A cycloaddition is a chemical reaction between reactants with double bonds that get replaced by a ring structure.  It is a pericyclic chemical reaction where "two or more unsaturated molecules (or parts of the same molecule) combine with the formation of a cyclic adduct in which there is a net reduction of the bond multiplicity." It is a cyclization reaction: it makes new ring of atoms.

Cycloadditions are named by the basic size of the molecules that are being brought together. This would make the Diels–Alder reaction a [4 + 2]cycloaddition, and the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition a [3 + 2]cycloaddition. This type of reaction is a non-polar addition reaction.

Reaction mechanism
Heat can cause the double bonds to form a ring. Thermal cycloadditions usually have (4n + 2) π electrons participating in the starting material, for some whole number n.  Because of orbital symmetry, most cycloadditions are suprafacial-suprafacial. Rarely, they are antarafacial-antarafacial.  There are a few examples of thermal cycloadditions which have 4n π electrons (for example the [2 + 2] cycloaddition). These proceed in a suprafacial-antarafacial sense. For example, the dimerisation of ketene has a orthogonal set of p orbitals. Those p orbitals allow the reaction to proceed using a crossed transition state.

Light can also cause the double bonds to form a ring. Cycloadditions in which 4n π electrons participate can also occur as a result of photochemical activation. Here, one component makes an electron move from the  highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) (π bonding) to the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) (π* antibonding). After the electron is promoted to the higher orbital, orbital symmetry allows the reaction to proceed in a suprafacial-suprafacial manner. An example is the DeMayo reaction. Another example is shown below, the photochemical dimerization of cinnamic acid.

Note that not all photochemical (2+2) cyclizations are cycloadditions; some are known to operate by radical mechanisms.

Some cycloadditions instead of π bonds operate through strained cyclopropane rings; as these have significant π character. For example, an analog for the Diels–Alder reaction is the quadricyclane-DMAD reaction:

In the (i+j+...) cycloaddition notation i and j refer to the number of atoms involved in the cycloaddition. In this notation a Diels-Alder reaction is a (4+2)cycloaddition and a 1,3-dipolar addition such as the first step in ozonolysis is a (3+2)cycloaddition. This notation uses parenthesis. The IUPAC preferred notation however,  with [i+j+...] counts electrons and not atoms. It uses square brackets. In this notation, the Diels–Alder reaction and the dipolar reaction both become a [4+2]cycloaddition. The reaction between norbornadiene and an activated alkyne is a [2+2+2]cycloaddition.

Types of cycloaddition

Diels-Alder reactions
The Diels–Alder reaction is a [4+2]cycloaddition reaction.

Huisgen cycloadditions
The Huisgen cycloaddition reaction is a [2+3]cycloaddition.

Nitrone-olefin cycloaddition
The Nitrone-olefin cycloaddition is a [3+2]cycloaddition.

Formal cycloadditions
Cycloadditions often have metal-catalyzed and stepwise radical analogs, however these are not strictly speaking pericyclic reactions. When charged or radical intermediates are involved in a cycloaddition, or when the cycloaddition result is found in a series of reaction steps, they are sometimes called formal cycloadditions to make a difference from true pericyclic cycloadditions.

One example of a formal [3+3]cycloaddition between a cyclic enone and an enamine catalyzed by n-butyllithium is a Stork enamine / 1,2-addition cascade reaction:

References

Chemical reactions

Cycloaddition


Heribert Rosweyde (20 January 1569, Utrecht – 5 October 1629, Antwerp) was a Jesuit hagiographer. His work, quite unfinished, was taken up by Jean Bolland who systematized it, while broadening its perspective. This is the beginning of the association of the Bollandists.

Life

Most archival evidence indicates that Heibert Rosweyde was born in Utrecht on 20 January 1569. His family was part of the Catholic minority. Rosweyde attended the university of Douai, and entered the Society of Jesus in 1588. He became a professor of philosophy at the Jesuit college at Douai.

Research
Rosweyde devoted his leisure to the libraries of the monasteries of Hainaut and French Flanders. He copied with his own hand a vast number of documents relating to church history in general, and to hagiography in particular, and found in the old texts contained in the manuscripts coming under his observation quite a different flavour from that of the revisions to which many editors, notably the 16th century hagiographers, Lippomano and Surius, then the latest and most celebrated, had believed it necessary to subject them.

Plan
Rosweyde thought it would be a useful work to publish the texts in their original form. His superiors, to whom he submitted his plan in 1603, gave it their approval, and allowed him to prepare the projected edition, without, however, relieving him of other occupations. At that time Rosweyde was serving as prefect of studies in Antwerp, but was soon sent to St Omer to replace a professor of apologetics who had fallen ill. He did not return to Antwerp until 1606.

There were about 1300 manuscripts regarding lives of the saints in the libraries of Belgium. Rosweyde obtained copies of most of them. He pursued his project, which he announced publicly in 1607, as well as the plan he proposed to follow. Under the title: Fasti sanctorum quorum vitae in belgicis bibliothecis manuscriptiae, he gave in a little volume in 16mo., published by the Plantin press at Antwerp, an alphabetical list of the names of the saints whose acts had been either found by him or called to his attention in old manuscript collections. This list filled fifty pages; the prefatory notice in which he indicates the character and arrangement of his work, as he had conceived it, takes up fourteen. Finally, the work contains an appendix of twenty-six pages containing the unpublished acts of the passion of the Cilician martyrs, Tharsacus, Probus, and Andronicus, which Rosweyde regarded—wrongly—as the authentic official report from the pen of a clerk of the court of the Roman tribunal.

According to this programme the collection was to comprise sixteen volumes, besides two volumes of explanations and tables. The first volume was to present documents concerning the life of Jesus Christ and the feasts established in honour of the special events of his life; the second volume would be devoted to the life and the feasts of the Virgin Mary, and the third to the feasts of the saints honoured with a more special cult. The twelve succeeding volumes were to give the lives of the saints whose feasts are celebrated respectively in the twelve months of the year, one volume for each month. This calendar arrangement had been prescribed by his superiors, in preference to the chronological order Rosweyde himself favoured. But this presented, especially at that time, formidable difficulties. Lastly, the sixteenth volume was to set forth the succession of martyrologies which had been in use at different periods and in the various churches of Christendom. The first of the two supplementary volumes was to contain notes and commentaries bearing on the lives divided into eight books treating among other subjects: the authors of the lives, the sufferings of the martyrs, and the images of the saints.

The other supplement was to present a series of copious tables giving:
the names of the saints whose lives had been published in the preceding volumes;
the same names followed by notes indicating the place of each saint's birth, their station in life, their title to sanctity, the time and place in which they lived, and the authors of their lives;
the state of life of the various saints (religious, priest, virgin, widow, etc.);
their position in the Church (apostle, bishop, abbot, etc.);
the nomenclature of the saints according to the countries made illustrious by their birth, apostolate, sojourn, burial;
nomenclature of the places in which they are honoured with a special cult;
enumeration of the maladies for the cure of which they are especially invoked;
the professions placed under their patronage;
the proper names of persons and places encountered in the published lives;
the passages of Holy Scripture there explained;
points which may be of use in religious controversies;
those applicable in the teaching of Christian doctrine;
a general table of words and things in alphabetical order.

"And others still," Rosweyde wrote, "if anything of importance presents itself, of which our readers may give us an idea."

The Fasti was published as a sort of advertisement, which Rosweyde distributed in hopes of gaining support.
Cardinal Bellarmine, to whom Rosweyde sent a copy of his little volume, reportedly exclaimed after reading Rosweyde's programme: "This man counts, then, on living two hundred years longer!" He sent Rosweyde a letter, the original of which is preserved in the present library of the Bollandists, signed, but not written by the hand of Bellarmine, in which he intimated that he regarded the plan as chimerical. Bellarmine suggested that Rosweyde focus his efforts on those saints not already published by Surius.

Rosweyde was not disconcerted by this. He received encouragement, enthusiastic praise, and valuable assistance from various other sources. The new enterprise found an especial protector in Antoine de Wynghe, abbot of the Liessies Abbey in the now Nord department of France. The large sympathy of this patron manifested itself in every way; in letters of recommendation to the heads of the various houses of the great Benedictine Order which opened to Rosweyde and his associates monastic libraries; in loans and gifts of books, of manuscripts, and of copies of manuscripts; and in pecuniary assistance.

Rosweyde counted on completing the project by his own efforts. As a matter of fact, he did not get beyond the first stages of the structure. In 1609 he was sent to Courtrai, and when the prefect of studies died, Rosweyde was required to assume those duties. His literary activity was expended on a multitude of historical works, both religious and polemical, some of which would have later formed a part of the great hagiographical compilation, but the majority of which bear no relation whatever to the work. At the time of Rosweyde's death in Antwerp in 1629, not a page was ready for the printer.

His labour was not lost however, as Jean Bolland, entrusted with going through the papers and documents gathered by Rosweyde saw the value of them all and embarked on the vast project identified later with the association of the Bollandists. The first volume of the Acta Sanctorum came out of the press in 1643.

The writings which would have been available are: the edition of the Little Roman Martyrology, in which Rosweyde believed he recognized the collection mentioned by Gregory the Great in his letter to Eulogius of Alexandria; the edition of the martyrology of Ado of Vienne (1613).

Rosweyde apparently commissioned and dedicated to de Wynghe an emblematic work of fifty plates of hermits, engraved by Boetius à Bolswert to designs by Abraham Bloemaert (Sylva Anachoretica Ægypti Et Palæstinæ. Figuris Æneis Et Brevibus Vitarum Elogiis Expressa. (Hendrick Aertssens, Antwerp 1619).

The rest, however, as for instance the Dutch edition of Ribadeneira's Flowers of the Saints (1619, two folio volumes), the General History of the Church (1623), to which he added as an appendix the detailed history of the Church in the Netherlands, both in Dutch; the Flemish lives of St. Ignatius and St. Philip Neri; the Flemish translation of the first part of the Treatise on Perfection, drew his attention completely from what he should have regarded as his principal task.

Works
 Vitae patrum: the ten books of the Lives of the Fathers of the Desert, which he first published in Latin (1615 in fol.), dedicating the work to the Abbot of Liessies, and later in Dutch (1617) in fol., with an inscription to Jeanne de Bailliencourt, Abbess of Messines.

