Benjamin Lee Whorf (; April 24, 1897 – July 26, 1941) was an American linguist and fire prevention engineer who is famous for proposing the "Sapir–Whorf hypothesis." He believed that the structures of different languages shape how their speakers perceive and conceptualize the world. Whorf saw this idea, named after him and his mentor Edward Sapir, as having implications similar to Einstein's principle of physical relativity. However, the concept originated from 19th-century philosophy and thinkers like Wilhelm von Humboldt and Wilhelm Wundt.

Whorf initially pursued chemical engineering but developed an interest in linguistics, particularly Biblical Hebrew and indigenous Mesoamerican languages. His groundbreaking work on the Nahuatl language earned him recognition, and he received a grant to study it further in Mexico. He presented influential papers on Nahuatl upon his return. Whorf later studied linguistics with Edward Sapir at Yale University while working as a fire prevention engineer.

During his time at Yale, Whorf worked on describing the Hopi language and made notable claims about its perception of time. He also conducted research on the Uto-Aztecan languages, publishing influential papers. In 1938, he substituted for Sapir, teaching a seminar on American Indian linguistics. Whorf's contributions extended beyond linguistic relativity; he wrote a grammar sketch of Hopi, studied Nahuatl dialects, proposed a deciphering of Maya hieroglyphic writing, and contributed to Uto-Aztecan reconstruction.

After Whorf's death from cancer in 1941, his linguist friends curated his manuscripts and promoted his ideas regarding language, culture, and cognition. However, in the 1960s, his views fell out of favor due to criticisms claiming his ideas were untestable and poorly formulated. In recent decades, interest in Whorf's work has resurged, with scholars reevaluating his ideas and engaging in a more in-depth understanding of his theories. The field of linguistic relativity remains an active area of research in psycholinguistics and linguistic anthropology, generating ongoing debates between relativism and universalism. Whorf's contributions to linguistics, such as the allophone and the cryptotype, have been widely accepted.

Biography

Early life
The son of Harry Church Whorf and Sarah Edna Lee Whorf, Benjamin Lee Whorf was born on April 24, 1897, in Winthrop, Massachusetts. Harry Church Whorf was an artist, intellectual, and designer – first working as a commercial artist and later as a dramatist. Whorf had two younger brothers, John and Richard, who both went on to become notable artists. John became an internationally renowned painter and illustrator; Richard was an actor in films such as Yankee Doodle Dandy and later an Emmy-nominated television director of such shows as The Beverly Hillbillies. Whorf was the intellectual of the three and started conducting chemical experiments with his father's photographic equipment at a young age. He was also an avid reader, interested in botany, astrology, and Middle American prehistory. He read William H. Prescott's Conquest of Mexico several times. At the age of 17, he began keeping a copious diary in which he recorded his thoughts and dreams.

Career in fire prevention
Whorf graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1918 with a degree in chemical engineering where his academic performance was of average quality. In 1920, he married Celia Inez Peckham, who became the mother of his three children, Raymond Ben, Robert Peckham and Celia Lee. Around the same time he began work as a fire prevention engineer (an inspector) for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company. He was particularly good at the job and was highly commended by his employers. His job required him to travel to production facilities throughout New England to be inspected. One anecdote describes him arriving at a chemical plant in which he was denied access by the director because he would not allow anyone to see the production procedure which was a trade secret. Having been told what the plant produced, Whorf wrote a chemical formula on a piece of paper, saying to the director: "I think this is what you're doing". The surprised director asked Whorf how he knew about the secret procedure, and he simply answered: "You couldn't do it in any other way."

Whorf helped to attract new customers to the Fire Insurance Company; they favored his thorough inspections and recommendations. Another famous anecdote from his job was used by Whorf to argue that language use affects habitual behavior. Whorf described a workplace in which full gasoline drums were stored in one room and empty ones in another; he said that because of flammable vapor the "empty" drums were more dangerous than those that were full, although workers handled them less carefully to the point that they smoked in the room with "empty" drums, but not in the room with full ones. Whorf argued that by habitually speaking of the vapor-filled drums as empty and by extension as inert, the workers were oblivious to the risk posed by smoking near the "empty drums".

Early interest in religion and language
Whorf was a spiritual man throughout his lifetime although what religion he followed has been the subject of debate. As a young man, he produced a manuscript titled "Why I have discarded evolution", causing some scholars to describe him as a devout Methodist, who was impressed with fundamentalism, and perhaps supportive of creationism. However, throughout his life Whorf's main religious interest was theosophy, a nonsectarian organization based on Buddhist and Hindu teachings that promotes the view of the world as an interconnected whole and the unity and brotherhood of humankind "without distinction of race, creed, sex, caste or color". Some scholars have argued that the conflict between spiritual and scientific inclinations has been a driving force in Whorf's intellectual development, particularly in the attraction by ideas of linguistic relativity. Whorf said that "of all groups of people with whom I have come in contact, Theosophical people seem the most capable of becoming excited about ideas—new ideas."

Around 1924, Whorf first became interested in linguistics. Originally, he analyzed Biblical texts, seeking to uncover hidden layers of meaning. Inspired by the esoteric work La langue hebraïque restituée by Antoine Fabre d'Olivet, he began a semantic and grammatical analysis of Biblical Hebrew. Whorf's early manuscripts on Hebrew and Maya have been described as exhibiting a considerable degree of mysticism, as he sought to uncover esoteric meanings of glyphs and letters.

Early studies in Mesoamerican linguistics
Whorf studied Biblical linguistics mainly at the Watkinson Library (now Hartford Public Library). This library had an extensive collection of materials about Native American linguistics and folklore, originally collected by James Hammond Trumbull. It was at the Watkinson library that Whorf became friends with the young boy, John B. Carroll, who later went on to study psychology under B. F. Skinner, and who in 1956 edited and published a selection of Whorf's essays as Language, Thought and Reality . The collection rekindled Whorf's interest in Mesoamerican antiquity. He began studying the Nahuatl language in 1925, and later, beginning in 1928, he studied the collections of Maya hieroglyphic texts. Quickly becoming conversant with the materials, he began a scholarly dialog with Mesoamericanists such as Alfred Tozzer, the Maya archaeologist at Harvard University, and Herbert Spinden of the Brooklyn Museum.

In 1928, he first presented a paper at the International Congress of Americanists in which he presented his translation of a Nahuatl document held at the Peabody Museum at Harvard. He also began to study the comparative linguistics of the Uto-Aztecan language family, which Edward Sapir had recently demonstrated to be a linguistic family. In addition to Nahuatl, Whorf studied the Piman and Tepecano languages, while in close correspondence with linguist J. Alden Mason.

Field studies in Mexico
Because of the promise shown by his work on Uto-Aztecan, Tozzer and Spinden advised Whorf to apply for a grant with the Social Science Research Council (SSRC) to support his research. Whorf considered using the money to travel to Mexico to procure Aztec manuscripts for the Watkinson library, but Tozzer suggested he spend the time in Mexico documenting modern Nahuatl dialects. In his application Whorf proposed to establish the oligosynthetic nature of the Nahuatl language. Before leaving Whorf presented the paper "Stem series in Maya" at the Linguistic Society of America conference, in which he argued that in the Mayan languages syllables carry symbolic content. The SSRC awarded Whorf the grant and in 1930 he traveled to Mexico City, where Professor Robert H. Barlow put him in contact with several speakers of Nahuatl to serve as his informants. The outcome of the trip to Mexico was Whorf's sketch of Milpa Alta Nahuatl, published only after his death, and an article on a series of Aztec pictograms found at the Tepozteco monument at Tepoztlán, Morelos in which he noted similarities in form and meaning between Aztec and Maya day signs.

At Yale

Although Whorf had been entirely an autodidact in linguistic theory and field methodology up to this point, he had already made a name for himself in Mesoamerican linguistics. Whorf had met Sapir, the leading US linguist of the day, at professional conferences, and in 1931 Sapir came to Yale from the University of Chicago to take a position as Professor of Anthropology. Alfred Tozzer sent Sapir a copy of Whorf's paper on "Nahuatl tones and saltillo". Sapir replied stating that it "should by all means be published"; however, it was not until 1993 that it was prepared for publication by Lyle Campbell and Frances Karttunen.

Whorf took Sapir's first course at Yale on "American Indian Linguistics". He enrolled in a program of graduate studies, nominally working towards a PhD in linguistics, but he never actually attempted to obtain a degree, satisfying himself with participating in the intellectual community around Sapir. At Yale, Whorf joined the circle of Sapir's students that included such luminaries as Morris Swadesh, Mary Haas, Harry Hoijer, G. L. Trager and Charles F. Voegelin. Whorf took on a central role among Sapir's students and was well respected.

Sapir had a profound influence on Whorf's thinking. Sapir's earliest writings had espoused views of the relation between thought and language stemming from the Humboldtian tradition he acquired through Franz Boas, which regarded language as the historical embodiment of volksgeist, or ethnic world view. But Sapir had since become influenced by a current of logical positivism, such as that of Bertrand Russell and the early Ludwig Wittgenstein, particularly through Ogden and Richards' The Meaning of Meaning, from which he adopted the view that natural language potentially obscures, rather than facilitates, the mind to perceive and describe the world as it really is. In this view, proper perception could only be accomplished through formal logics. During his stay at Yale, Whorf acquired this current of thought partly from Sapir and partly through his own readings of Russell and Ogden and Richards. As Whorf became more influenced by positivist science he also distanced himself from some approaches to language and meaning that he saw as lacking in rigor and insight. One of these was Polish philosopher Alfred Korzybski's General semantics, which was espoused in the US by Stuart Chase. Chase admired Whorf's work and frequently sought out a reluctant Whorf, who considered Chase to be "utterly incompetent by training and background to handle such a subject." Ironically, Chase would later write the foreword for Carroll's collection of Whorf's writings.

