Valdoraptor (meaning "Wealden plunderer") is a genus of theropod dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous. Its fossils were found in England. It is known only from bones of the feet. The holotype, BMNH R2559 (incorrectly given by Owen as BMNH R2556), was found near Cuckfield in layers of the Tunbridge Wells Sand Formation dating from the late Valanginian. The specimen is damaged lacking parts of the upper and lower ends. It has a conserved length of  and an estimated length of .  This genus is paleontologically significant for being the first ornithomimosaur specimen known from England and represents the earliest record of ornithomimosaurs.

Discovery

In 1858 Richard Owen referred a fossil consisting of a set of three metatarsals, foot bones, part of the collection of the British Museum of Natural History, to the herbivorous dinosaur genus Hylaeosaurus because of its size and bone texture. Owen had a lithograph made of the bones that gave a mirrored image: although they were in fact from the left foot, it now seemed they were from the right foot.

By 1881 John Whitaker Hulke had recognised that the specimen represented a foot from a carnivorous theropod. In 1888 Richard Lydekker referred the specimen to the theropod species Megalosaurus dunkeri but in 1889 he named a separate species for it because of the more robust build: Megalosaurus oweni. The specific name honours Owen. Lydekker was deceived by the 1858 illustration into thinking that it was the right foot. He also incorrectly assumed it had four metatarsals, a mistake repeated for over a century. Lydekker referred several other foot specimens to the species: BMNH 2574, 2661 and 2680 from the same stratigraphic horizon, and also BMNH R604d and BMNH R1525, uncovered from the earlier Wadhurst Clay Formation in the Hollington Quarry near Hastings.

Classification
Though originally classified as a species of Megalosaurus, in 1923 Friedrich von Huene assigned the species to Altispinax, making the combination Altipsinax oweni. In 1991 George Olshevsky placed the species in a new genus, Valdoraptor, renaming its type species Megalosaurus oweni into Valdoraptor oweni. The generic name is derived from Latin Valdus, "Wealden", referring to the Wealden Group, and raptor, "plunderer".

The species has since been suggested to be identical to either Neovenator or Eotyrannus; it has also been held to be a nomen dubium. However, Darren Naish in 2007 concluded that the specimen showed two unique derived traits or autapomorphies, in that the second metatarsal is both mediolaterally compressed and features a prominent dorsolateral ridge.  These traits imply it is a valid taxon and different from Neovenator and Eotyrannus.

Olshevsky assigned Valdoraptor to the Allosauridae but Naish in 2007 stated that no more precise determination was possible than the more general Tetanurae. A 2014 re-evaluation found that Valdoraptor was likely one of the oldest known ornithomimosaurs, and a possible junior synonym of Thecocoelurus.

See also
 Timeline of ornithomimosaur research

References

Ornithomimosaurs
Early Cretaceous dinosaurs of Europe
Fossil taxa described in 1991
Taxa named by George Olshevsky

Valdoraptor


The Return of Courtney Love is a 2006 documentary film by Will Yapp documenting the progression of musician Courtney Love's second studio album, How Dirty Girls Get Clean, as well as her recovery from drug addiction. The documentary was first broadcast on More4 in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 26 September 2006.

Overview
The documentary begins with director Will Yapp arriving at Courtney Love's rented home in Beverly Hills, California in March 2006 to find her chanting with friends in her living room — a routine, as Love practices Nichiren Buddhism. Love goes on to explain her religious and spiritual experiences.

The next focus of the documentary is Love's ill-fated 2004 solo debut, America's Sweetheart. Co-writer and partial producer, Linda Perry — also a friend of Love's — explains the circumstances surrounding the album's recording, citing Love's drug abuse as the reason for the album's ruin. As well as this, Perry and Love's friend Billy Corgan of The Smashing Pumpkins state that the reason for the album's critical and commercial failure was Love's public image, which at the time was plagued by constant court appearances and an infamous appearance on Pamela Anderson's Comedy Roast.

After Love's recent background is explained, the documentary focuses on the recording of her then-upcoming solo second album, How Dirty Girls Get Clean. As Love and her solo band perform a rehearsal version of the title track, Love explains the album's songs, calling them "all acerbic [...] none of them are tender love songs or very nice. They're all songs about disaster." Love also explains her motivation for the album. Later in the documentary, the focus again switches back to the recording of How Dirty Girls Get Clean with in-studio footage, as well as documenting the song-writing and production process with Linda Perry and Billy Corgan. After three weeks of recording, a fully produced version of "Sunset Marquis" is previewed.

The next segment of the documentary focuses on Love's late husband, Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain, their relationship, and his death. As well as showing never-before-seen private home footage, Love shows the coat that Cobain killed himself in, becoming emotional and saying that "it freaks [her] out." Further explaining their relationship, a clip of Love performing "Pacific Coast Highway" — a song rumoured to be about Cobain — is shown. Further in the documentary, legal issues concerning Love's rights to Nirvana's back catalogue are highlighted, as well as Love's financial state.

Love's other non-musical projects are also showcased at one point in the documentary, specifically her book Dirty Blonde: The Diaries of Courtney Love. At this point, Love also explains her childhood and upbringing, referring to it as "Dickensian." Incidentally, Love's relationship with her daughter, Frances Bean Cobain is also explored. Love then visits her personal mentor, Carrie Fisher, and discuss methods for Love to avoid attention in British tabloids and Love's romantic history.

As the documentary ends, Love talks about her future ambitions and the release of the album.

Previewed music
The Return of Courtney Love'''s highlight is the music previewed throughout the documentary. Rehearsal clips, demo previews and in-studio recording footage showcase the progression of songs later released and provide a unique insight into Love's song-writing process.

Music featured in the documentary includes:
 An acoustic rehearsal version of "How Dirty Girls Get Clean"
 An in-studio recording, a rehearsal version, and a rough studio mix of "Pacific Coast Highway"
 Two rehearsal versions of "Stand Up, Motherfucker"
 A demo preview of an unknown song
 An in-studio recording of "The Depths of My Despair"
 A rough studio mix of "Happy Ending Story"
 An acoustic rehearsal, an in-studio recording, and a rough studio mix of "Sunset Marquis"
 An acoustic rehearsal of an unknown song
 An in-studio recording of "For Once in Your Life"
 A studio recording of "Sad But True" is featured in the United States version.

Four of the featured songs in the documentary appeared on Hole's fourth studio album, Nobody's Daughter, in 2010. Nobody's Daughter — which was the final product of Love's unreleased How Dirty Girls Get Clean — was originally due to be the reworked version of How Dirty Girls Get Clean, however, was rerecorded as a Hole album in 2009.

Reception
Though well-received with Love's fans, Tim Teeman of The Times'' criticised the documentary's content and director, noting that it "wasn't painful viewing for the reasons its subject intended [...] but for the cowed awe of Will Yapp, the film's writer, director and producer. It's one thing to ingratiate oneself with a subject to elicit their secrets, but this was something else. Yapp seemed to want to be Love's friend, not her inquisitor."

References

External links

2006 television films
2006 films
Rockumentaries
2006 documentary films
Courtney Love
Documentary films about women in the United Kingdom
2000s English-language films
2000s British films
British musical documentary films
Documentary films about punk music and musicians

The Return of Courtney Love


Mixed Marriage by St John Greer Ervine was written for the Abbey Theatre, Dublin, where it premiered in 1911.

Synopsis
Set in Belfast, the play follows the Rainey family. As the city's factories come out on strike, John Rainey, the respected head of a Protestant family, acts to calm the sectarian tension being stirred up by politicians for their own ends. He succeeds in uniting his fellow working men against the factory owners. His son Hugh Rainey announces that his wishes to marry the beautiful Nora Murray, a Catholic. John Rainey's beliefs are challenged. He retracts his support from the strike and as a result the rioting intensifies. In the final act of the play, the Raineys are trapped in their house as the riot rages outside. Nora Murray, riddled with guilt, runs out into the street and is shot dead.

Production history

Abbey Theatre, Dublin, 1911
The original production opened on Sunday 16 April 1911 at the Abbey Theatre, Dublin, directed by Lennox Robinson. It was subsequently revived at the Abbey in 1920 and 1922.

Cast
 Sinclair, Arthur as John Rainey
 O'Neill, Máire (Molly) as Mrs Rainey
 JKerrigan, J.M. as Hugh Rainey
 Wright, Udolphus as Tom Rainey
 Nic Shiubhlaigh, Máire as Nora Murray
 O'Rourke, J. A. as Michael O'Hara

Finborough Theatre, London, 2011
To mark the centenary of the play, the Finborough Theatre mounted a production of Mixed Marriage which ran from 4-29 October 2011. The critically acclaimed production, directed by Sam Yates, was described as "The most compelling play in London" in a review by Guardian theatre critic Michael Billingon.

Cast
 John Rainey Daragh O'Malley
 Mrs Rainey Fiona Victory
 Hugh Rainey Christopher Brandon
 Tom Rainey Joel Ormsby
 Nora Murray Nora-Jane Noone
 Michael O'Hara Damien Hannaway

1911 plays

Mixed Marriage (play)


Christian David Ginsburg (, 25 December 1831 – 7 March 1914) was a Polish-born British Bible scholar and a student of the Masoretic tradition in Judaism.
He was born to a Jewish family in Warsaw but converted to Christianity at the age of 15.

Coming to England shortly after the completion of his education in the Rabbinic College at Warsaw, Ginsburg continued his study of the Hebrew Scriptures, with particular attention to the Megillot. The first result was a translation of the Song of Songs, with a historical and critical commentary, published in 1857. A similar interpretation of Ecclesiastes, followed by treatises on the Karaites, the Essenes, and the Kabbala, kept the author prominently before biblical students while he was preparing the first sections of his magnum opus, the critical study of the Masorah.

Magnum opus

Beginning in 1867 with the publication of Jacob ben Hayyim ibn Adonijah's Introduction to the Rabbinic Bible, Hebrew and English, with notices, and the Masoret haMasoret of Elias Levita, in Hebrew, with translation and commentary, Ginsburg took rank as an eminent Hebrew scholar. In 1870, he was appointed one of the first members of the committee for the revision of the English version of the Old Testament under contract with the Trinitarian Bible Society. His life-work culminated in the publication of the Masorah, in three volumes (1880–1886), followed by the Massoretico-critical edition of the Hebrew Bible (1894), and the elaborate introduction to it (1897).

Other works
Ginsburg had one predecessor in the field; the learned Jacob ben Hayyim, who, in 1524–25, had published the second Rabbinic Bible (Mikraot Gedolot), containing what has ever since been known as the Masorah. Still, the materials were not available, and criticism was not sufficiently advanced for a complete edition. Ginsburg took up the subject almost where it was left off by this early pioneer, and he collected portions of the Masorah from the countless manuscripts scattered throughout Europe and the East.