References

Bibliography
COENS, Maurice: 'Héribert Rosweyde et la recherche des documents. Un témoignage inédit', in Analecta Bollandiana, vol.83, 1965.
Hippolyte Delehaye: L'oeuvre des Bollandistes à travers trois siecles 1615-1915, Bruxelles, 1959.
F.W.H. Hollstein, Dutch and Flemish etchings, engravings and woodcuts ca. 1450-1700, (1949- ).

External links

1569 births
1629 deaths
Jesuits of the Spanish Netherlands
Christian hagiographers
Writers from Utrecht (city)
University of Douai alumni

Heribert Rosweyde


Raymond Alvin Jackson (born 1949) is a senior United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia.

Education and career

Born in Sussex, Virginia, Jackson received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Norfolk State University in 1970 and a Juris Doctor from the University of Virginia School of Law in 1973. He was in the United States Army, JAG Corps, from 1973 to 1977, attaining the rank of captain. He thereafter remained in the United States Army Reserve, achieving the rank of colonel. He was an Assistant United States Attorney of the Eastern District of Virginia from 1977 to 1993, and was an adjunct lecturer at the College of William and Mary, Marshall-Wythe School of Law, from 1981 to 1991 and in 1993.

Federal judicial service

On September 24, 1993, Jackson was nominated by President Bill Clinton to a seat  on the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia vacated by Richard Leroy Williams. Jackson was confirmed by the United States Senate on November 20, 1993, and received his commission on November 22, 1993. He assumed senior status on November 23, 2021.

Notable cases

Jackson was the district court judge in the critical Supreme Court decision in Kimbrough v. United States (2007).  Derrick Kimbrough was indicted in September 2004 on four drug-related counts: conspiracy to distribute both crack and powder cocaine; possession with intent to distribute more than 50 grams of crack cocaine; possession with intent to distribute powder cocaine; and possession of a firearm in furtherance of a drug trafficking offense. Kimbrough pleaded guilty to all four counts. Under the statutes that define these respective crimes, Kimbrough faced a sentence of between 15 years and life in prison. Based on the facts, Kimbrough admitted at his change-of-plea hearing, as well as the fact that Kimbrough had testified falsely at a codefendant's trial, Jackson computed the applicable range under the federal sentencing guidelines at 228 to 270 months in prison.

Kimbrough's Guidelines range was so high because his offense involved both crack and powder cocaine. Jackson observed that if Kimbrough's crime had involved powder cocaine only, his sentencing range would have been 97 to 106 months. The mandatory minimum sentence, in turn, was 180 months in prison, and Jackson imposed that sentence.

The Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals vacated the sentence and remanded for further proceedings. Relying on a prior opinion, the appellate court stated that any sentence that fell outside the Guidelines range was per se unreasonable if that sentence was based on a policy disagreement with the fact that crack cocaine offenses are punished more harshly than powder cocaine offenses. The United States Supreme Court agreed to review the Fourth Circuit's reasoning in this case and reversed the Fourth Circuit's opinion, holding that the Federal Sentencing Guidelines for cocaine are advisory only, and a judge may consider the disparity between the Guidelines' treatment of crack and powder cocaine offenses when imposing a sentence sufficient, but not greater than necessary.

Personal life
Jackson is married to retired judge Gwendolyn Jackson from the 4th Judicial District of Virginia. Their daughter Candace Jackson-Akiwumi is a judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit.

See also
 List of African-American federal judges
 List of African-American jurists

External links

1949 births
Living people
20th-century American judges
21st-century American judges
African-American judges
Assistant United States Attorneys
College of William & Mary faculty
Judges of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia
Norfolk State University alumni
People from Sussex County, Virginia
United States district court judges appointed by Bill Clinton
United States Army officers
University of Virginia School of Law alumni

Raymond Alvin Jackson


Lake District Summer Music (LDSM) is a music festival in the English Lake District. An annual event held in August, it features performances by international artists and there is also an academy for young musicians.

Founded in 1985, LDSM was listed as one of the "Ten Truly Festive Festivals" in the world by the Daily Telegraph in 2010. The festival concerts - principally focussed on chamber music - make use of a variety of venues, including St Mary's Church, Ambleside, and Blackwell.

History
Renna Kellaway, a South African-born pianist and teacher, founded the festival.
Kellaway received an MBE in the 2009 New Year's Honours for services to music and was married to the late Sir John Manduell CBE, former Director of the Cheltenham Music Festival and founding Principal of the Royal Northern College of Music.
The Chilingirian Quartet were resident artists from inception.

The Festival used to combine with a summer school programmes: one for emerging professional musicians and another for younger string players, but these have now been replaced by Young Artist masterclasses. Alumni of the International Summer Music Academy have included Nicola Benedetti, Nikolaj Znaider, Jennifer Pike, Steven Osborne, James Rhodes, the Sacconi and Belcea quartets, as well as The Pether Trio.

The organisation was a Regularly Funded Organisation of Arts Council England until 2012 and has been supported by South Lakeland District Council.

During 2001-2008, LDSM extended its work beyond the summer in a series of developments devised by chief officer Andrew Lucas. A  4x4 Composer Residency, held in the spring or early summer, gave four emerging professional composers opportunity to compose works for an established ensemble, led by a leading British composer. Lead composers of previous projects are Nicola LeFanu, Martin Butler, John Casken and Robert Saxton. 4x4 Alumni have included John Habron, Benjamin Wallfisch, Paul Mealor, David Bruce and Phillip Cooke.

An Autumn Music from a Foreign Land project introduced the music and musicians of different continents through creative workshops and performances.

A programme of Street Concerts, SplashClassics, saw a concert take place at five stations along the train line from Manchester Airport (where many of the academy students arrived into the UK) through to Windermere (the nearest station to the academy base near Ambleside). The SplashClassics series was developed into a separate venture by its founder, Andrew Lucas, in 2013 and saw it reach new audiences through innovative series of events combining classical music, animation, poetry and dance.

References

External links
 Lake District Summer Music website

Music festivals in Cumbria
Recurring events established in 1985
Lake District
1985 establishments in England

Lake District Summer Music


James M. "Jace" Sayler (born February 27, 1979) is a former professional American football defensive tackle. He was signed by the New England Patriots as an undrafted free agent in 2001. He played college football at Michigan State.

Sayler has also been a member of the Washington Redskins and San Francisco 49ers.

After Jace's career-ending back injury with the 49ers, he has undergone multiple operations over the years. While traveling for treatments and therapy for his back he met his wife Christine. Jace and Christine have two children and currently reside in the Midwest where they raise their family.

Early years
Sayler played high school football at McHenry High School West Campus in McHenry, Illinois, where he was an all-state selection at tight end and defensive end.

College career
After graduating from high school, Sayler attended Michigan State University. Sayler switched to defensive tackle in his junior season of 1999, finishing with 46 tackles and three sacks. He started every game of his senior season in 2000, recording 53 tackles.

Professional career

New England Patriots
Sayler was signed as an undrafted free agent by the New England Patriots after going undrafted in the 2001 NFL Draft. Sayler made the Patriots' 53-man roster out of training camp and started the 2001 season opener in place of an injured Richard Seymour at nose tackle. He played in two games for the Patriots before being placed on injured reserve on October 5. He was re-signed by the Patriots following the season, but was released on September 1, 2002. He was signed to the Patriots' practice squad two days later, and released again on September 5. He spent the 2002 season out of football.

Washington Redskins
Sayler was signed by the Washington Redskins on January 2, 2003, and released from the team on July 25, 2003.

San Francisco 49ers
Sayler was signed by the San Francisco 49ers on August 15, 2003, and waived/injured on August 26, 2003 after suffering a back injury.

External links
New England Patriots bio

Players of American football from Rockford, Illinois
American football defensive tackles
Michigan State Spartans football players
New England Patriots players
Washington Redskins players
San Francisco 49ers players
1979 births
Living people

Jace Sayler


Archimedes of Syracuse (, ; ) was an Ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and inventor from the ancient city of Syracuse in Sicily. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Considered the greatest mathematician of ancient history, and one of the greatest of all time, Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying the concept of the infinitely small and the method of exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove a range of geometrical theorems. These include the area of a circle, the surface area and volume of a sphere, the area of an ellipse, the area under a parabola, the volume of a segment of a paraboloid of revolution, the volume of a segment of a hyperboloid of revolution, and the area of a spiral.

Archimedes' other mathematical achievements include deriving an approximation of pi, defining and investigating the Archimedean spiral, and devising a system using exponentiation for expressing very large numbers. He was also one of the first to apply mathematics to physical phenomena, working on statics and hydrostatics. Archimedes' achievements in this area include a proof of the law of the lever, the widespread use of the concept of center of gravity, and the enunciation of the law of buoyancy or Archimedes' principle. He is also credited with designing innovative machines, such as his screw pump, compound pulleys, and defensive war machines to protect his native Syracuse from invasion.

Archimedes died during the siege of Syracuse, when he was killed by a Roman soldier despite orders that he should not be harmed. Cicero describes visiting Archimedes' tomb, which was surmounted by a sphere and a cylinder that Archimedes requested be placed there to represent his mathematical discoveries.

Unlike his inventions, Archimedes' mathematical writings were little known in antiquity. Mathematicians from Alexandria read and quoted him, but the first comprehensive compilation was not made until  by Isidore of Miletus in Byzantine Constantinople, while commentaries on the works of Archimedes by Eutocius in the 6th century opened them to wider readership for the first time. The relatively few copies of Archimedes' written work that survived through the Middle Ages were an influential source of ideas for scientists during the Renaissance and again in the 17th century, while the discovery in 1906 of previously lost works by Archimedes in the Archimedes Palimpsest has provided new insights into how he obtained mathematical results.