Work on Hopi and descriptive linguistics
Sapir also encouraged Whorf to continue his work on the historical and descriptive linguistics of Uto-Aztecan. Whorf published several articles on that topic in this period, some of them with G. L. Trager, who had become his close friend. Whorf took a special interest in the Hopi language and started working with Ernest Naquayouma, a speaker of Hopi from Toreva village living in Manhattan, New York. Whorf credited Naquayouma as the source of most of his information on the Hopi language, although in 1938 he took a short field trip to the village of Mishongnovi, on the Second Mesa of the Hopi Reservation in Arizona.

In 1936, Whorf was appointed honorary research fellow in anthropology at Yale, and he was invited by Franz Boas to serve on the committee of the Society of American Linguistics (later Linguistic Society of America). In 1937, Yale awarded him the Sterling Fellowship. He was a lecturer in anthropology from 1937 through 1938, replacing Sapir, who was gravely ill. Whorf gave graduate level lectures on "Problems of American Indian Linguistics". In 1938 with Trager's assistance he elaborated a report on the progress of linguistic research at the department of anthropology at Yale. The report includes some of Whorf's influential contributions to linguistic theory, such as the concept of the allophone and of covert grammatical categories.  has argued, that in this report Whorf's linguistic theories exist in a condensed form, and that it was mainly through this report that Whorf exerted influence on the discipline of descriptive linguistics.

Final years
In late 1938, Whorf's own health declined. After an operation for cancer, he fell into an unproductive period. He was also deeply affected by Sapir's death in early 1939. It was in the writings of his last two years that he laid out the research program of linguistic relativity. His 1939 memorial article for Sapir, "The Relation of Habitual Thought And Behavior to Language", in particular has been taken to be Whorf's definitive statement of the issue, and is his most frequently quoted piece.

In his last year Whorf also published three articles in the MIT Technology Review titled "Science and Linguistics", "Linguistics as an Exact Science" and "Language and Logic". He was also invited to contribute an article to a theosophical journal, Theosophist, published in Madras, India, for which he wrote "Language, Mind and Reality". In these final pieces, he offered a critique of Western science in which he suggested that non-European languages often referred to physical phenomena in ways that more directly reflected aspects of reality than many European languages, and that science ought to pay attention to the effects of linguistic categorization in its efforts to describe the physical world. He particularly criticized the Indo-European languages for promoting a mistaken essentialist world view, which had been disproved by advances in the sciences, whereas he suggested that other languages dedicated more attention to processes and dynamics rather than stable essences. Whorf argued that paying attention to how other physical phenomena are described in the study of linguistics could make valuable contributions to science by pointing out the ways in which certain assumptions about reality are implicit in the structure of language itself, and how language guides the attention of speakers towards certain phenomena in the world which risk becoming overemphasized while leaving other phenomena at risk of being overlooked.

Posthumous reception and legacy
At Whorf's death, his friend G. L. Trager was appointed as curator of his unpublished manuscripts. Some of them were published in the years after his death by another of Whorf's friends, Harry Hoijer. In the decade following, Trager and particularly Hoijer did much to popularize Whorf's ideas about linguistic relativity, and it was Hoijer who coined the term "Sapir–Whorf hypothesis" at a 1954 conference. Trager then published an article titled "The systematization of the Whorf hypothesis", which contributed to the idea that Whorf had proposed a hypothesis that should be the basis for a program of empirical research. Hoijer also published studies of Indigenous languages and cultures of the American South West in which Whorf found correspondences between cultural patterns and linguistic ones. The term, even though technically a misnomer, went on to become the most widely known label for Whorf's ideas. According to John A. Lucy, "Whorf's work in linguistics was and still is recognized as being of superb professional quality by linguists".

Universalism and anti-Whorfianism
Whorf's work began to fall out of favor less than a decade after his death, and he was subjected to severe criticism from scholars of language, culture and psychology. In 1953 and 1954, psychologists Roger Brown and Eric Lenneberg criticized Whorf for his reliance on anecdotal evidence, formulating a hypothesis to scientifically test his ideas, which they limited to an examination of a causal relation between grammatical or lexical structure and cognition or perception. Whorf himself did not advocate a straight causality between language and thought; instead he wrote that "Language and culture had grown up together"; that both were mutually shaped by the other. Hence,  has argued that because the aim of the formulation of the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis was to test simple causation, it failed to test Whorf's ideas from the outset.

Focusing on color terminology, with easily discernible differences between perception and vocabulary, Brown and Lenneberg published in 1954 a study of Zuni color terms that slightly support a weak effect of semantic categorization of color terms on color perception. In doing so they began a line of empirical studies that investigated the principle of linguistic relativity.

Empirical testing of the Whorfian hypothesis declined in the 1960s to 1980s as Noam Chomsky began to redefine linguistics and much of psychology in formal universalist terms. Several studies from that period refuted Whorf's hypothesis, demonstrating that linguistic diversity is a surface veneer that masks underlying universal cognitive principles. Many studies were highly critical and disparaging in their language, ridiculing Whorf's analyses and examples or his lack of an academic degree. Throughout the 1980s, most mentions of Whorf or of the Sapir–Whorf hypotheses continued to be disparaging, and led to a widespread view that Whorf's ideas had been proven wrong. Because Whorf was treated so severely in the scholarship during those decades, he has been described as "one of the prime whipping boys of introductory texts to linguistics". With the advent of cognitive linguistics and psycholinguistics in the late 1980s, some linguists sought to rehabilitate Whorf's reputation, as scholarship began to question whether earlier critiques of Whorf were justified.

By the 1960s, analytical philosophers also became aware of the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, and philosophers such as Max Black and Donald Davidson published scathing critiques of Whorf's strong relativist viewpoints. Black characterized Whorf's ideas about metaphysics as demonstrating "amateurish crudity". According to Black and Davidson, Whorf's viewpoint and the concept of linguistic relativity meant that translation between languages with different conceptual schemes would be impossible. Recent assessments such as those by Leavitt and Lee, however, consider Black and Davidson's interpretation to be based on an inaccurate characterization of Whorf's viewpoint, and even rather absurd given the time he spent trying to translate between different conceptual schemes. In their view, the critiques are based on a lack of familiarity with Whorf's writings; according to these recent Whorf scholars a more accurate description of his viewpoint is that he thought translation to be possible, but only through careful attention to the subtle differences between conceptual schemes.

Eric Lenneberg, Noam Chomsky, and Steven Pinker have also criticized Whorf for failing to be sufficiently clear in his formulation of how language influences thought, and for failing to provide real evidence to support his assumptions. Generally Whorf's arguments took the form of examples that were anecdotal or speculative, and functioned as attempts to show how "exotic" grammatical traits were connected to what were considered equally exotic worlds of thought. Even Whorf's defenders admitted that his writing style was often convoluted and couched in neologisms – attributed to his awareness of language use, and his reluctance to use terminology that might have pre-existing connotations.  argues that Whorf was mesmerized by the foreignness of indigenous languages, and exaggerated and idealized them. According to Lakoff, Whorf's tendency to exoticize data must be judged in the historical context: Whorf and the other Boasians wrote at a time in which racism and jingoism were predominant, and when it was unthinkable to many that "savages" had redeeming qualities, or that their languages were comparable in complexity to those of Europe. For this alone Lakoff argues, Whorf can be considered to be "Not just a pioneer in linguistics, but a pioneer as a human being".

Today many followers of universalist schools of thought continue to oppose the idea of linguistic relativity, seeing it as unsound or even ridiculous. For example, Steven Pinker argues in his book The Language Instinct that thought exists prior to language and independently of it, a view also espoused by philosophers of language such as Jerry Fodor, John Locke and Plato. In this interpretation, language is inconsequential to human thought because humans do not think in "natural" language, i.e. any language used for communication. Rather, we think in a meta-language that precedes natural language, which Pinker following Fodor calls "mentalese." Pinker attacks what he calls "Whorf's radical position", declaring, "the more you examine Whorf's arguments, the less sense they make." Scholars of a more "relativist" bent such as John A. Lucy and Stephen C. Levinson have criticized Pinker for misrepresenting Whorf's views and arguing against strawmen.

Resurgence of Whorfianism
Linguistic relativity studies have experienced a resurgence since the 1990s, and a series of favorable experimental results have brought Whorfianism back into favor, especially in cultural psychology and linguistic anthropology. The first study directing positive attention towards Whorf's relativist position was George Lakoff's "Women, Fire and Dangerous Things", in which he argued that Whorf had been on the right track in his focus on differences in grammatical and lexical categories as a source of differences in conceptualization. In 1992 psychologist John A. Lucy published two books on the topic, one analyzing the intellectual genealogy of the hypothesis, arguing that previous studies had failed to appreciate the subtleties of Whorf's thinking; they had been unable to formulate a research agenda that would actually test Whorf's claims. Lucy proposed a new research design so that the hypothesis of linguistic relativity could be tested empirically, and to avoid the pitfalls of earlier studies which Lucy claimed had tended to presuppose the universality of the categories they were studying. His second book was an empirical study of the relation between grammatical categories and cognition in the Yucatec Maya language of Mexico.

In 1996 Penny Lee's reappraisal of Whorf's writings was published, reinstating Whorf as a serious and capable thinker. Lee argued that previous explorations of the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis had largely ignored Whorf's actual writings, and consequently asked questions very unlike those Whorf had asked. Also in that year a volume, "Rethinking Linguistic Relativity" edited by John J. Gumperz and Stephen C. Levinson gathered a range of researchers working in psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology to bring renewed attention to the issue of how Whorf's theories could be updated, and a subsequent review of the new direction of the linguistic relativity paradigm cemented the development. Since then considerable empirical research into linguistic relativity has been carried out, especially at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics with scholarship motivating two edited volumes of linguistic relativity studies, and in American Institutions by scholars such as Lera Boroditsky and Dedre Gentner.

In turn universalist scholars frequently dismiss as "dull" or "boring", positive findings of influence of linguistic categories on thought or behavior, which are often subtle rather than spectacular, suggesting that Whorf's excitement about linguistic relativity had promised more spectacular findings than it was able to provide.