Ginsburg published Facsimiles of Manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible (1897 and 1898), and The Text of the Hebrew Bible in Abbreviations (1903), in addition to a critical treatise on the relationship of the so-called Codex Babylonicus of A.D. 916 to the Eastern Recension of the Hebrew Text (1899, for private circulation). In the last-mentioned work, he seeks to prove that the St. Petersburg Codex, for so many years accepted as the original text of the Babylonian school, is, in reality, a Palestinian text that was carefully altered to render it conformable to the Babylonian recension. He subsequently undertook the preparation of a new edition of the Hebrew Bible for the British and Foreign Bible Society.

He also contributed many articles to John Kitto's Encyclopaedia, William Smith's "Dictionary of Christian Biography and the Encyclopædia Britannica (1877–87).

References

Selected bibliography
The Massorah; Compiled from Manuscripts; Band I, London/Vienna, Brög, 1880; Digital copy: Ginsburg, The Massorah Ia & Ginsburg, 1880: The Massorah Ib.
The Massorah; Compiled from Manuscripts; Band II, London/Vienna, Brög, 1880; Digital copy: Ginsburg, 1880: The Massorah IIa & Ginsburg, The Massorah IIb.
The Massorah; Compiled from Manuscripts; Band III, London/Vienna, Brög, 1880; Digital copy: Ginsburg, 1880: The Massorah III.
The Massorah; Translated into English; With a critical and exegetical commentary; Band IV, London/Vienna, Brög, 1897–1905; Digital Copy: Ginsburg, 1905: The Massorah IV.
The Essenes: Their history & doctrines; Longman, Roberts, & Green, 1864.
Jacob Ben Chajim Ibn Adonijah's Introduction to the Rabbinic Bible, London, 1867; Digital Copy: Ginsburg, 1867: Jacob Ben Chajim Ibn Adonijah's Introduction to the Rabbinic Bible.
The Massoreth Ha-Massoreth of Elias Levita, being an exposition of the Massoretic notes on the Hebrew Bible, or the ancient critical apparatus of the Old Testament in Hebrew, with an English translation, & critical and explanatory notes, London, Longmans, 1867;Digital copy:  Ginsburg, 1867: The Massoreth Ha-Massoreth of Elias Levita.
 Ḥamishah Ḥumshe Torah, London 1908.
 The Kabbalah: its doctrines, development, & literature; London, 1920.

External links

 Introduction to the Massoretico-Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible (1897)

1831 births
1914 deaths
19th-century British people
19th-century British biblical scholars
19th-century Jewish biblical scholars
19th-century British translators
British people of Polish-Jewish descent
Polish emigrants to the United Kingdom
Converts to Protestantism from Judaism
Jewish translators of the Bible
Translators of the New Testament into Hebrew
Writers from Warsaw

Christian David Ginsburg


The Battle of New Orleans was the last battle fought in the War of 1812 between the British and the Americans. It involved a series of smaller battles leading up to the main engagement on January 8, 1815. The British had 8,000 infantry in the line out of a total strength of 11,000.  The British force was commanded by  General Edward Pakenham. The Americans were under the command of General Andrew Jackson. The battle took place at the Plains of Chalmette a few miles from New Orleans.

Background

After the 1793 Treaty of Paris, which officially ended the American Revolutionary War, the British were still present on the American continent.  They were trading with the Indians and at times were inciting them against the Americans. The British were blockading American ships, capturing  American seamen and forcing them into the Royal Navy to fight against Napoleon. On June 18, 1812, President Madison signed the formal declaration of war against Britain. The fighting began in Canada in an attempt to cut off the British supply lines. At that same time, the British were fighting Napoleon but when that war ended these skilled troops were sent to Canada. The Americans did not have a standing army as such and was still composed of individual militias, men who signed up for short periods of time.  By 1813, the British had won nearly every major battle in the war.  In August 24, 1814 The British entered Washington D.C., and burned the Capitol to the ground.

Treaty of Ghent

On December 24, 1814 the Treaty of Ghent was signed ending the War of 1812. The treaty called for returning all borders and lands as they were before the war. Because of the distances involved and the delay in communications, at the time of the battles neither side knew a peace treaty had been signed.<ref>Craig L. Symonds; William J. Clipson, The Naval Institute Historical Atlas of the U.S. Navy, MD., Lake Borgne and the Battle of New Orleans Dec., 1814-January 1815 (2001 Naval Institute Press 2001), p. 54</ref>

As the Ghent negotiations suggested, the real causes of the war of 1812, were not merely commerce and neutral rights. They were also the issues of US western expansion, relations with American Indians, and control of the
territory of North America.

Prelude to the battle

The British fleet of some 30 warships sailed out of Negril Bay, Jamaica on 26 November, 1814. The fleet under command of Admiral Cochrane moved into the Gulf of Mexico ready to attack New Orleans. Cochrane's fleet was transporting 14,450 British troops who had recently been fighting in the Napoleonic wars in France and Spain.  The first the Americans learned of this was through the leader of the Baratarian pirates, Jean Lafitte. The British had offered him several thousand dollars if he would join them. They wanted him to guide them through the swamps in and around New Orleans. Asking for time to consider, Lafitte contacted the American governor of Louisiana, Claiborne and told him of their plans. Claiborne contacted General Andrew Jackson. At first the Americans were wary but they accepted his help. Lafitte offered much needed gunpowder, fuses, cannonballs and the artillery expertise of his men. The pirates knew the swamps around New Orleans and helped guide the Americans to outmaneuver the British.

Andrew Jackson arrived in New Orleans December 2, 1814. He declared martial law and rallied the formerly reluctant citizens to fight the British. Jackson told the people of New Orleans that every citizen was needed to protect the city. He also told them  "All those who are not for us are against us".  He then blocked all approaches to the City by water.

 Lake Borgne

On December 22 the British moved in barges toward the narrow opening at Lake Borgne. They soon found their way blocked by five American gunboats under the command of Lieutenant Thomas Jones.  The British, guided by Spanish and Portuguese fisherman from the area, had an assault force of forty-five boats under the command of Captain Nicholas Lockyer. In the engagement that followed, the British prevailed but suffered about 100 casualties.  Lieutenant Thomas Jones lost about 40 killed and wounded.  The rest of his men were captured.  One man escaped and warned the Americans.  The British moved in barges from Lake Borgne to land seven miles below New Orleans on the Mississippi river. Their fishermen guides landed them at Villere Plantation.

Villere Plantation

When Jackson learned of the landing at Villere Plantation he immediately planned an attack that night.  The British general Keene had about 1,900 men when he landed at Villere. More British soldiers landed and by evening there were about 2,300 at the plantation. Under cover of darkness the Americans surprised the British in their camp. Over 2,100 Americans began firing on the British, many of whom were still being landed in boats. The American schooner, Carolina, had anchored in the Mississippi near the plantation and opened a murderous fire on the British camp. Even after the Americans withdrew the Carolina kept up the bombardment until it was blown up by Heated shot and sunk on December 27th. The battle had no clear winner, but the British were delayed in their attempt to capture New Orleans. The Americans lost about 200 men while the British losses were fixed at about 300.

After the battle Jackson began building his defenses at the Rodriguez Canal. This was an abandoned millrace approximately 20 feet wide and 3 to 5 feet deep. It was in a swampy area which gave the Americans a clear advantage. The defensive mill earthworks blocked the British approach to New Orleans. They could only attack from the front as the swamps and river protected the flank. The American position was two miles from the British camp and about five miles below New Orleans. A body of mounted American riflemen kept track of all British movements.

On 25 December General Pakenham landed at the Villere Plantation and took charge of all British forces. The British began moving on 27 December but encountered the American earthworks and halted.

The British were surprised to see the American earthworks. Apparently they had not thought enough of the Americans to even keep an eye on them. In addition to the fortifications in front of them the American cutter Louisiana'' was anchored in the river. As soon as the British appeared the guns of the Americans drove them back. But undaunted they began construction of their own earthworks and setting up their artillery positions.

The British brought up guns from their ships and built earthworks for them under cover of darkness. This was to counter the American guns mounted on their earthworks as well as those on the anchored cutter in the river.  On the morning of 1 January 1815 the British opened up with their artillery and rockets. The surprised Americans quickly returned fire but with greater accuracy.  Jackson's line lost two of their guns in the exchange but one by one the cannon fire from the American line took out all fourteen of the British guns. By noon the British had been driven back from their artillery emplacements and the artillery duel was over for the present.  Both the Americans and British had placed artillery on the opposite bank of the Mississippi and those batteries exchanged fire most of the afternoon. At night Jackson's backwoodsmen kept shooting sentries, driving back the pickets and gave the British camp no peace.

Early on the morning of 8 January the British attacked General Jackson's earthworks. General Packenham's infantry numbered about 8,000 out of a total force of 11,000. He moved his columns forward while it was still dark to get close to the Americans without being seen. But the element of surprise was lost when a junior officer forgot to bring scaling ladders. When he returned with the ladders it was too late, the Americans could see them.  The brigade under the command of General Gibbs attacked the left and center of Jackson's line. But the American artillery tore large holes in the British line. A regiment of highlanders was sent to help Gibbs but suffered tremendous casualties under the American rifle and musket fire.  The British second in command, General Gibbs, was killed on the battlefield. General Pakenham, the overall commander, was shot and killed as he rallied his soldiers. The third in command of British forces, General Lambert, finally called off the assault. The British lost 2,057 men while the Americans lost only 71. The British were veterans of the Napoleonic War and were well experienced and fought bravely but could not break the American defense system.

Fort St. Philip

Fort St. Philip was located on the east bank of the Mississippi river. It protected New Orleans from any river approach to the city. The Americans took over the fort, originally built by the Spanish, in 1808. It was rebuilt with bricks and had two bastions facing the river. The bastions were where most of the fort's twenty guns were mounted. The fort was attacked at the same time General Pakenham led his infantry attack on Jackson's earthworks. The fort was bombarded by five British warships for over a week. Finally, on 18 January 1815 the British fleet withdrew. They were damaged but had been unable to do much damage to the fort.

Aftermath
As the gunships retreated on January 18th, the British soldiers were recalled to their transport ships. They were required to leave eighteen badly wounded men, two of whom were officers. In their haste they left fourteen artillery pieces and a large quantity of cannon shot. One of the two medical personnel left to take care of the British wounded gave General Jackson a letter from General Lambert. In his letter Lambert stated he had given up all further operations against New Orleans. He asked too that his men be protected and cared for. Jackson had given thought to pursuing the retreating British. But he decided not to risk any of his men's lives needlessly. He thought the lives of ten British soldiers were not worth the loss of one of his own men.

As General Jackson stated in his letter to the Secretary of War, he was not convinced the British had given up on trying to take the Louisiana territory by force. By Jackson's estimations the British had lost over four thousand men either dead, wounded or who had deserted. Jackson left infantry units to guard the earthworks and the Villere plantation should the British return. He brought the rest of his army back to New Orleans on 20 January 1815.

