XXX (stylized as xXx and pronounced Triple X) is a 2002 American action film directed by Rob Cohen, produced by Neal H. Moritz and written by Rich Wilkes. The first installment in the XXX film series, the film stars Vin Diesel as Xander Cage, a thrill-seeking extreme sports enthusiast, stuntman and rebellious athlete-turned-reluctant spy for the National Security Agency. Cage is sent on a dangerous mission to infiltrate a group of potential Russian terrorists in Central Europe. The film also stars Asia Argento, Marton Csokas and Samuel L. Jackson. Cohen, Moritz and Diesel had previously worked on The Fast and the Furious (2001) as director, producer and cast member respectively. The film grossed $277.4 million worldwide and was followed by two sequels, XXX: State of the Union (2005) and XXX: Return of Xander Cage (2017).

Plot

Anarchy 99, a Russian terrorist group, acquires the biochemical weapon "Silent Night", presumed missing since the fall of the Soviet Union. Undercover NSA agent Jim McGrath is assigned to recover the weapon, but is discovered and killed by Anarchy 99 at a Rammstein concert.

NSA Agent Augustus Gibbons suggests sending someone who lacks ties to the US government, such as Xander "XXX" Cage, an extreme sports professional wanted by the FBI for acts protesting against a California state senator. Gibbons takes Cage into custody, who then passes two field tests, before reluctantly accepting the job after he is told the only other option is prison.

Cage meets the NSA support team in Prague, which includes Czech agent Milan Sova, who's tasked with supervising and, if necessary, deporting Cage. While scouting an Anarchy 99 party, Cage identifies Sova as a police officer to Anarchy 99's leader, Yorgi, earning him favor with the group. Cage asks him about purchasing high end sports cars, and Yorgi's girlfriend and lieutenant Yelena, gives Cage an account number.

Gibbons calls Cage about changes to the plan but is impressed when he gives them information provided by the star-struck Kolya. Tech-specialist Agent Toby Shavers then provides Cage with a special revolver, binoculars that can see through walls and explosives disguised as bandages.

As Cage attends the car deal he made with Yorgi, Sova attempts to intercede. Using the trick revolver and special effects, Cage fake kills Sova. Having earned Yorgi's trust, Cage joins Anarchy 99.

Yorgi brings Cage back to a castle after a dance party at one of his nightclubs that serves as Anarchy 99's headquarters. Cage, while searching for the biochemical weapon, catches Yelena investigating Yorgi's secret safe. He takes her to a nearby restaurant to discuss the matter and reveals his true identity.

Sova betrays Cage to Yorgi, so he sends his trusted sniper Kirill to kill him. While watching the pair, Kirill, who is in love with Yelena, warns her. As Cage and Yelena stage a fight, the NSA suddenly appears to capture him, and Yelena is taken back to Anarchy 99.

Cage meets with Gibbons, who demands he return to America as his cover is blown and special forces are planning to siege the castle. He refuses, fearing for Yelena's life and bitter that Sova blew his cover.

Cage sneaks into Yorgi's castle and follows him into a secret underground lab. Overhearing his plan to launch "Silent Night" from the water-borne drone Ahab; he first tests the weapon on the scientists who developed it, to Cage and Yelena's horror.

Cage flees the area after killing Kolya. At his hideout, Sova is waiting for him, now with Yorgi. Yelena saves Cage, revealing herself to be an abandoned undercover Russian Federal Security Service agent. Cage relays Yorgi's plans to the NSA in return for Yelena's asylum.

Against orders, Shavers heavily arms Cage's car, who then parachutes from a plane on a snowboard near Anarchy 99's communication tower. The avalanche he starts destroys the tower but he is captured by Yorgi, who already knew Yelena's identity. As Yorgi prepares to kill them, the special forces attack. Cage and Yelena free themselves, but Yorgi launches Ahab before Cage kills him.

The Czech military prepares to destroy Ahab with airstrikes, though this will release some of the biochemical agent. Cage and Yelena take his heavily modified car, to catch up to Ahab. Cage harpoons and disables the weapon moments before it goes off.

Cage and Yelena are recovered, and Gibbons follows through on his promises. In the conclusion, the couple is relaxing in Bora Bora when Gibbons contacts him for another mission, but Cage ignores him.

Cast
 Vin Diesel as Xander "XXX" Cage, a thrill-seeking American extreme sports enthusiast, stuntman and anti-establishment activist. Idolized in some sub-cultures, Cage is also hunted by the authorities and he is offered a deal to become a spy for the National Security Agency in exchange for leniency, the agency requiring an agent who can do the current job without the military professional training that Anarchy 99's background will allow them to recognise.
 Samuel L. Jackson as Augustus Gibbons, a high-ranking official in the National Security Agency who has the power to give Cage a pardon for his crimes. He uses this fact as leverage to recruit Cage for a mission because he knows Cage is the only person who could successfully infiltrate Anarchy 99, recognising the benefits of Cage's rebellious attitude and unorthodox methods.
 William Hope as Roger Donnan, the associate and administrator of the National Security Agency.
 Danny Trejo as "El Jefe", a torturer for a Colombian drug cartel.
 Asia Argento as Yelena, Yorgi's apparent girlfriend. Originally a Russian intelligence agent, sent to watch over Yorgi but has since been abandoned by her superiors. Yelena becomes romantically involved with Cage and he attempts to get her political asylum in the United States for her assistance in bringing down Yorgi.
 Marton Csokas as Yorgi, a former soldier in the Soviet Army, now a wealthy hedonist owning a string of properties around Eastern Europe, including a castle and nightclubs. Yorgi is also the leader of Anarchy 99, a group of militant anarchists with a disdain for all forms of government and authority, and society in general. His ultimate aim is complete lawlessness across the world.
 Michael Roof as Toby Lee Shavers, an NSA techno-genius and gadget specialist.
 Richy Müller as Milan Sova, a cop and double agent.
 Werner Daehn as Kirill, a member of Anarchy 99, cigarette addict and sharpshooter.
 Petr Jákl as Kolya, Yorgi's younger brother.
 Jan Pavel Filipensky as Viktor, a member of Anarchy 99 and close friend of Yorgi. He is usually with Yorgi wherever he goes.
 Tom Everett as Dick Hotchkiss, a conservative California State Senator; his car is stolen and wrecked by Cage prior to his recruitment by the NSA, as a protest against some of Hotchkiss's policies.
 Thomas Ian Griffith as Jim McGrath, an undercover agent killed by Anarchy 99 while trying to retrieve the Silent Night weapon.
 Eve as J.J., Xander's friend
 Leila Arcieri as Jordan King
 Rammstein as themselves

To imply Xander Cage's credibility within extreme sport subcultures, various personalities make cameo appearances:

 Tony Hawk makes a cameo appearance in the Corvette scene from the bottom of the bridge driving the getaway Cadillac, (near the beginning of the film) and skating over a half-pipe at Xander's place later.
 Mike Vallely also makes a cameo as a cameraman and an extra. Pro motocross rider Carey Hart is seen in the back seat of the Cadillac driven by Tony Hawk.
 BMX rider Mat Hoffman exchanges lines with Xander during the party scene.
 Also during the party scene, Josh Todd (the lead singer of Buckcherry) makes a cameo appearance though he never turns around, but his suicide king of hearts tattoo can be seen on his back.

Production

In July 2001 it was announced that Vin Diesel will receive in the neighborhood of $10 million to star in the film, with an initial release date of July 26, 2002. It is believed that before Diesel was cast, Eric Bana turned down the lead role of Xander Cage. In August 2001, Sony put up a large billboard advertising the film in Hollywood, before a script had been written. There was also a teaser trailer released on May 3, 2002. It was shown attached to Spider-Man and on the web.

Filming took place at three locations. Most of the film is set in Prague, Czech Republic. The Corvette jump was filmed at the Foresthill Bridge in Auburn State Recreation Area, Auburn, California. The final scenes were set in Bora Bora, Tahiti, and other areas in southern West Virginia.

Several Czech Su-22s were used for the film. It was one of the last actions of these aircraft – the Czech Air Force decommissioned Sukhois in 2002.

Vin Diesel did many of his own stunts, director Rob Cohen said: "I think the thing is that Vin did more than he should have, but less than he wanted to." Diesel took a fall during the avalanche scene, and landed head first and wasn't moving, and Cohen was worried the star of the film might have broken his neck. A scene where Cage base jumps from a Corvette was performed by Tim Rigby wearing a Vin Diesel mask. The motorcycle jump was performed by professional motocross rider and stuntman Jeremy Stenberg, and Diesel's face was later added digitally.

Stunt player Harry O'Connor, Diesel's stunt double, was killed on April 4, 2002, when he hit a pillar of the Palacký Bridge in Prague while para-sailing during one of the action scenes. The accident occurred while filming the second take of the stunt; O'Connor's first attempt was completed without incident and can be seen in the completed film, which was dedicated to him.

The first few minutes of the film take place at a concert of German Neue Deutsche Härte band Rammstein in Prague, performing the song "Feuer Frei". The same clip is available, but from the band's perspective (with only brief scenes from the film) in their video compilation Lichtspielhaus.