Whorf's views have been compared to those of philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche and the late Ludwig Wittgenstein, both of whom considered language to have important bearing on thought and reasoning. His hypotheses have also been compared to the views of psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, whose social constructivism considers the cognitive development of children to be mediated by the social use of language. Vygotsky shared Whorf's interest in gestalt psychology, and he also read Sapir's works. Others have seen similarities between Whorf's work and the ideas of literary theorist Mikhail Bakhtin, who read Whorf and whose approach to textual meaning was similarly holistic and relativistic. Whorf's ideas have also been interpreted as a radical critique of positivist science.

Work

Linguistic relativity

Whorf is best known as the main proponent of what he called the principle of linguistic relativity, but which is often known as "the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis", named for him and Edward Sapir. Whorf never stated the principle in the form of a hypothesis, and the idea that linguistic categories influence perception and cognition was shared by many other scholars before him. But because Whorf, in his articles, gave specific examples of how he saw the grammatical categories of specific languages related to conceptual and behavioral patterns, he pointed towards an empirical research program that has been taken up by subsequent scholars, and which is often called "Sapir–Whorf studies".

Sources of influence on Whorf's thinking

Whorf and Sapir both drew explicitly on Albert Einstein's principle of general relativity; hence linguistic relativity refers to the concept of grammatical and semantic categories of a specific language providing a frame of reference as a medium through which observations are made. Following an original observation by Boas, Sapir demonstrated that speakers of a given language perceive sounds that are acoustically different as the same, if the sound comes from the underlying phoneme and does not contribute to changes in semantic meaning. Furthermore, speakers of languages are attentive to sounds, particularly if the same two sounds come from different phonemes. Such differentiation is an example of how various observational frames of reference leads to different patterns of attention and perception.

Whorf was also influenced by gestalt psychology, believing that languages require their speakers to describe the same events as different gestalt constructions, which he called "isolates from experience". An example is how the action of cleaning a gun is different in English and Shawnee: English focuses on the instrumental relation between two objects and the purpose of the action (removing dirt); whereas the Shawnee language focuses on the movement—using an arm to create a dry space in a hole. The event described is the same, but the attention in terms of figure and ground are different.

Degree of influence of language on thought
If read superficially, some of Whorf's statements lend themselves to the interpretation that he supported linguistic determinism. For example, in an often-quoted passage Whorf writes:

The statements about the obligatory nature of the terms of language have been taken to suggest that Whorf meant that language completely determined the scope of possible conceptualizations. However neo-Whorfians argue that here Whorf is writing about the terms in which we speak of the world, not the terms in which we think of it. Whorf noted that to communicate thoughts and experiences with members of a speech community speakers must use the linguistic categories of their shared language, which requires moulding experiences into the shape of language to speak them—a process called "thinking for speaking". This interpretation is supported by Whorf's subsequent statement that "No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality, but is constrained by certain modes of interpretation even when he thinks himself most free". Similarly the statement that observers are led to different pictures of the universe has been understood as an argument that different conceptualizations are incommensurable making translation between different conceptual and linguistic systems impossible. Neo-Whorfians argue this to be a misreading since throughout his work one of his main points was that such systems could be "calibrated" and thereby be made commensurable, but only when we become aware of the differences in conceptual schemes through linguistic analysis.

Hopi time

Whorf's study of Hopi time has been the most widely discussed and criticized example of linguistic relativity. In his analysis he argues that there is a relation between how the Hopi people conceptualize time, how they speak of temporal relations, and the grammar of the Hopi language. Whorf's most elaborate argument for the existence of linguistic relativity was based on what he saw as a fundamental difference in the understanding of time as a conceptual category among the Hopi. He argued that the Hopi language, in contrast to English and other SAE languages, does not treat the flow of time as a sequence of distinct countable instances, like "three days" or "five years", but rather as a single process. Because of this difference, the language lacks nouns that refer to units of time. He proposed that the Hopi view of time was fundamental in all aspects of their culture and furthermore explained certain patterns of behavior. In his 1939 memorial essay to Sapir he wrote that "... the Hopi language is seen to contain no words, grammatical forms, construction or expressions that refer directly to what we call 'time', or to past, present, or future..."

Linguist Ekkehart Malotki challenged Whorf's analyses of Hopi temporal expressions and concepts with numerous examples how the Hopi language refers to time. Malotki argues that in the Hopi language the system of tenses consists of future and non-future and that the single difference between the three-tense system of European languages and the Hopi system, is that the latter combines past and present to form a single category.

Malotki's critique was widely cited as the final piece of evidence in refuting Whorf's ideas and his concept of linguistic relativity while other scholars defended the analysis of Hopi, arguing that Whorf's claim was not that Hopi lacked words or categories to describe temporality, but that the Hopi concept of time is altogether different from that of English speakers. Whorf described the Hopi categories of tense, noting that time is not divided into past, present and future, as is common in European languages, but rather a single tense refers to both present and past while another refers to events that have not yet happened and may or may not happen in the future. He also described a large array of stems that he called "tensors" which describes aspects of temporality, but without referring to countable units of time as in English and most European languages.

Contributions to linguistic theory
Whorf's distinction between "overt" (phenotypical) and "covert" (cryptotypical) grammatical categories has become widely influential in linguistics and anthropology. British linguist Michael Halliday wrote about Whorf's notion of the "cryptotype", and the conception of "how grammar models reality", that it would "eventually turn out to be among the major contributions of twentieth century linguistics".

Furthermore, Whorf introduced the concept of the allophone, a word that describes positional phonetic variants of a single superordinate phoneme; in doing so he placed a cornerstone in consolidating early phoneme theory. The term was popularized by G. L. Trager and Bernard Bloch in a 1941 paper on English phonology and went on to become part of standard usage within the American structuralist tradition. Whorf considered allophones to be another example of linguistic relativity. The principle of allophony describes how acoustically different sounds can be treated as reflections of a single phoneme in a language. This sometimes makes the different sound appear similar to native speakers of the language, even to the point that they are unable to distinguish them auditorily without special training. Whorf wrote that: "[allophones] are also relativistic. Objectively, acoustically, and physiologically the allophones of [a] phoneme may be extremely unlike, hence the impossibility of determining what is what. You always have to keep the observer in the picture. What linguistic pattern makes like is like, and what it makes unlike is unlike".(Whorf, 1940)

Central to Whorf's inquiries was the approach later described as metalinguistics by G. L. Trager, who in 1950 published four of Whorf's essays as "Four articles on Metalinguistics". Whorf was crucially interested in the ways in which speakers come to be aware of the language that they use, and become able to describe and analyze language using language itself to do so. Whorf saw that the ability to arrive at progressively more accurate descriptions of the world hinged partly on the ability to construct a metalanguage to describe how language affects experience, and thus to have the ability to calibrate different conceptual schemes. Whorf's endeavors have since been taken up in the development of the study of metalinguistics and metalinguistic awareness, first by Michael Silverstein who published a radical and influential rereading of Whorf in 1979 and subsequently in the field of linguistic anthropology.

Studies of Uto-Aztecan languages
Whorf conducted important work on the Uto-Aztecan languages, which Sapir had conclusively demonstrated as a valid language family in 1915. Working first on Nahuatl, Tepecano, Tohono O'odham he established familiarity with the language group before he met Sapir in 1928. During Whorf's time at Yale he published several articles on Uto-Aztecan linguistics, such as "Notes on the Tübatulabal language". In 1935 he published "The Comparative Linguistics of Uto-Aztecan", and a review of Kroeber's survey of Uto-Aztecan linguistics. Whorf's work served to further cement the foundations of the comparative Uto-Aztecan studies.

The first Native American language Whorf studied was the Uto-Aztecan language Nahuatl which he studied first from colonial grammars and documents, and later became the subject of his first field work experience in 1930. Based on his studies of Classical Nahuatl Whorf argued that Nahuatl was an oligosynthetic language, a typological category that he invented. In Mexico working with native speakers, he studied the dialects of Milpa Alta and Tepoztlán. His grammar sketch of the Milpa Alta dialect of Nahuatl was not published during his lifetime, but it was published posthumously by Harry Hoijer and became quite influential and used as the basic description of "Modern Nahuatl" by many scholars. The description of the dialect is quite condensed and in some places difficult to understand because of Whorf's propensity of inventing his own unique terminology for grammatical concepts, but the work has generally been considered to be technically advanced. He also produced an analysis of the prosody of these dialects which he related to the history of the glottal stop and vowel length in Nahuan languages. This work was prepared for publication by Lyle Campbell and Frances Karttunen in 1993, who also considered it a valuable description of the two endangered dialects, and the only one of its kind to include detailed phonetic analysis of supra-segmental phenomena.

In Uto-Aztecan linguistics one of Whorf's achievements was to determine the reason the Nahuatl language has the phoneme , not found in the other languages of the family. The existence of  in Nahuatl had puzzled previous linguists and caused Sapir to reconstruct a  phoneme for proto-Uto-Aztecan based only on evidence from Aztecan. In a 1937 paper published in the journal American Anthropologist, Whorf argued that the phoneme resulted from some of the Nahuan or Aztecan languages having undergone a sound change from the original * to  in the position before *. This sound law is known as "Whorf's law", considered valid although a more detailed understanding of the precise conditions under which it took place has since been developed.

Also in 1937, Whorf and his friend G. L. Trager, published a paper in which they elaborated on the Azteco-Tanoan language family, proposed originally by Sapir as a family comprising the Uto-Aztecan and the Kiowa-Tanoan languages—(the Tewa and Kiowa languages).

Maya epigraphy
In a series of published and unpublished studies in the 1930s, Whorf argued that Mayan writing was to some extent phonetic. While his work on deciphering the Maya script gained some support from Alfred Tozzer at Harvard, the main authority on Ancient Maya culture, J. E. S. Thompson, strongly rejected Whorf's ideas, saying that Mayan writing lacked a phonetic component and is therefore impossible to decipher based on a linguistic analysis. Whorf argued that it was exactly the reluctance to apply linguistic analysis of Maya languages that had held the decipherment back. Whorf sought for cues to phonetic values within the elements of the specific signs, and never realized that the system was logo-syllabic. Although Whorf's approach to understanding the Maya script is now known to have been misguided, his central claim that the script was phonetic and should be deciphered as such was vindicated by Yuri Knorozov's syllabic decipherment of Mayan writing in the 1950s.