Biography

Archimedes was born c. 287 BC in the seaport city of Syracuse, Sicily, at that time a self-governing colony in Magna Graecia. The date of birth is based on a statement by the Byzantine Greek historian John Tzetzes that Archimedes lived for 75 years before his death in 212 BC. In the Sand-Reckoner, Archimedes gives his father's name as Phidias, an astronomer about whom nothing else is known. A biography of Archimedes was written by his friend Heracleides, but this work has been lost, leaving the details of his life obscure. It is unknown, for instance, whether he ever married or had children, or if he ever visited Alexandria, Egypt, during his youth. From his surviving written works, it is clear that he maintained collegiate relations with scholars based there, including his friend Conon of Samos and the head librarian Eratosthenes of Cyrene.

The standard versions of Archimedes' life were written long after his death by Greek and Roman historians. The earliest reference to Archimedes occurs in The Histories by Polybius ( 200–118 BC), written about 70 years after his death. It sheds little light on Archimedes as a person, and focuses on the war machines that he is said to have built in order to defend the city from the Romans. Polybius remarks how, during the Second Punic War, Syracuse switched allegiances from Rome to Carthage, resulting in a military campaign under the command of Marcus Claudius Marcellus and Appius Claudius Pulcher, who besieged the city from 213 to 212 BC. He notes that the Romans underestimated Syracuse's defenses, and mentions several machines Archimedes designed, including improved catapults, crane-like machines that could be swung around in an arc, and other stone-throwers. Although the Romans ultimately captured the city, they suffered considerable losses due to Archimedes' inventiveness.

Cicero (106–43 BC) mentions Archimedes in some of his works. While serving as a quaestor in Sicily, Cicero found what was presumed to be Archimedes' tomb near the Agrigentine gate in Syracuse, in a neglected condition and overgrown with bushes. Cicero had the tomb cleaned up and was able to see the carving and read some of the verses that had been added as an inscription. The tomb carried a sculpture illustrating Archimedes' favorite mathematical proof, that the volume and surface area of the sphere are two-thirds that of an enclosing cylinder including its bases. He also mentions that Marcellus brought to Rome two planetariums Archimedes built. The Roman historian Livy (59 BC–17 AD) retells Polybius' story of the capture of Syracuse and Archimedes' role in it.

Plutarch (45–119 AD) wrote in his Parallel Lives that Archimedes was related to King Hiero II, the ruler of Syracuse. He also provides at least two accounts on how Archimedes died after the city was taken. According to the most popular account, Archimedes was contemplating a mathematical diagram when the city was captured. A Roman soldier commanded him to come and meet Marcellus, but he declined, saying that he had to finish working on the problem. This enraged the soldier, who killed Archimedes with his sword. Another story has Archimedes carrying mathematical instruments before being killed because a soldier thought they were valuable items. Marcellus was reportedly angered by Archimedes' death, as he considered him a valuable scientific asset (he called Archimedes "a geometrical Briareus") and had ordered that he should not be harmed.

The last words attributed to Archimedes are "Do not disturb my circles" (Latin, "Noli turbare circulos meos"; Katharevousa Greek, "μὴ μου τοὺς κύκλους τάραττε"), a reference to the mathematical drawing that he was supposedly studying when disturbed by the Roman soldier. There is no reliable evidence that Archimedes uttered these words and they do not appear in Plutarch's account. A similar quotation is found in the work of Valerius Maximus (fl. 30 AD), who wrote in Memorable Doings and Sayings, "" ("... but protecting the dust with his hands, said 'I beg of you, do not disturb this).

Discoveries and inventions

Archimedes' principle

The most widely known anecdote about Archimedes tells of how he invented a method for determining the volume of an object with an irregular shape. According to Vitruvius, a crown for a temple had been made for King Hiero II of Syracuse, who supplied the pure gold to be used. The crown was likely made in the shape of a votive wreath. Archimedes was asked to determine whether some silver had been substituted by the goldsmith without damaging the crown, so he could not melt it down into a regularly shaped body in order to calculate its density.

In this account, Archimedes noticed while taking a bath that the level of the water in the tub rose as he got in, and realized that this effect could be used to determine the golden crown's volume. Archimedes was so excited by this discovery that he took to the streets naked, having forgotten to dress, crying "Eureka!" (, heúrēka!, ). For practical purposes water is incompressible, so the submerged crown would displace an amount of water equal to its own volume. By dividing the mass of the crown by the volume of water displaced, its density could be obtained; if cheaper and less dense metals had been added, the density would be lower than that of gold. Archimedes found that this is what had happened, proving that silver had been mixed in.

The story of the golden crown does not appear anywhere in Archimedes' known works. The practicality of the method described has been called into question due to the extreme accuracy that would be required to measure water displacement. Archimedes may have instead sought a solution that applied the hydrostatics principle known as Archimedes' principle, found in his treatise On Floating Bodies: a body immersed in a fluid experiences a buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. Using this principle, it would have been possible to compare the density of the crown to that of pure gold by balancing it on a scale with a pure gold reference sample of the same weight, then immersing the apparatus in water. The difference in density between the two samples would cause the scale to tip accordingly. Galileo Galilei, who invented a hydrostatic balance in 1586 inspired by Archimedes' work, considered it "probable that this method is the same that Archimedes followed, since, besides being very accurate, it is based on demonstrations found by Archimedes himself."

Law of the lever
While Archimedes did not invent the lever, he gave a mathematical proof of the principle involved in his work On the Equilibrium of Planes. Earlier descriptions of the principle of the lever are found in a work by Euclid and in the Mechanical Problems, belonging to the Peripatetic school of the followers of Aristotle, the authorship of which has been attributed by some to Archytas.

There are several, often conflicting, reports regarding Archimedes' feats using the lever to lift very heavy objects. Plutarch describes how Archimedes designed block-and-tackle pulley systems, allowing sailors to use the principle of leverage to lift objects that would otherwise have been too heavy to move. According to Pappus of Alexandria, Archimedes' work on levers and his understanding of mechanical advantage caused him to remark: "Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth" (). Olympiodorus later attributed the same boast to Archimedes' invention of the baroulkos, a kind of windlass, rather than the lever.

Archimedes' screw

A large part of Archimedes' work in engineering probably arose from fulfilling the needs of his home city of Syracuse. Athenaeus of Naucratis quotes a certain Moschion in a description on how King Hiero II commissioned the design of a huge ship, the Syracusia, which could be used for luxury travel, carrying supplies, and as a display of naval power. The Syracusia is said to have been the largest ship built in classical antiquity and, according to Moschion's account, it was launched by Archimedes. The ship presumably was capable of carrying 600 people and included garden decorations, a gymnasium, and a temple dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite among its facilities. The account also mentions that, in order to remove any potential water leaking through the hull, a device with a revolving screw-shaped blade inside a cylinder was designed by Archimedes.

Archimedes' screw was turned by hand, and could also be used to transfer water from a  body of water into irrigation canals. The screw is still in use today for pumping liquids and granulated solids such as coal and grain. Described by Vitruvius, Archimedes' device may have been an improvement on a screw pump that was used to irrigate the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. The world's first seagoing steamship with a screw propeller was the SS Archimedes, which was launched in 1839 and named in honor of Archimedes and his work on the screw.

Archimedes' claw
Archimedes is said to have designed a claw as a weapon to defend the city of Syracuse. Also known as "", the claw consisted of a crane-like arm from which a large metal grappling hook was suspended. When the claw was dropped onto an attacking ship the arm would swing upwards, lifting the ship out of the water and possibly sinking it.

There have been modern experiments to test the feasibility of the claw, and in 2005 a television documentary entitled Superweapons of the Ancient World built a version of the claw and concluded that it was a workable device. Archimedes has also been credited with improving the power and accuracy of the catapult, and with inventing the odometer during the First Punic War. The odometer was described as a cart with a gear mechanism that dropped a ball into a container after each mile traveled.

Heat ray

Archimedes may have written a work on mirrors entitled Catoptrica, and later authors believed he might have used mirrors acting collectively as a parabolic reflector to burn ships attacking Syracuse. Lucian wrote, in the second century AD, that during the siege of Syracuse Archimedes destroyed enemy ships with fire. Almost four hundred years later, Anthemius of Tralles mentions, somewhat hesitantly, that Archimedes could have used burning-glasses as a weapon.

Often called the "", the purported mirror arrangement focused sunlight onto approaching ships, presumably causing them to catch fire. In the modern era, similar devices have been constructed and may be referred to as a heliostat or solar furnace.

Archimedes' alleged heat ray has been the subject of an ongoing debate about its credibility since the Renaissance. René Descartes rejected it as false, while modern researchers have attempted to recreate the effect using only the means that would have been available to Archimedes, mostly with negative results. It has been suggested that a large array of highly polished bronze or copper shields acting as mirrors could have been employed to focus sunlight onto a ship, but the overall effect would have been blinding, dazzling, or distracting the crew of the ship rather than fire.

Astronomical instruments
Archimedes discusses astronomical measurements of the Earth, Sun, and Moon, as well as Aristarchus' heliocentric model of the universe, in the Sand-Reckoner. Without the use of either trigonometry or a table of chords, Archimedes determines the Sun's apparent diameter by first describing the procedure and instrument used to make observations (a straight rod with pegs or grooves), applying correction factors to these measurements, and finally giving the result in the form of upper and lower bounds to account for observational error. Ptolemy, quoting Hipparchus, also references Archimedes' solstice observations in the Almagest. This would make Archimedes the first known Greek to have recorded multiple solstice dates and times in successive years.

Cicero's De re publica portrays a fictional conversation taking place in 129 BC. After the capture of Syracuse in the Second Punic War, Marcellus is said to have taken back to Rome two mechanisms which were constructed by Archimedes and which showed the motion of the Sun, Moon and five planets. Cicero also mentions similar mechanisms designed by Thales of Miletus and Eudoxus of Cnidus. The dialogue says that Marcellus kept one of the devices as his only personal loot from Syracuse, and donated the other to the Temple of Virtue in Rome. Marcellus' mechanism was demonstrated, according to Cicero, by Gaius Sulpicius Gallus to Lucius Furius Philus, who described it thus:

This is a description of a small planetarium. Pappus of Alexandria reports on a now lost treatise by Archimedes dealing with the construction of these mechanisms entitled On Sphere-Making. Modern research in this area has been focused on the Antikythera mechanism, another device built  BC probably designed with a similar purpose. Constructing mechanisms of this kind would have required a sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing. This was once thought to have been beyond the range of the technology available in ancient times, but the discovery of the Antikythera mechanism in 1902 has confirmed that devices of this kind were known to the ancient Greeks.