Music

The film score was composed by Randy Edelman, a frequent collaborator of Cohen's. The film also featured a contemporary rock music soundtrack. Rammstein provided some of the music and was even featured in the film in the opening scene. During the club scene in Prague, Orbital can be seen playing their exclusive track "Technologicque Park" live before the dancing crowd. The soundtrack album also features Queens of the Stone Age, Drowning Pool, Hatebreed, Nelly, Lil Wayne, N.E.R.D, Fermín IV and Moby. It was released on August 6, 2002, through Universal Records. It peaked at #9 on the Billboard 200, #16 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and #1 on the Top Soundtracks. The "Tweaker remix" of the song "Adrenaline" by Gavin Rossdale (the lead singer of Bush) was featured in the film, while the original version is included on the soundtrack. None of Edelman's score was included on the album, with a separate disc of his work released by Varèse Sarabande.

Reception

Box office

The film opened in 3,374 theaters and grossed $44,506,103 in its opening weekend. It grossed a total of $142 million, and a further $135 million internationally for a worldwide total of $277.4 million worldwide.

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 48% based on reviews from 180 critics, with an average rating of 5.59/10. The site's consensus reads: "It has an endearing lack of seriousness, and Vin Diesel has more than enough muscle for the starring role, but ultimately, XXX is a missed opportunity to breathe new life into the spy thriller genre." On Metacritic the film has a score of 48 out of 100, based on reviews from 33 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade A− on scale of A to F.

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it  stars out of 4, writing, "In its own punk way, XXX is as good as a good Bond movie, and that's saying something." Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote: "It's hard to hate a movie, even one this droolingly crass, that knows how to laugh at itself." Adam Smith of Empire called the movie, "Sporadically entertaining, but seriously hampered by a very choppy screenplay", and rating it three out of five stars.

This film was nominated for a Razzie Award for Most Flatulent Teen-Targeted Movie, but lost to Jackass: The Movie.

See also
 XXX (video game)

References

External links

2002 films
2002 action thriller films
2000s spy films
American action adventure films
American action thriller films
American spy films
2000s English-language films
Films produced by Neal H. Moritz
2000s German-language films
2000s Spanish-language films
2000s Russian-language films
Czech-language films
Techno-thriller films
Films set in California
Films set in Colombia
Films set in Prague
Films shot in Austria
Films shot in Bora Bora
Films shot in California
Films shot in the Czech Republic
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films shot in West Virginia
Revolution Studios films
Columbia Pictures films
Original Film films
Films scored by Randy Edelman
Films directed by Rob Cohen
Avalanches in film
1
2000s American films
American spy action films

XXX (2002 film)


In computer networking, an Ethernet frame is a data link layer protocol data unit and uses the underlying Ethernet physical layer transport mechanisms. In other words, a data unit on an Ethernet link transports an Ethernet frame as its payload.

An Ethernet frame is preceded by a preamble and start frame delimiter (SFD), which are both part of the Ethernet packet at the physical layer. Each Ethernet frame starts with an Ethernet header, which contains destination and source MAC addresses as its first two fields. The middle section of the frame is payload data including any headers for other protocols (for example, Internet Protocol) carried in the frame. The frame ends with a frame check sequence (FCS), which is a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check used to detect any in-transit corruption of data.

Structure

A data packet on the wire and the frame as its payload consist of binary data. Ethernet transmits data with the most-significant octet (byte) first; within each octet, however, the least-significant bit is transmitted first.

The internal structure of an Ethernet frame is specified in IEEE 802.3. The table below shows the complete Ethernet packet and the frame inside, as transmitted, for the payload size up to the MTU of 1500 octets. Some implementations of Gigabit Ethernet and other higher-speed variants of Ethernet support larger frames, known as jumbo frames.

The optional 802.1Q tag consumes additional space in the frame. Field sizes for this option are shown in brackets in the table above. IEEE 802.1ad (Q-in-Q) allows for multiple tags in each frame. This option is not illustrated here.

Ethernet packet – physical layer

Preamble and start frame delimiter

An Ethernet packet starts with a seven-octet (56-bit) preamble and one-octet (8-bit) start frame delimiter (SFD). The preamble bit values alternate 1 and 0, allowing receivers to synchronize their clock at the bit-level with the transmitter. The preamble is followed by the SFD which ends with a 1 instead of 0, to break the bit pattern of the preamble and signal the start of the actual frame.

Physical layer transceiver circuitry (PHY for short) is required to connect the Ethernet MAC to the physical medium. The connection between a PHY and MAC is independent of the physical medium and uses a bus from the media independent interface family (MII, GMII, RGMII, SGMII, XGMII). The preamble and SFD representation depends on the width of the bus:

The SFD is immediately followed by the destination MAC address, which is the first field in an Ethernet frame.

Frame – data link layer

Header
The header features destination and source MAC addresses (each six octets in length), the EtherType field and, optionally, an IEEE 802.1Q tag or IEEE 802.1ad tag.

The EtherType field is two octets long and it can be used for two different purposes. Values of 1500 and below mean that it is used to indicate the size of the payload in octets, while values of 1536 and above indicate that it is used as an EtherType, to indicate which protocol is encapsulated in the payload of the frame. When used as EtherType, the length of the frame is determined by the location of the interpacket gap and valid frame check sequence (FCS).

The IEEE 802.1Q tag or IEEE 802.1ad tag, if present, is a four-octet field that indicates virtual LAN (VLAN) membership and IEEE 802.1p priority. The first two octets of the tag are called the Tag Protocol IDentifier (TPID) and double as the EtherType field indicating that the frame is either 802.1Q or 802.1ad tagged. 802.1Q uses a TPID of 0x8100. 802.1ad uses a TPID of 0x88a8.

Payload
Payload is a variable-length field. Its minimum size is governed by a requirement for a minimum frame transmission of 64 octets (bytes). With header and FCS taken into account, the minimum payload is 42 octets when an 802.1Q tag is present and 46 octets when absent. When the actual payload is less than the minimum, padding octets are added accordingly. IEEE standards specify a maximum payload of 1500 octets. Non-standard jumbo frames allow for larger payloads on networks built to support them.

Frame check sequence
The frame check sequence (FCS) is a four-octet cyclic redundancy check (CRC) that allows detection of corrupted data within the entire frame as received on the receiver side. According to the standard, the FCS value is computed as a function of the protected MAC frame fields: source and destination address, length/type field, MAC client data and padding (that is, all fields except the FCS).

Per the standard, this computation is done using the left shifting CRC-32 (polynomial = 0x4C11DB7, initial CRC = 0xFFFFFFFF, CRC is post complemented, verify value = 0x38FB2284) algorithm. The standard states that data is transmitted least significant bit (bit 0) first, while the FCS is transmitted most significant bit (bit 31) first. An alternative is to calculate a CRC using the right shifting CRC-32 (polynomial = 0xEDB88320, initial CRC = 0xFFFFFFFF, CRC is post complemented, verify value = 0x2144DF1C), which will result in a CRC that is a bit reversal of the FCS, and transmit both data and the CRC least significant bit first, resulting in identical transmissions.

The standard states that the receiver should calculate a new FCS as data is received and then compare the received FCS with the FCS the receiver has calculated. An alternative is to calculate a CRC on both the received data and the FCS, which will result in a fixed non-zero "verify" value. (The result is non-zero because the CRC is post complemented during CRC generation). Since the data is received least significant bit first, and to avoid having to buffer octets of data, the receiver typically uses the right shifting CRC-32. This makes the "verify" value (sometimes called "magic check") 0x2144DF1C.

However, hardware implementation of a logically right shifting CRC may use a left shifting Linear Feedback Shift Register as the basis for calculating the CRC, reversing the bits and resulting in a verify value of 0x38FB2284. Since the complementing of the CRC may be performed post calculation and during transmission, what remains in the hardware register is a non-complemented result, so the residue for a right shifting implementation would be the complement of 0x2144DF1C = 0xDEBB20E3, and for a left shifting implementation, the complement of 0x38FB2284 = 0xC704DD7B.

End of frame – physical layer
The end of a frame is usually indicated by the end-of-data-stream symbol at the physical layer or by loss of the carrier signal; an example is 10BASE-T, where the receiving station detects the end of a transmitted frame by loss of the carrier. Later physical layers use an explicit end of data or end of stream symbol or sequence to avoid ambiguity, especially where the carrier is continually sent between frames; an example is Gigabit Ethernet with its 8b/10b encoding scheme that uses special symbols which are transmitted before and after a frame is transmitted.

Interpacket gap – physical layer
Interpacket gap (IPG) is idle time between packets. After a packet has been sent, transmitters are required to transmit a minimum of 96 bits (12 octets) of idle line state before transmitting the next packet.

Types

There are several types of Ethernet frames:

 Ethernet II frame, or Ethernet Version 2, or DIX frame is the most common type in use today, as it is often used directly by the Internet Protocol.
 Novell raw IEEE 802.3 non-standard variation frame
 IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) frame
 IEEE 802.2 Subnetwork Access Protocol (SNAP) frame

The different frame types have different formats and MTU values, but can coexist on the same physical medium. Differentiation between frame types is possible based on the table on the right.

In addition, all four Ethernet frame types may optionally contain an IEEE 802.1Q tag to identify what VLAN it belongs to and its priority (quality of service). This encapsulation is defined in the IEEE 802.3ac specification and increases the maximum frame by 4 octets.

The IEEE 802.1Q tag, if present, is placed between the Source Address and the EtherType or Length fields. The first two octets of the tag are the Tag Protocol Identifier (TPID) value of 0x8100. This is located in the same place as the EtherType/Length field in untagged frames, so an EtherType value of 0x8100 means the frame is tagged, and the true EtherType/Length is located after the Q-tag. The TPID is followed by two octets containing the Tag Control Information (TCI) (the IEEE 802.1p priority (quality of service) and VLAN id). The Q-tag is followed by the rest of the frame, using one of the types described above.