Notes

Commentary notes

References

Sources

External links

 B. L. Whorf, .
 Benjamin Lee Whorf Papers (MS 822). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
 What Whorf Really Said – Evaluation of Pinker's (1994) critique of Whorf, by Nick Yee

1897 births
1941 deaths
People from Winthrop, Massachusetts
Linguists from the United States
American Mesoamericanists
MIT School of Engineering alumni
Linguists of Mesoamerican languages
Mesoamerican epigraphers
Mayanists
American translation scholars
20th-century Mesoamericanists
Yale University alumni
Linguists of Aztec–Tanoan languages
Linguists of Uto-Aztecan languages
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Paleolinguists
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Benjamin Lee Whorf


Jean-Lambert Tallien (, 23 January 1767 – 16 November 1820) was a French politician of the revolutionary period. Though initially an active agent of the Reign of Terror, he eventually clashed with its leader, Maximilien Robespierre, and is best known as one of the key figures of the Thermidorian Reaction that led to the fall of Robespierre and the end of the Terror.

Early life and journalism
Tallien was born in Paris to Lambert Tallien, the maître d'hôtel of the Marquis de Bercy, and Jeanne Lambert. The marquis, noticing his ability, had him educated, and got him a place as a lawyer's clerk. Supportive of the Revolution, he gave up his desk to enter a printer's office, and by 1791 was overseer of the printing department of the Comte de Provence.

During his employment, he conceived the idea of the journal-affiche, and after the arrest of the king at Varennes in June 1791 he placarded a large printed sheet on all the walls of Paris twice a week, under the title of the L'Ami des Citoyens, journal fraternel.  This enterprise had its expenses paid by the Jacobin Club and made Tallien well known to the revolutionary leaders. He became even more present in politics after organizing, together with Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois, the great Fête de la Liberté on 15 April 1792, honouring the release of the Swiss régiment de Châteauvieux, imprisoned since the Nancy Mutiny of 1790.

Paris Commune
On 8 July 1792, he was the spokesman of a deputation of the section of the Place Royale which demanded from the Legislative Assembly the reinstatement of the Mayor, Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve, and the Procureur, Louis Pierre Manuel. Tallien was one of the most active popular leaders in the storming of the Tuileries Palace on 10 August; on that day he was appointed secretary to the insurrectional Commune of Paris. He committed himself to his new mission and habitually appeared at the bar of the Assembly on behalf of the Commune. He participated in the September Massacres of 1792, and, with the help of Georges Danton, would eventually be elected a member of the National Convention.
He announced the September Massacres in terms of apology and praise, and he sent off the famous circular of 3 September to the French departments, recommending them to take similar action. At the same time, he had several people imprisoned in order to save them from the violence of the mob and protected several suspects himself.

National Convention and missions
Tallien resigned his post in the Commune on being elected, in spite of his youth, deputy to the National Convention by the department of Seine-et-Oise, and he began his legislative career by defending the conduct of the Commune during the massacres. He took his seat upon The Mountain, and showed himself one of the most vigorous Jacobins, particularly in his defence of Jean-Paul Marat, on 26 February 1793; he voted in favor of the execution of King Louis XVI, and was elected member of the Committee of General Security on 21 January 1793, the day of the King's execution.

He was sent as representative on mission to the department of Indre-et-Loire in March 1793, and after returning to Paris took an active part in the insurrection of 31 May, which resulted in the overthrow of the Girondists. For the next few months he kept a low profile, but on 23 September 1793 Tallien was sent with Claude-Alexandre Ysabeau on a mission to Bordeaux. This was the month in which the Reign of Terror was organized under the superintendence of the Committees of Public Safety and Committee of General Security. On 6 October he arrived in Saint-Émilion to arrest suspect deputies. Not long after the introduction of the Law of 22 Prairial Pétion de Villeneuve and Francois Buzot committed suicide; Marguerite-Élie Guadet and Charles Barbaroux were guillotined.

Tallien was one of the most notorious envoys sent over to establish the Terror in the departments, and soon established a revolutionary grip on Bordeaux. The young Tallien, who was not yet 27, became notorious for his administration of justice in Bordeaux through his bloody affinity to "feed la sainte guillotine".
Tallien's methodology of subjugation at Bordeaux has been described as "fear and flour": the guillotining of Girondist leaders and exploitation of food shortages by withholding bread from the already-hungry province.
However, after the initial days of his mission in Bordeaux, Tallien began to shift away from his bloody Terrorist tendencies. This tendency may be due to his romantic involvement with Thérésa Cabarrús, the daughter of Francisco Cabarrús and former wife of the émigré Marquis de Fontenay. Tallien not only spared her life but fell in love with her. As she was extremely wealthy and desired by many, it is possible that she became involved with Tallien in order to escape from the guillotine at Bordeaux and influence him to show lenience towards her aristocratic associates. Tallien suggested, "It is better to marry than to be beheaded."

After Tallien became involved with Cabarrús, there was a notable decline in the number of executions in Bordeaux. Thérésa was a moderating influence, and for the lives she saved by her entreaties she received the name of Notre-Dame de Thermidor ("Our Lady of Thermidor") after the onset of the Thermidorian Reaction in July 1794. Tallien was elected president of the Convention on 24 March 1794 till 5 April and had to deal with the trial of Georges Danton and Camille Desmoulins.

Thermidorian Reaction

Tallien was recalled to Paris from Bordeaux after being denounced by the Committee of Public Safety for "modérantisme". Cabarrús, who had accompanied him, was arrested for a second time and imprisoned. She was set to face trial and probably would have been executed.  She sent a letter to Tallien on 26 July, which included a dagger and a note accusing him of weakness for not attempting to free her. Thérésa stated, "I die in despair at having belonged to a coward like you." In Prairial (May–June) he was expelled from the Jacobin Club by Robespierre, and from then on Tallien became a leading conspirator for his overthrow, allying himself with other opposers of the Terror.

Robespierre's own political ideas implied his readiness to strike at many of his colleagues in the committees, and Tallien was one of the men condemned. Robespierre's rivals were determined to strike first. During a session at the National Convention on 9 Thermidor (27 July), Tallien interrupted Robespierre helper Louis Antoine de Saint-Just and, after going up to the tribune: "Yesterday a member of the government was left quite isolated and made a speech in his own name; today another one has done the same thing. Tallien continued: "Need I recall to you that expression addressed [by Robespierre] to the journalists in one of the last sittings of the Jacobins? "I prohibit you from inserting my discourses in your papers till you have previously communicated them to me." He brandished a dagger and threatened to stab Robespierre in the chest if the Convention did not decree his accusation, calling him "the new Cromwell". The movement was successful: Robespierre and his closest allies were arrested and guillotined on the next day. Tallien, as the leading Thermidorian, was elected to the Committee of Public Safety. He was instrumental in suppressing the Revolutionary Tribunal and the Jacobin Club; he attacked Jean-Baptiste Carrier and Joseph Le Bon, who had been representatives of the Committee to Nantes and Arras respectively, and he fought with energy against the insurgents of Prairial (20 May 1795).

Tallien's actions and his motivation behind his shifting loyalties have been described thus: "His only claim to a place in history was to have realized that people were sick of the terror, that the inevitable reaction was imminent, and that it was better to be a part of it than to be crushed by it."  In all these months he was supported by Thérèse, whom he married on 26 December 1794, and who became the leader of the social life of Paris. This cemented Tallien's transition from the infamous Terrorist at Bordeaux to the "reformed terrorist" of the Thermidorian reaction.

On 18th Thermidor, in order to secure the release of his mistress, to gain popular support, and to popularize his image as a Thermidorian (rather than a Jacobin), Tallien stated, "There is not a single man in prison today who does not claim to be an ardent patriot and who has not been an enemy of Robespierre's." In the next five days, nearly 500 prisoners, many of whom were moderates or right-wing opposition to Robespierre and the leftist Jacobins, were released.  Tallien and the Thermidorians almost immediately repealed the law of 22 July, ending the power of the  Committee of Public Safety to arrest representatives without a hearing. In addition, measures were passed causing one-fourth of the Committee to be up for election each month, with a one-month period between the terms that deputies could serve on the Committee.

For Tallien's role in 9 Thermidor, he was elected to the Committee of Public Safety. In a complete reversal of his earlier positions, Tallien appealed to the new rising class of the jeunesse dorée ("gilded youth"), who viewed him as their leader, by stating "I sincerely admit that I had rather see twenty aristocrats set at liberty today and re-arrested tomorrow than see a single patriot left in chains." In addition, Tallien helped pass a measure that would publish the lists of the freed prisoners, helping ensure that the National Convention would be accountable for any imprisonments.  Furthermore, he promoted a compromise that prevented a list of those who acted as guarantees for the loyalty of released prisoners. This prevented him from being publicly accountable for the release of his mistress and future wife.  Shortly after, Tallien and his allies Freron and Lecointre were removed from the Jacobin clubs.

On the 23rd of Fructidor, an assassination attempt was made on Tallien.  The minor gunshot wound and knife wound gave Tallien and his allies the necessary public support to begin their attacks on the Jacobin clubs.  With the threat of a Jacobin-Terrorist plot in the air, Tallien and Freron used public proclamations and physical intimidation (through the jeunesse dorée) to wipe the central Parisian Jacobin club out of existence.  At this point the complete transformation of Jean-Lambert from an embodiment of the Terror to a right-wing leader and orator. Tallien began campaigning for free speech in 1795.  This increased his popularity with the jeunesse dorée, as many were journalists.  He reestablished his paper, L'Ami des Citoyens, and contributed to the unified attack of the right wing on the remaining leftists.  Although the journalistic freedom officially gave the left wing the legal opportunity to also mount an attack through the press, it is important to note that the right wing was far more unified. The Thermidorians had even gotten right-wing journalists into high positions on the left-wing newspapers.  In addition, through much of the White Terror, the Thermidorians did nothing to stop the monarchist resurgence.

