková: Rožmberské kroniky. Krátky a summovní výtah od Václava Březana, Veduta, České Budějovice, 2005, .

External links

Medieval Bohemian nobility
15th-century Roman Catholic bishops in Poland
1430 births
1467 deaths
15th-century people from Bohemia
Prince-Bishops of Breslau
Rosenberg family

Jošt of Rožmberk


Wayang wong (), also known as wayang orang (literally "human wayang"), is a type of classical Javanese and Balinese dance theatrical performance with themes taken from episodes of the Ramayāna or Mahabharāta. Performances are stylised, reflecting Javanese court culture:

Despite being closely associated with Javanese and Balinese tradition, variants of wayang wong dance drama can also be found in neighboring Javanese ethnic traditions, including Sundanese tradition.

History
The bas relief panels on the ninth-century Prambanan temple show episodes of the Ramayana epic. The adaptation of Mahabharata episodes has been integrated in the Javanese literature tradition since the Kahuripan and Kediri era, with notable examples such as Arjunawiwaha, composed by Mpu Kanwa in the 11th century. The Penataran temple in East Java depicts themes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata in its bas reliefs. The Javanese dance drama associated with wayangs epic themes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata would have existed by then.

Wayang in Kawi (Old Javanese) means "shadow" and wong means "human". Wayang wang was a performance in the style of
wayang kulit (the shadow theatre of Central Java) wherein actors and actresses took the puppets' roles. The first written reference to the form is on the stone inscription Wimalarama from East Java dated 930 CE. The genre is currently done in masked and unmasked variations in Central Java, Bali, and Cirebon, as well as in Sunda (West Java).

Wayang wong is closely associated with Javanese culture. Originally, it was performed only as an aristocratic entertainment in four palaces of Yogyakarta, Pakualaman, Surakarta and Mangkunegaran. In the course of time, it spread to become a popular and folk form as well. Javanese wayang wong performances are regularly staged in Trimurti Ramayana open air stage in Prambanan temple compound as Ramayana Ballet, Purawisata cultural hall in Yogyakarta, Sriwedari park in Solo, and also Ngesti Pandawa in Semarang.

Variations
Other than in the Javanese dance tradition, the variants of wayang wong dance drama can also be found in other traditions, including in Balinese and Sundanese traditions.

Wayang wong Bali

Wayang wong Bali refers to a Balinese version of wayang dance drama. Its contemporary presentation is usually included within the kecak dance, where fragments or episodes of the Ramayana are performed amidst the chanting kecak dancers. However, a Balinese wayang wong version that does not include kecak dancers has also existed, especially in Ubud. Wayang wong Bali is usually associated with Buleleng District.

Wayang wong Cirebon
Wayang wong Cirebon refers to a tradition of wayang dance drama in the city of Cirebon, West Java. Cirebon has two styles of wayang wong. The first is a commoners or village version in which the performers are masked. The second is a Cirebon palace variant where the
performers dance are unmasked. Cirebonese wayang wong developed at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and influenced the wayang wong Priangan by the end of that century.

Wayang wong Priangan
Wayang wong Priangan refers to a Sundanese version of wayang dance drama, developed in the Priangan region in the heartland of West Java. Wayang wong Priangan developed in the late nineteenth century, peaked in the regencies of Bandung, Sumedang, Garut and Sukabumi in the period before World War II, and receded by the late 1960s as audiences waned. In the Sundanese tradition, the most prevalent wayang tradition is wayang golek, a wooden rod puppet performance. Nevertheless, the wayang-themed dance drama performance also exists, usually performed in Sundanese sandiwara traditional drama form.

Wayang gedog

Wayang gedog (lit. "masked wayang"), another form of wayang wong performance, is usually considered to be a cross between wayang wong and the topeng dance. These performances take themes from the Panji cycle stories about the kingdom of Janggala. Players wear masks known as wayang topeng or wayang gedog. The word gedog comes from kedok, which like topeng means "mask". The main theme is a love story about Princess Candra Kirana of Kediri and Raden Panji Asmarabangun, the crown prince of Janggala. Candra Kirana was the incarnation of Dewi Ratih (the Hindu goddess of love) and Panji was an incarnation of Kamajaya (the Hindu god of love). Candra Kirana's story has been given the title "Smaradahana" ("The fire of love"). At the end of the complicated story they finally marry and produce a son. Panji Asmarabangun ruled Janggala under the official names of "Sri Kameswara", "Prabu Suryowiseso", and "Hino Kertapati".