References

1814
1815
1810s in the United States
Andrew Jackson
Battles involving the United States
19th century in Louisiana
War of 1812

Battle of New Orleans


Music Arts School was a community music school in Highland Park, Illinois from 1952 to 2007.  It offered private lessons on guitar, bass guitar, piano, keyboard, Drums, world percussion, violin, viola, cello, saxophone, clarinet, flute, recorder, and voice. It also had a curriculum of group classes including programs for both adults and young children.

Music Arts School began as a private music school in 1952. Pianist Mortimer Scheff founded the school and continued to head it until retiring in 2005. From 2001 to 2007, the school functioned as a non-profit.

In September 2007, Music Arts School merged with the Music Institute of Chicago.  Now known as the Highland Park Campus of MIC, the school continues to serve the North Shore of Chicago with individual music lessons and group music classes.

In the years since becoming a non-profit organization, the school has grown upon its base of individual instruction by creating a curriculum of group music classes. Current subjects include Suzuki method, Adult Group Guitar, Musikgarten (early childhood music education), and Musicianship (music theory and history).

External links
Music Institute of Chicago website

Defunct schools in Illinois
Highland Park, Illinois
Education in Lake County, Illinois

Music Arts School


Some people do not eat various specific foods and beverages in conformity with various religious, cultural, legal or other societal prohibitions. Many of these prohibitions constitute taboos. Many food taboos and other prohibitions forbid the meat of a particular animal, including mammals, rodents, reptiles, amphibians, fish, molluscs, crustaceans and insects, which may relate to a disgust response being more often associated with meats than plant-based foods. Some prohibitions are specific to a particular part or excretion of an animal, while others forgo the consumption of plants or fungi.

Some food prohibitions can be defined as rules, codified by religion or otherwise, about which foods, or combinations of foods, may not be eaten and how animals are to be slaughtered or prepared. The origins of these prohibitions are varied. In some cases, they are thought to be a result of health considerations or other practical reasons; in others, they relate to human symbolic systems.

Some foods may be prohibited during certain religious periods (e.g., Lent), at certain stages of life (e.g., pregnancy), or to certain classes of people (e.g., priests), even if the food is otherwise permitted. On a comparative basis, what may be declared unfit for one group may be perfectly acceptable to another within the same culture or across different cultures. Food taboos usually seem to be intended to protect the human individual from harm, spiritually or physically, but there are numerous other reasons given within cultures for their existence. An ecological or medical background is apparent in many, including some that are seen as religious or spiritual in origin. Food taboos can help utilizing a resource more efficiently, but when applied to only a subsection of the community, a food taboo can also lead to the monopolization of a food item by those exempted. A food taboo acknowledged by a particular group or tribe as part of their ways, aids in the cohesion of the group, helps that particular group to stand out and maintain its identity in the face of others and therefore creates a feeling of "belonging".

Causes

Various religions forbid the consumption of certain types of food. For example, Judaism prescribes a strict set of rules, called Kashrut, regarding what may and may not be eaten, and notably forbidding the mixing of meat with dairy products. Islam has similar laws, dividing foods into haram (forbidden) and halal (permitted). Jains often follow religious directives to observe vegetarianism. Most Hindus do not eat beef, and some Hindus apply the concept of ahimsa (non-violence) to their diet and consider vegetarianism as ideal, and practise forms of vegetarianism. In some cases, the process of preparation rather than the food itself comes under scrutiny. For instance, in early medieval Christianity, certain uncooked foods were of dubious status: a penitential ascribed to Bede outlined a (mild) penance for those who ate uncooked foods, and Saint Boniface wrote to Pope Zachary (in a letter preserved in the Boniface correspondence, no. 87) asking him how long bacon would have to be cured to be proper for consumption.  The Kapu system was used in Hawaii until 1819.

Aside from formal rules, there are cultural taboos against the consumption of some animals. Within a given society, some meats will be considered to be not for consumption that are outside the range of the generally accepted definition of a foodstuff. Novel meats, i.e. animal-derived food products not familiar to an individual or to a culture, generally provoke a disgust reaction, which may be expressed as a cultural taboo. For example, although dog meat is eaten, in certain circumstances, in Korea, Vietnam, and China, it is considered inappropriate as a food in virtually all Western countries. Likewise, horse meat is rarely eaten in the English-speaking world, although it is part of the national cuisine of countries as widespread as Kazakhstan, Japan, Italy, and France.

Sometimes food prohibitions enter national or local law, as with the ban on cattle abattoirs in most of India, and horse slaughter in the United States. Even after reversion to Chinese rule, Hong Kong has not lifted its ban on supplying meat from dogs and cats, created during British rule.

Environmentalism, ethical consumerism and other activist movements are giving rise to new prohibitions and eating guidelines. A fairly recent addition to cultural food prohibitions is the meat and eggs of endangered species or animals that are otherwise protected by law or international treaty. Examples of such protected species include some species of whales, sea turtles, and migratory birds. Similarly, sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification discourage the consumption of certain seafoods due to unsustainable fishing. Organic certification prohibits certain synthetic chemical inputs during food production, or genetically modified organisms, irradiation, and the use of sewage sludge. The Fair Trade movement and certification discourage the consumption of food and other goods produced in exploitative working conditions. Other social movements generating taboos include Local Food and The 100-Mile Diet, both of which encourage abstinence from non-locally produced food, and veganism, in which adherents endeavour not to use or consume animal products of any kind.

Prohibited foods

Amphibians

Judaism strictly forbids the consumption of amphibians such as frogs. The restriction is described in Leviticus 11:29-30 and 42–43. Derivative chemical products from amphibians, as well as with other proscribed animals, must be avoided.

In other cultures, foods such as frog legs are treasured as delicacies, and the animals may be raised commercially in some circumstances. However, environmental concerns over the endangerment of frogs, even possibly pushing them into extinction, due to overconsumption has prompted legal action in nations such as France to limit their use in food. The French Ministry of Agriculture began taking measures to protect native frog species in 1976, and efforts have continued since. Mass commercial harvesting of the animals was banned in 1980, though international imports as well as private, individual hunting and cooking remains legal in many areas.

Bats

In Judaism, the Deuteronomic Code and Priestly Code explicitly prohibit the bat. Bat meat is haram (prohibited) in Islam.

Bears
Bears are not considered kosher animals in Judaism. All predatory terrestrial animals are forbidden in Islam.

Birds
The Torah (Leviticus 11:13) explicitly states that the eagle, vulture, and osprey are not to be eaten. A bird now commonly raised for meat in some areas, the ostrich, is explicitly banned as food in some interpretations of Leviticus 11:16. Rabbis have frequently inferred that traditions that explicitly prohibit birds of prey and natural scavengers create a distinction with other avian species; thus, eating chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys is allowed.

In contrast, Islamic dietary rules permit the consumption of ostrich, while birds of prey (defined specifically as those who hunt with claws and talons) are forbidden, as in Judaism.

Scavengers and carrion-eaters such as vultures and crows are avoided as food in many cultures because they are perceived as carriers of disease and unclean, and associated with death. An exception is the rook, which was a recognised country dish, and which has, more recently, been served in a Scottish restaurant in London. In Western cultures today, most people regard songbirds as backyard wildlife rather than as food.

A balut is a developing bird embryo (usually a duck or chicken) that is boiled and eaten from the shell.  Part of the Quran includes understanding and respecting the law that any animal products should not be eaten if the animal has not been slaughtered properly, making the animal or animal-product "maytah".  Because balut is an egg containing a partly-developed embryo, Muslims believe this makes it "haram", or "forbidden".

The Ortolan bunting developed as a more recent taboo food among French gourmets. The tiny birds were captured alive, force-fed, then drowned in Armagnac, "roasted whole and eaten that way, bones and all, while the diner draped his head with a linen napkin to preserve the precious aromas and, some believe, to hide from God."

Camels

The eating of camels is strictly prohibited by the Torah in  and . The Torah considers the camel unclean,  even though it chews the cud, or regurgitates, the way bovines, sheep, goats, deer, antelope, and giraffes (all of which are kosher) do, because it does not meet the cloven hoof criterion. Like these animals, camels (and llamas) are ruminants with a multi-chambered stomach. Camels are even-toed ungulates, with feet split in two. However, a camel's feet form soft pads rather than hard hooves.

In Islam, the eating of camel is allowed, and is indeed traditional in the Islamic heartland in Saudi Arabia and the Arabian Peninsula generally.

Cats

There is a strong taboo against eating cats in many Western parts of the world, including most of the Americas and Europe.  Cat meat is forbidden by Jewish and Islamic law  as both religions forbid the eating of carnivores. Cat meat is eaten as part of the cuisines of China, Vietnam. Cats are commonly regarded as pets in Western countries, or as working animals, kept to control vermin, not as a food animal, and consumption of cats is thus seen as a barbaric act by a large part of the population in those countries. Cat meat was eaten, for example, during the famine in the Siege of Leningrad. In 1996, a place that served cat meat was supposedly discovered by the Argentine press in a shanty town in Rosario, but in fact the meal had been set up by media from Buenos Aires.

In 2008, it was reported that cats were a part of the local diet in Guangdong, China, with many cats being shipped down from the north and one Guangzhou-based business receiving up to 10,000 cats per day from different parts of China. Protesters in other parts of China have urged the Guangdong provincial government to crack down on cat traders and restaurants that serve cat meat, although no law says it is illegal to eat cats.

The term "roof-hare" (roof-rabbit, German ) applies to cat meat presented as that of a hare, another small mammal used as a source of meat. Subtracting the skin, feet, head and tail, hare and cat carcasses appear similar. In European markets, where rabbit is sold, the feet are always left on to allow the buyer to confirm it's not a cat being sold. Dar gato por liebre ("to pass off a cat as a hare") is an expression common to many Spanish-speaking countries, equivalent to "to pull the wool over someone's eyes" derived from this basic scam. There is an equivalent Portuguese expression Comprar gato por lebre, meaning "to buy a cat as a hare". The expression churrasco de gato ("cat barbecue") is largely used in Brazil with a humorous note, especially for roadside stands that offer grilled meat on a stick (often coated with farofa), due to their poor hygiene and because the source of the meat is mostly unknown. Also, in the Philippines, there is an urban legend and a joke that some vendors use cat meat to make siopao (steamed bun), leading some Filipinos to name their pet cats "Siopao". Meanwhile, "kitten cakes" and "buy three shawarma - assemble a kitten" are common Russian urban jokes about the suspect origin of food from street vendors' stalls. In English, the common expression refers to what the victim of the trick thinks is happening: "Buy a pig in a poke."

The inhabitants of Vicenza in northern Italy were reputed to eat cats, although the practice has been out of use for decades. In February 2010, a popular Italian gastronome was criticized and suspended from a show for talking about the former practice of eating cat stew in Tuscany.

During the so-called "Bad Times" of hunger in Europe during and after World War I and World War II, "roof-rabbit" was a common food. Those who thought that they were eating Australian rabbits were really eating European cats.