Mathematics
While he is often regarded as a designer of mechanical devices, Archimedes also made contributions to the field of mathematics. Plutarch wrote that Archimedes "placed his whole affection and ambition in those purer speculations where there can be no reference to the vulgar needs of life", though some scholars believe this may be a mischaracterization.

Method of exhaustion

Archimedes was able to use indivisibles (a precursor to infinitesimals) in a way that is similar to modern integral calculus. Through proof by contradiction (reductio ad absurdum), he could give answers to problems to an arbitrary degree of accuracy, while specifying the limits within which the answer lay. This technique is known as the method of exhaustion, and he employed it to approximate the areas of figures and the value of π.

In Measurement of a Circle, he did this by drawing a larger regular hexagon outside a circle then a smaller regular hexagon inside the circle, and progressively doubling the number of sides of each regular polygon, calculating the length of a side of each polygon at each step. As the number of sides increases, it becomes a more accurate approximation of a circle. After four such steps, when the polygons had 96 sides each, he was able to determine that the value of π lay between 3 (approx. 3.1429) and 3 (approx. 3.1408), consistent with its actual value of approximately 3.1416. He also proved that the area of a circle was equal to π multiplied by the square of the radius of the circle ().

Archimedean property
In On the Sphere and Cylinder, Archimedes postulates that any magnitude when added to itself enough times will exceed any given magnitude. Today this is known as the Archimedean property of real numbers.

Archimedes gives the value of the square root of 3 as lying between  (approximately 1.7320261) and  (approximately 1.7320512) in Measurement of a Circle. The actual value is approximately 1.7320508, making this a very accurate estimate. He introduced this result without offering any explanation of how he had obtained it. This aspect of the work of Archimedes caused John Wallis to remark that he was: "as it were of set purpose to have covered up the traces of his investigation as if he had grudged posterity the secret of his method of inquiry while he wished to extort from them assent to his results." It is possible that he used an iterative procedure to calculate these values.

The infinite series

In Quadrature of the Parabola, Archimedes proved that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is  times the area of a corresponding inscribed triangle as shown in the figure at right. He expressed the solution to the problem as an infinite geometric series with the common ratio :

If the first term in this series is the area of the triangle, then the second is the sum of the areas of two triangles whose bases are the two smaller secant lines, and whose third vertex is where the line that is parallel to the parabola's axis and that passes through the midpoint of the base intersects the parabola, and so on. This proof uses a variation of the series  which sums to .

Myriad of myriads
In The Sand Reckoner, Archimedes set out to calculate a number that was greater than the grains of sand needed to fill the universe. In doing so, he challenged the notion that the number of grains of sand was too large to be counted. He wrote:There are some, King Gelo (Gelo II, son of Hiero II), who think that the number of the sand is infinite in multitude; and I mean by the sand not only that which exists about Syracuse and the rest of Sicily but also that which is found in every region whether inhabited or uninhabited.To solve the problem, Archimedes devised a system of counting based on the myriad. The word itself derives from the Greek , for the number 10,000. He proposed a number system using powers of a myriad of myriads (100 million, i.e., 10,000 x 10,000) and concluded that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe would be 8 vigintillion, or 8.

Writings

The works of Archimedes were written in Doric Greek, the dialect of ancient Syracuse. Many written works by Archimedes have not survived or are only extant in heavily edited fragments; at least seven of his treatises are known to have existed due to references made by other authors. Pappus of Alexandria mentions On Sphere-Making and another work on polyhedra, while Theon of Alexandria quotes a remark about refraction from the  Catoptrica.

Archimedes made his work known through correspondence with the mathematicians in Alexandria. The writings of Archimedes were first collected by the Byzantine Greek architect Isidore of Miletus (), while commentaries on the works of Archimedes written by Eutocius in the sixth century AD helped to bring his work a wider audience. Archimedes' work was translated into Arabic by Thābit ibn Qurra (836–901 AD), and into Latin via Arabic by Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114–1187). Direct Greek to Latin translations were later done by William of Moerbeke (c. 1215–1286) and Iacobus Cremonensis (c. 1400–1453).

During the Renaissance, the Editio princeps (First Edition) was published in Basel in 1544 by Johann Herwagen with the works of Archimedes in Greek and Latin.

Surviving works
The following are ordered chronologically based on new terminological and historical criteria set by Knorr (1978) and Sato (1986).

Measurement of a Circle

This is a short work consisting of three propositions. It is written in the form of a correspondence with Dositheus of Pelusium, who was a student of Conon of Samos. In Proposition II, Archimedes gives an approximation of the value of pi (), showing that it is greater than  and less than .

The Sand Reckoner

In this treatise, also known as Psammites, Archimedes finds a number that is greater than the grains of sand needed to fill the universe. This book mentions the heliocentric theory of the solar system proposed by Aristarchus of Samos, as well as contemporary ideas about the size of the Earth and the distance between various celestial bodies. By using a system of numbers based on powers of the myriad, Archimedes concludes that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe is 8 in modern notation. The introductory letter states that Archimedes' father was an astronomer named Phidias. The Sand Reckoner is the only surviving work in which Archimedes discusses his views on astronomy.

On the Equilibrium of Planes

There are two books to On the Equilibrium of Planes: the first contains seven postulates and fifteen propositions, while the second book contains ten propositions. In the first book, Archimedes proves the law of the lever, which states that:

Archimedes uses the principles derived to calculate the areas and centers of gravity of various geometric figures including triangles, parallelograms and parabolas.

Quadrature of the Parabola

In this work of 24 propositions addressed to Dositheus, Archimedes proves by two methods that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4/3 the area of a triangle with equal base and height. He achieves this in one of his proofs by calculating the value of a geometric series that sums to infinity with the ratio 1/4.

On the Sphere and Cylinder

In this two-volume treatise addressed to Dositheus, Archimedes obtains the result of which he was most proud, namely the relationship between a sphere and a circumscribed cylinder of the same height and diameter. The volume is 3 for the sphere, and 23 for the cylinder. The surface area is 42 for the sphere, and 62 for the cylinder (including its two bases), where  is the radius of the sphere and cylinder.

On Spirals

This work of 28 propositions is also addressed to Dositheus. The treatise defines what is now called the Archimedean spiral. It is the locus of points corresponding to the locations over time of a point moving away from a fixed point with a constant speed along a line which rotates with constant angular velocity. Equivalently, in modern polar coordinates (, ), it can be described by the equation   with real numbers  and .

This is an early example of a mechanical curve (a curve traced by a moving point) considered by a Greek mathematician.

On Conoids and Spheroids

This is a work in 32 propositions addressed to Dositheus. In this treatise Archimedes calculates the areas and volumes of sections of cones, spheres, and paraboloids.

On Floating Bodies

There are two books of On Floating Bodies. In the first book, Archimedes spells out the law of equilibrium of fluids and proves that water will adopt a spherical form around a center of gravity. This may have been an attempt at explaining the theory of contemporary Greek astronomers such as Eratosthenes that the Earth is round. The fluids described by Archimedes are not  since he assumes the existence of a point towards which all things fall in order to derive the spherical shape. Archimedes' principle of buoyancy is given in this work, stated as follows:Any body wholly or partially immersed in fluid experiences an upthrust equal to, but opposite in direction to, the weight of the fluid displaced.

In the second part, he calculates the equilibrium positions of sections of paraboloids. This was probably an idealization of the shapes of ships' hulls. Some of his sections float with the base under water and the summit above water, similar to the way that icebergs float.

Ostomachion

Also known as Loculus of Archimedes or Archimedes' Box, this is a dissection puzzle similar to a Tangram, and the treatise describing it was found in more complete form in the Archimedes Palimpsest. Archimedes calculates the areas of the 14 pieces which can be assembled to form a square. Reviel Netz of Stanford University argued in 2003 that Archimedes was attempting to determine how many ways the pieces could be assembled into the shape of a square. Netz calculates that the pieces can be made into a square 17,152 ways. The number of arrangements is 536 when solutions that are equivalent by rotation and reflection are excluded. The puzzle represents an example of an early problem in combinatorics.

The origin of the puzzle's name is unclear, and it has been suggested that it is taken from the Ancient Greek word for "throat" or "gullet", stomachos (). Ausonius calls the puzzle , a Greek compound word formed from the roots of  () and  ().

The cattle problem

Gotthold Ephraim Lessing discovered this work in a Greek manuscript consisting of a 44-line poem in the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel, Germany in 1773. It is addressed to Eratosthenes and the mathematicians in Alexandria. Archimedes challenges them to count the numbers of cattle in the Herd of the Sun by solving a number of simultaneous Diophantine equations. There is a more difficult version of the problem in which some of the answers are required to be square numbers. A. Amthor first solved this version of the problem in 1880, and the answer is a very large number, approximately 7.760271.

The Method of Mechanical Theorems

This treatise was thought lost until the discovery of the Archimedes Palimpsest in 1906. In this work Archimedes uses indivisibles, and shows how breaking up a figure into an infinite number of infinitely small parts can be used to determine its area or volume. He may have considered this method lacking in formal rigor, so he also used the method of exhaustion to derive the results. As with The Cattle Problem, The Method of Mechanical Theorems was written in the form of a letter to Eratosthenes in Alexandria.

Apocryphal works
Archimedes' Book of Lemmas or Liber Assumptorum is a treatise with 15 propositions on the nature of circles. The earliest known copy of the text is in Arabic. T. L. Heath and Marshall Clagett argued that it cannot have been written by Archimedes in its current form, since it quotes Archimedes, suggesting modification by another author. The Lemmas may be based on an earlier work by Archimedes that is now lost.

It has also been claimed that the formula for calculating the area of a triangle from the length of its sides was known to Archimedes, though its first appearance is in the work of Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century AD. Other questionable attributions to Archimedes' work include the Latin poem Carmen de ponderibus et mensuris (4th or 5th century), which describes the use of a hydrostatic balance to solve the problem of the crown, and the 12th-century text Mappae clavicula, which contains instructions on how to perform assaying of metals by calculating their specific gravities.