Dance style

Wayang wong has fixed patterns of movement and costume:

For male performers:

 Alus: very slow, elegant and smooth movement. For example, the dance of Arjuna, Puntadewa and all other refined and slimly built kshatriyas. There are two types of movement, lanyap and luruh.
 Gagah: a more masculine and powerful dance movement, used commonly for the roles of strongly built kshatriyas, soldiers and generals.
 Kambeng: a more powerful and athletic dance, used for the roles of Bima, Antareja, and Ghatotkacha.
 Bapang: gagah and kasar for the warriors of antagonist roles such as Kaurawa.
 Kalang kinantang: falls somewhere between alus and gagah, danced by tall, slim dancers in the roles of Kresno or Suteja.
 Kasar: a coarse style, used in portraying evil characters such as Rakshasa, ogres and demons.
 Gecul: a funny court jester and commoners, portraying ponokawan and cantrik.
 Kambeng dengklik: for ape warriors, such as Hanuman.
 Kalang kinantang dengklik: for ape warriors, such as Sugriwa and Subali.

For female performers:

The movements known as nggruda or ngenceng encot in the classical high style of dance consist of nine basic movements (joged pokok) and twelve other movements (joged gubahan and joged wirogo) and are used in performing the bedoyo and srimpi.

Today, the wayang wong, following the Gagrak style of Surakarta, is danced by women. They follow the alus movements associated with a kshatriya, resembling Arjuna. In the Gagkra style from Yogyakarta, a male dancer uses these same alus movements to depict princes and generals. There are about 45 distinct character types.

Performances

Performances of wayang wong are regularly staged in the Javanese cultural heartlands, the court cities of Yogyakarta and Surakarta (Solo). The national capital Jakarta also stages wayang wong performances, although they are not always well-publicised.

Yogyakarta
A series of well-known dramatic monthly evening performances of wayang wong from the Ramayana is performed all year round at the Prambanan temple near Yogyakarta. The most complete Ramayana wayang wong involving more than a hundred dancers, artists and gamelan musicians is performed only during the dry season (usually May to October) on a large, open-air stage with the Prambanan Trimurti temples as the background. During the monsoon rainy season, however, the performance is moved into a smaller indoor theatre nearby. In downtown Yogyakarta, on the eastern side of Keraton Yogyakarta, the Ramayana wayang wong is also performed every night, starting at 8 p.m. at Purawisata theatre, Jalan Brigjen Katamso, Yogyakarta.

Surakarta
Episodes from the Mahabharata and Ramayana are often performed daily in the Wayang Orang Sriwedari theatre in Sriwedari Cultural Park at Jalan Slamet Riyadi 275, Surakarta city, in Central Java. This daily performance starts at 8.15 p.m. every night, except on Sundays.

Jakarta
In Jakarta the Wayang Orang Bharata group, one of the oldest wayang orang groups existing in Jakarta, generally stages performances in the Bharata Theatre just north of Pasar Senen near the centre of the city each Saturday night.  The Bharata Theatre, which seats around 300 people, was renovated with funds from the Jakarta city government in the early 2000s.  The performances are often based around stories of conflict between clans drawn from the Mahabharata.  Presentations involve traditional Javanese dancing, stylised fighting, and periods of dialogue, accompanied by music from a substantial gamelan orchestra.  Actors representing the well-known Punokawan clowns, including the much-loved Semar, usually involve themselves in the action, often poking considerable fun at the self-important lives that the princes and high-born warriors lead.  Ticket prices are relatively modest, with even the best seats in the Bharata Theatre generally costing (early 2013) less than $US 10 per person.

Other than the weekly wayang wong performances of Bharata in the Senen area, Jakarta has sometimes staged special annual wayang orang performances in Gedung Kesenian Jakarta near Pasar Baru in Central Jakarta, Taman Ismail Marzuki, or in Gedung Pewayangan Kautaman, near Taman Mini Indonesia Indah. These are not routine performances; schedules should be inquired about in advance at those theatres. There are several wayang wong troupes in Jakarta, such as Swargaloka, Senawangi, Puspobudoyo and Sekar Budaya Nusantara.

Television
Wayang wong performances are sometimes aired on television, such as on TVRI and World of Wayang on Kompas TV.

See also

 Bambangan cakil
 Dance in Indonesia
 Ramayana Ballet
 Theatre of Indonesia

References

External links

Wayang
Javanese culture
Theatre in Indonesia
Traditional drama and theatre of Indonesia
Dance in Indonesia
Dances of Java

Wayang wong


Witold Sobociński (October 15, 1929 – November 19, 2018) was a Polish cinematographer, academic teacher as well as former jazz musician. He was known for his cinematography works in The Adventures of Gerard, The Hourglass Sanatorium and in Frantic.

Sobociński studied at the National Film School in Łódź. He was a member of Melomani, in which he played the drums.

Sobociński was born on October 15, 1929 in Łódź, Poland. He died on November 19, 2018 in Łódź at the age of 89.

References

Other websites

1929 births
2018 deaths
Polish musicians
Jazz musicians
Cinematographers
People from Łódź

Witold Sobociński