Cattle

Cattle hold a traditional place as objects of reverence in countries such as India. Some Hindus, particularly Brahmins, are vegetarian and strictly abstain from eating meat. All of those who do eat meat abstain from the consumption of beef, as the cow holds a sacred place in Hinduism. For example, tradition states that the goddess Kamadhenu manifests herself as a wish-granting divine cow, with such stories repeated over generations.

In contrast to cow slaughter, consumption of dairy products such as milk, yogurt, and particularly ghee (a form of butter) is highly common in India. Cow-derived products play a significant role in Hinduism with milk particularly being highly revered, often being used in holy ceremonies.

Bullocks were the primary source of agricultural power and transportation in the early days and as, India adopted an agricultural lifestyle, the cow proved to be a very useful animal. This respect stemming out of necessity led to abstaining from killing cows for food; for example, if a famine-stricken village kills and eats its bullocks, they will not be available to pull the plough and the cart when next planting season comes. However, little evidence has been found to support this conjecture. Areas suffering from famine may resort to consuming cattle in efforts to survive until the next season.

By Indian law, the slaughter of female cattle is banned in almost all Indian states except Kerala, West Bengal and the seven north eastern states. A person involved in either cow slaughter or its illegal transportation could be jailed in many states. Slaughter of cows is an extremely provocative issue for many Hindus.

Some Chinese Buddhists discourage the consumption of beef, although it is not considered taboo. However, for Sinhalese Buddhists, it is taboo and considered to be ungrateful to kill the animal whose milk and labour provides livelihoods to many Sinhalese people.

Burmese Buddhists also have a taboo against eating beef, because they consider cows as an animal responsible for working in the fields with human beings. However, it is not strictly considered taboo in populated cities like Mandalay, Yangon etc.

In the town of Kudus on the Indonesian island of Java, there is also a taboo on eating beef, despite most people being Muslim. The reason why the people of Kudus have a taboo against eating beef is to avoid offending Hindus.

While both beef and dairy consumption is permitted in Judaism, the mixing of dairy products with any sort of meat is completely forbidden.

Chewing gum

A chewing gum sales ban has been in place since 1992 in Singapore. It is currently not illegal to chew gum in Singapore, merely to import it and sell it, with certain exceptions. Since 2004, an exception has existed for therapeutic, dental, and nicotine chewing gum, which can be bought from a doctor or registered pharmacist.

Crustaceans and other seafood

Almost all types of non-piscine seafood, such as shellfish, lobster, shrimp or crayfish, are forbidden by Judaism because such animals live in water but do not have both fins and scales.

As a general rule, all seafood is permissible in the 3  madh'hab of Sunni Islam except Hanafi school of thought. The Ja'fari school of Islamic jurisprudence, which is followed by most Shia Muslims, prohibits non-piscine (lacking scales) seafood, with the exception of shrimp.

Dairy products
The consumption of dairy products together with meat is also prohibited as non-kosher in Rabbinic Judaism, based on Deuteronomy 14:21: "You shall not boil a young goat in its mother's milk." Karaite Jews, however, interpret this commandment more literally to mean that meat cannot be cooked in milk; but dairy products can be served with them.

Dogs

In Western countries, eating dog meat is generally considered taboo, though that taboo has been broken under threat of starvation in the past. Dog meat has been eaten in every major German crisis at least since the time of Frederick the Great, and is commonly referred to as "blockade mutton". In the early 20th century, consumption of dog meat in Germany was common.   Suspicions about the provenance of Frankfurter meat sold by German immigrants in the United States led to the coinage of the term 'hot dog'. In 1937, a meat inspection law targeted against trichinella was introduced for pigs, dogs, boars, foxes, badgers, and other carnivores. Dog meat has been prohibited in Germany since 1986. In 2009 a scandal erupted when a farm near the Polish town of Częstochowa was discovered rearing dogs to be rendered down into smalec - lard.

According to the ancient Hindu scriptures (cf. Manusmṛti and medicinal texts like Sushruta Samhita), dog's meat was regarded as the most unclean (and rather poisonous) food possible. Dog's meat is also regarded as unclean under Jewish and Islamic dietary laws; therefore, consumption of dog meat is forbidden by both of those religious traditions.

In Irish mythology, legend recounts how Cú Chulainn, the great hero of Ulster whose name means Culann's Hound, was presented with a Morton's fork, forcing him to either break his geis (taboo) about eating dog meat or declining hospitality; Cú Chulainn chose to eat the meat, leading ultimately to his death.

In Mexico, in the pre-Columbian era, a hairless breed of dog named xoloitzcuintle was commonly eaten. After colonization, this custom stopped. Lewis and Clark, and the men in their expedition, were recorded in Lewis' journals as having eaten and enjoyed dog meat, which was common practice of natives in the Great Plains.

In East Asia, most countries rarely consume dog meat with the exception of Vietnam, North and South Korea either because of Islamic or Buddhist values or animal rights as in the Philippines. Manchus have a prohibition against the eating of dog meat, which is sometimes consumed by the Manchus' neighboring Northeastern Asian peoples. The Manchus also avoid the wearing of hats made of dog's fur. In addition to Manchus, Chinese Mongol, Miao, Muslims, Tibetan, Yao and Yi have a taboo against dog meat. In Indonesia, due to its majority Islamic population, consuming dog meat is prohibited, with exception of Christian Batak and Minahasan ethnic groups that traditionally consumed dog meat.

The Urapmin people of the New Guinea Highlands do not kill or eat dogs, unlike some neighboring tribes, nor do they let dogs breathe on their food.

Eggs

Jains abstain from eating eggs. Many Hindu and Orthodox Sikh vegetarians also refrain from eating eggs.

An egg that naturally contains a spot of blood may not be eaten under Jewish tradition, but eggs without any blood are commonly consumed (and are not considered to be meat, so may be eaten with dairy).

Elephants

Buddhists are forbidden from eating elephant meat.

Elephant meat is also not considered kosher by Jewish dietary laws because elephants do not have cloven hooves and are not ruminants.

Some scholars of Islamic dietary laws have ruled that it is forbidden for Muslims to eat elephant because elephants fall under the prohibited category of fanged or predatory animals.

Hindus strictly avoid any contact with elephant meat due to the importance of the god Ganesha who is widely worshipped by Hindus.

The Kalika Purana distinguishes bali (sacrifice) and mahabali (great sacrifice), for the ritual killing of goats, elephant, respectively, though the reference to humans in Shakti theology is symbolic and done in effigy in modern times.

Fish

Among the Somali people, most clans have a taboo against the consumption of fish, and do not intermarry with the few occupational clans that do eat it.

There are taboos on eating fish among many upland pastoralists and agriculturalists (and even some coastal peoples) inhabiting parts of southeastern Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Kenya, and northern Tanzania. This is sometimes referred to as the "Cushitic fish-taboo", as Cushitic speakers are believed to have been responsible for the introduction of fish avoidance to East Africa, though not all Cushitic groups avoid fish. The zone of the fish taboo roughly coincides with the area where Cushitic languages are spoken, and as a general rule, speakers of Nilo-Saharan and Semitic languages do not have this taboo, and indeed many are watermen. The few Bantu and Nilotic groups in East Africa that do practice fish avoidance also reside in areas where Cushites appear to have lived in earlier times. Within East Africa, the fish taboo is found no further than Tanzania. This is attributed to the local presence of the tsetse fly and in areas beyond, which likely acted as a barrier to further southern migrations by wandering pastoralists, the principal fish-avoiders. Zambia and Mozambique's Bantus were therefore spared subjugation by pastoral groups, and they consequently nearly all consume fish.

There is also another center of fish avoidance in Southern Africa, among mainly Bantu speakers. It is not clear whether this disinclination developed independently or whether it was introduced. It is certain, however, that no avoidance of fish occurs among southern Africa's earliest inhabitants, the Khoisan. Nevertheless, since the Bantu of southern Africa also share various cultural traits with the pastoralists further north in East Africa, it is believed that, at an unknown date, the taboo against the consumption of fish was similarly introduced from East Africa by cattle-herding peoples who somehow managed to get their livestock past the aforementioned tsetse fly endemic regions.

Certain species of fish, such as the freshwater eel (Anguillidae) and all species of catfish, are also forbidden in Judaism. Although they live in water, they appear to have no scales (except under a microscope) (see Leviticus 11:10-13). Sunni Muslim laws are more flexible in this. Catfish and shark are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish. Eel is generally considered permissible in the four Sunni madh'hab. The Ja'fari jurisprudence followed by most Shia Muslims forbid all species of fish that does not have scales, it also forbid all shell fish species except prawns.

Many tribes of the Southwestern United States, including the Navajo, Apache, and Zuñi, have a taboo against fish and other aquatic animals, including waterfowl.

Additionally, the Blackfoot Confederacy are known to have a taboo against fish in specific, as well as against birds such as the water-fowl, though the fish taboo has been the one to endure the most as it passed down the generations. As "Grant Manyheads" from "Blackfoot Crossing Hitsorical Park" explains in a youtube video archiving one of his lectures; the blackfoot's cuisine was based in a belief that only certain animals, those which possessed four legs, with hooves and which grazed on grass, were seen as "clean" and thus suitable for consumption (not too dissimilarly to the taboo of pork or the kosher diet in abrahamic religions) this meant that any other animals were not considered suitable or clean enough to eat. This included many other animals besides fish, such as various birds with Water Fowl being considered one of the worst birds, as well as animals with claws such as bears, or dogs/wolves. But as explained by Manyheads, this taboo was broken in times of need and starvation, but was seen as an especially desperate act among the Blackfoot. However despite the similarity to the taboo against pork, or the kosher diet, breaking such taboo was not seen to carry any particular religious or spiritual reprecussions, hence the allowance of breaking the taboo in desperation.

Norse settlers in Greenland (10th–15th centuries AD) may have developed a taboo against fish consumption, as recounted in Jared Diamond's Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. This is unusual, as Norsemen did not generally have a taboo against fish, Diamond noting that "Fish bones account for much less than 0.1% of animal bones recovered at Greenland Norse archeological sites, compared to between 50 and 95% at most contemporary Iceland, northern Norway, and Shetland sites." However, this has been disputed by archaeologists.

Animal fetuses
Many countries observe this as a delicacy but it is a taboo in most countries. Considered as corpses, fetuses of goats and sheep are a delicacy in Anglo-Indian culture, despite being taboo in both parent cultures (English and Indian). This Anglo-Indian dish is known as "kutti pi" (fetus bag).

Fungi
Vedic Brahmins, Gaudiya Vaishnavas, tantriks and some Buddhist priests abstain from fungi, which are eschewed as they grow at night.

In Iceland, rural parts of Sweden and Western Finland, although not taboo, mushrooms were not widely eaten before the Second World War. They were viewed as food for cows and were also associated with the stigma of being wartime and poverty food. This is in contrast to the days of the Roman Empire, when mushrooms were viewed as a delicacy of the highest order and were held in high regard as food for emperors.