Archimedes Palimpsest

The foremost document containing Archimedes' work is the Archimedes Palimpsest. In 1906, the Danish professor Johan Ludvig Heiberg visited Constantinople to examine a 174-page goatskin parchment of prayers, written in the 13th century, after reading a short transcription published seven years earlier by Papadopoulos-Kerameus. He confirmed that it was indeed a palimpsest, a document with text that had been written over an erased older work. Palimpsests were created by scraping the ink from existing works and reusing them, a common practice in the Middle Ages, as vellum was expensive. The older works in the palimpsest were identified by scholars as 10th-century copies of previously lost treatises by Archimedes. The parchment spent hundreds of years in a monastery library in Constantinople before being sold to a private collector in the 1920s. On 29 October 1998, it was sold at auction to an anonymous buyer for $2 million.

The palimpsest holds seven treatises, including the only surviving copy of On Floating Bodies in the original Greek. It is the only known source of The Method of Mechanical Theorems, referred to by Suidas and thought to have been lost forever. Stomachion was also discovered in the palimpsest, with a more complete analysis of the puzzle than had been found in previous texts. The palimpsest was stored at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland, where it was subjected to a range of modern tests including the use of ultraviolet and  light to read the overwritten text. It has since returned to its anonymous owner.

The treatises in the Archimedes Palimpsest include:
 On the Equilibrium of Planes
 On Spirals
 Measurement of a Circle
 On the Sphere and Cylinder
 On Floating Bodies
 The Method of Mechanical Theorems
 Stomachion
 Speeches by the 4th century BC politician Hypereides
 A commentary on Aristotle's Categories
 Other works

Legacy

Sometimes called the father of mathematics and mathematical physics, Archimedes had a wide influence on mathematics and science.

Mathematics and physics

Historians of science and mathematics almost universally agree that Archimedes was the finest mathematician from antiquity. Eric Temple Bell, for instance, wrote:

Likewise, Alfred North Whitehead and George F. Simmons said of Archimedes:

Reviel Netz, Suppes Professor in Greek Mathematics and Astronomy at Stanford University and an expert in Archimedes notes:

Leonardo da Vinci repeatedly expressed admiration for Archimedes, and attributed his invention Architonnerre to Archimedes. Galileo called him "superhuman" and "my master", while Huygens said, "I think Archimedes is comparable to no one", consciously emulating him in his early work. Leibniz said, "He who understands Archimedes and Apollonius will admire less the achievements of the foremost men of later times". Gauss's heroes were Archimedes and Newton, and Moritz Cantor, who studied under Gauss in the University of Göttingen, reported that he once remarked in conversation that "there had been only three epoch-making mathematicians: Archimedes, Newton, and Eisenstein".

The inventor Nikola Tesla praised him, saying:

Honors and commemorations

There is a crater on the Moon named Archimedes () in his honor, as well as a lunar mountain range, the Montes Archimedes ().

The Fields Medal for outstanding achievement in mathematics carries a portrait of Archimedes, along with a carving illustrating his proof on the sphere and the cylinder. The inscription around the head of Archimedes is a quote attributed to 1st century AD poet Manilius, which reads in Latin: Transire suum pectus mundoque potiri ("Rise above oneself and grasp the world").

Archimedes has appeared on postage stamps issued by East Germany (1973), Greece (1983), Italy (1983), Nicaragua (1971), San Marino (1982), and Spain (1963).

The exclamation of Eureka! attributed to Archimedes is the state motto of California. In this instance, the word refers to the discovery of gold near Sutter's Mill in 1848 which sparked the California Gold Rush.

See also

Concepts
 Arbelos
 Archimedean point
 Archimedes' axiom
 Archimedes number
 Archimedes paradox
 Archimedean solid
 Archimedes' twin circles
 Methods of computing square roots
 Salinon
 Steam cannon
 Trammel of Archimedes

People
 Diocles
 Pseudo-Archimedes
 Zhang Heng

References

Notes

Citations

Further reading

Boyer, Carl Benjamin. 1991. A History of Mathematics. New York: Wiley. .
Clagett, Marshall. 1964–1984. Archimedes in the Middle Ages 1–5. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
Dijksterhuis, Eduard J. [1938] 1987. Archimedes, translated. Princeton: Princeton University Press. .
Gow, Mary. 2005. Archimedes: Mathematical Genius of the Ancient World. Enslow Publishing. .
Hasan, Heather. 2005. Archimedes: The Father of Mathematics. Rosen Central. .
Heath, Thomas L. 1897. Works of Archimedes. Dover Publications. . Complete works of Archimedes in English.
Netz, Reviel, and William Noel. 2007. The Archimedes Codex. Orion Publishing Group. .
Pickover, Clifford A. 2008. Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them. Oxford University Press. .
Simms, Dennis L. 1995. Archimedes the Engineer. Continuum International Publishing Group. .
Stein, Sherman. 1999. Archimedes: What Did He Do Besides Cry Eureka?. Mathematical Association of America. .

External links

Heiberg's Edition of Archimedes. Texts in Classical Greek, with some in English.

 The Archimedes Palimpsest project at The Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland

 Testing the Archimedes steam cannon

3rd-century BC Greek people
3rd-century BC writers
People from Syracuse, Sicily
Ancient Greek engineers
Ancient Greek inventors
Ancient Greek geometers
Ancient Greek physicists
Hellenistic-era philosophers
Doric Greek writers
Sicilian Greeks
Mathematicians from Sicily
Scientists from Sicily
Ancient Greeks who were murdered
Ancient Syracusans
Fluid dynamicists
Buoyancy
280s BC births
210s BC deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Year of death uncertain
3rd-century BC mathematicians
3rd-century BC Syracusans

Archimedes


Hite Brewery Company Limited (; ; ) is a South Korean brewery company headquartered in Yeongdeungpo-gu, Seoul. Its main products are beer, rice wine, and mineral water.

History
The company was established as Nippon Beer Chosun Co. in 1933 by Dainippon Brewery (Sapporo Breweries). After 1945, Dainippon Brewery property was confiscated by the Korean authorities and became Crown Beer. In 2001 the company had three factories, and in 2002 its market share of the domestic beer market was some 55%, up from 30% in 1992.

In 2006, the company acquired Jinro, the popular South Korean soju company. Among the two companies, Jinro was founded in 1924 as Jincheon Brewing Company in Yonggang-gun, South Pyongan Province. In 1953, the company moved to its current location in Singil-dong, Yeongdeung-gu, Seoul, and changed its name to Seongjo, Cheongnyo in 1954, Jinro in 1966, and Jinro in 1975. In 1980, it won gold prizes in six categories of the 11th International Mainstream Congress (IWSC) and eight categories of the 18th Monde Selection. It released cham Chamisul in 1998, and sold 10 billion bottles in 2006.

Hite Beer was founded in 1933 as Chosun Beer Corporation in Yeongdeung-eup, Siheung-gun, Gyeonggi-do. It was the first Korean beer export in 1962. It introduced Hite in 1993 and changed its name to Hite in 1998. In 2002, it sold 10 billion bottles of Hite beer.

The two companies launched the Hite Jinro Group in 2005. In 2007, the company consolidated its export sector to form an overseas business headquarters and established a local corporation in China. In 2008, the holding company was designated Hite Holdings and the business company as Hite Brewery, and in 2011, it was launched as the current Hite Jinro Corporation

Sponsorships
The company sponsored a StarCraft professional team named Hite Entus.  On May 4, 2011, it was announced that the contract between Hite and Entus had expired, and was not renewed.  The team announced their return to the name CJ Entus.

Hite Brewery sponsored a soccer team, the POSCO Atoms, in the 1990s.

Brands and products
Hite ()
The top-selling beer in South Korea. Hite lager is sweet and golden, with thin body and minimal head. It is styled upon American rice lagers such as Budweiser. It is brewed from barley malt and rice. Along with OB and Cass, Hite is often found on draft in South Korean bars and pubs. Most drinkers consider the draft versions of Hite, Oriental Brewery and Cass to be more or less interchangeable in price and taste, as most South Korean beers are brewed from rice. 4.3% ABV.
Prime Max ()
The third most popular beer in South Korea. Prime Max is one of only two South Korean beers brewed with 100% malted barley, and it is therefore slightly more expensive than regular Hite. It has a more complex, wheaty flavour. 4.5% ABV.
Hite Stout ()
Based on Original Guinness (not to be confused with the creamy Draft Guinness), although it is much sweeter. Hite Stout is a dark bitter beer. It has lost popularity and market share in recent years. 4.5% ABV.
Exfeel S ()
S is a light beer targeted at young drinkers and it contains 0.5g of fiber per 100ml. 4.0% ABV.
Seok Su & Puriss Water ()
Purified water by Hite-Jinro Corp.
Hite d dry finish
Dry finish is made using a select dry yeast. 5% ABV.
Hite Soju ()
A brand of soju with a relatively low market share. Not to be confused with White Soju (화이트 소주).

See also
Korean beer
Korean cuisine
Beer

References

External links
hite.com Homepage (in Korean)

Beer in South Korea
Drink companies of South Korea
South Korean brands
Food and drink companies established in 1933
Companies listed on the Korea Exchange
Manufacturing companies based in Seoul
1933 establishments in Korea

Hite Brewery


The Boys Didn't Wear Hair Gel Before (Spanish:Los muchachos de antes no usaban gomina) is a 1937 Argentine historical drama film directed and written by Manuel Romero and starring Florencio Parravicini, Mecha Ortiz and Santiago Arrieta.

Plot
The aristocratic Alberto Rosales (Arrieta) falls in love with the blond tango dancer Rubia Mireya (Ortiz) leaving his fiancée (Córdoba). His father convinces him to give her up and return to his respectable fiancée. Ten years later Alberto and Rubia meet again at a charitable event organized by his wife. He wants to rekindle the romance, but when his two children burst on to the scene, she leaves without a word. Though she still cares for him, she will not allow his children to become fatherless.