Eventually, the Thermidorians ordered that all émigrés and émigré supporters hand over their weapons and expel all foreigners from the country.  However, there is evidence that Tallien was arranging a compromise with Spain and would support the imposition of Louis XVIII as a monarchist "without the abuses". In July 1795, a large division of émigrés, with support from the British, attempted to invade through Quiberon.  However, General Lazare Hoche outmaneuvered the émigrés and trapped them on the end of the Quiberon peninsula. Tallien was sent by the National Convention to the scene.  Partially because Tallien had been corresponding with the Bourbons in Spain, he set up military commissions to try all of the émigré prisoners.  Under current law, all of the émigrés were convicted and summarily executed. Tallien was held responsible and lost support from the jeunesse dorée and the right wing that were supporting him. His political influence and relevance were thus greatly reduced.

Council of Five Hundred and Egyptian campaign
After the beginning of the French Directory, Tallien's political importance came to an end, for, although he sat in the Council of Five Hundred, the moderates viewed him as an enforcer of the Terror, and the extreme party as a renegade. Madame Tallien also rejected him, and became the mistress of the rich banker Gabriel-Julien Ouvrard.

Napoleon Bonaparte, however, who is said to have been introduced by him to Paul Barras, took him on to his military expedition to Egypt of June 1798 as part of the political economy section of the Institut d'Égypte, and after the capture of Cairo, he edited the official journal there, the Décade Égyptienne. General Jacques François Menou sent him back to France. On his passage, he was captured by a British cruiser and taken to London, where he had a good reception among the Whigs and was received by Charles James Fox.

Later years
On returning to France in 1802 he obtained a divorce from Thérésa (who in 1805 married François-Joseph-Philippe de Riquet) and was left for some time without employment. Eventually, through the interventions of Joseph Fouché and Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, Tallien was appointed consul at Alicante, and remained there until he lost the sight of one eye from yellow fever.

Back in Paris, Tallien lived on half-pay until the fall of the Empire and the Bourbon Restoration in 1815, when he received the favour of not being exiled like the other regicides (those who had voted for the Louis XVI's execution) due to his poor health. He spent his last years in poverty, living in a small house in the Allée des Veuves. He was forced to sell his collection of books in order to sustain himself, and in May 1818 asked the government of King Louis XVIII for some relief money, which was granted in 1000 francs by minister Élie Decazes. Tallien died of leprosy on 16 November 1820, and was buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery.

Works
Discours sur les causes qui ont produit la Révolution française (Paris, 1791, 8 vols)
Mémoire sur l'administration de l'Égypte a l'arrivée des Français

References

Albert Mathiez, After Robespierre: The Thermidorian Reaction, New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1965, OCLC 565901384
 In turn, it gives the following references:
"Tallien et l'Expedition d'Égypte", in La Révolution Française: Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, p. 269.
Arsène Houssaye, Nôtre Dame de Thermidor, Paris, 1866

External links
Complete list of works in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France

1767 births
1820 deaths
Writers from Paris
Politicians from Paris
Montagnards
Thermidorians
People on the Committee of Public Safety
Deputies to the French National Convention
Presidents of the National Convention
Members of the Council of Five Hundred
Regicides of Louis XVI
Représentants en mission
Historians of the French Revolution
Commission des Sciences et des Arts members
Newspaper editors of the French Revolution
People of the Reign of Terror
Deaths from leprosy
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery

Jean-Lambert Tallien


Everard Mott Williams (February 2, 1915 – October 24, 1972), noted scientist and educator, was born in New Haven, Connecticut. He was the son of Cecil Hayward Williams (1886-1972) of Detroit, Michigan and Phyllis Hope Hason (1886-1973) of London, England. His paternal grandfather was Rev. Gershom Mott Williams, paternal great-grandfather was General Thomas Williams, and his paternal 2nd great-grandfather was John Biddle, making him a part of the Biddle family.

He received a Ph.D. from Yale University in Electrical Engineering in 1939, served as the head of Carnegie Mellon University, Department of Electrical Engineering from 1952–1969 and has over 100 patents.

The broad scope of his accomplishments include prolific invention, versatile engineering consulting, pioneering teaching methodology, and perceptive academic administration. He pioneered in programmed instruction and teaching machines, innovated electric discharge machining and contributed to electronic countermeasures.

Williams started his teaching career at Penn State in 1939, but with the declaration of war in 1942, became associated with the development branch special projects laboratory at Wright Field as a Chief Branch Engineer. There he was concerned with work on radar, development of radio countermeasures, radio control for guided missiles, and infra red systems. He became an associate professor at Carnegie Mellon University in 1945 and became head of the Electrical Engineering department in 1952.

Accomplishments
 Recipient of a 1938 General Electric Charles A. Coffin fellowship totalling $5,000 for advanced study and research. The fellowship was used to investigate the properties of short-wave transmitting antennas.
 Eta Kappa Nu recognition award - 1946.
 George Westinghouse professor of the Carnegie Mellon University.
 Member Sigma Xi, Tau Beta Pi, The American Association of University Professors, The American Society of Engineering Education.
 1952 awarded a $12,600 research grant by the National Science Foundation to support research in the field of Phenomena Accompanying Transient Low Voltage Sparkover in Liquid Dielectrics.
 Pittsburgh Man of the Year in 1959.
 Most Outstanding Young Electrical Engineer in the United States in 1946. The award by the Eta Kappa Nu, national electrical engineering fraternity, goes to persons under 35, and out of college 10 years, who have performed "meritorious service in the interest of mankind.".
 Cited by the President of the United States for "Outstanding fidelity and meritorious conduct in the aid of the war effort" in World War II. Awarded the President's Certificate of merit for World War II work on radar, guided missiles and infrared systems at Wright field in Dayton, Ohio.
 1971 Western Electric Award for excellent instruction of engineering students.
 Designed the oscillator and deflector for the $2,500,000 synchro-cyclotron at Carnegie Tech.
 Developed a radar device during World War II which was used on US missiles from 1944 through 1960, which increased accuracy of directing the missile to its target.
 Consultant to Firth Sterling, Carbide corp, U.S. Army Ordnance Dept.
 Member of the board of directors of Electronic Associates.
 Served on NASA's research advisory committee on communications and data processing.
 Holds more than 100 patents in radar, guided missiles, photographic equipment, machine tools, electronic organs, and radio receivers, transmitters and jamming devices.

References

 Eulogy published December 12, 1972 Carnegie Mellon University Faculty Senate
 Meridian Morning Record April 23, 1938
 Pittsburgh Press January 27, 1938
 Carnegie Mellon Campus and Department news, 1952, Page 6
 Pittsburgh Press, June 1952
 East Presbyterian Church Week, January 17, 1958, Vol 11, No. 17
 New York Times, June 22, 1961

Scientists from New Haven, Connecticut
Yale School of Engineering & Applied Science alumni
20th-century American engineers
20th-century American inventors
Carnegie Mellon University faculty
1915 births
1972 deaths

Everard Mott Williams


Eunice is a feminine given name, from the Greek Εὐνίκη, Euníkē, from "eu", good, and "níkē", victory. Eunice is also a relatively rare last name, found in Nigeria and the Southeastern United States, chiefly Louisiana and Georgia.

People

Given name
Eunice (Bible), mother of Timothy
Eunice (Bosporan queen), wife of Bosporan Roman Client King Tiberius Julius Cotys I
Eunice, born Heo Soo-yeon, member of Kpop girl group DIA
Eunice Alberts (1927–2012), American opera singer
Eunice Eloisae Gibbs Allyn (1847–1916), American correspondent, author, poet
Eunice Crowther (1916–1986), British singer, dancer, and choreographer
Eunice Hale Waite Cobb (1803–1880), American writer, public speaker, activist
Eunice Caldwell Cowles (1811–1903), American educator
Eunice Eichler (1932–2017), New Zealand Salvation Army officer, nurse, midwife and open adoption advocate
Eunice Eisden (born 1961), Curaçaoan politician
Eunice Newton Foote (1819–1888), American atmospheric scientist and civil rights advocate
Eunice Frost (1914–1998), British publisher
Eunice Gayson (1928–2018), English actress
Eunice Huthart (born 1966), British stuntwoman
Eunice Rivers Laurie (1899–1986), African American nurse
Eunice Murray (1878–1960), Scottish suffrage campaigner, author, folklorist. First Scottish woman to stand in the first election open to women in 1918.
Eunice Norton (1908–2005), American pianist
Eunice Olawale (died 2016), Nigerian Christian female preacher and murder victim
Eunice Olsen (born 1977), winner of the Miss Singapore Universe contest in 2000 and Singapore version of Vanna White
Eunice Olumide (born 1987), Scottish model of Nigerian descent
Eunice Parsons (born 1916), American modernist collage artist and art teacher.
Eunice Kennedy Shriver (1921–2009), sister of JFK, founder of the Special Olympics
Eunice Spry (born 1944), British criminal
Eunice Sum (born 1988), Kenyan middle-distance runner
Eunice Kathleen Waymon, birth name of Nina Simone (1933–2003), American singer, pianist and arranger.
Eunice Muñoz (1928–2022), Portuguese actress

Greek mythological figures
Eunice (mythology), one of the Nereids
Eunice, one of the would-be sacrificial victims of Minotaur
Eunice, one of the spring nymphs responsible for kidnapping Hylas

Fictional characters
DC Eunice Noon, Darego's police partner on the British dark-comedy TV drama The End of the F***ing World
Eunice, a character in the 1895 novel Quo Vadis by Polish author Henryk Sienkiewicz
Eunice Bates, a character from the romantic comedy sports film She's the Man
Eunice Burns, a character in the 1972 romantic comedy film What's Up, Doc?
Eunice Harper Higgins, fictional character from The Carol Burnett Show and Mama's Family
Eunice Dunstan, a character in the Irish soap opera Fair City
Sister Mary Eunice McKee, a character in American Horror Story: Asylum
Eunice Tate Leitner, a character on the TV sitcom Soap
Eunice Tolling, a character in the Enid Blyton book The Mystery of the Missing Man

Places

Inhabited places
Eunice, Alberta, Westlock County, Alberta, Canada
Eunice, Arkansas, a ghost town in Chicot County, Arkansas, U.S.
Eunice, Kentucky, U.S.
Eunice, Louisiana, U.S.
Eunice, Missouri, U.S.
Eunice, New Mexico, U.S.
Eunice, West Virginia, U.S.