Ethernet II
Ethernet II framing (also known as DIX Ethernet, named after DEC, Intel and Xerox, the major participants in its design), defines the two-octet EtherType field in an Ethernet frame, preceded by destination and source MAC addresses, that identifies an upper layer protocol encapsulated by the frame data. Most notably, an EtherType value of 0x0800 indicates that the frame contains an IPv4 datagram, 0x0806 indicates an ARP datagram, and 0x86DD indicates an IPv6 datagram. See  for more.

As this industry-developed standard went through a formal IEEE standardization process, the EtherType field was changed to a (data) length field in the new 802.3 standard. Since the recipient still needs to know how to interpret the frame, the standard required an IEEE 802.2 header to follow the length and specify the type. Many years later, the 802.3x-1997 standard, and later versions of the 802.3 standard, formally approved of both types of framing. Ethernet II framing is the most common in Ethernet local area networks, due to its simplicity and lower overhead.

In order to allow some frames using Ethernet II framing and some using the original version of 802.3 framing to be used on the same Ethernet segment, EtherType values must be greater than or equal to 1536 (0x0600). That value was chosen because the maximum length of the payload field of an Ethernet 802.3 frame is 1500 octets (0x05DC). Thus if the field's value is greater than or equal to 1536, the frame must be an Ethernet II frame, with that field being a type field. If it's less than or equal to 1500, it must be an IEEE 802.3 frame, with that field being a length field. Values between 1500 and 1536, exclusive, are undefined. This convention allows software to determine whether a frame is an Ethernet II frame or an IEEE 802.3 frame, allowing the coexistence of both standards on the same physical medium.

Novell raw IEEE 802.3
Novell's "raw" 802.3 frame format was based on early IEEE 802.3 work. Novell used this as a starting point to create the first implementation of its own IPX Network Protocol over Ethernet. They did not use any LLC header but started the IPX packet directly after the length field. This does not conform to the IEEE 802.3 standard, but since IPX always has FF as the first two octets (while in IEEE 802.2 LLC that pattern is theoretically possible but extremely unlikely), in practice this usually coexists on the wire with other Ethernet implementations, with the notable exception of some early forms of DECnet which got confused by this.

Novell NetWare used this frame type by default until the mid-nineties, and since NetWare was then very widespread, while IP was not, at some point in time most of the world's Ethernet traffic ran over "raw" 802.3 carrying IPX. Since NetWare 4.10, NetWare defaults to IEEE 802.2 with LLC (NetWare Frame Type Ethernet_802.2) when using IPX.

IEEE 802.2 LLC

Some protocols, such as those designed for the OSI stack, operate directly on top of IEEE 802.2 LLC encapsulation, which provides both connection-oriented and connectionless network services.

IEEE 802.2 LLC encapsulation is not in widespread use on common networks currently, with the exception of large corporate NetWare installations that have not yet migrated to NetWare over IP. In the past, many corporate networks used IEEE 802.2 to support transparent translating bridges between Ethernet and Token Ring or FDDI networks.

There exists an Internet standard for encapsulating IPv4 traffic in IEEE 802.2 LLC SAP/SNAP frames. It is almost never implemented on Ethernet, although it is used on FDDI, Token Ring, IEEE 802.11 (with the exception of the 5.9 GHz band, where it uses EtherType) and other IEEE 802 LANs. IPv6 can also be transmitted over Ethernet using IEEE 802.2 LLC SAP/SNAP, but, again, that's almost never used.

IEEE 802.2 SNAP

By examining the 802.2 LLC header, it is possible to determine whether it is followed by a SNAP header. The LLC header includes two eight-bit address fields, called service access points (SAPs) in OSI terminology; when both source and destination SAP are set to the value 0xAA, the LLC header is followed by a SNAP header. The SNAP header allows EtherType values to be used with all IEEE 802 protocols, as well as supporting private protocol ID spaces.

In IEEE 802.3x-1997, the IEEE Ethernet standard was changed to explicitly allow the use of the 16-bit field after the MAC addresses to be used as a length field or a type field.

The AppleTalk v2 protocol suite on Ethernet ("EtherTalk") uses IEEE 802.2 LLC + SNAP encapsulation.

Maximum throughput
We may calculate the protocol overhead for Ethernet as a percentage (packet size including IPG)

We may calculate the protocol efficiency for Ethernet

Maximum efficiency is achieved with largest allowed payload size and is:

for untagged frames, since the packet size is maximum 1500 octet payload + 8 octet preamble + 14 octet header + 4 octet trailer + minimum interpacket gap corresponding to 12 octets = 1538 octets. The maximum efficiency is:

when 802.1Q VLAN tagging is used.

The throughput may be calculated from the efficiency
,
where the physical layer net bit rate (the wire bit rate) depends on the Ethernet physical layer standard, and may be 10 Mbit/s, 100 Mbit/s, 1 Gbit/s or 10 Gbit/s. Maximum throughput for 100BASE-TX Ethernet is consequently 97.53 Mbit/s without 802.1Q, and 97.28 Mbit/s with 802.1Q.

Channel utilization is a concept often confused with protocol efficiency. It considers only the use of the channel disregarding the nature of the data transmitted – either payload or overhead. At the physical layer, the link channel and equipment do not know the difference between data and control frames. We may calculate the channel utilization:

The total time considers the round trip time along the channel, the processing time in the hosts and the time transmitting data and acknowledgements. The time spent transmitting data includes data and acknowledgements.

Runt frames
A runt frame is an Ethernet frame that is less than the IEEE 802.3's minimum length of 64 octets. Runt frames are most commonly caused by collisions; other possible causes are a malfunctioning network card, buffer underrun, duplex mismatch or software issues.

Notes

References

Further reading

Articles containing video clips
Frame

de:Datenframe

Ethernet frame


Timothy J. Hauser (December 6, 1948, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania – August 18, 2005, Nags Head, North Carolina) was an American economist in public administration and the civil service of the United States.

Biography
Timothy Hauser graduated from Mt. Lebanon High School near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1966.  He then attended Georgetown University, earning a master's degree in international relations in 1972.  He did additional postgraduate work at the Johns Hopkins University Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies, in Washington, D.C., and in Bologna, Italy.  He was fluent in both Italian and French.

Hauser served in the United States Army as a captain in the 1970s.  He went to work as an economist with the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1971.  He moved to the United States Department of Commerce on the staff of the assistant secretary for policy before 1980.  In 1986, he was detailed to the White House for a year as deputy executive secretary of the Economic Policy Council, after which he returned to the Commerce Department as deputy assistant secretary of planning.

In 1991, he became the first career civil servant to be appointed deputy undersecretary of the Commerce Department.  He earned the Presidential Rank Award of Distinguished Executive twice, in 1992 and 2003.  The International Trade Administration has established the Timothy J. Hauser Award in his honour.

References

1948 births
2005 deaths
People from Pittsburgh
American civil servants
Economists from Pennsylvania
20th-century American economists
Georgetown University alumni
Under Secretaries of Commerce for International Trade

Timothy Hauser


Menarche is the first menstrual cycle for female human beings. From medical and social perspectives it is often the central event of female puberty, as it signals the possibility of fertility. Girls experience menarche at different ages. The timing for menarche is influenced via female biology, in addition to genetic and environmental issues, particularly nutritional factors. The average age of menarche for the United States is near 12.5 years and 12.75 years for Canada.

Female reproductive system

Menarche


All Cannings Cross is the name of farm and an archaeological site close to All Cannings, near Devizes in the English county of Wiltshire. The site is a scheduled ancient monument.

It is notable as the first site where the emergence of Iron Age technology in Britain was identified by archaeologists. In 1911 it was first investigated by Ben and Maud Cunnington after they were informed of finds of numerous hammerstones in a ploughed field in the Vale of Pewsey. Subsequent excavation by the Cunningtons encountered a thick layer of humic material containing a high concentration of pottery and animal bone as well as both bronze and iron tools. The date of the site was estimated at c. 500 BC, a time of transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age.

The Cunningtons returned to the site between 1920 and 1922, and study of the wide range of pottery they excavated became influential on the understanding of the period. From the eighth century to the seventh century BC, the area (Wessex) boasted an elaborate array of different vessel types, often highly decorated and well made. Some were covered with iron oxide and fired in oxidising conditions which produced pottery which could be burnished to shine like bronze vessels. This pottery, which has All Cannings Cross as its typesite, has since been found in an area of southern Britain from the Somerset Levels to eastern Hampshire. This suggests a high degree of interaction during the period and some kind of shared values which indicate that communities in the region were in close contact with another, likely through exchange networks used to trade bronze.

There is evidence for some post-built buildings and other settlement features such as hearths and floors.

More recent work by the University of Sheffield in 2003 and 2004 has interpreted the humic deposit as being part of a group of large middens, analogous to similar sites at nearby Potterne or East Chisenbury. The nature of the settlement itself is still poorly understood and it is uncertain whether the middens represent waste materials from a farming economy of whether the midden pits were perhaps ritually created through group feasting activities.