Guinea pig and related rodents

Guinea pigs, or cuy, are commonly eaten in Peru, in the southwestern cities and villages of Colombia, and among some populations in the highlands of Ecuador, mostly in the Andes highlands. Cuyes can be found on the menu of restaurants in Lima and other cities in Peru, as well as in Pasto, Colombia. Guinea pig meat is exported to the United States and European nations. In 2004, the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation took legal action to stop vendors serving cuy at an Ecuadorian festival in Flushing Meadows Park. New York State allows the consumption of guinea pigs, but New York City prohibits it. Accusations of cultural persecution have since been leveled.

Herbs
Some adherents of the Greek Orthodox Church avoid basil due to its association with the cross of Christ. It is believed that the cross was discovered in 325 AD by Saint Helen on a hill covered in beautiful, fragrant basil bushes, a hitherto unknown plant. The plant was named  (basilikón fytón) "royal plant" and today is grown and admired rather than eaten. Fine basil plants are brought to church every year on 14 September to commemorate this legend in a celebration known as the Elevation of the Holy Cross.

Horses and other equines

Horse meat is part of the cuisine of many countries in Europe, but is taboo in some religions and many countries. It is forbidden by Jewish law, because the horse is not a ruminant, nor does it have cloven hooves. Similarly to dogs, eating horses was a taboo for the Castro culture in Northwestern Portugal, and it is still a counter-cultural practice in the region.

Horse meat is forbidden by some sects of Christianity. In 732 CE, Pope Gregory III instructed Saint Boniface to suppress the pagan practice of eating horses, calling it a "filthy and abominable custom". The Christianisation of Iceland in 1000 CE was achieved only when the Church promised that Icelanders could continue to eat horsemeat; once the Church had consolidated its power, the allowance was discontinued. Horsemeat is still popular in Iceland and is sold and consumed in the same way as beef, lamb and pork.

In Islam, opinions vary as to the permissibility of horse meat. Some cite a hadith forbidding it to Muslims, but others doubt its validity and authority. Wild horses and asses are generally seen as halal while domesticated asses are viewed as forbidden. Various Muslim cultures have differed in the attitude in eating the meat. Historically, Turks and Persians have eaten the meat, while in North Africa this is rare.

In Canada, horse meat is legal. Most Canadian horse meat is exported to Continental Europe or Japan. In the United States, sale and consumption of horse meat is illegal in California and Illinois. However, it was sold in the US during WW II, since beef was expensive, rationed and destined for the troops. The last horse meat slaughterhouse in USA was closed in 2007. Nevertheless, discarded leisure, sport and work horses are collected and sold at auctions. They are shipped across the country by transporters to the borders of Canada in the north and Mexico in the south to be sold to horse meat butchers. The issue of horse consumption in the UK and Ireland was raised in 2013 with regards to the 2013 horse meat contamination scandal.

Horse meat is generally avoided in the Balkans, though not Slovenia, as horse is considered to be a noble animal or because eating horse meat is associated with war-time famine. However, it has a small niche market in Serbia.

Humans

Of all the taboo meat, human flesh ranks as the most heavily proscribed. In recent times, humans have consumed the flesh of fellow humans in rituals and out of insanity, hatred, or overriding hunger – never as a common part of their diet, but it is thought that the practice was once widespread among all humans.

The Fore people of Papua New Guinea engaged in funerary cannibalism until the Australian government prohibited the practice in the late 1950s. Cannibalism was how the prion disease kuru spread, though the link wasn't proven until 1967.

The consumption of human flesh is forbidden by Hinduism.

The consumption of human meat is also forbidden in Islam.

Insects

In Judaism and Samaritism, certain locusts are allowed as food (Leviticus 11:22). Otherwise, insects are not considered kosher foods. Kashrut also requires that practitioners check other foods carefully for insects. In Islam, locusts are considered lawful food and do not require ritual slaughtering.

Honey is concentrated nectar and honeydew which has been regurgitated by bees. It is considered kosher even though honey bees are not, an apparent exception to the normal rule that products of an unclean animal are also unclean. This topic is covered in the Talmud and is explained to be permissible on the grounds that the bee does not originally make the first honey, the flower does, while the bees store and dehydrate the liquid into honey. This is different from royal jelly, which is produced by bees directly and is considered non-kosher.

Some vegans avoid honey as they would any other animal product.

Kangaroo
Kangaroo meat is banned in the U.S. state of California. The ban was first imposed in 1971; a moratorium was put in place in 2007, allowing the importation of the meat, but the ban was re-enacted in 2015. Kangaroo meat is also not considered biblically kosher by Jews or Adventists. However, it is considered halal according to Muslim dietary standards, because kangaroos are herbivorous.

Living animals

Islamic law, Judaic law (including Noahide Law), and some laws of some Christians forbid any portion that is cut from a live animal (Genesis 9:4, as interpreted in the Talmud, Sanhedrin 59a). Judaism restricts this prohibition to land animals and birds; fish do not require kosher slaughter, but must first be killed before being eaten.  However, in the case of a ben pekuah where a live offspring is removed from the mother's womb, these restrictions do not apply.

Examples of the eating of animals that are still alive include eating live seafood, such as "raw oyster on the half shell" and ikizukuri (live fish). Sashimi using live animals has been banned in some countries. Practices such as Ikizukuri are prohibited in Judaism under the law forbidding unnecessary pain to animals. However, oysters and clams are not classified as animals according to halakha (Jewish religious law) and thus may be eaten raw by non-Jews according to the Noahide laws.

Offal

Offal is the internal organs of butchered animals, and may refer to parts of the carcass such as the head and feet ("trotters") in addition to organ meats such as sweetbreads and kidney. Offal is a traditional part of many European and Asian cuisines, including such dishes as the steak and kidney pie in the United Kingdom or callos a la madrileña in Spain. Haggis has been Scotland's national dish since the time of Robert Burns. In northeast Brazil, there is a similar dish to haggis called "buchada", made with goats' stomach.

Except for heart, tongue (beef), liver (chicken, beef, or pork), and intestines used as natural sausage casings, organ meats consumed in the U.S. tend to be regional or ethnic specialities; for example, tripe as menudo or mondongo among Latinos and Hispanos, chitterlings in the Southern United States, scrapple on the Eastern Seaboard, fried-brain sandwiches in the Midwest, and beef testicles called Rocky Mountain oysters or "prairie oysters" in the west. In Argentina and other Spanish language countries, bull's testicles are served as huevos de toro or 'bull's eggs'.

In some regions, such as the European Union, brains and other organs which can transmit bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow disease") and similar diseases have now been banned from the food chain as specified risk materials.

Although eating the stomach of a goat, cow, sheep, or buffalo might be taboo, ancient cheesemaking techniques utilize stomachs (which contain rennet) for turning milk into cheese, a potentially taboo process. Newer techniques for making cheese include a biochemical process with bacterial enzymes similar to rennin and chymosin. This means that the process by which cheese is made (and not the cheese itself) is a factor in determining whether it is forbidden or allowed by strict vegetarians.

Poppy seed

Poppy seeds are used as condiments in many cultures. In Singapore, poppy seeds are classified as "prohibited goods" by the Central Narcotics Bureau (CNB).

Pigs/pork

United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) data reports pork as the most widely eaten meat in the world. Consumption of pigs is forbidden in Islam, Judaism and certain Christian denominations, such as Seventh-day Adventists. This prohibition is set out in the holy texts of the religions concerned, e.g. Qur'an 2:173, 5:3, 6:145 and 16:115, Leviticus 11:7-8 and Deuteronomy 14:8.  Pigs were also taboo in at least three other cultures of the ancient Middle East: the Phoenicians, Egyptians and Babylonians.  In some instances, the taboo extended beyond eating pork, and it was also taboo to touch or even look at pigs.

The original reason for this taboo is debated. Maimonides seems to have thought the uncleanness of pigs was self-evident, but mentions with particular aversion their propensity to eat feces.  In the 19th century, some people attributed the pig taboo in the Middle East to the danger of the parasite trichina, but this explanation is now out of favour. James George Frazer suggested that, in ancient Israel, Egypt and Syria, the pig was originally a sacred animal, which for that reason could not be eaten or touched; the taboo survived to a time when the pig was no longer regarded as sacred, and was therefore explained by reference to its being unclean.

More recently, Marvin Harris posited that pigs are not suited for being kept in the Middle East on an ecological and socio-economical level; for example, pigs are not suited to living in arid climates because they require more water than other animals to keep them cool, and instead of grazing they compete with humans for foods such as grains. As such, raising pigs was seen as a wasteful and decadent practice.  Another explanation offered for the taboo is that pigs are omnivorous, not discerning between meat or vegetation in their natural dietary habits. The willingness to consume meat sets them apart from most other domesticated animals which are commonly eaten (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) who would naturally eat only plants. Mary Douglas has suggested that the reason for the taboo against the pig in Judaism is three-fold: (i) it transgresses the category of ungulates, because it has a split hoof but does not chew the cud, (ii) it eats carrion and (iii) it was eaten by non-Israelites.

Most Lebanese Christians also do not eat pork, although religiously they are allowed to do so. However, because the ancestors of the Lebanese Christians were Phoenicians, they still think that pigs are filthy.

Primates (apes, monkeys, etc.)

Monkey brains is a dish consisting of, at least partially, the brain of some species of monkey or ape. In Western popular culture, its consumption is repeatedly portrayed and debated, often in the context of portraying exotic cultures as exceptionally cruel, callous, and/or strange.

Monkeys are revered animals in India, largely because of the monkey god Hanuman. Many Hindus are vegetarian and do not eat any kind of meat, including monkeys. Meat eating Indians also do not kill or eat monkeys. Killing and eating monkeys (or other animals which are considered wild) is a taboo and illegal in India.

In Malagasy culture, lemurs are considered to have souls (ambiroa) which can get revenge if mocked while alive or if killed in a cruel fashion. Because of this, lemurs, like many other elements of daily life, have been a source of taboos, known locally as fady, which can be based around stories with four basic principles. A village or region may believe that a certain type of lemur may be the ancestor of the clan. They may also believe that a lemur's spirit may get revenge. Alternatively, the animal may appear as a benefactor. Lemurs are also thought to impart their qualities, good or bad, onto human babies. In general, fady extend beyond a sense of the forbidden, but can include events that bring bad luck.

Primate species offered fresh and smoked in 2009 at a wildlife market by Liberia's Cavally River included chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana), putty-nosed monkey (C. nictitans), lesser spot-nosed monkey (C. petaurista), Campbell's mona monkey (C. campbelli), sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys), king colobus (Colobus polykomos), olive colobus (Procolobus verus), western red colobus (P. badius).

Between 1983 and 2002, the Gabon populations of western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) and common  chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) were estimated to have declined by 56%. This decline was primarily caused by the commercial hunting, which was facilitated by the extended infrastructure for logging purposes.