Lakes
Eunice Lake (Pierce County, Washington), U.S.
Eunice Lake (Nova Scotia), lake in Nova Scotia, Canada

Zoology
Eunice (annelid), a genus in the worm family Eunicidae
Eunice, a genus of brush-footed butterflies invalidly established by Geyer in 1832; now Eunica

Other uses
Eunice (film), a 1982 television film based on the Carol Burnett character Eunice Harper Higgins
Eunice (software), a Unix emulation package for the VAX/VMS operating system
Eunice High School, St. Landry Parish, Louisiana
Eunice (storm), a 2022 cyclone over northwestern Europe

See also

EUNIS (disambiguation)
Eunuch (disambiguation)
Jonah (or Yunis), biblical figure
Yunus (surah), in the Quran
UNECE, European UN body
UNICE (disambiguation)
Unix (disambiguation)

Feminine given names

Eunice


Victor Hugo Green (November 9, 1892 – October 16, 1960) was an American postal employee and travel writer from Harlem, New York City, best known for developing and writing what became known as The Green Book, a travel guide for African Americans in the United States. During the time the book was published, choices of lodging, restaurants and even gas stations were limited for black people in many places, both in the Southern United States and outside this region. The book was first published as The Negro Motorist Green Book and later as The Negro Travelers' Green Book. The books were published from 1936 to 1966. He printed 15,000 copies each year.

In the 1930s, Green began his work by compiling data on stores and motels and gas stations in New York City area that welcomed black travelers, and published his first guide in 1936. Green's guide was so popular that he immediately began to expand its coverage the next year to other US destinations, adding hotels and restaurants as well. After retiring from the Postal Service, Green continued to work on updating issues of The Green Book. In addition, he developed the related travel agency business he had established in 1947.

Biography
Victor Hugo Green, named for the noted French author, was born on November 9, 1892, in Manhattan, New York City. He was the eldest of three children of Alice A. (Holmes) and William H. Green. His family moved and he grew up in Hackensack, New Jersey. Starting in 1913 he worked in Bergen County, New Jersey as a postal carrier for the US Postal Service.

On September 8, 1917, in Brooklyn, New York Green married Alma S. Duke (1889–1978) of Richmond, Virginia. She came to New York as part of the Great Migration from the South to northern cities in the early twentieth century. After their marriage, the couple moved to Harlem, New York, which was attracting blacks from across the country. It developed as a center of black arts and culture in the period of the Harlem Renaissance. They lived in an apartment at 580 St. Nicholas Avenue.

Green was employed by the United States Postal Service as a letter carrier. He was subsequently drafted into the United States Army to serve in World War I, even though he had requested exemption from the draft due to his "employment in the transmission of mail." He served as a member of the Supply Company of the 350th Field Artillery, 92nd Division, rising to the rank of Regimental Supply Sergeant. He sailed for France with his unit on June 30, 1918, from Hoboken, New Jersey on the troop carrier SS President Grant. He returned to the United States from Brest, France on the troop carrier SS Maui on February 16, 1919, landing in Hoboken on the 28th.

Publishing and travel career

The Green Book publications (1936–1966): In 1936, Green published the first iteration of The Negro Motorist Green Book (1936). These editions were a publication series for the intended purpose of helping African American roadtrippers travel across America safely. The guidebook featured thousands of businesses, either black-owned or that catered to African Americans during the Jim Crow era. The Guide also allowed African American travelers to safely venture through discriminatory and segregated areas of the United States by avoiding potential harassment and violence from racist business owners. Thereby, enabling The Negro Motorist Green Book to become a tool for African Americans to subvert white supremacy. The many editions of the Green Book established a general roadmap that shows distinct black geographies across America–those of which were generally unknown to white institutions.

Black Americans began to join in the popular activity of travel by car. During these years, they were restricted to segregated accommodations by state laws in the South, and often discriminated against in other areas of the United States.

In 1936, Green "thought of doing something about this. He thought of a listing, as comprehensive as possible, of all first-class hotels throughout the United States that catered to Negroes." He collected information on hotels, restaurants and gas stations that served African Americans for his first edition of The Negro Motorist Green Book. Since some towns did not have any hotels or motels that would accept African American guests, he listed "tourist homes," where owners would rent rooms to travelers. His first edition had data for facilities only in the New York metropolitan area. In his introduction, Green wrote:

There will be a day sometime in the near future when this guide will not have to be published. That is when we as a race will have equal rights and privileges in the United States.

Green created a publishing office in Harlem to support his guide. In 1947, he established a Vacation Reservation Service, a travel agency to book reservations at black-owned establishments. By 1949, the guide included international destinations in Bermuda and Mexico; it listed places for food, lodging, and gas stations. In 1952, Green changed the name to The Negro Travelers' Green Book. His travel agency office was located at 200 West 135th Street in Harlem, New York.

The Green Book was printed by Gibraltar Printing and Publishing Co. at 800 Sixth Avenue (at West 27th Street) in New York City. The owner of Gibraltar Printing was Samuel Jacob Glener (1904–1961). Similar guides had been published for Jewish travelers in some areas. Victor Hugo Green printed 15,000 copies each year of The Green Book, marketing them to white as well as black-owned businesses to demonstrate "the growing affluence of African Americans." At the time, Esso franchised gas stations to African Americans, when some other companies did not. The Esso stations became popular sales outlets for the book.

During the Jim Crow era, the book garnered a large appeal within the African American community as many began to popularize the phrase "carry your Green Book with you" when traveling. It outlined establishments where African Americans would be free from discrimination. Through its series of publications, Green's The Negro Motorist Green Book appealed to a large majority of the African American population, as such, during the civil rights movement it was credited as one of the forerunners in American literature that championed the cause.

Personal life

Following Victor's marriage with Alma Duke Green (June 9, 1889 – March 1978) in 1918,  the two would go on to create the first editions of the Green Book. Alma was the book's editor for several years and made other significant contributions. Alma died in March 1978.

According to the 1956 edition, "several friends and acquaintances complained of the difficulties encountered; oftentimes painful embarrassments suffered which ruined a vacation or business trip."

The Green Book Chronicles (2020), a film by Calvin Alexander Ramsey and Becky Wible Searles, have noted that Alma "appears to have actively supported and been involved in this venture from the start, eventually taking over as editor when Victor stepped away from that role."

Green died on October 16, 1960, in Manhattan, New York City at age 67. After his death, publication continued, with his widow Alma serving as editor, until 1966.  Passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and legal end to racial segregation in public facilities marked the beginning of the guide's obsolescence; the goal that Green had described in his introduction to the first edition of his work.

In popular culture
 Calvin Alexander Ramsey, The Green Book Chronicles, a play that had a staged reading on September 15, 2010, at the Lincoln Theatre in Washington, DC; It premiered in Atlanta, Georgia, in 2011.
 The Dresser Trunk Project (2007), traveling exhibit about black travel during segregation, organized by William Daryl Williams, director of School of Architecture and Interior Design, University of Cincinnati.
 Green Book (2018), dir. Peter Farrelly, a biographical drama influenced by African American pianist Don Shirley, and actor Frank Vallelonga, who traveled through the Deep South during 1962. Green Book premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival where it won the Oscar for best picture, best supporting actor and best original screenplay in 2018.

References

Further reading

 Complete scan of Green Book by The Henry Ford museum (92MB pdf).
 Cotten Seiler, Republic of Drivers: A Cultural History of Automobility in America, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2008,
 "'Green Book' Helped African-Americans Travel Safely", Talk of the Nation, NPR, September 15, 2010
 Lacey-Bordeaux, Emma and Wayne Drash. "Travel guide helped African-Americans navigate tricky times." CNN. February 25, 2011.

African-American non-fiction writers
American travel writers
American male non-fiction writers
American publishers (people)
1892 births
1960 deaths
Writers from New York City
Writers from Hackensack, New Jersey
American mail carriers
History of racial segregation in the United States
20th-century American male writers
20th-century African-American writers
African-American male writers

Victor Hugo Green


Wilhelm Mohnke (1911 in Lübeck – 2001 in Damp near Eckernförde) was a German officer of the Waffen-SS with the rank of SS-Brigadeführer (equivalent to Brigadier).

He was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross for service in the German retreat from France in 1944. He was the commander of the defense of the central government area in the Battle of Berlin, 1945.

Mohnke led the 5th company of the 2nd Battalion of the Infanterie-Regiment Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler, at the outset of the Battle of France in 1940. He took command of the 2nd Battalion on 28 May after the battalion commander was wounded. It was around this time that Mohnke was allegedly involved in the murder of 80 British prisoners of war (POWs) of the 48th South Midland Infantry Division.

Mohnke was noted to be one of the last commanders to act upon orders issued by Hitler himself prior to his suicide.
German generals of World War II

Wilhelm Mohnke


The Grand Trunk Pacific dock was a shipping pier in Seattle, Washington.  The original pier was built in 1910 and was destroyed in a fire in 1914.  The pier was then rebuilt and continued in existence until 1964, when it was dismantled.  The area where the pier stood is now part of the Seattle terminal of the Washington State Ferry system.

Location
The Grand Trunk Pacific dock was located at the foot of Madison Street.  The dock area had previously been used a wharf for the steamship Flyer.  The Grand Trunk Pacific dock was located immediately to the north of Colman Dock, with the small U-shaped dock for the West Seattle ferry in between.  Immediately to the north of the Grand Trunk dock was used by the Seattle fire department's fireboat Duwamish.  The next pier north of the Seattle fire boat dock was the still existing Pier 54, previously known as Pier 3 or the Galbraith dock.