References

Sources

External links

Iron Age sites in England
Archaeological sites in Wiltshire
Former populated places in Wiltshire
Scheduled monuments in Wiltshire

All Cannings Cross


W5 is a Canadian news magazine television program produced by CTV News. The program is broadcast Friday nights at 10 p.m. on the CTV Television Network, with repeat broadcasts at later times on CTV as well as co-owned channels CTV 2, CTV News Channel, and Investigation Discovery. The program also airs in a radio simulcast on CFRB (1010) in Toronto.

The title refers to the Five Ws of journalism: Who, What, Where, When and Why? It is the longest-running news magazine/documentary program in North America and the most-watched program of its type in Canada.

History

W5 is the longest-running current affairs/newsmagazine program in North America and the third longest-running Canadian television program.

It was launched as W5 on September 11, 1966, just after the demise of CBC Television's This Hour Has Seven Days, at a time when the CTV network was on the brink of bankruptcy. The program's magazine format is considered an inspiration for a number of similar programs, including the American program 60 Minutes which premiered two years later.

The program's first executive producer and host was Peter Reilly. He quit only a few weeks into the first season of W5, in a dispute with John Bassett, who owned the CTV network's biggest station, CFTO-TV in Toronto. Reilly went on to become the first host of the CBC's later current affairs offering, The Fifth Estate. Peter Rehak was executive producer through the 1980s and 1990s.

Robert Hurst oversaw a revamping of the program look in the fall of 1995. Fiona Conway became executive producer but left for ABC News in 1998. Conway was succeeded by senior producer Ian McLeod and after he left  Malcolm Fox became the executive producer from September 2000 until September 2009. Anton Koschany served as executive producer from 2009-2021, during which time the program moved into HD and produced an expanded number of episodes per season. He was succeeded by current Executive Producer Derek Miller.

The program's first regular host was Ken Cavanagh, with reports from CTV National News journalists such as Doug Johnson and Frank Drea, who later became a Progressive Conservative member of Provincial Parliament in Ontario and Trina McQueen, later president of CTV. During the 1970s, Henry Champ was a long-time host, along with Ken Lefolii and Tom Gould. Helen Hutchinson, who also hosted during the 1970s (concurrent with her tenure as co-host of the morning show Canada AM), was one of the first women to gain a prominent position in television news in Canada. Jim Reed joined the programme in 1972 as a field producer and was later appointed as host along with Hutchinson and Champ.

Eric Malling joined W5 in 1990 from CBC's rival news magazine, The Fifth Estate. In 1991, a new team of reporters also joined the program: Susan Ormiston, Christine Nielsen, and Elliott Shiff.  The program was called W5 with Eric Malling until Malling moved to hosting the television program Mavericks in 1995.

In 1993–94, an in-depth report on New Zealand showed the results of a nation that had suffered the effects of a debt wall. The report had a significant influence and was used by governments to justify cutting social services. The government of Alberta included transcripts of the program when it sent back rejected grant applications and Ontario Premier Bob Rae cited the program during cabinet debates on the deficit. Author Linda McQuaig criticized the program saying: "It was just full of misinformation," saying that Malling distorted the situation in New Zealand by presenting what was really a short-term currency crisis as something else: national bankruptcy and the loss of credit. The real issue - an overvalued currency - she says, was never brought up. "I'm talking about confusing the issues," she says, "making people believe things that aren't true because that's the point that he wanted to make. You don't need to come out with a technical lie to do that."

In 1996 for its 30th anniversary, the program was rebranded to W-FIVE and became more populist. Hosts included top CTV journalists, including Lloyd Robertson, Craig Oliver and Jim O'Connell.

With broadcast shifting to HD for the 2009–2010 season the program reverted to its traditional title W5 with a revised graphic treatment and a new theme that reflects its investigative nature and culminates in five notes representative of the five Ws of journalism.

Recent hosts have included Robertson, Sandie Rinaldo, Kevin Newman and Lisa LaFlamme (with Robertson continuing to co-host following his 2011 retirement as anchor of the CTV National News until 2016 when he was named special correspondent). W5 has produced such stories as a possible cure for multiple sclerosis ("The Liberation Treatment"), an investigation into fatal shootings by RCMP officers (nominated for a Michener Award), an investigation of abuses at the Nova Scotia Home for Colored Children ("The Throwaway Children"), an annual expose of used car dealer trickery, rampant corruption in Canada's immigration system, and personal stories of burn recovery from the Bali bombing.

Since 2000, the program has officially been designated a "documentary series", with only one or two segments filling an hour-long episode, due to Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission regulations that count documentaries, but not older-style newsmagazines, as "priority programming". In the 2012–2013 season, the program began experimenting with loosening the format, with occasional three story episodes.

For a period of time in the late 1970s and into the 1980s, the program's introductory theme music used part of "Fool's Overture", a song by the UK band Supertramp. The current theme was composed by Doug Pennock, who has also composed the theme for CTV National News and music for other CTV special projects, including the 2007 two-hour documentary Triumph & Treachery: The Brian Mulroney Story.

On October 24, 2009, CTV unveiled a new look for W5, introduced a new logo and began broadcasting for the very first time in high definition. The title was once again rebranded, back to its original title as W5. This look was further refined with the start of the program's 47th season on September 22, 2012. The start of the 48th season saw the introduction of David Tyler as the current in-show narrator.

Controversies
W5 came under controversy during the 1970s when it aired a feature called "Campus Giveaways" that used incorrect statistics to conclude that foreign students were eroding white Canadians' opportunities for a secondary education and benefitting from public universities which were being funded by Canadian taxpayers, without exploring the statement's backgrounds. The host of the program stated:
 ... there are so many oriental foreign students that they rarely mix with their Canadian classmates. It's as if there are two campuses at Canadian universities—foreign and domestic. Certainly this Chinese theatre attracts a full house, but not one Canadian student attended.1

It has been alleged that the feature was specifically directed to form a negative view towards Chinese and Chinese Canadians. As well, it did not determine if the people filmed in that particular episode were actually Chinese or Chinese Canadian. After protests by Chinese Canadians, including Joseph Yu Kai Wong (later founder of the Yee Hong Centre for Geriatric Care), W5 retracted this statement and apologised. The president of CTV at the time, Murray Chercover, issued the following statement on April 16, 1980:

 ... our critics—particularly Chinese Canadians and the universities—criticized the program as racist; they were right.... We share the dismay of our critics that this occurred. We sincerely apologize for the fact that Chinese Canadians were depicted as foreigners and for whatever distress this stereotyping may have caused them in the context of our multicultural society.2

This event also led to the formation of the Chinese Canadian National Council in order to form a stronger voice representing Chinese Canadians nationwide.

Hosts and producers
Hosts, reporters, and producers associated with the program have included:

 Peter Reilly (first host)
 Heinz Avigdor
 Dalton Camp
 Ken Cavanagh
 Henry Champ
 Wei Chen
 Tom Clark
 Kelly Crichton
 Bill Cunningham
 Chad Derrick
 Gordon Donaldson
 Frank Drea
 Malcolm Fox (2000–2009)
 Tom Gould
 Les Harris
 Robert Hurst
 Allya Davidson
 Fiona Conway
 Ian McLeod
 Helen Hutchinson
 Doug Johnson
 Tom Kennedy
 Peter Kent

 Anton Koschany
 Ken Lefolii
 Jack McGaw
 Derek Miller
 Michael Maclear (1977–78)
 Victor Malarek
 Eric Malling (1990–1996)
 Dennis McIntosh
 Brett Mitchell
 Kevin Newman
 Christine Nielsen
 Susan Ormiston
 Sandie Rinaldo
 Jim Reed
 Peter Rehak (1981–1996)
 Lloyd Robertson
 Morley Safer
 Merle Shain
 Elliott Shiff
 Sylvia Sweeney
 Carole Taylor
 Rosemary Vukmanich
 Patrick Watson
 Genevieve Wescott
 Jon Woodward
 Don Young
 Avery Haines

References

1979a "Campus Giveway." W5 Transcripts. September 30, 1979 (Released October 4, 1979).
"News release: Statement by President and Managing Director, CTV" April 16, 1980.

External links

Show website
https://www.youtube.com/@OfficialW5
The RCMP suspects a huge immigrant smuggling ring, and the Chinese community is upset by the accusations. (TV; runs 10:05) - CBC Archives

1960s Canadian television news shows
1970s Canadian television news shows
1980s Canadian television news shows
1990s Canadian television news shows
2000s Canadian television news shows
2010s Canadian television news shows
2020s Canadian television news shows
1966 Canadian television series debuts
CTV Television Network original programming
CTV News
Television series by Bell Media

W5 (TV program)


Al Jazeera International Documentary Film Festival is an international film festival showcasing documentaries and it is organized by Al Jazeera. It is directed by Abbas Arnaout. The first festival was held on April 18, 2005. Every year the festival has a different theme. The vision of the festival is to make the festival an invitation to introduce worldwide different cultures, foster better relationships through an exchange of experiences and knowledge thus creating a foundation of respect and understanding. Al Jazeera seeks to make the festival become a place where filmmakers from different countries and cultures meet to create a unique platform that celebrates creative talent and encourages a cultural interest in documentary films.  It is held at the Doha Sheraton in Doha, Qatar.

The festival endeavors to promote worldwide creative talent and in this way, leave behind a unique stamp of originality and professionalism.

Winners
2015: Io sto con la sposa (On the bride's side)

References

External links

Al Jazeera


Charles Carter Comstock (March 5, 1818 – February 20, 1900) was a businessman and politician from the US state of Michigan.