Cast
 Florencio Parravicini as 	Ponce - Mocho
 Mecha Ortiz as La Rubia Mireya
 Santiago Arrieta	 as	Alberto
 Irma Córdoba	 as	Camila Peña
 Martín Zabalúa	 as	Carlos Rosales
 Niní Gambier	         as	Inés Rosales
 Alfonso Pisano	 as	Euclides García Fuentes
 Mary Parets as	Lucy Rosales
 Pedro Laxalt as	Jorge Rosales
 Aurelia Musto	 as	Sra.Rosales
 Hugo del Carril	 as	El cantor
 María Vitaliani	 as	Sra. Peña
 Amalia Bernabé	 as	Amiga de Camila
 Fernando Borel	  as Jorge Newbery
 Eduardo de Labar	 as Hansen
 Homero Cárpena	 as Guapo Salinas
 Malisa Zini	 as Amiga de Camila
 Isabel Figlioli	 as Mujer del cabaret
 Jorge Lanza    	 as Amigo de Rivera
 Carlos Enríquez	 as	Vendedor de globos
 Osvaldo Miranda	 as 	Amigo de los Rosales
 Roberto Blanco

Reception
The film's title alludes nostalgically to the past, referring to an era before young men began wearing hair gel which was commonplace by the mid-1930s. It was a popular success, one of the major hits of the Golden Age of Argentine Cinema. It marked the film debut of the actor and singer Hugo del Carril who quickly went on to become a leading star. The film was remade in 1969.

References

Bibliography
 Rist, Peter H. Historical Dictionary of South American Cinema. Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.

External links

1937 films
1930s historical drama films
Argentine historical drama films
1930s Spanish-language films
Argentine black-and-white films
Films directed by Manuel Romero
Films set in Buenos Aires
1937 drama films
1930s Argentine films

The Boys Didn't Wear Hair Gel Before


Kaljaja is an archaeological site, which is located in Teneš Do on the hill Kaljaja (municipality of Pristina) in Kosovo.

Remains of fortress walls and buildings were uncovered at the site. Remains of bricks were also found. Based on the traces found on the slope hill Kaljaj it is assumed that the village was burnt. Fragments of ceramics were discovered. Slag heap led to a conclusion that the ore was processed on the site. The site is rated as a cultural heritage since 1 March 1986, and is under protection of Republic of Serbia.

References

Archaeological sites in Serbia

Kaljaja (Teneš Do)


Analytical technique is a method used to determine a chemical or physical property of a chemical substance, chemical element, or mixture. There is a wide variety of techniques used for analysis, from simple weighing to advanced techniques using highly specialized instrumentation.

Classical methods of analysis
Classical analysis methods involve basic analytical methods widely used in laboratories. Gravimetric analysis measures the weight of the sample. Titrimetry is a family of techniques used to determine the concentration of an analyte.

Spectrochemical analysis
Spectrometer can determine chemical composition through its measure of spectrums. The common spectrometer used in analytical chemistry is Mass spectrometry. In a mass spectrometer, a small amount of sample is ionized and converted to gaseous ions, where they are separated and analyzed according to their mass-to-charge ratios.

NMR Spectroscopy involves exciting a NMR-active sample and then measuring the effects of this magnetic excitation. From this, the bonds present in a sample can be determined.

Electroanalytical analysis
Electroanalytical methods utilize the potential or current of a electrochemical cell. The three main sections of this type of analysis are potentiometry, coulometry and voltammetry. Potentiometry measures the cell's potential, coulometry measures the cell's current, and voltammetry measures the change in current when cell potential changes.

Chromatography
Chromatography separates the analyte from the rest of the sample so that it may be measured without interference from other compounds. There are different types of chromatography that differ from the media they use to separate the analyte and the sample. In Thin-layer chromatography, the analyte mixture moves up and separates along the coated sheet under the volatile mobile phase. In Gas chromatography, gas separates the volatile analytes. A common method for chromatography using liquid as a mobile phase is High-performance liquid chromatography.

See also
 List of chemical analysis methods
 List of materials analysis methods
 Microanalysis
 Ion beam analysis
 Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy
 Nuclear reaction analysis
 Clinical chemistry
 Radioanalytical chemistry
 Calorimeter

References

Analytical chemistry

Analytical technique


The Upper Room were a rock band based in Brighton, England. Sony Records were brought to the band's studio via mutual friends and they were signed in time for their first single, "All Over This Town", in summer 2004. The single's 2006 video featured actress Kate Sissons, who also appears in the video for their second major single release, "Black and White" (in April 2006). The band's only album Other People's Problems was released in May 2006. It was recorded in Dairy Studios, Brixton, with Paul Schroeder, who previously worked with The Stone Roses.

Initially they toured the UK with Hope of the States, The Electric Soft Parade, Bell X1, Longview, El Presidente and Rooster amongst others. In 2006 they headlined a 15-date tour of the UK between 24 April and 19 May, and were also booked for the Isle of Wight and V Festivals.

Front man Alex Miller posted a MySpace bulletin on 15 November 2006 announcing the band's split. It read:

"...as there is quite a lot of misinformation going around at the moment, I am writing this message to clear up a few things.  People have been guessing (and guessing wrongly) what the next move will be for the band and its members.  I've had a great time over the last couple of years in The Upper Room and I will always remain good friends with Jim, Jon and Beau.  However, after recently splitting from our record label I feel it is time for me to move on."

In January 2008, Alexander Miller announced the birth of his new band: Voxpop. (www.myspace.com/voxpoplondon)

Discography

Albums
2006: Other People's Problems - UK #50

Singles

External links
MySpace

English rock music groups
Musical groups from Brighton and Hove

The Upper Room (band)


John Jeremiah Bigsby (14 August 1792 – 10 February 1881), M.D., F.R.S, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., was an English physician who became known for his work on geology, an interest developed while on military service in Lower and Upper Canada, 1818-1826. He was a member of the American Philosophical Society (elected in 1825). Before moving to London, he was Alderman and Mayor of Newark-upon-Trent, 1827–1830. In 1850, he published a lively book recounting his life and travels in British North America, The Shoe and Canoe. In 1868, he published his most important scientific work, Thesaurus Siluricus, being a list of all the fossils which occur in the Silurian formation across the world. He contributed about twenty seven papers to various scientific societies in London. He published Thesaurus Devonico-Carboniferus but died shortly before completing Thesaurus Permianus. In 1874, he was awarded the Murchison Medal. In 1876, he endowed the Bigsby Medal.

Early career

Born 1792 at Nottingham, he was the eldest son of John Bigsby (1760–1844) M.D., F.R.C.P., of Clareborough Cottage, East Retford, Nottinghamshire, and Mary (d.1821), only daughter of John Chamberlin (d.1815), J.P., of Red Hill, High Sheriff of Nottinghamshire. His brother, Thomas, lived at Retford and married a daughter of Colonel John Kirke (1777–1826), J.P., of Markham Hall and Retford. His second brother, Charles, graduated from Trinity College, Cambridge, and became a clergyman. Bigsby Road in Retford is named for his family.

Like his father, John Jeremiah Bigsby was educated at Edinburgh University where he took the degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1814. That year he published his thesis and became a physician at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh. In 1816, he joined the British Army as an assistant surgeon and was stationed at the Cape of Good Hope in 1817. The following year, he was appointed medical officer to a German Rifle Regiment in the English service and posted with them to British North America. He was stationed at Quebec City but was sent to Hawkesbury in Upper Canada to treat a typhus epidemic among Irish immigrants.

Geology

He developed a great interest in geology  and was commissioned in 1819 to report on the geology of Upper Canada. He was the first person to investigate and describe the Oak Ridges Moraine.

In 1822 he was appointed British secretary and medical officer to the Boundary Commission, and for several years he made extensive and important geological researches, contributing papers to the American Journal of Science and other scientific journals; and later embodying an account of his travels in a book entitled The Shoe and Canoe (1850).

Returning to England in 1827 he practised medicine at Newark-on-Trent until 1846 when he removed to London, where he remained until the end of his life. He now took an active interest in the Geological Society of London, of which he had been elected a fellow in 1823. In 1869 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1874 he was awarded the Murchison Medal by the council of the Geological Society of London. During the last twenty years of his long life he was continually at work preparing, after the most painstaking research, tabulated lists of the fossils of the Palaeozoic rocks. His Thesaurus Siluricus was published with the aid of the Royal Society in 1868; and the Thesaurus Devonico-Carboniferus in 1878. In 1877 he founded the Bigsby Medal to be awarded by the Geological Society of London, with the stipulation that the receiver should not be more than forty-five years old. He died in London on 10 February 1881.

References

Attribution

External links
Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online

1792 births
1881 deaths
People from Nottingham
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
English geologists
Canadian geologists
English surveyors
19th-century English medical doctors
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Geological Society of London

John Jeremiah Bigsby


Benjamin James Pearsall (1 December 1878 – 18 January 1951) was an Australian politician. He was born in Rokeby, Tasmania, then known as Clarence Plains. In 1928 he was elected to the Tasmanian House of Assembly as an Independent member for Franklin. He was defeated in 1931 but re-elected in 1934, being defeated for a second time in 1937. His son Thomas and grandson Geoff later served as Liberal members of the House, with Thomas also serving in the Australian House of Representatives.

References

1878 births
1951 deaths
Independent members of the Parliament of Tasmania
Members of the Tasmanian House of Assembly

Benjamin Pearsall


Lu Chen (Simplified Chinese: 陈露, Traditional Chinese: 陳露, Chen Lu in Chinese) (born November 24, 1976, in Changchun) is a Chinese figure skater. She was world champion in 1995.

Chen's mother played table tennis and her father coached ice hockey. She started skating at the age of five in Jilin, and also took ballet dancing. She won the bronze medal at the world junior championship in 1992, and came third at the world senior championships the same year, at the age of 16.

Her nickname is "Lulu," and she is also known as "Butterfly on Ice." She is admired for her artistic ability.

Chen skated for the professional show Stars on Ice for two years. Now she runs an ice skating club in Shenzhen. This club is named after her.

 World Championships: 1991 – 12th, 1992 – 3rd, 1993 – 3rd, 1995 – 1st, 1996 – 2nd
 Olympics: 1992 – 6th, 1994 – 3rd, 1998 – 3rd
 Chinese National Figure Skating Competition: first from 1990 to 1995

Source
 Figure Skating: A Celebration by Beverly Smith

1976 births
Living people
Chinese sportspeople
Figure skaters
People from Jilin

Lu Chen


Thorvald Ásvaldsson ( ; Modern Icelandic:  ;  10th century; died before 980) was the father of the first Norse settler of Greenland, Erik the Red, and grandfather of Leif Erikson, who visited North America centuries before Christopher Columbus. Thorvald's father was Ásvald Ulfsson, whose father was Ulf Oxen-Thorisson, whose father was Oxen-Thorir, brother of Naddodd, discoverer of Iceland.