In the late 1990s, fresh and smoked bonobo (Pan paniscus) carcasses were observed in Basankusu in the Province of Équateur in the Congo Basin.

Some people consider consumption of primates to be close to human cannibalism due to monkeys and apes being close relatives of human beings.

Rabbit

The book of Leviticus in the Bible classifies the rabbit as unclean because it does not have a split hoof, even though it does chew and reingest partially digested material (equivalent to "chewing the cud" among ruminants). The consumption of rabbit is allowed in Sunni Islam, and is popular in several majority-Sunni countries (e.g. Egypt, where it is a traditional ingredient in molokheyya), but it is forbidden in the Ja'fari jurisprudence of Twelver Shia Islam.

Rats and mice

In most Western cultures, rats and mice are considered either unclean vermin or pets and thus unfit for human consumption, traditionally being seen as carriers of plague.

In Ghana, Thryonomys swinderianus locally referred to as "Akrantie", "Grasscutter" and (incorrectly) "Bush rat" is a common food item. The proper common name for this rodent is "Greater Cane Rat", though actually it is not a rat at all and is a close relative of porcupines and guinea pigs that inhabit Africa, south of the Saharan Desert. In 2003, the U.S. barred the import of this and other rodents from Africa because of an outbreak of at least nine human cases of monkeypox, an illness never before been seen in the Western Hemisphere.

Consumption of any sort of rodent, or material originating from rodents, is forbidden in Judaism and Islam.

Reptiles
Islam strictly forbids the consumption of reptiles, such as crocodiles and snakes. Eating reptiles is also forbidden in Judaism. In other cultures, foods such as alligator are treasured as delicacies, and the animals are raised commercially.

Vegetables, fruits and spices
In certain versions of Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism, consumption of vegetables of the onion genus are restricted. Adherents believe that these excite damaging passions. Many Hindus discourage eating onion and garlic along with non-vegetarian food during festivals or Hindu holy months of Shrawan, Puratassi and Kartik. However, shunning onion and garlic is not very popular among Hindus as compared to avoiding non-vegetarian foods, so many people do not follow this custom.

Kashmiri Brahmins forbid "strong flavored" foods. This encompasses garlic, onion, and spices such as black pepper and chili pepper, believing that pungent flavors on the tongue inflame the baser emotions.

Jains not only abstain from consumption of meat, but also do not eat root vegetables (such as carrots, potatoes, radish, turnips, etc) as doing so kills the plant and they believe in ahimsa. In the hierarchy of living entities, overwintering plants such as onions are ranked higher than food crops such as wheat and rice. The ability of onions to observe the changing of the seasons and bloom in spring is believed to be an additional 'sense' absent in lower plants. The amount of bad karma generated depends on the number of senses the creature possesses and so it is thought prudent to avoid eating onions. This also means that in some North Indian traditions, effectively all overwintering plants are considered taboo.

Chinese Buddhist cuisine traditionally prohibits garlic, Allium chinense, asafoetida, shallot, and Allium victorialis (victory onion or mountain leek).

In Yazidism, the eating of lettuce and butter beans is taboo. The Muslim religious teacher and scholar, Falah Hassan Juma, links the sect's belief of evil found in lettuce to its long history of persecution by Muslims. Historical theory claims one ruthless potentate who controlled the city of Mosul in the 13th century ordered an early Yazidi saint executed. The enthusiastic crowd then pelted the corpse with heads of lettuce.

The followers of Pythagoras were vegetarians, and "Pythagorean" at one time came to mean "vegetarian". However, their creed prohibited the eating of beans. The reason is unclear: perhaps the flatulence they cause, perhaps as protection from potential favism, but most likely for magico-religious reasons. One legend about Pythagoras' death states that he was killed after he chose not to run through a fava bean field to escape his enemies.

Vegetables like broccoli and cauliflower, while not taboo, may be avoided by observant Jews and other religions due to the possibility of insects or worms hiding within the numerous crevices. Likewise, fruits such as blackberries and raspberries are recommended by kashrut agencies to be avoided as they cannot be cleaned thoroughly enough without destroying the fruit.

The common Egyptian dish mulukhiyah, a soup whose primary ingredient is jute leaves (which did not have any other culinary purpose), was banned by the Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah sometime during his reign (996-1021 CE). The ban applied to mulukhiyah, and also to other foodstuffs said to be eaten by Sunnis. While the ban was eventually lifted after the end of his reign, the Druze, who hold Al-Hakim in high regard and give him quasi-divine authority, continue to respect the ban, and do not eat mulukhiyah of any kind to this day.

Whales

Sunni Islam permits Muslims to consume the flesh of whales that have died of natural causes as there is a famous Sunni hadith which cites Muhammad's approval of such. Whale meat is forbidden (haram) in Shia Islam as whales do not have scales. In much of the world whale meat is not eaten due to the endangerment of whales but it is not traditionally forbidden. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, it is illegal to import whale meat into the country.

Prohibited drinks

Alcoholic beverages

Some religions – including Buddhism, Islam, Jainism, Rastafari movement, Bahá'í Faith, and various branches of Christianity such as the Baptists, the Pentecostals, Methodists, the Latter-day Saints, Seventh-day Adventists and the Iglesia ni Cristo – forbid or discourage the consumption of alcoholic beverages.

The Hebrew Bible describes a Nazirite vow (Numbers 6:1-21) that includes abstinence from alcohol, specifically wine and probably barley beer (according to the Septuagint translation and the Bauer lexicon: σικερα, from the Akkadian shikaru, for barley beer). The New JPS translation is: "wine and any other intoxicant". Other versions such as the NIV prohibit both alcohol and all alcohol derived products such as wine vinegar. There is no general taboo against alcohol in Judaism.

There are also cultural taboos against the consumption of alcohol, reflected for example in the Teetotalism or Temperance movement. There is also something of a cultural taboo in several countries, against the consumption of alcohol by women during pregnancy for health reasons, as seen, for example, in the Maternity Protection Convention, 2000 by ILO.

Blood

Some religions prohibit drinking or eating blood or food made from blood. In Islam the consumption of blood is prohibited (Haram). Halal animals should be properly slaughtered to drain out the blood. Unlike in other traditions, this is not because blood is revered or holy, but simply because blood is considered ritually unclean or Najis, with certain narratives prescribing ablutions (in the case of no availability of water) if contact is made with it. In Judaism all mammal and bird meat (not fish) is salted to remove the blood. Jews follow the teaching in Leviticus, that since "the life of the animal is in the blood" or "blood was reserved for the forgiveness of sins and thus reserved for God", no person may eat (or drink) the blood. Iglesia ni Cristo and Jehovah's Witnesses prohibit eating or drinking any blood.

According to the Bible, blood is only to be used for special or sacred purposes in connection with worship (Exodus chapters 12, 24, 29, Matthew 26:29 and Hebrews). In the first century, Christians, both former Jews (the Jewish Christians), and new Gentile converts, were in dispute as to which particular features of Mosaic law were to be retained and upheld by them. The Apostolic Decree suggested that, among other things, it was necessary to abstain from consuming blood:

Coffee and tea
"Hot drinks" are taboo for members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The term is misleading as the ban is applied exclusively to coffee and tea (i.e. not hot cocoa or herbal teas). The Word of Wisdom, a code of health used by church members, outlines prohibited and allowed substances. While not banned, some Mormons avoid caffeine in general, including cola drinks. Members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church also generally avoid caffeinated drinks.

There is a widely reported story, possibly apocryphal, that around the year 1600, some Catholics urged Pope Clement VIII to ban coffee, calling it "devil's beverage". After tasting the beverage, the pope is said to have remarked that the drink was "so delicious that it would be a sin to let only misbelievers drink it." (See the History of coffee.)

Human breast milk
While human breast milk is universally accepted for infant nutrition, some cultures see the consumption of breast milk after weaning as taboo.

Prohibited combinations

Kashrut, the Jewish food regulations, classify all permissible foods into three categories: meat products, dairy products, and others, which are considered to be neither (including not just vegetable products, but also fish and eggs). A meal or dish may not contain both meat and dairy products. As well, meat and fish may not be cooked together, nor fish and milk, although fish cooked with other dairy products is permitted.

In Italian cuisine, there is a widespread taboo on serving cheese with seafood, although there are several exceptions.

See also

 Anthropology of religion
 Diet
 Fasting
 Haram
 Libation
 List of diets
 List of foods with religious symbolism
 Morality
 Religion and alcohol
 Religion and drugs
 Sacramental bread
 Semi-vegetarianism
 Terefah
 Kashrut
 Veganism

Notes

References

  Harris applies cultural materialism, looking for economical or ecological explanations behind the taboos.

 Gidi Yahalom, "The Pig's Testimony", Antiguo Oriente 5 (2007): 195–204.

External links
 Americans squeamish over horse meat
 Laws of Judaism and Islam concerning food
 Insects as food
 Karl Ammann, wildlife photographer and bushmeat activist
 Guide to Migratory Bird Laws and Treaties
 Health and diet aspects of kosher food

Diets
Food and drink culture
Food- and drink-related lists
Halal food
Kosher food
Meat
Religion-based diets
Religious law
Sharia
Taboo

Food and drink prohibitions


James Daniel Slaton (April 2, 1910 or 1912 – February 25, 1961) was a United States Army soldier and a recipient of the United States military's highest decoration—the Medal of Honor—for his actions in World War II.

Biography
Slaton joined the army from Gulfport, Mississippi, in June 1942, and by September 23, 1943, was serving as a corporal in the 157th Infantry Regiment, 45th Infantry Division. On that day, near Oliveto, Italy, he single-handedly destroyed three enemy machine gun nests. He was awarded the Medal of Honor eight months later, on May 30, 1944.

Slaton left the army while still a corporal. He died in 1961 and was buried at Woodlawn Cemetery in his birth city of Laurel, Mississippi.

Medal of Honor citation
Corporal Slaton's official Medal of Honor citation reads:
For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of life above and beyond the call of duty in action with the enemy in the vicinity of Oliveto, Italy, on September 23, 1943. Cpl. Slaton was lead scout of an infantry squad which had been committed to a flank to knock out enemy resistance which had succeeded in pinning 2 attacking platoons to the ground. Working ahead of his squad, Cpl. Slaton crept upon an enemy machinegun nest and, assaulting it with his bayonet, succeeded in killing the gunner. When his bayonet stuck, he detached it from the rifle and killed another gunner with rifle fire. At that time he was fired upon by a machinegun to his immediate left. Cpl. Slaton then moved over open ground under constant fire to within throwing distance, and on his second try scored a direct hit on the second enemy machinegun nest, killing 2 enemy gunners. At that time a third machinegun fired on him 100 yards to his front, and Cpl. Slaton killed both of these enemy gunners with rifle fire. As a result of Cpl. Slaton's heroic action in immobilizing 3 enemy machinegun nests with bayonet, grenade, and rifle fire, the 2 rifle platoons which were receiving heavy casualties from enemy fire were enabled to withdraw to covered positions and again take the initiative. Cpl. Slaton withdrew under mortar fire on order of his platoon leader at dusk that evening. The heroic actions of Cpl. Slaton were far above and beyond the call of duty and are worthy of emulation.