Family and early life
Comstock was born in Sullivan, New Hampshire, the son of William and Ruth Crane Comstock. He was educated in the common schools and lived on the family farm in New Hampshire until he went into the lumber business at age 24. In 1853 he moved with his family to Grand Rapids, Michigan and continued in the lumber business, soon expanding into manufacturing wood products. With E. T. Ward & Co. he brought the first machinery to the city for the manufacture of sash, doors and blinds. In 1857, he bought the Winchester furniture factory. The Panic of 1857 nearly drove him out of business, but he persevered through the difficulties and within about four years he had satisfied all financial obligations and had put his enterprises on a sound basis.

In 1863, he sold a half interest in the business to James M. and Ezra T. Nelson, forming the Comstock, Nelson & Company. In 1865, after Comstock sold his interest to his son, Tileston A. Comstock and others, it became the Nelson, Comstock & Company. In the fall of 1863, Comstock formed a partnership with E.E. Bolles for the manufacture of pails and tubs. In the following year, he purchased his partner's interest and continued the business until 1883. He built a large factory on Canal and Newberry streets and employed more than a 200 persons and using about 10,000,000 feet of timber annually. His three saw mills and lumber camps employed over 150 men. In 1872, Comstock organized the Grand Rapids Chair Company, and continued as its largest shareholder until his death.

In 1840, Comstock married Mary Winchester, who died in 1863. They had four children. Their only son, Tileston, died in 1870. The eldest daughter, Alzina, with her husband Albert A. Stone and their young son, were lost in the wreck of the steamer Brother Jonathan off the coast of California in July 1865. The other daughters are Julia C. Goldsmith and Mary Konkle.

In 1865, Comstock married Cornelia Guild Davis, the daughter of Daniel Guild, one of the pioneers of the Grand River Valley. They had two daughters, Etta (Mrs. Lucius Boltwood) and Clara (Mrs. Huntley Russell) (1866–1935). Clara Comstock Russell (http://www.historygrandrapids.org/photoessay/4480/clara-comstock-russell-woman-a) was chairman of the Republican Women's State Executive Committee, and Vice-president of the Michigan Equal Suffrage Association. She married Huntley Russell (1858–1928), a Republican State Senator, State Land Commissioner and real estate developer.

Political career
He was the Mayor of Grand Rapids in 1863 and 1864. He was the Democratic candidate for Governor of Michigan in 1870, losing to Republican Henry P. Baldwin. He also ran unsuccessfully as a Democrat for a seat in the United States House of Representatives in a special election in 1873. He was also a candidate for Congress with the Greenback Party in 1878.

In 1884, he was elected on a fusion ticket of Democrat and Greenback parties from Michigan's 5th congressional district to the 49th United States Congress, serving from March 4, 1885 to March 3, 1887. He was not a candidate for re-election in 1886.

He died in Grand Rapids and is buried there in the Fulton Street Cemetery.

References
General sources

The Political Graveyard
Michigan Pioneer Collection Pioneer Society of the State of Michigan, Annual Meeting of 1900, Memorials Report-Michigan Pioneer Collection, Volume XXIX 1899–1900, pp. 450–456

Notes

External links
 Charles C. Comstock letters received, MSS SC 847 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University

1818 births
1900 deaths
People from Sullivan, New Hampshire
Burials in Michigan
Businesspeople from Michigan
Businesspeople in wood products
Mayors of Grand Rapids, Michigan
Michigan Greenbacks
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Michigan
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American businesspeople

Charles C. Comstock


In a city or town, the old town is its historic or original core. Although the city is usually larger in its present form, many cities have redesignated this part of the city to commemorate its origins after thorough renovations. There are many places throughout the world referred to as the old town (and this is sometimes construed as a proper noun and capitalized). This is a list of some famous old towns:

Africa

Algeria
 Casbah of Algiers, in Algeria

Egypt
 Medieval Cairo, in Cairo
 Old Rashid
 Saint Catherine's Monastery, in Sinai

Kenya
 Mombasa Old Town

Morocco
 Old Meknes in Morocco
 Old Essaouira, in Morocco
 Old Fes, in Morocco
 Old Marrakech, in Morocco
 Tétouan in Morocco
 El Jadida in Morocco

Niger
 Historic Center of Agadez

Tanzania/Zanzibar
 Stone Town in Zanzibar City (World Heritage Site)

Tunisia
 Old Kairouan, in Tunisia
 Medina of Sousse in Tunisia
 Medina of Tunis in Tunisia

Asia and the Pacific

Bangladesh
 Old Town in Dhaka, Old Dhaka

China
 Forbidden City and Old Town remnants of Beijing
 Mountain Resort temple town in Chengde
 Old Town of Dengfeng
 Old Town of Kaiping
 Old Town of Lijiang
 Old Town and Potala Palace of Lhasa
 Historic Centre of Macau
 Walled old town area of Nanjing
 Old Town of Pingyao
 Old Town of Qufu
 Old Town of Suzhou
 Historical centers of Xidi and Hongcun
 Old Town of Yinxu
 Old Town of Zhouzhuang

Fiji
 Levuka

India
 Old Town and monuments of Agra
 Historical center of Alchi
 Historical center of Amritsar
 Old Delhi
 Old Goa
 Historical center of Hyderabad
 Historical ruined center of Mandu
 Historical center of Mumbai
 Old Town and palace of Udaipur

Indonesia
Old Town of Jakarta, within and 4 Outlying Islands (Onrust, Kelor, Cipir dan Bidadari)
 Depok Lama (Old Town of Depok)
 Old Town of Semarang
 Historic City of Surabaya
 Historic Town of Bandung
 Historic Town of Medan
 Historic Monuments of City of Ternate
 Historic Monuments of Banda Neira
 Historic Monuments of City Of Tidore
 Historic Center of City of Yogyakarta
 Old Mining Town Of Sawahlunto
 Old Town of Padang
 Old City of Bukittinggi
 Historic District of Lasem
 Historic Center of Solo (Surakarta)
 Historic Town of Cirebon
Ancient City of Banten
 Historic Center of Palembang
 Historic City of Tegal
 Historic Town of Bogor

Japan
 Historic remnants of old Kyoto
 Historic remnants of old Nara
 Historic remnants of old Nikkō
 Historic centers of Shirakawa-gō and Gokayama

Malaysia
 Core heritage zone in George Town, a World Heritage Site
 Old Town in Ipoh
 Old Town in Petaling Jaya

Pakistan
 Walled City of Lahore

Philippines

Philippines as the former colony of Spain has numerous heritage structures, most notably in:
 Old Town remnants of Intramuros in Manila
 Old Town of Vigan
 Old Town of Malolos
 Old Town of San Fernando
 Old Town of Pila
 Old Town of Taal
 Old Town of Balayan
 Old Town of Baclayon
 Old Town of Iloilo
 Old Town of Laoag
 Old Town of Loboc
 Old Town of Carcar
 Old Town of Silay
 Old Town of Baclayon
 Old Town of Dapitan

South Korea

 Bukchon Hanok Village (Seoul)
 Insa-dong (Seoul)
 Nampo-dong (Busan)
 Hahoe Folk Village (Andong)
 Yangdong Folk Village (Gyeongju)

Syria
Ancient City of Damascus
Ancient City of Aleppo

Thailand

Rattanakosin Island of Bangkok
Talat Noi and Song Wat Road of Bangkok
Kudi Chin of Bangkok
Ban Sing Tha of Yasothon
Old Phuket Town of Phuket
Chak Ngaeo of Chonburi
Chanthaboon Riverside Community of Chanthaburi
Chiang Khan of Loei
Chum Saeng of Nakhon Sawan
 Tha Chalom of Samut Sakhon

Uzbekistan
 Tashkent
 Samarkand
 Bukhara
 Khiva

Vietnam
 Old Town of Hanoi
 Old Town of Hội An
 Old Town of Huế

Europe

Austria

UNESCO World Heritage old towns in Austria:
Graz (Styria)
Krems an der Donau (Lower Austria)
Salzburg (Salzburg), Altstadt Salzburg
Innere Stadt (Vienna)

Other notable/famous old towns include:
Hall in Tirol (Tyrol)
Innsbruck (Tyrol)
Linz (Upper Austria)
Steyr (Upper Austria)
Klagenfurt am Wörthersee (Carinthia)

Belgium
Antwerp
Arlon
Binche
Bruges
Brussels
Dendermonde
Dinant
Durbuy
Ghent
Leuven
Liège
Lier
Mechelen
Mons
Namur
Thuin
Tournai
Ypres

Bosnia and Herzegovina
 Historic Center of Sarajevo
 Stari Most (Old City of Mostar)
 City of Višegrad

Bulgaria
Old Town in Plovdiv
Old Town in Lovech
Old Town in Nessebur

Croatia
Old Town of Dubrovnik, UNESCO World Heritage Site
Old Town of Split with Diocletian's Palace, UNESCO World Heritage Site
Old Town of Trogir, UNESCO World Heritage Site
Old Town of Varaždin
Gradec and Kaptol, twin old towns of Zagreb

Czech Republic
 Staré Město in Prague, UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Vnitřní město in Český Krumlov, UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Vnitřní město in Kutná Hora, UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Vnitřní město in Telč, UNESCO World Heritage Site

Cyprus
Walled city of Nicosia
Walled city of Famagusta
Old town of Limassol
Old town of Paphos also traditionally known as Ktima. Not to be confused with Nea Paphos a World Heritage Site
Old town of Larnaca

Denmark
 Den Gamle By in Aarhus

Estonia
 Old Town (Vanalinn) of Narva
 Old Town (Vanalinn) of Tallinn, UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Old Town (Vanalinn) of Tartu

Finland
 Old Town (Vanhakaupunki) of Porvoo
 Vanhakaupunki in Helsinki
Old Rauma

France

The equivalent of "Old Town" in French is vieille ville, although the more formal centre historique ("historical center") is usually written on road signs.