Thorvald Ásvaldsson was born in Norway. He fathered Erik the Red with a woman whose name is unknown. He was exiled from Norway in , during the reign of King Haakon the Good (son of Harald Fairhair), "because of some killings." He left with his son Erik to northwest Iceland, where he died before 980. According to the "Grænlendinga Saga" (Saga of the Greenlanders), "There was a man called Thorvald, who was the father of Eirik the Red. He and Eirik left their home in Jaederen, in Norway, because of some killings and went to Iceland, which had been extensively settled by then;"

References

Thrapp, Dan L. Encyclopedia of Frontier Biography: In Three Volumes. University of Nebraska Press. 1991. p 456.

Viking explorers
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
10th-century deaths
10th-century Vikings

Thorvald Asvaldsson


Karl Frederick of Anhalt-Bernburg (13 July 1668 – 22 April 1721) was a German prince of the House of Ascania and ruler of the principality of Anhalt-Bernburg.

He was born in Bernburg, the eldest son of Victor Amadeus, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg, by his wife Elizabeth of Palatinate-Zweibrücken, daughter of Frederick, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken.

Life
After the death of his father in 1718, the fifty-year-old Karl Frederick inherited Anhalt-Bernburg. His reign, which lasted only two years until his death, was unremarkable.

Marriages and Issue
In Bernburg on 25 June 1692 Karl Frederick married his cousin Sophie Albertine (b. Sonnenwalde, 2 October 1672 - d. Bernburg, 12 June 1708), daughter of George Frederick, Count of Solms-Sonnenwalde, by his wife Anna Sophia of Anhalt-Bernburg (sister of his father Victor Amadeus, and daughter of Christian II, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg). They had six children:
 Elisabeth Albertine (b. Bernburg, 31 March 1693 - d. Arnstadt, 7 July 1774), married on 2 October 1712 to Günther XLIII, Prince of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen.
 Frederick William (b. Bernburg, 3 September 1694 - d. Bernburg, 28 December 1694).
 Charlotte Sophie (b. Bernburg, 21 May 1696 - d. Sondershausen, 22 July 1762), married on 19 July 1721 to Augustus I Günther, Prince of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen-Ebeleben.
 Auguste Wilhelmine (b. Bernburg, 3 November 1697 - d. Harzgerode, 22 June 1767).
 Victor Frederick, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg (b. Bernburg, 20 September 1700 - d. Bernburg, 18 May 1765).
 Frederica Henriette (b. Bernburg, 24 November 1702 - d. Köthen, 4 April 1723), married on 11 December 1721 to Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen.

From 1711 Karl Frederick began to live with Wilhelmine Charlotte Nüssler (b. Harzgerode, 10 May 1683 - d. Gernrode, 30 May 1740), the daughter of a non-noble chancery counselor. They had two sons:
 Frederick ["Imperial Count of Bährnfeld" from 12 June 1723] (b. Harzgerode, 13 March 1712 - d. Gernrode, 8 September 1758). Born illegitimate, he was legitimized after the wedding of their parents.
 Karl Leopold ["Imperial Count of Bährnfeld" since 12 June 1723] (b. Plötzkau, 1 July 1717 - d. Kassel, 3 October 1769).

Karl Frederick and Wilhelmine Charlotte married secretly in Bernburg on 1 May 1715 and Karl Frederick immediately tried to have his wife raised to the rank of countess by the Emperor. When Prince Victor Amadeus learned of his son's actions, he wrote to the Emperor on 15 November 1715 to prevent the elevation, and added a codicil to his testament dated 13 July 1716 denying the children of the union any succession rights. The Emperor approved this codicil one year later, on 15 July 1717.

The Emperor also sent a rescript to Karl Frederick dated 20 August 1717 instructing him not to call his wife princess or their sons princes. Nevertheless, after his father died in 1718, Karl Frederick obtained from the Emperor a patent to elevate his wife to the title Countess of Ballenstedt (German: Gräfin von Ballenstedt) on 19 December 1719, and their two sons to the rank of Imperial Counts of Bährnfeld (German: Reichsgrafen von Bährnfeld) on 12 June 1723; this, however, without prejudice of the rights of the agnates. Karl Frederick died in Ballenstedt, and in 1722, the Reichshofrat forbade his widow to use the princely title for herself or her sons.

However, on 16 November 1742, the Emperor Charles VII raised the Counts of Bährenfeld to the rank of Princes of Anhalt-Bernburg with all rights of succession. Victor I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym, protested, but the Emperor died in 1745. The Prince brought up the matter to the College of Electors gathered in 1745, but they declined to take up the matter in the electoral capitulation. He then brought the matter to the Reichshofrat, which ruled on 6 May 1748 by repealing the diploma of 1742 and forbidding the Counts of Bährenfeld from calling themselves Princes of Bernburg or Princes of Anhalt-Bernburg, and allowing them only to call themselves Princes of Bährenfeld. They died unmarried.

References

 Morganatic and Unequal Marriages in German Law
 {{|date=August 2012}}
 Genealogical database by Herbert Stoyan

1668 births
1721 deaths
People from Bernburg
People from Anhalt-Bernburg
House of Ascania
Princes of Anhalt-Bernburg
Burials at Schlosskirche St. Aegidien (Bernburg)

Karl Frederick, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg


Hidden Talent is a British television series broadcast on Channel 4. It is presented by Richard Bacon and features members of the public demonstrating specific skills. Each week ordinary members of the public take tests in certain fields or skills to identify any previously unidentified talent, and those that test highest in each area are trained by experts to maximise their potential in that skill. 900 people applied and were tested for the show.

Episode 1
Air date: 24 April 2012

Maggie Reenan, 45, a nurse and grandmother, is found to have a talent for rock climbing. She climbs the 200 ft Old Man of Stoer, a sea stack which can only be reached by swimming or a Tyrolean traverse across the sea. Meanwhile, Brenda Chamberlain, 63, a former bridal boutique owner, has the highest test results in lie detection, with an 80% success rate. After a two-day course in interrogation techniques run by former FBI agents in America, she detects which one of five people is not telling the truth, despite each being adept at lying.

Episode 2
Air date: 1 May 2012

Roxanne Messenger, 28, an art director at an advertising agency, is selected to master the skill of freediving. Trainer Emma Farrell tested the 900 applicants on their natural abilities to equalize the pressure in their ears and to hold their breath while walking and maintaining a normal heart-rate. Messenger was then sent to Egypt to train under free-diving instructor Marco Nones. Meanwhile, tractor factory worker Lee Yenson, who had no formal art training, was chosen to learn how to identify forged masterpieces. He tests extremely well in the area of aesthetic appreciation, and is trained by Professor Matthew Kieran. In his final test he is asked to identify a genuine Monet from a room of fakes, some of which were painted by famous forger John Myatt.

Episode 3
Air date: 8 May 2012

A homeless 19-year-old, James Whinnery from Birmingham, learns the Arabic language in 19 weeks. Whinnery has been living in a homeless shelter since an argument with his mother, and has failed to complete his A-Level exams. However, after a test involving working in a Turkish-speaking restaurant for a day after only a day's training in the language, he is identified as having a natural ability to learn foreign languages. His training includes learning 100 new Arabic words per day as well as a new alphabet, driving around London using an Arabic satellite navigation system, and ordering in an Arabic restaurant. He then travels to Jordan, where he is interviewed on Jordanian breakfast television.

Episode 4
Air date: 15 May 2012

Adele Reah, 26, a science teacher, is chosen by neuroscientist Dr Hugo Spiers from 500 people for her natural ability to navigate in the wilderness without a map or compass. Despite ambitions in her earlier life to join the RAF, Reah had been rejected both from a flight career and a navigation career on the grounds that her arms were too short, and so missed out on a career where her natural ability would have been particularly useful. Meanwhile, Jayson Khun-Dkar, a 34-year-old charity contracts manager, is selected by musical director Stuart Barr as having the potential to become an opera singer. He trains for five months to become a baritone, taking singing lessons and learning Italian, in order to audition for a production of La Boheme.

Episode 5
Air date: 22 May 2012

Cassie Gledhill, a 27-year-old track cyclist, is found to have the highest test scores ever seen by tester Professor David Strayer in the area of multitasking. Over three days she undertakes an intensive course in ambulance dispatching, a course that usually takes three weeks to complete. She must then co-ordinate emergency calls and ambulance crews on a busy Friday night in Birmingham. Meanwhile, three people are selected as having an exceptional ability for facial recognition. They are taken to Liverpool Street Station, where they must memorise the faces of 15 identically-dressed actors amongst the crowds. They then have to pick them out from an identity parade afterwards.

Critical reception
Hidden Talent received mixed reviews. Zoe Williams in The Guardian praised its premise, saying: "I think Hidden Talent (Channel 4) may turn out to be a rare – possibly unique – instance in which a programme started out as a high concept in a meeting room, and then ended up being much much better than the idea." and "...there is in human nature this unshakeable joy in watching other people be good at things." She also praised presenter Richard Bacon, who she says is: "quietly charismatic, with his solemn manners, salt-and-pepper hair and whatever the opposite is of a poker face." However, Ceri Radford in The Daily Telegraph found it uncomfortable that the show had been "'inspired' by, rather than simply 'sponsored by', an international credit card firm." She also criticised its predictable format, admitting "...a certain weary sense of inevitability. It was justified: within eight minutes, one of the contenders was weeping with the emotion of it all, within nine, there was a dragging, manufactured attempt at suspense as the unlucky were eliminated, and within 11, there was the usual desultory home visit to misty-eyed relatives."

References

External links

2012 British television series debuts
2012 British television series endings
Channel 4 original programming
British reality television series
Television series by Sony Pictures Television

Hidden Talent


116 Hospital Street (also 116 and 118 Hospital Street) is a substantial townhouse in Nantwich, Cheshire, England, located on the south side of Hospital Street (at ). It is listed at grade II. The present building, of Georgian appearance, incorporates an earlier timber-framed house, which probably dates in part from the 15th century. Local historian Jane Stevenson calls it "the most interesting house in Hospital Street", and considers it might be "the oldest surviving residence in Nantwich."