See also

Notes

References

1961 deaths
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
People from Laurel, Mississippi
United States Army non-commissioned officers
1910s births
World War II recipients of the Medal of Honor

James D. Slaton


Professor Splash (born March 8, 1961) is the show name of Darren Taylor. Taylor is an American show diver from Denver, Colorado. He is well known for breaking high diving records using small pools. He holds the Guinness World Records for highest shallow water dive. Taylor has been on The History Channel's Stan Lee's Superhumans and explained the form of his famous dive. Taylor appeared on Discovery Channel's Time Warp and set a world record dive captured on slow motion cameras.

In 2011, Professor Splash appeared on NBC's America's Got Talent as a part of the auditions that took place in Houston, Texas. He received a "yes" from all three judges and advanced to the Las Vegas round. From the Vegas round, he advanced directly to the live quarterfinals without having to perform. In the quarterfinals, he jumped 36 feet 7 inches into the water, setting a new Guinness world record. From that height he hit the water traveling at approximately 53 km/h (33 mph). He was chosen over Seth Grabel in Judge's Choice, advancing into the semifinals. He was eliminated in the semifinals and did not advance to the top 10. Professor Splash was the only performer in 10 seasons to set two Guinness records.

He appeared on ITV's Red Or Black? in the U.K. at Wembley Arena, Red Or Black? Kiev, Ukraine, Outrageous Acts of Science on Science Channel and "Minute of Fame" in Moscow, Russia.

He was also on Česko Slovensko má talent 2012 (another version of Got Talent).

Professor Splash would come out of retirement to participate in the second season of the Go-Big Show were he come in second place.

References

America's Got Talent contestants
American male divers
Living people
Male high divers
Sportspeople from Denver
1961 births

Professor Splash


The Nakajima A1N, or Navy Type 3 Carrier Fighter, was a Japanese carrier-based fighter of the late-1920s and early-1930s. It was a licensed copy of the British Gloster Gambet fighter, built by the Nakajima Aircraft Company for the Imperial Japanese Navy. Approximately 150 were built in two versions, the A1N1 and A1N2.

Development
By 1926, the Imperial Japanese Navy's Mitsubishi 1MF fighters (also known as Type 10 Carrier Fighters) were in need of replacement and so it asked three of the leading Japanese aircraft manufacturers, Nakajima, Mitsubishi and Aichi for proposals for a new carrier-based fighter.

Nakajima purchased a licence from the British Gloster Aircraft Company for production of the Gloster Gambet. It was a private venture design for a carrier-based derivative of their earlier Gloster Gamecock fighter. The prototype Gambet was built by Gloster and first flew on 12 December 1927.

The prototype Gambet was shipped to Japan early in 1928. After modifications were made and it was fitted with a Nakajima-built Bristol Jupiter engine, the Gambet was evaluated by the Japanese navy against competitors from Aichi and Mitsubishi. It proved to be more manoeuvrable while still being a stable gun platform and was selected in April 1929 for production as the Navy Type 3 Carrier Fighter, with the short designation A1N1. 50 A1N1s were built.

The A1N2 used the 336 kW (450 hp) Nakajima Kotobuki 2 engine, and was introduced in 1930. Production of approximately 100 was completed by 1932.

Design
The Gambet was a single-seat, single-bay biplane, of all-wooden construction and powered by an air-cooled Bristol Jupiter radial engine. While similar to the Gamecock, it was fitted with longer-span wings, internal flotation bags and arrestor hooks for carrier operations.

Operational history
The A1N1 entered service in 1929, replacing the Mitsubishi 1-MF. It served on the carriers , ,  and . The improved A1N2 entered service in 1930, with production continuing until 1932.

The A1N flew from the carriers Hōshō and Kaga during the Shanghai Incident in 1932 between Japan and China. A1Ns from Kaga scored the Imperial Japanese Navy's first air-to-air combat victory on 22 February 1932 when they shot down a Boeing P-12 (specifically a Model 218, Prototype of the P-12E/F4B-3 variant, after evaluation sold to the Chinese Air Force.) flown by the American volunteer pilot Robert Short. A 15-aircraft formation composed of Mitsubishi B1Ms with A1N escorts attacked Qiaosi Airbase in Hangzhou on 26 February 1932, engaging Chinese fighters in a dogfight, shooting down at least one Junkers K 47.

A1Ns continued in service until 1935, being replaced in service by the Nakajima A2N or Navy Type 90 Carrier Fighter.

Variants
Gloster Gambet
Prototype carrier-based fighter designed and built by Gloster Aircraft Company in the United Kingdom. Powered by one 313 kW (420 hp) Bristol Jupiter VI radial engine, one built.
Nakajima A1N1
Initial licensed production version. Powered by Nakajima built Jupiter VI engine, 50 built between 1928 and 1930.
Nakajima A1N2
Improved production version, powered by 336 kW (450 hp) Nakajima Kotobuki 2 engine. Approximately 100 built between 1930 and 1932.

Operators

Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service

Specifications (A1N2)

See also

References

External links

A1N profiles

A01N
1920s Japanese fighter aircraft
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Biplanes
Carrier-based aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1927

Nakajima A1N


Adrian Fisher  is a British pioneer, inventor, designer and creator of mazes, puzzles, public art, tessellations, tilings, patterns and networks of many kinds.  He is responsible for more than 700 mazes in 42 countries since 1979.

Before embarking on his career, Fisher was educated at Oundle School and Portsmouth Polytechnic.

Fisher has created 63 mirror mazes, and pioneered the extensive use of thematic chambers within mirror mazes, to achieve Mirror Maze Adventures.  He has created 44 hedge mazes, and pioneered the use of Folly Towers, Tunnels, Walk-through Parting Waterfalls and Foaming Fountain Gates in mazes.  He designed the world's first cornfield maize maze in 1993 and over 400 since, and has set 7 Guinness World Records.  He has created water mazes, most notably the award-winning Beatles Maze (with Randoll Coate and Graham Burgess), and the Jersey Water Maze.  He pioneered the genre of Path-in-Grass Mazes, and has created over a dozen around the world.

Fisher has invented several brick paving and mosaic tiling systems.  For the Orang Utan Pavement Maze at Edinburgh Zoo, he invented a new paver tessellation using 7-sided and 5-sided (regular pentagon) bricks.  The 'Fisher Paver', his second paving system uses 7-sided and 4-sided bricks and has been installed within paving projects on both sides of the Atlantic.  Its benefits include being able to achieve dynamic and intriguing designs straight off the pallet with no cutting, thus offering excellent labour productivity when laying; it only requires one new 7-sided paver shape, yet its modular scale matches all industry-standard paving systems.  Fisher's third paving system is the Mitre System, which he invented and patented together with the American mathematician Ed Pegg.  Used for both mosaics and paving, their distinctive angular shapes create unique and pleasing images.  Notable examples of its use in England include four Historic Mosaics with the Millennium Maze in Marlow, Buckinghamshire, and the 24 ft high SciTec Mosaic at Oundle School, Northamptonshire; and in America, the Tree of Life Mosaic in a private garden in Roxbury, Connecticut.

His Colour Mazes have been published in Scientific American, and walk-on examples can be found in the New York Hall of Science, Eureka Children's Museum in Halifax England, The Exploratory in Bristol, Cape Coral Children's Science Center in Florida, and over 30 other locations worldwide.

He designed the Star Map concept for London Buses, upon which was based the Spider Map system currently in use by London Buses.

In the 1980s, he co-designed the Blenheim Palace maze, that appears in the 2016 Bank of England £5 note.

Fisher designs puzzles for British newspapers and the World Puzzle Championships. The Guardian newspaper named him as one of Britain's top 50 designers.  He has written over a dozen books on mazes and puzzles, in particular The Art of the Maze (Orion Books, 1990), Secrets of the Maze (Thames & Hudson) and The Amazing Book of Mazes (Thames & Hudson, 2006).

A major Maze Art Exhibition on Adrian Fisher's work was held at the Norton Museum of Art, West Palm Beach, Florida, from January to March 1997; it included the creation of full-size permanent mazes in the surrounding landscape, and the publication "Your Land is His Canvas".

Fisher was Director of Britain's "1991 – The Year of the Maze" Tourism Campaign.  He was the recipient of the 2003 Resorgimento Award at the University of Tennessee at Knoxville, USA, on May 24, 2003, "in recognition of those who have demonstrated outstanding creativity, who have and will continue to change the world in which we live".  He gave a TEDx talk in Cape May, New Jersey, USA, on the subject of "The Pursuit of Happiness".  He was a judge of the 2009 International Labyrinth Competition in St Petersburg, Russia.

He and his wife Marie live in the village of Durweston in North Dorset, and within their grounds have a yew hedge maze with a central Folly Tower, mirrored chamber, spiral staircase and battlement walkway.

Fisher was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2020 Birthday Honours for services to international trade and the creative industry.

Locations of selected mosaics designed by Adrian Fisher
 The George Jackson Mosaic, SciTec Building, Oundle School, Northamptonshire, England
 'Tree of Life' Mosaic, Private Garden, Roxbury, Connecticut, USA
 4 Mosaics within the Millennium Maze, Higginson Park, Marlow, England

Locations of selected mazes designed by Adrian Fisher

UK

UK, Mirror Mazes

 Birmingham Sea Life Centre Mirror Maze, Birmingham, England;
 Edinburgh Dungeon Mirror Maze, Scotland;
 London Dungeon Mirror Maze, England;
 Longleat House Mirror Maze, Wiltshire, England;
 Louis Tussauds Mirror Maze, Blackpool, Lancashire, England;
 Warwick Castle Dungeon Mirror Maze, Warwickshire, England;
 Wookey Hole Caves Mirror Maze, Somerset, England;
 York Dungeon Mirror Maze, York, England;
 'Punch and Judy' Mirror Maze, Dreamland Theme Park, Margate, England, 2015;

UK, other mazes

 Alnwick Garden Bamboo Labyrinth, Northumberland;
 Adventure Wonderland Hedge Maze, Dorset, England;
 Beatles Maze, 1984 International Garden Festival, Liverpool;
 Bicton Park Fence Maze, Devon, England;
 Blackpool Pleasure Beach Hedge Maze, Lancashire, England;
 Blenheim Palace Hedge Maze, Oxfordshire, England;
 Capel Manor Hedge Maze, Hertfordshire, England;
 Escot Park Hedge Maze, Devon, England;
 Greys Court 'Archbishop's Maze', Oxfordshire, England;
 Higginson Park Maze, Marlow, Buckinghamshire;
 Holywell Bay Fun Park Fence Maze, Cornwall, England;
 Kentwell Hall Pavement Maze, Suffolk, England;
 Leeds Castle Hedge Maze, Kent, England;
 Legoland Hedge Maze, Windsor, Berkshire, England;
 Leicester University Pavement Maze, England;
 Newquay Zoo Hedge Maze, Cornwall, England;
 Parham Park Maze, West Sussex, England;
 Scone Palace Hedge Maze, Perth, Scotland;
 Hedge Maze, Speke Hall (National Trust), Merseyside, England, 2011;
 Staunton Country Park Hedge Maze, Hampshire, England;
 Water Tower Gardens Jubilee Maze, Chester, England