UNESCO World Heritage old towns in France:
Albi (Tarn)
Avignon (Vaucluse)
Bordeaux (Gironde)
Carcassonne (Aude)
Lyon (Rhône)
Provins (Seine-et-Marne)
Strasbourg (Bas-Rhin)

Other notable/famous old towns include:
Auxerre (Yonne)
Besançon (Doubs)
Lille (Nord)
Montpellier (Hérault)
Nice (Alpes-Maritimes)
Paris (Ile de France)
Rennes (Ille-et-Vilaine)
Rouen (Seine-Maritime)
Saint-Malo (Ille-et-Vilaine)
Toulouse (Haute-Garonne)

Georgia
 Old Tbilisi (Dzveli Tbilisi) in Tbilisi
 Historical Center in Mtskheta, UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Old Town in Kutaisi
 Old Town in Batumi

Germany

 UNESCO World Heritage old towns in Germany:
Bamberg (Franconia)
Goslar (Lower Saxony)
Lübeck (Schleswig-Holstein)
Quedlinburg (Saxony-Anhalt)
Regensburg (Bavaria)
Stralsund (Western Pomerania)
Wismar (Mecklenburg)

Other notable/famous old towns include:
Northern Germany:
Bad Doberan (Mecklenburg)
Binz (Western Pomerania)
Celle (Lower Saxony)
Eckernförde (Schleswig)
Flensburg (Schleswig)
Friedrichstadt (Schleswig)
Güstrow (Mecklenburg)
Hamelin (Lower Saxony)
Hann. Münden (Lower Saxony)
Heringsdorf (Western Pomerania)
Lüneburg (Lower Saxony)
Neustrelitz (Mecklenburg)
Putbus (Western Pomerania)
Ratzeburg (Holstein)
Schwerin (Mecklenburg)
Stade (Lower Saxony)
Waren (Mecklenburg)
Wolfenbüttel (Lower Saxony)
Eastern Germany:
Bautzen (Lusatia)
Erfurt (Thuringia)
Görlitz (Silesia)
Meissen (Saxony)
Pirna (Saxony)
Stolberg (Saxony-Anhalt)
Weimar (Thuringia)
Wernigerode (Saxony-Anhalt)
Southern Germany:
Baden-Baden (Baden)
Dinkelsbühl (Bavaria)
Freiburg (Baden)
Füssen (Bavaria)
Heidelberg (Baden)
Konstanz (Swabia)
Landshut (Bavaria)
Lindau (Bavaria)
Nuremberg (Franconia)
Ravensburg (Swabia)
Rothenburg (Bavaria)
Schwäbisch Hall (Swabia)
Tübingen (Swabia)
Würzburg (Franconia)
Western Germany:
Bacharach (Rhineland-Palatinate)
Beilstein (Rhineland)
Bernkastel-Kues (Rhineland)
Cochem (Rhineland-Palatinate)
Hattingen (North Rhine-Westphalia)
Landau (Palatinate)
Lemgo (Westphalia)
Limburg (Hesse)
Linz am Rhein (Rheinland)
Marburg (Hesse)
Monschau (Rhineland)
Montabaur (Rhineland-Palatinate)
Rüdesheim (Hesse)
Soest (North Rhine-Westphalia)
Trier (Rhineland-Palatinate)
Wetzlar(Hesse)
Xanten (Rhineland)

Greece
 Medieval City of Rhodes, UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Old Town of Corfu (city), UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Old Town of Hania
Nafplio
 Plaka, Athina

Italy

UNESCO World Heritage old towns in Italy:
Assisi (Umbria)
Ferrara (Emilia-Romagna)
Florence (Tuscany)
Genoa (Liguria)
Mantua (Lombardy)
Modena (Emilia-Romagna)
Naples (Campania)
Pienza (Tuscany)
Pisa (Tuscany)
Ravenna (Emilia-Romagna)
Rome (Lazio)
San Gimignano (Tuscany)
Siena (Tuscany)
Siracusa (Sicily)
Urbino (Marche)
Venice (Veneto)
Verona (Veneto)
Vicenza (Veneto)

I Borghi più belli d'Italia is an association of small Italian towns of historical interest.

Other notable old towns include:
Northern Italy
Bassano del Grappa (Veneto)
Bergamo (Lombardy)
Bologna (Emilia-Romagna)
Bolzano (Trentino-Alto Adige)
Castelfranco Veneto (Veneto)
Chioggia (Veneto)
Cittadella (Veneto)
Milan (Lombardy)
Palmanova (Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
Parma (Emilia-Romagna)
Pavia (Lombardy)
Polcenigo (Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
Sacile (Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
Trento (Trentino-Alto Adige)
Treviso (Veneto)
Trieste (Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
Turin (Piedmont)
Udine (Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
Vittorio Veneto (Veneto)
Central Italy
Ancona (Marche)
Arezzo (Tuscany)
Camerino (Marche)
Colle di Val d'Elsa (Tuscany)
Gubbio (Umbria)
Loreto (Marche)
Lucca (Tuscany)
Massa Marittima (Tuscany)
Montalcino (Tuscany)
Montefiascone (Lazio)
Monteleone di Spoleto (Umbria)
Montepulciano (Tuscany)
Orvieto (Umbria)
Perugia (Umbria)
Tivoli (Lazio)
Viterbo (Lazio)
Volterra(Tuscany)
Southern Italy
Bari (Apulia)
Catania (Sicily)
Ostuni (Apulia)
Trani (Apulia)
Martina Franca (Apulia)
Monopoli (Apulia)
Lecce (Apulia)
Palermo (Sicily)
Cefalù (Sicily)
Salerno (Campania)
Maratea (Basilicata)
Tropea (Calabria)
Benevento (Campania)
Gallipoli (Apulia)
Erice (Sicily)

Latvia
 Vecrīga in Riga, UNESCO World Heritage Site

Lithuania
 Senamiestis in Vilnius (a part of UNESCO)
 Senamiestis in Kaunas
 Senamiestis in Klaipėda
 Senamiestis in Trakai

Montenegro
 Old Town of Kotor, a World Heritage Site
 Old Town of Budva
 Old Town of Herceg Novi
 Stara Varoš (Podgorica)
 Stari Bar

Netherlands

The standard term for 'Old Town' in the Netherlands is "binnenstad", which translates as "innercity", i.e. in city on the inside of the city walls.

 Oude Stad in Nijmegen
 Oude Stad (Tilburg)

Norway
 Old Town, Oslo

Poland

 Kraków Old Town, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Warsaw Old Town, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Old City of Zamość, UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Medieval Town of Toruń, UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Poznań Old Town
 Old town of Bielsko-Biała
 Old town of Byczyna
 Old town of Cieszyn
 Old town of Chełmno
 Old town of Darłowo
 Old town of Sandomierz
 Old town of Gliwice
 Old town of Gdańsk
 Old town of Grudziądz
 Old town of Kożuchów
 Old town of Krosno
 Old town of Leszno
 Old town of Lublin
 Old town of Paczków
 Old town of Piotrków Trybunalski
 Old town of Przemyśl
 Old town of Pszczyna
 Old town of Szczecin
 Old town of Stargard Szczeciński
 Old town of Świdnica
 Old town of Tarnów
 Old town of Trzebiatów
 Old town of Ziębice
 Old town of Ząbkowice Śląskie
 Old town of Wrocław
 Police Old Town
 Old town of Nowe Warpno

Portugal
Old town in Póvoa de Varzim, named "old town" (Vila Velha) since 1343.
Old town in Oporto
Old town in Guimarães
Óbidos, Portugal walled city
Old town in Évora
Old town in Lisboa

Romania
 Old town of Arad
 Old town of Botoșani
 Old town of Brașov
 Old town of Brăila
 Old town of Bucharest
 Old town of Cluj Napoca
 Old town of Constanța
 Old town of Craiova
 Old town of Oradea
 Old town of Sibiu, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Old town of Sighișoara, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Old town of Timișoara

Serbia
 Stari Grad, a neighborhood in Novi Sad
 Petrovaradin suburb
 Stari Grad, Sremski Karlovci - Cultural Heritage of Extraordinary importance
 Stari Grad, Kikinda - Cultural Heritage of Extraordinary importance
 Stari Grad, Zrenjanin - Cultural Heritage of Extraordinary importance
 Stari Grad, Bečej - Cultural Heritage of Extraordinary importance
 Stari Grad, Sombor - Cultural Heritage of Extraordinary importance
 Stari Grad, Pančevo - Cultural Heritage of Extraordinary importance
 Stari Grad, Subotica - Cultural Heritage of Extraordinary importance
 Stari Grad, Sremska Mitrovica - Cultural Heritage of Extraordinary importance
 Stari Grad, Zemun - Cultural Heritage of Extraordinary importance
 Stari Grad, a municipality in Belgrade
 Stara čaršija, Grocka, Belgrade - Two quarters of Old City are a Cultural Heritage of Extraordinary importance
 Tešnjar, Valjevo - Cultural Heritage of Extraordinary importance
 Stara čaršija, Novi Pazar - Cultural Heritage of Extraordinary importance
 Stari Grad, a municipality in Kragujevac
 Stari Grad, the remains of a fort in Užice
 Stari Grad, Ivanjica - Cultural Heritage of Extraordinary importance
 Stari Grad, Negotin - Cultural Heritage of Extraordinary importance