Construction
The Grand Trunk Pacific Railway dock stood just north of Colman Dock at the foot of Marion Street. The original dock was built in 1910 as the largest wooden pier on the West Coast.  Construction of the dock required 5,000 timber pilings and 3,700,000 board feet of lumber.  As built, the dock had a prominent tower on the water end that was  high.  The upper story of the dock was used for offices.

The dock was built by the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, a Canadian company that built the second Canadian transcontinental railway and that also had interests in steamship lines.  In 1910, the company had two new steamships built, the Prince Rupert and the Prince George, which used the Grand Trunk dock as their Seattle terminal.  The Prince Rupert and the Prince George each could carry 1,500 day passengers, and also had 220 staterooms for longer runs.  The Grand Trunk Railway employed them in competition with the steamships of the Canadian Pacific Railway on the "Triangle Route",  which ran between Seattle, Victoria, and Vancouver, British Columbia.  The Grand Trunk liners also ran from the dock to the railway line's western terminus in Prince Rupert, British Columbia.  The liners arrived in 1910, even though the first train did not reach Prince Rupert until 1914.

Destruction by fire

On July 30, 1914, the dock was destroyed by an explosion and massive fire.  One source reports that the cause was a spark from a cigarette or cigar landing in a pile of sawdust.  When the fire broke out, two vessels were moored alongside, the wooden inland steamboat Athlon and the coastal steamship Admiral Farragut.  According to one source, Athlon'''s engineer first noticed the fire at about 3:00 pm.  He alerted the Seattle Fire Department.  Another source says that it was the wharfinger who noticed the fire at about 3:40 pm and raised the alarm.

Although the fire spread rapidly through the dock, fueled by the creosote-saturated piers and timbers of the pier, both Athlon and Admiral Farragut were brought off the dock without damage.

Engine Company No. 5 of the Seattle Fire Department responded to the alarm and drove out on the dock.  According to the Seattle Post-Intelligencer, "'they said they were just standing there – and the very air around them seemed to turn to flame.  The fire engine's fuel tank, holding fifty gallons of gasoline, exploded, burning many of the firemen.  Two firemen, Patrick Cooper  and John Stokes, were trapped in the fire.  Badly burned, both had to jump into the water to safe themselves.  Cooper died three days later and Stokes was never able to return to full duty as a fireman.

Fire companies responded from all around the city.  The fireboats Duwamish and Snoqualmie fought the fire, and, with the aid of the revenue cutter Unalga they were able to keep the fire from destroying the adjacent Colman Dock, although that dock did sustain $10,000 in damages.

Five people died and 29 more, including 10 firemen, were injured.  The fire burned for two hours, and attracted a large number of onlookers, including the mayor of Seattle.  Some people took advantage of the fire to loot nearby businesses, including Ye Olde Curiosity Shop, a business still in existence as of 2014, which was then located at Colman Dock.

Later history

A replacement dock, without a watchtower, was promptly built, and survived until 1964, when it was replaced by waiting area for automobiles boarding ferries at the new ferry terminal.

In 1917, the new dock measured 605 by 116 feet, with 1,200 feet of berthing space, with a cargo storage capacity of 12,000 tons.  There was a storage room on the second floor of the warehouse which was served by an elevator with a 400 ton capacity.  The wharf as it existed in 1917 was said to have been "semi-fireproof."  There were adjustable passenger slips and a depressed railway track for loading freight cars.  There were offices and waiting rooms on the street end.  Like Colman Dock, the Grand Trunk dock had an overhead bridge to the Seattle business district.  Depth of water alongside the dock was 55 feet.

Heavy construction costs and economic dislocation during World War I caused the bankruptcy of the Grand Trunk Pacific in 1920.  The line was taken over by the government of Canada and operated as a division of the Canadian National Railway.  In 1927, the Kitsap County Transportation Company (KCTC) and Puget Sound Freight Lines (PSFL) formed a joint venture company called the Ferry Dock Company, which took out a long-term lease on the Grand Trunk Pacific dock, which was then in a rundown condition.  The dock became the main terminal and for both lines.  In 1929, the stockholders of KCTC and PSFL reached agreement with Wilbur B. Foshay (b. 1887) to sell their companies, including the Ferry Dock Company, to Foshay, who was then assembling a utility and transportation business empire.  Foshay however was financially ruined in the October 1929 stock market crash and the transaction never went through.

In August 1930, the Canadian Pacific Railway began using the Grand Trunk Pacific dock as the Seattle terminal for their ships on the Seattle-Victoria-Vancouver, British Columbia route.Kline and Bayless, Ferryboats – A Legend on Puget Sound, at pages 181, 188, 196, and 200.

In 1959 the Grand Trunk dock was used by the Black Ball Freight Service.  In the early 1960s the dock was dismantled and the area where it stood became part of the Washington State Ferry terminal.

See also
 Central Waterfront, Seattle

Notes

References
 Beaton, Welford, ed. Frank Waterhouse & Company's Pacific Ports: A Commercial Geography (1917) (accessed 06-09-11).
 Faber, Jim, Steamer's Wake -- Voyaging down the old marine highways of Puget Sound, British Columbia, and the Columbia River, Enetai Press, Seattle, WA 1985
 Kline, Mary S., and Bayless, G.A., Ferryboats -- A Legend on Puget Sound, Bayless Books, Seattle, WA 1983
 Newell, Gordon R., ed., H.W. McCurdy Marine History of the Pacific Northwest,  Superior Publishing Co., Seattle, WA (1966)
 Newell, Gordon R. and Williamson, Joe, Pacific Coastal Liners'', Superior Publishing, Seattle WA (1959)
 State of Washington, Public Utilities Comm'n, Third Annual Report (covering the period from Dec. 1, 1912 to Nov. 30, 1913), Vol. 3, at page 199. (accessed 06-09-11)
 Stein, Alan J., "Seattle's Grand Trunk Pacific dock burns on July 30, 1914", HistoryLink.org Essay 3475, (July 31, 2001). (accessed 06-11-11).

History of King County, Washington
Piers in Seattle
Central Waterfront, Seattle
1910 establishments in Washington (state)
1964 disestablishments in Washington (state)
Buildings and structures completed in 1910
Buildings and structures demolished in 1914
Buildings and structures completed in 1914
Buildings and structures demolished in 1964

Grand Trunk Pacific dock


Welcome to the Minority – The A&M Years 1988-1991 is a compilation album that contains three CDs of Soul Asylum's work during the time they were under their A&M label. 5,000 copies were issued for this limited edition set.

The title of the album, Welcome to the Minority comes from the song "Down on Up to Me" which was from Soul Asylum's 1988 album Hang Time.

Track listing
All songs written by David Pirner, unless otherwise noted.

Disc One - Hang Time
"Down on Up to Me"
"Little Too Clean"
"Sometime to Return"
"Cartoon" (Dan Murphy)
"Beggars and Choosers"
"Endless Farewell"
"Standing in the Doorway"
"Marionette"
"Ode"
"Jack of All Trades"
"Twiddly Dee"
"Heavy Rotation"
"Put the Bone In"
"Just Plain Evil" † (Originally released on Clam Dip & Other Delights)
"It's Not My Fault" † (Originally released on Free To Be...A Family compilation) (Sarah Durkee, Christopher Cerf)

Disc Two - And the Horse They Rode in On
"Spinnin'"
"Bitter Pill"
"Veil of Tears"
"Nice Guys (Don't Get Paid)"
"Something Out of Nothing"
"Gullible's Travels" (Murphy)
"Brand New Shine"
"Easy Street" (Murphy, Pirner)
"Grounded"
"Be On Your Way"
"We 3"
"All the King's Friends"
"Something Out of Nothing" Remix †

Disc Three - Live in Chicago, IL, and Ann Arbor, MI, Oct 1990 †
"The Tracks of My Tears" (Smokey Robinson, Warren Moore, Marvin Tarplin)
"Something Out of Nothing"
"Freaks"
"Put a Spell on You" (Screamin' Jay Hawkins)
"Cartoon" (Murphy)
"Be On Your Way"
"Closer to the Stars"
"Marionette"
"All the King's Friends"
"Made to Be Broken"
"Little Too Clean"
"Movin' On" (Billy Gibbons, Dusty Hill) ††
"Nice Guys (Don't Get Paid)"
"To Sir with Love" (Don Black, Mark London)

† = First time release or available on another format.

†† = Though listed on Welcome to the Minority as "Movin' On" with writer unknown, the song was originally recorded by ZZ Top as "Move Me On Down The Line" on their 1973 album Tres Hombres.

References

Soul Asylum albums
2007 compilation albums
2007 live albums

Welcome to the Minority – The A&M Years 1988–1991


The Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies is a multilateral export control regime (MECR) with 42 participating states including many former Comecon (Warsaw Pact) countries established in 1996.

The Wassenaar Arrangement was established to contribute to regional and international security and stability by promoting transparency and greater responsibility in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies, thus preventing destabilizing accumulations. Participating states seek, through their national policies, to ensure that transfers of these items do not contribute to the development or enhancement of military capabilities which undermine these goals, and are not diverted to support such capabilities.

It is the successor to the Cold War–era Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (CoCom), and was established on 12 July 1996, in Wassenaar, the Netherlands, which is near The Hague. The Wassenaar Arrangement is considerably less strict than CoCom, focusing primarily on the transparency of national export control regimes and not granting veto power to individual members over organizational decisions. A Secretariat for administering the agreement is located in Vienna, Austria. Like CoCom, however, it is not a treaty, and therefore is not legally binding.

Every six months member countries exchange information on deliveries of conventional arms to non-Wassenaar members that fall under eight broad weapons categories: battle tanks, armoured fighting vehicles, large-calibre artillery, military aircraft, military helicopters, warships, missiles or missile systems, and small arms and light weapons.