Europe

Czech Republic
 Castle Loucen:  collection of 10 varied mazes and labyrinths within the landscape

Denmark
 Mirror Maze, Haunted House, Legoland, Billund, Denmark

Finland
 Maailma Fence Maze, Finland

France
 Chateau de Thoiry Hedge Maze, near Paris, France;
 Chateau de Colombier Hedge Maze, near Rodez, France;
 Peaugres Safari Park Mirror Maze, Annonay, France

Germany
 Berlin Sea Life Centre Mirror Maze, Berlin, Germany
 Hamburg Dungeon Mirror Maze, Hamburg, Germany
 'Police Station Breakout' Mirror Maze, Legoland Deutschland, Germany, 2015

Poland
 World Labyrinth Bliziny, near Gdansk, Poland

Ireland
 Russborough House Hedge Maze, Blessington, Ireland

Italy
 Sigurta Gardens Hedge Maze, near Verona, Italy

Jersey
 Castle View Gardens Water Maze, St. Peter, Jersey, Channel Islands

Netherlands
 Texel Island Maize Maze;
 Amsterdam Dungeon Mirror Maze, Netherlands;
 Amsterdam Forest Hedge Maze, Netherlands;
 Three Lands Point Hedge Maze, Vaals, Netherlands

North America

United States
 Davis Megamaze Maize Maze, Sterling, Massachusetts, USA;
 Amazing Chicago's Funhouse Maze on Navy Pier, Chicago, Illinois, USA;
 Skyline Caverns Mirror Maze, Front Royal, Virginia, USA;
 Mall of Georgia Paving Mazes, Atlanta, Georgia, USA;
 Noah's Ark Water Park Mirror Maze, Wisconsin Dells, USA;
 Norton Museum of Art Pavement Maze, West Palm Beach, USA;
 Norton Museum of Art Serpent Mound and Turf Labyrinth, West Palm Beach, USA
 Cannery Row Mirror Maze, Monterey, California, USA
 'Palace of Sweets' Mirror Maze, Wildwood, New Jersey, USA
 'Hannah's Maze of Mirrors', Hollywood Wax Museum, Pigeon Forge, Tennessee, USA
 Elusive Butterfly Mirror Maze, Butterfly Wonderland, Scottsdale, Arizona, USA, 2013
 'Hannah's Maze of Mirrors', Hollywood Wax Museum, Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, USA, 2014

Canada
 Larry's Party Maze, Grand Falls, New Brunswick, Canada, 2003;

Mexico
 Colour Maze, Wol-Ha Children's Museum, Mexico
 Coral Reef Mirror Maze, Gran Plaza Mall, Guadalajara, Mexico, 2011
 Candy Mirror Maze, Chetumal, Mexico, 2011
 Egyptian Mirror Maze, Monterrey, Mexico, 2011
 Pirate Mirror Maze, Pachuca, Mexico, 2011

South America

Colombia
 Bogota Children's Museum Maze Garden, Colombia, South America

Chile
 Space Adventure Mirror Maze, Kidzania, Santiago, Chile, South America

Asia

China
 Christmas Maze, Hong Kong, 2014
 Squirrel Mirror Maze, Harbin, China, 2015

Dubai
 The Maze Tower, Dubai, UAE; winner of Guinness World Record for world's tallest maze.

India
 Imax Theatre Mirror Maze, Hyderabad, India
 Disco Club Mirror Maze, Gurgaon, Delhi, India, 2011
 Ali Baba Mirror Maze, Esselworld Theme Park, Mumbai, 2015

Japan
 Huistenbosh Park Mirror Maze, Japan;
 Seibu Park Mirror Maze, Japan;
 Spanish Village Mirror Maze, Japan;
 Tobu Zoo Mirror Maze, Japan
 Tokyo Dome Mirror Maze, Japan
 Tokyo Tower Mirror Maze, Japan, 2015

Singapore
 Hedge Maze, The Jewel, Changi International Airport, Singapore
 Mirror Maze, The Jewel, Changi International Airport, Singapore
 Professor Crackitt's Mirror Maze, Singapore Science Centre, Singapore

South Korea
 Jeju Island Hedge Maze, South Korea (Kimnyung Maze)

Thailand
 Ripleys Mirror Maze, Pattaya, Thailand

Vietnam
 Mirror Maze, Vietnam

See also
 Randoll Coate – Fisher's original partner in maze design

References

External links
 Adrianfisherdesign.com – Adrian Fisher's official maze website
 Alnwickgarden.com – Alnwick Garden
 Beatles Maze – 1984 International Garden Festival, Liverpool
 Glasgow Green Trials – American cornfield maze for MG sports cars inspired by Adrian Fisher

1951 births
Living people
Mazes
People educated at Oundle School
Puzzle designers
Members of the Order of the British Empire

Adrian Fisher (maze designer)


Mbaye-Jacques Diop (15 January 1936 – 11 September 2016) was a Senegalese politician. He served as a Deputy in the National Assembly of Senegal from 1983 to 2004, as Mayor of Rufisque from 1987 to 2002, and as President of the Council of the Republic for Economic and Social Affairs (CRAES) from 2004 to 2007. He was a long-time member of the Socialist Party (PS), but split from the PS to form his own party, the Party for Progress and Citizenship (PPC), in 2000, before merging that party into the Senegalese Democratic Party (PDS) two years later.

Biography

Early career
Diop was born in Rufisque in 1936 and joined the Youth Movement of the Senegalese Democratic Bloc in 1954 as a founding member. He became the Secretary-General for Organization and Propaganda of the Youth Union of the Senegalese Popular Bloc in 1957; after the Bloc was transformed into the Senegalese Progressive Union, he continued to hold the same post in its youth movement until 1964. Additionally, he was successively a member of the Political Bureau of the Bloc and then the Senegalese Progressive Union from 1957 to 1967. At the Cotonou congress of the African Regroupment Party in July 1958, Diop was a delegate representing the youth of Senegal; he was subsequently the Secretary for Foreign Relations of the National Youth Union of Mali from 1959 to 1960. He was first elected as a municipal councillor in Rufisque in 1964 and was continuously re-elected during the subsequent decades.

Later, Diop was the Director of the PS Cadre School, which he founded, from 1975 to 1980; also during that period, he was Coordinator of the PS Study and Reflection Group (GER) from 1976 to 1978 and was Permanent Secretary of the PS Political Bureau from 1977 to 1980. He was the Secretary-General of the PS Communal Coordination from 1982 to 1990. Diop was elected to the National Assembly in the 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998 elections as a PS candidate; he also became Mayor of Rufisque in 1987 and was Vice-President of the Association of Mayors of Senegal from 1988 to 2002. Additionally, he held the posts of Secretary-General of the PS Regional Union in Dakar and First Vice-President of the Urban Community of Dakar from 1990 to 2000. In the National Assembly, Diop was President of the Laws and Human Rights Commission from 1996 to 2000 and President of the Defense and Security Commission from 2000 to 2001.

Party split
Shortly before the first round of the 2000 presidential election, violence broke out between supporters of the PS and the opposition in Rufisque on 23 February 2000; there were six injuries, and two homes owned by Diop were set on fire. He described it as "a grave sign for democracy in Senegal". After the first round, Diop resigned from the PS on 2 March 2000, choosing to support opposition candidate Abdoulaye Wade against the incumbent president and PS candidate Abdou Diouf and joining a pro-Wade alliance, the Front for the Alternance. According to Diop, his defection "dealt a severe political, electoral and psychological blow to the PS and its candidate, Abdou Diouf", who was defeated by Wade in the second round. He then founded a new party, the PPC, on 30 May 2000, becoming its Secretary-General. Subsequently, he was elected to the National Assembly as a PPC candidate through national list proportional representation in the April 2001 parliamentary election; he was the only PPC candidate to win a seat.

The PPC merged itself into Wade's party, the PDS, on 20 May 2002; Diop became National Political Secretary of the PDS at that time. Also in 2002, Diop left his position as Mayor of Rufisque, becoming Honorary Mayor instead. He joined the National Political Administration of the PDS in May 2003 and joined the PDS Steering Committee in May 2004. Wade then appointed Diop as President of the CRAES when that body was created in August 2004. Diop also became President of the Union of Economic and Social Councils and Similar Institutions of La Francophonie in June 2007. On 1 October 2007, Wade asked Diop to resign from his position as President of the CRAES, while stressing that he did not have a dispute with Diop and did not want to start one. Diop was unwilling to resign, however, saying that he had done nothing wrong and that people would not understand if he left his post prior to the end of his five-year term in August 2009. On 4 October, when Diop was preparing to travel to a meeting of the Union of Economic and Social Councils and Similar Institutions of La Francophonie, Wade barred him from leaving the country. After Iba Der Thiam mediated the situation, Diop agreed to resign on 16 November, but Wade nevertheless criticized Diop at a meeting of the PDS Steering Committee, saying that he had wasted 300 million CFA francs on "whimisical missions". Wade dissolved the CRAES on 21 November 2007 and established a new Economic and Social Council in its place.

On 13 February 2008, the Grand Marabout of the Mourides, Serigne Mouhamadou Lamine Bara Mbacké, asked Diop to return from Paris to meet with Wade in Dakar on 14 February. Wade and Diop accordingly met at the presidential palace and discussed the reasons for Wade's dissolution of the CRAES. On this occasion, Wade complained that Diop had failed to campaign for him in the February 2007 presidential election, while Diop said that he had created a slogan supporting Wade's candidacy and that he had toured the regional capitals to speak in support of Wade's candidacy. Wade also said that he had heard that Diop had boasted that Wade could not act against him; Diop replied that he could not simultaneously support Wade's re-election and defy his authority. Wade told Diop that he no longer had any complaint against him, "especially as my marabout asks it of me". Diop subsequently went to Touba to thank the Grand Marabout for his intervention on 16 February.

Diop said on 16 September 2009 that he did not favor moves to eliminate the two-round system for presidential elections, arguing that it would be less democratic to decide the outcome in a single round. He nevertheless expressed his firm support for President Wade's planned 2012 re-election bid.

References

1936 births
Members of the National Assembly (Senegal)
Mayors of places in Senegal
2016 deaths
Senegalese Democratic Bloc politicians
Socialist Party of Senegal politicians
Senegalese Democratic Party politicians
Party for Progress and Citizenship politicians
People from Rufisque

Mbaye-Jacques Diop