Slovakia
 Staré Mesto in Bratislava
 Staré Mesto in Košice

Spain
 UNESCO World Heritage old towns in Spain:
 Alcalá de Henares (Madrid)
 Ávila (Castile and León)
 Baeza (Andalusia)
 Cáceres (Extremadura)
 Córdoba (Andalusia)
 Cuenca (Castile-La Mancha)
 Salamanca (Castile and León)
 San Cristóbal de La Laguna (Canary Islands)
 Santiago de Compostela (Galicia)
 Segovia (Castile and León)
 Toledo (Castile-La Mancha)
 Úbeda (Andalusia)

Other notable/famous old towns include:
 Almagro (Castile-La Mancha)
 Andújar (Andalusia)
 Avilés (Asturias)
 Bilbao (Basque Country)
 Burgos (Castile and León)
 Cádiz (Andalusia)
 Girona (Catalonia)
 Granada (Andalusia)
 Hondarribia (Basque Country)
 Ibiza (Balearic Islands)
 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Canary Islands)
 León (Castile and León)
 Lorca (Murcia)
 Lugo (Galicia)
 Madrid (Madrid)
 Ourense (Galicia)
 Oviedo (Asturias)
 Palma de Mallorca (Balearic Islands)
 Pamplona (Navarre)
 Peniscola (Valencian Community)
 Pontevedra (Galicia)
 Priego de Córdoba (Andalusia)
 San Sebastián (Basque Country)
 San Roque (Andalusia)
 Sanlúcar de Barrameda (Andalusia)
 Seville (Andalusia)
 Solsona (Catalonia)
 Tafalla (Navarre)
 Tarragona (Catalonia)
 Teruel (Aragón)
 Toro (Castile and León)
 Trujillo (Extremadura)
 Tudela (Navarre)
 Vitoria-Gasteiz (Basque Country)
 Zamora (Castile and León)

Sweden
 Gamla staden, Malmö
 Gamla stan, Stockholm
 Gamlestaden, Gothenburg
 Gammelstaden, Luleå Municipality
  Visby,  Region Gotland, UNESCO

Switzerland
 Bern, UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Zürich, District 1

Turkey
 Istanbul, Historic Peninsula (Fatih district)
 Ankara, Historic city center (Altındağ district)
 Amasya, Historic city center

Ukraine
 Stare Misto in Lviv
 Old Kyiv

United Kingdom

England
 UNESCO World Heritage old towns in England:
 City of Bath
 Maritime Greenwich
 Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City
 Old Town, Barnsley
 Old Town, Chard
 Old Town, Croydon
 Old Town, Cumbria
 Old Town, Eastbourne
 Old Town, Hastings
 Old Town, Isles of Scilly
 Old Town, Kingston upon Hull
 Old Town, Northumberland
 Old Town, Southampton, a district of the city of Southampton
 Old Town, Swindon
 Old Town, West Yorkshire

Scotland
 Old Town, Edinburgh, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, along with the New Town, Edinburgh

Overseas territories
 Historic Town of St George, Bermuda, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Middle East

Israel and Palestine

 Old City of Jerusalem
 Old City of Acre
 Old City of Beersheba
 Old City of Haifa
 Old Jaffa
 Old City of Nazareth
 Old City of Bethlehem
 Old City of Ramle
 Old City of Hebron
 Old City of Nablus
 Old City of Tiberias
 Old City of Safed
 Old City of Lydda

Lebanon
 Old Byblos
 Old Sidon
 Old Tripoli
 Old Tyre
 Beirut Central District
 Old Batroun
 Deir el Qamar
 Rachaya

Saudi Arabia
 Diriyah in Riyadh

Syria
 Ancient City of Aleppo, in Syria
 Ancient City of Bosra, in Syria
 Ancient City of Damascus in Syria

Yemen
 Old City of Sana'a in Yemen
 Old Walled City of Shibam in Yemen
 Zabīd in Yemen

North America

Canada
Historic District of Old Quebec, Quebec, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Old Town Lunenburg, Nova Scotia, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Old Montreal, Quebec
Old Town, Toronto, Ontario

Cuba
 Old Havana

Dominican Republic
 Ciudad Colonial in Santo Domingo, oldest European city in America, UNESCO World Heritage Site

Mexico
Historic center of Mexico City, Mexico City, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Guanajuato City, Guanajuato, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Morelia, Michoacán, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Oaxaca City, Oaxaca, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Zacatecas City, Zacatecas, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Queretaro City, Querétaro
Campeche City, Campeche, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Tlacotalpan, Veracruz, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
San Miguel de Allende, Guanajuato, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Panama
 Panamá Viejo, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Puerto Rico
 Old San Juan, UNESCO World Heritage Site, U.S. National Register of Historic Places

United States

California

Old Town Eureka, California an original 19th Century Victorian commercial district in Eureka, California
Old Town, Kern County, California
Old Town, Marin County, California
Old Town, Santa Barbara County, California
Old Town, Ventura County, California
Old Town, California, former name of Pine Town, California, in Lassen County
 Old Town Pasadena, California
 Old Sacramento State Historic Park, Sacramento, California
 Old Town San Diego State Historic Park, San Diego, California
 Old Town, San Diego, a neighborhood of San Diego

Florida
 Old Town, Florida, a town in Dixie County, not to be confused with the one in Orlando
 Old Town Fernandina, Fernandina Beach, Florida; the last town in the Western Hemisphere to be platted according to the Spanish "Law of the Indies" in 1811; named for King Ferdinand VII
 Old Town, Key West, the historic section of the city of Key West, Florida
 Old Town, an amusement park/shopping center in Kissimmee, Florida

North Carolina
 Old Town, Brunswick County, North Carolina
 Old Town, Forsyth County, North Carolina
 Old Town Township, Forsyth County, North Carolina

Tennessee
Old Town (Franklin, Tennessee) a location along the Natchez Trace named for the Mississippian mound complex there
Old Town (Mississippian culture mound complex), Franklin, Tennessee
Thomas Brown House (Franklin, Tennessee), also known as Old Town, NRHP-listed

Virginia
 Old Town Fairfax
 Old Town Alexandria
 Old Town Manassas
 Portsmouth Olde Towne Historic District

Other US states
Old Town Scottsdale, Arizona
 Old Town, Augusta, Georgia
 Old Town, Chicago, Illinois
 Old Town, Indiana
 Old Town, Wichita, Kansas
 Old Town, Maine, a city
 Olde Towne Gaithersburg, Maryland
 Old Town Lansing, Michigan
 Old Town Albuquerque, New Mexico
 Old Town, Staten Island, New York
 Old Town Chinatown, Portland, Oregon

South America

Argentina
 San Telmo and La Boca in Buenos Aires

Brazil

Northeast

 Historic Center of Olinda
 Historic Center of Salvador, also known as Pelourinho
 Historic Center of São Luis

Center-West
 Historic Center of Goiás, Goiás

Southeast

 Historic Center of Diamantina, Minas Gerais
 Centro, in Rio de Janeiro
 Sé, in the Central Zone of São Paulo

South
 Centro Histórico, in Porto Alegre

Colombia
 La Candelaria, a historic neighborhood in downtown Bogotá

Ecuador
 Quito´s Historic Center

Uruguay
 Ciudad Vieja in Montevideo, "Old City" is the name of the oldest part of the city

Other uses
 The Girls of Old Town, a group of prostitutes in the comic series Sin City
 Old Town (song), a song by Phil Lynott, later covered by the Corrs

See also

 Altstadt
 Eskişehir, "Old City" in Turkish
 Old City (disambiguation)
 Oldtown (disambiguation)
 Stare Miasto (disambiguation), "Old Town" in Polish
 Stari Grad (disambiguation), means "Old Town"

References

External links

sr:Стари Град

Old town


An egg hunt is a treasure hunt played at Easter during which children look for hidden decorated eggs or Easter eggs. Real hard-boiled eggs, which are typically dyed or painted, artificial eggs made of plastic filled with chocolate or candies, or foil-wrapped egg-shaped chocolates of various sizes are hidden in various places; as many people give up sweets as their Lenten sacrifice, individuals consume them after having abstained from them during the preceding forty days of Lent.

The game is often played outdoors, but can also be played indoors. The children typically collect the eggs in a basket. When the hunt is over, prizes may be given out for various achievements, such as the largest number of eggs collected, for the largest or smallest egg, for the most eggs of a specific color, consolation prizes or booby prizes. Real eggs may further be used in egg tapping contests. If eggs filled with confetti left from Mardi Gras (cascarones) are used, then an egg fight may follow. Eggs are placed with varying degree of concealment, to accommodate children of varying ages and development levels. In South German folk traditions it was customary to add extra obstacles to the game by placing them into hard-to reach places among nettles or thorns.