Control lists
The outline of the arrangement is set out in a document entitled "Guidelines & Procedures, including the Initial Elements". The list of restricted technologies is broken into two parts, the "List of Dual-Use Goods and Technologies" (also known as the Basic List) and the "Munitions List". The Basic List is composed of ten categories based on increasing levels of sophistication:

 Category 1 – Special Materials and Related Equipment
 Category 2 – Materials Processing
 Category 3 – Electronics
 Category 4 – Computers
 Category 5 – Part 1 – Telecommunications
 Category 5 – Part 2 – Information Security
 Category 6 – Sensors and Lasers
 Category 7 – Navigation and Avionics
 Category 8 – Marine
 Category 9 – Aerospace and Propulsion

Basic List has two nested subsections—Sensitive and Very Sensitive. Items of the Very Sensitive List include materials for stealth technology—i.e., equipment that could be used for submarine detection, advanced radar, and jet engine technologies.

Within each of the categories, there are 5 types of controlled item. These are approximately as follows:
 A – Physical goods and components
 B – Plant, test equipment etc. for the production of the goods
 C – Materials typically from which the goods can be created
 D – Software used typically for the development, production or use of the goods
 E – Technology used typically for the development, production or use of the goods
The types of item B, C, D and E typically refer to the type A items, but there are many exceptions, e.g. some materials may be controlled, even though there is no specific good referred to.

The Wassenaar Arrangement List's categories are typically processed, and merged with other sources, e.g. Category 5.A.2 maps on to US ECCN 5A002, and EU control classification 5A002.

The Munitions List has 22 categories, which are not labeled.

In order for an item to be placed on the lists, member states must take into account the following
criteria:
 Foreign availability outside participating states
 Ability to effectively control the export of the goods
 Ability to make a clear and objective specification of the item
 Controlled by another regime, such as the Australia Group, the Nuclear Suppliers Group, or the Missile Technology Control Regime

Membership
The 42 states that have been participating since December 2017 are:

 – European Union member state.  – NATO member.

Admission requirements
Admission requires states to:
 Be a producer or exporter of arms or sensitive industrial equipment
 Maintain non-proliferation policies and appropriate national policies, including adherence to:
 Non-proliferation policies, such as (where applicable) the Nuclear Suppliers Group, the Missile Technology Control Regime, and the Australia Group
 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, the Biological Weapons Convention, the Chemical Weapons Convention and, where applicable, START I (including the Lisbon Protocol)
 Maintain fully effective export controls

The Arrangement is open on a global and non-discriminatory basis to prospective adherents that comply with the agreed criteria. Admission of new members requires the consensus of all members.

India joined as the 42nd participating state on 7 December 2017. "Wassenaar Arrangement participating states reviewed the progress of a number of current membership applications and agreed at the plenary meeting to admit India which will become the Arrangement's 42nd participating state as soon as the necessary procedural arrangements for joining the WA are completed", the grouping said in a statement. India's application was supported by Russia, the United States, France and Germany.

2013 amendments
In December 2013, the list of export restricted technologies was amended to include Internet-based surveillance systems. New technologies placed under the export control regime include "intrusion software"—software designed to defeat a computer or network's protective measures so as to extract data or information—as well as IP network surveillance systems.

The purpose of the amendments was to prevent Western technology companies from selling surveillance technology to governments known to abuse human rights. However, some technology companies have expressed concerns that the scope of the controls may be too broad, limiting security researchers' ability to identify and correct security vulnerabilities. Google and Facebook criticised the agreement for the restrictions it will place on activities like penetration testing, sharing information about threats, and bug bounty programs. They argue that the restrictions will weaken the security of participating nations and do little to curb threats from non-participant nations.

See also
 Arms Export Control Act
 Defense Security Cooperation Agency
 International Traffic in Arms Regulations

References

External links

Arms control treaties
Export and import control
International organisations based in Austria
Organisations based in Vienna
Treaties concluded in 1995
Treaties establishing intergovernmental organizations
Treaties entered into force in 1996
Treaties of Argentina
Treaties of Australia
Treaties of Austria
Treaties of Belgium
Treaties of Bulgaria
Treaties of Canada
Treaties of Croatia
Treaties of the Czech Republic
Treaties of Denmark
Treaties of Estonia
Treaties of Finland
Treaties of France
Treaties of Germany
Treaties of Greece
Treaties of Hungary
Treaties of India
Treaties of Ireland
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Treaties of Japan
Treaties of Latvia
Treaties of Lithuania
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Treaties of Spain
Treaties of Sweden
Treaties of Switzerland
Treaties of Turkey
Treaties of Ukraine
Treaties of the United Kingdom
Treaties of the United States
Wassenaar

Wassenaar Arrangement


Brigsley is a village and civil parish in North East Lincolnshire, England, and on the B1203 road,  south from Waltham.

According to the 2001 Census its population was 370, reducing to 355 at the 2011 Census.

Brigsley Grade II listed Anglican parish church is dedicated to St Helen. It is 11th century with later additions, 1796 alterations, and 19th and 20th century restorations. It has a Norman tower with an Early English nave and chancel.

References

External links

Villages in Lincolnshire
Borough of North East Lincolnshire
Civil parishes in Lincolnshire

Brigsley


David Irvine Masson (6 November 1915 – 27 February 2007) was a British science-fiction writer and librarian.

Biography
Born in Edinburgh, Masson came from a distinguished family of academics and thinkers. His father, Sir Irvine Masson, was a Professor of Chemistry at Durham and Vice-Chancellor at Sheffield, his grandfather, Sir David O. Masson, emigrated to Australia and became Professor of Chemistry at Melbourne while his great-grandfather David M. Masson was Professor of English Literature at Edinburgh, wrote a biography of John Milton and was a friend of Thomas Carlyle and John Stuart Mill.

It was no great surprise, therefore, when Masson himself began a career in higher education. Following his graduation from Merton College, Oxford, with a degree in English language and literature he took on the post of assistant librarian at the University of Leeds in 1938.

Except for a stint in the Royal Army Medical Corps during the Second World War from 1940–46, Masson remained a librarian for the rest of his working life.

Following his demobilisation he took on the role of curator of special collections at Liverpool and married his wife, Olive Newton, in 1950 before returning to Leeds in 1956 to become curator of the Brotherton collection, an assemblage of (mostly) English literature including many rare books and manuscripts bequeathed to the University by Lord Brotherton of Wakefield on his death in 1930.

It was during his 23 years at Leeds that he wrote his most well known short stories. Traveller's Rest, published in 1965 in New Worlds magazine, introduced Masson to his audience; a study in the uselessness of war focusing on a soldier's perceptions of reality in combat, perhaps influenced by his own experiences twenty years earlier.

Six more stories followed, including A Two-Timer, the tale of a 17th-century man's revulsion at the modern, 20th-century world he finds himself in, before Masson ended his relationship with New Worlds.

These seven stories were collected as The Caltraps of Time in 1968. Just three more short stories followed after 1968. These were included in the 2003 re-issue of Caltraps.... Masson also wrote several articles on the functions and effects of phonetic sound-patterning in poetry between 1951 and 1991.

Masson retired in 1979 but continued to live in the city of Leeds with his wife. The couple had a daughter and three grandchildren. He died in Leeds on 27 February 2007.

Bibliography
 The Caltraps of Time (1968)

Short stories
 "Not So Certain" (New Worlds, July 1967)

References

External links
David Masson page at Ansible Editions

1915 births
2007 deaths
Writers from Edinburgh
Alumni of Merton College, Oxford
People associated with the University of Leeds
Scottish librarians
Scottish science fiction writers
20th-century Scottish novelists
Scottish male novelists
20th-century British male writers
British Army personnel of World War II
Royal Army Medical Corps soldiers
Anglo-Scots

David I. Masson


Lancelot Lionel Ware OBE (5 June 191515 August 2000) was an English barrister and biochemist. He co-founded Mensa, the international society for intellectually gifted people, with the Australian barrister Roland Berrill in 1946. It was originally called the "High IQ Club".

Life
Ware was born in Mitcham, Surrey, the eldest child of Frederick Ware and Eleanor Emslie. He attended Steyning Grammar School and Sutton Grammar School. He then became a Royal Scholar at Imperial College London, reading mathematics, followed by a PhD in biochemistry.

In June 1980, at the age of 65, he married Joan Francesca Rae Quint (née Gomez), who survived him. He died 15 August 2000, aged 85.

Career
Ware undertook medical research with Sir Henry Dale at the National Institute for Medical Research in Hampstead, London, and became a non-clinical medical researcher and lecturer in biochemistry at St Thomas' Hospital in London.

During World War II, Ware worked at the Porton Down secret research establishment. He then worked as a scientist for the Boots Company in Nottingham. During this time, he learned about IQ tests. At the end of the war in 1945, he started a law degree at Lincoln College, Oxford. In 1949, Ware was called to the Bar by Lincoln's Inn and he practised in the Chancery field, specialising in intellectual property, copyright and patent matters.

He was also very interested in Conservative politics. He became an Alderman of the London County Council (LCC) in the 1960s. Ware joined the Athenaeum Club in 1983, a London club. He was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for services to the Institute of Patentees and Inventors, which he chaired for many years.

Ware retired from the Bar in 1987.

Mensa
The origins of Mensa were said to be from a conversation on a train with Roland Berrill, a lawyer with an interest in phrenology.  Ware argued that IQ tests were more appropriate and later tested Berrill, finding him to be in the top 1% of the population.  They therefore agreed to form a High IQ club, with Berrill providing the funding, and it began on 1 October 1946. Initially the society was intended for the top 1% of the population by intelligence, but a standard deviation computing error meant it ended up being the top 2%, and this criterion has remained since then.

By 1950, Ware had left Mensa, disagreeing with the way it was run by Berrill. However, after Berrill died in 1961, he re-joined the society.

References

 Encyclopædia Britannica Online entry
 Internet Obituary Network entry

1915 births
2000 deaths
English barristers
Members of Lincoln's Inn
Members of London County Council
Conservative Party (UK) politicians
People educated at Sutton Grammar School
Alumni of Lincoln College, Oxford
Alumni of Imperial College London
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Mensans
20th-century American lawyers
Unitarian Universalists
20th-century English lawyers

Lancelot Ware