Number 116 is one of a group of houses dating originally from the 15th and 16th centuries at the end of Hospital Street, which include Churche's Mansion, numbers 140–142 and The Rookery (number 125). These buildings survived the fire of 1583, which destroyed the town end of Hospital Street together with much of the centre of Nantwich. Number 116 is believed to stand near the site of the medieval Hospital of St Nicholas, which gives Hospital Street its name.

Description
Number 116 is a large two-storey building with painted cement rendering under a tiled roof. The Hospital Street façade has two shallow projecting end wings with hip ends projecting from the main roof. The central entrance is flanked by wooden columns and has a semicircular fanlight with a pediment above. There are four casement windows to both ground and first floors, which date from the late 19th century. When the building was listed in 1974, there was an additional doorway in the left-hand (east) wing, which was blocked in the early 21st century. The façade is of Georgian appearance; English Heritage dates it as early 18th century although "much altered", while local historian Jeremy Lake considers it to be late Georgian.

The existing building incorporates a much earlier timber-framed structure on a medieval plan, with a central hall and flanking wings. The parlour wing has been dated by Lake as probably late 15th century. This date would place it among the earliest remaining buildings in Nantwich, apart from the 14th-century parish church, and Stevenson considers it might be the oldest residential building in the town. The hall and service block, which date from the mid-to-late 17th century, probably replace earlier structures.

The interior of the parlour wing contains old chimneys and sandstone fireplaces of 15th-century design. The fireplace in the south chamber of the parlour wing is particularly fine, according to Lake. There is an intact roof truss, and the main roof timbers meet vertically underneath the roof purlin, which Lake considers characteristic of Cheshire timber framing of the 15th century. Traces of internal decoration survive, with red ochre on the roof timbers contrasting with white limewash on the wattle and daub panels of the roof truss.

See also
Listed buildings in Nantwich

References

Sources
Hall J. A History of the Town and Parish of Nantwich, or Wich Malbank, in the County Palatine of Chester (2nd edn) (E. J. Morten; 1972) ()
Lake J. The Great Fire of Nantwich (Shiva Publishing; 1983) ()
Stevenson P. J. Nantwich: A Brief History and Guide (1994)

Houses completed in the 15th century
Grade II listed buildings in Cheshire
Houses in Nantwich
Timber framed buildings in Cheshire
Grade II listed houses

116 Hospital Street, Nantwich


A machine-readable passport is a passport that has information that can be read by a machine. Usually, this information is stored in one or two lines, which encode some of the information in machine readable form. The information is then extracted using optical character recognition. Usually, this is the given names, family name, date of birth, sex, and validity of the travel document. Machine-readable passports (or machine-readable travel documents) have been used since the 1980s. Today, most passports, and travel documents are machine readable.

Newer machine-readable passports also store some extra information (such as biometrical data, like a fingerprint) on a microchip.

The basic idea behind the introduction of machine-readable travel documents was to speed up passport control at the borders.

Identification documents

Machine-readable passport


The Nessos Painter, also known as Netos or Nettos Painter, was a pioneer of Attic black-figure vase painting.  He is considered to be the first Athenian to adopt the Corinthian style who went on to develop his own style and introduced innovations. The Nessos Painter is often known to be one of the original painters of black-figure. He only worked in this style, which is shown on his name vase in the National Archaeological Museum in Athens. Most of the known Nessos Painter ceramics were found in funerary settings such as cemeteries and mortuaries.

Name vase
On the neck of an amphora in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, the painter depicted Nessos fighting Heracles. The figure is also marked with the name 'Netos', the Attic dialect form of the name Nessos. John D. Beazley, the authority on Attic vase painting, attributed the name 'The Nessos Painter' to this artist. Later, after new finds in Athens and in a cemetery outside the city, paintings of chimera were identified with this painter and Beazley subsequently tried to use the name 'Chimera Painter,' but it failed to find general acceptance. Although many Greek sculptors signed their work on sculpted friezes, pot painters did not often sign their work, remaining unknown until historians such as Beazley produced modern names.

Style and themes

Many of the artist's known works feature characters from Greek myths and legends. On the neck of a Middle Protoattic vase from the 7th century BCE, located in National Archaeological Museum of Athens, the painter depicted Nessos fighting Heracles. In this depiction Heracles is moving from left to right, opposite the direction that a victor would take, prompting the belief that most of the Nessos Painter vessels are found in funerary settings.  The painter's early works are reminiscent of the proto-Corinthianstyle, using space-filling ornamentation like that of the Berlin Painter. The 'Nessos' vase shows the artist establishing a style distinct from the Corinthian style, which at this stage (late 7th century BCE) was marked by clear clay fields and contour drawing. The ornamentation and contour drawing was the critical distinction of the new black-figure style. Most of his work falls in the last quarter of the 7th century, during the transition from the proto-Corinthian to Corinthian. During this time he did not completely abandon contour drawing, but by using two or more etched lines he introduced a new sharpness and suggestion of form - most particularly with curls, feathers and spring designs.

The Nessos Painter also utilized the black-figure style along with artists such as Exekias, and Sophilos. This style may have  contributed towards Athenian realism. Black-figure style originated in Corinth, but became very popular among Athenians. Athenian realism may also have begun with black-figure painting. The painting on the Nessos Painter's name vase uses emotions portrayed through the story of Heracles killing Nessos.
According to Martin Robertson, The Nessos Painter is considered by historians to be the essential link between classical Attic vase painting and the new Corinthian style, which uses animal motifs and mythological figures and scenes. It is sparing in its use of white opaque, but often uses red pigment to intensify the red color of the clay. It is theorized by John Boardman that Egyptian figure painting may have influenced the Nessos Painter and his contemporaries, as the Egyptians used white to signify that a face belonged to a female and red to indicate that it belonged to a male. H.H. Scullard argues that Greece did not produce black-figure pottery, contributing to the demand of imported vessels in a style that has become popular among citizens that have traveled to Athens. Neither was Greece known for producing pottery that focused on religious subject matter, making Athens and artists such as the Nessos Painter even more popular among foreign travelers.

Myths of Heracles originated with the Etruscans who were fascinated by the demigod and stories of his travels to the underworld and ascent to Mount Olympus to live with the gods after his death. The myth portrayed on the vessel shows Heracles trying to rescue Deianira from the centaur Nessos whom he shoots with his arrow. The story involves Deianira and Heracles summoning the centaur Nessos to cross the river Evenus in order to escape Oineus who was upset about his murdered nephew. Heracles crosses the river first, leaving Deianira with Nessos who attempts to rape her. Heracles, being so far away can only use his bow and arrow to shoot Nessos. While Nessos lays dying, he offers Deianira some of his blood to use as a love potion for Heracles. Unbeknownst to her, his blood is poisonous. Eventually, Deianira, jealous of Heracles's many sexual conquests, smears Nessos's blood on Heracles's cloak, burning his skin, driving him mad, and killing him. The vessel also has a depiction of Deianira riding away in a chariot with four horses, a scene that occurs after Heracles has saved Deianira and returns to strike the centaur once more to make sure he is dead. This myth was so popular with the Etruscans that they ended up purchasing many vessels depicting the scene.

Another distinctive feature of the Nessos Painter was the scale of some of his work, which reached over a meter in height.

Examples of work

In the name vase amphora depicting Nessos fighting Heracles,  the painter utilizes iconography such as a depiction of Heracles with a mustache. This differs from artwork that typically shows Heracles with a beard and his usual attire of a lion skin cloak and lion mask. The names of both Nessos and Heracles are written above them, indicating that either the artist or someone in his workshop was literate. The rest of the scenery features symbols typical for late rosettes. Scholars have noted that the scene may have been depicted under water due to symbols featured above the image - ducks, zig zags, and spirals. The vase's artwork puts an emphasis on Heracles and does not feature Deianira in the center, something that historians such as R.M. Linders believed was done to emphasize Heracles slaying the centaur Nessos. Another rare example of his works would include Attic black-figure Neck Amphora Fragment, discovered in Attica, Greece in about 620 BCE.

References

7th-century BC deaths
Ancient Greek vase painters
Anonymous artists of antiquity
People from Attica
Year of birth unknown

Nessos Painter


Thomas Verity (1837–1891) was an English theatre architect during the theatre building boom of 1885–1915.

Verity began his career articled in the architecture department of the War Office, assisting in the erection of the South Kensington Museum. He further assisted in the building of the Royal Albert Hall between 1867–70.

In 1870, he won an open competition to build the Criterion Theatre and Criterion Restaurant for caterers Spiers and Pond founding his own architectural practice.  Other London theatres for which he was engaged included the Royalty Theatre, the Novelty Theatre, the Folly Theatre, the Scala Theatre, and the Comedy Theatre.  In 1878, he was appointed consulting architect to the Lord Chamberlain's office. Initially, this was in partnership with G. H. Hunt, but later with his son, Frank Verity, who received his training in his father's firm.

Both Veritys bought an interest in ornate Second Empire-style architecture to their early buildings, developing this into grand Beaux Arts in their later works. Many of the surviving buildings have achieved recognition in the late 20th century, becoming listed for their architectural significance.

Frank Verity continued the practice, on his father's death, and Sam Beverley, his son-in-law, joined the practice in the 1920s, which remains active today. The company designed many cinemas achieving a Royal Institute of British Architects bronze medal for the Shepherd's Bush Pavilion cinema in 1930.

The Pavilion with its famous Long Room at Lord's Cricket Ground was built in 1889–90 to his designs. This historic landmark - a Grade II*-listed building - underwent an £8 million refurbishment programme in 2004–05.

References

Further reading

Theatre London: An Architectural Guide, Edwin Heathcote,
Guide to British Theatres 1750-1950, Earl, John and Michael Sell pp. 283–284 (Theatres Trust, 2000)

External links

Verity & Beverley, Architects & Designers

1837 births
1891 deaths
English theatre architects
19th-century English architects
Architects from London

Thomas Verity