History

The egg was a symbol of the rebirth of the earth in pre-Christian celebrations of spring. However, the Easter egg itself was defined by early Christians as an Easter symbol of the resurrection of Jesus: the egg symbol was likened to the tomb from which Christ arose.  Lizette Larson-Miller, a professor with the Graduate Theological Union of Berkeley, traces the specific custom of the Easter egg hunt to the Protestant Christian Reformer Martin Luther, stating "We know that Martin Luther had Easter egg hunts where the men hid the eggs for the women and children, and it probably has this connection back to this idea of eggs being the tomb." Easter egg hunts thus symbolized the search for the empty tomb and the risen Jesus. At least since the 17th century the idea of the Easter Bunny to bring the Easter eggs has been known. The novelty of the introduction of Easter egg hunts into England is evidenced by A. E. Housman's inaugural lecture as Professor of Latin at University College, London in 1892, in which he said, "In Germany at Easter time they hide coloured eggs about the house and garden that the children may amuse themselves in discovering them."

Reverend MaryJane Pierce Norton, Associate General Secretary of Leadership Ministries at the General Board of Discipleship, states that "there's something about going to hunt the eggs just as we might go to hunt for Jesus in the tomb. And when we find them it's that joy that the women had when they reached the tomb first and found that Jesus was no longer there." Traditionally the game is associated with Easter and Easter eggs, but it has also been popular with spring time birthday parties. Egg hunts are a subject of the Guinness Book of World Records; Homer, Georgia, United States was listed in 1985 with 80,000 eggs to hunt in a town of 950 people.

To enable children to take part in egg hunts despite visual impairment, eggs have been created that emit various clicks, beeps, noises, or music.

Commercial use

A number of companies have made use of the popularity of Easter and more specifically Easter egg hunts to promote the sales of their candy products. Most notable have been chocolatiers including Cadbury with their annual Easter Egg Trail which takes place in over 250 National Trust locations in the UK. In 2015, the British chocolate company Thorntons worked with the geocaching community to hide chocolate eggs across the United Kingdom.

See also

Egg and spoon race
Egg dance
Egg rolling
Egg tapping
Pace Egg play
Easter basket

References

Traditional Easter games
Hunt
Easter Bunny

Egg hunt


The NCTE George Orwell Award for Distinguished Contribution to Honesty and Clarity in Public Language (the Orwell Award for short) is an award given since 1975 by the Public Language Award Committee of the National Council of Teachers of English. It is awarded annually to "writers who have made outstanding contributions to the critical analysis of public discourse."

Noam Chomsky, Donald Barlett, and James B. Steele are the only recipients to have won twice.

Its negative counterpart, awarded by the same body, is the Doublespeak Award, "an ironic tribute to public speakers who have perpetuated language that is grossly deceptive, evasive, euphemistic, confusing, or self-centered."

Winners

1970s
1975: David Wise for The Politics of Lying
1976: Hugh Rank for the "Intensify/Downplay" schema for analyzing communication, persuasion, and propaganda
1977: Walter Pincus, reporter for The Washington Post—"A patient, methodical journalist who knew his job and who knew the jargon of Washington. Mr. Pincus was the man responsible for bringing to public attention, and thus to a debate in the Senate, the appropriations funding for the neutron bomb."—Hugh Rank, chair, NCTE Committee on Public Doublespeak
1978: Sissela Bok for Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life
1979: Erving Goffman for Gender Advertisements

1980s
1980: Sheila Harty for Hucksters in the Classroom: A Review of Industry Propaganda in Schools
1981: Dwight Bolinger for Language—The Loaded Weapon
1982: Stephen Hilgartner, Richard C. Bell, and Rory O'Connor for Nukespeak: Nuclear Language, Visions and Mindset
1983: Haig Bosmajian for The Language of Oppression
1984: Ted Koppel, moderator of Nightline—"...a model of intelligence, informed interest, social awareness, verbal fluency, fair and rigorous questioning of controversial figures... [who has sought] honesty and openness, clarity and coherence, to raise the level of public discourse."—William Lutz, chair, NCTE Committee on Public Doublespeak
1985: Torben Vestergaard and Kim Schroder for The Language of Advertising
1986: Neil Postman for Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business
1987: Noam Chomsky for On Power and Ideology: The Managua Lectures
1988: Donald Barlett and James B. Steele for a series of articles in The Philadelphia Inquirer on the Tax Reform Act of 1986, in which they pointed out language disguising tax loopholes in the legislation
1989: Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky for Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media

1990s
1990: Charlotte Baecher of the Consumers Union for Selling America's Kids: Commercial Pressures on Kids of the 90s
1991: David Aaron Kessler—"Under the leadership of Commissioner Kessler, the FDA has begun seizing products with misleading labels, developing new guidelines for clarity and accuracy in food labels, and exposing false, misleading, and deceptive health claims on food labels and in food advertising."—William Lutz
1992: Donald Barlett and James Steele of The Philadelphia Inquirer for the series America: What Went Wrong?
1993: Eric Alterman for the book Sound and Fury: The Washington Punditocracy and the Collapse of American Politics
1994: Garry Trudeau, creator of the cartoon strip Doonesbury, was cited for consistently attacking doublespeak in all aspects of American life and from all parts of the cultural and political spectrum.
1995: Lies of Our Times was published between January 1990 and December 1994. It served not only as a general media critic but as a watchdog of The New York Times, which the magazine referred to as "the most cited news medium in the U.S., our paper of record."
1996: William D. Lutz for The New Doublespeak: Why No One Knows What Anyone's Saying Anymore
1997: Gertrude Himmelfarb for "Professor Narcissus: In Today's Academy, Everything Is Personal" in The Weekly Standard
1998: Two winners
Juliet Schor for The Overspent American: Upscaling, Downshifting, and the New Consumer
Scott Adams for his role in "Mission Impertinent" (San Jose Mercury News West Magazine, November 16, 1997), which highlighted the absurdity of managerial language and the overuse of the "mission statement."
1999: Norman Solomon for The Habits of Highly Deceptive Media: Decoding Spin and Lies in the Mainstream News (Common Courage Press)

2000s
2000: Alfie Kohn for The Schools Our Children Deserve
2001: Sheldon Rampton and John Stauber for Trust Us, We're Experts!: How Industry Manipulates Science and Gambles with Your Future
2002: Bill Press for the book Spin This!
2003: Susan Ohanian for the website susanohanian.org
2004: Investigative journalist Seymour Hersh and writer Arundhati Roy
2005: Jon Stewart and the cast of The Daily Show
2006: Steven H. Miles, M.D, author of Oath Betrayed: Torture, Medical Complicity, and the War on Terror
2007: Ted Gup, author of Nation of Secrets: The Threat to Democracy and the American Way of Life
2008: Charlie Savage, author of Takeover: The Return of the Imperial Presidency and the Subversion of American Democracy
2009: Amy Goodman, co-founder, executive producer, and host of Democracy Now!

2010s
2010: Michael Pollan, author of Food Rules and co-narrator of Food, Inc.
2011: F.S. Michaels, author of Monoculture: How One Story Is Changing Everything
2012: Peter Zuckerman and Amanda Padoan, authors of Buried in the Sky
2013: Paul L. Thomas whose publications include "Ignoring Poverty in the U.S.: The corporate takeover of public education" (2012) and "Challenging Genres: Comic books and graphic novels" (2010). Dr. Thomas has also edited a recently published volume titled "Becoming and Being a Teacher: Confronting Traditional Norms to Create New Democratic Realities" (2013).
2014 The Onion for its satire and "treatment of dramatically sensitive issues that plague our culture", in particular U.S. gun culture.
2015: Anthony Cody for The Educator and the Oligarch
2016: David Greenberg for Republic of Spin: An Inside History of the American Presidency
2017: Richard Sobel for Citizenship as Foundation of Rights: Meaning for America
2018: Katie Watson for Scarlet A
2019: Michael P. Lynch for Know-It-All-Society: Truth and Arrogance in Political Culture

2020s
2020: Dr. April Baker-Bell, author of Linguistic Justice: Black Language, Literacy, Identity, and Pedagogy
2021: Kristin Kobes Du Mez for Jesus and John Wayne: How White Evangelicals Corrupted a Faith and Fractured a Nation
2022: David Chrisinger for Public Policy Writing That Matters

See also
Orwell Prize – British prize for political writing
Big Brother Awards
Doublespeak Award

References

External links
List of past winners (NCTE website)

George Orwell
American non-fiction literary awards
Awards established in 1975
1975 establishments in the United States

Orwell Award


Paul N. Hehn (April 8, 1927 – January 4, 2015) was an American historian who specialized in the Second World War. The son of a German immigrant father and a French-Canadian mother, Hehn was born in Manhattan and served as a US Navy Seabee in the South Pacific and Japan in 1945 and 1946. He received his BA from the University of Oregon in 1950 and his MA from Columbia University in 1954.

Two years later, he traveled to West Germany for a year of study at the University of Munich; after this, he spent a year conducting archival research in Yugoslavia. Returning to the United States, he earned his doctorate in history from New York University in 1961. For a number of years afterward, he taught at various institutions of higher education in Ohio and at Temple University.

In 1968, Hehn was hired by the State University of New York, College at Brockport, where he was a member of the Department of History for the next 22 years. While at Brockport, he was known as a teacher and mentor who challenged students to think critically and who paid attention to their personal interests and needs.

After retiring in 1990 as professor emeritus of history, he intensified his research and writing on World War II and eastern European history. In 2002, he published his magnum opus titled A Low Dishonest Decade: The Great Powers, Eastern Europe, and the Economic Origins of World War II, 1930–1941. As The Independent Review: A Journal of Political Economy wrote, "Hehn contends forthrightly that economic rivalries ... formed the essential and primary cause of World War II. ... Hehn's vast research apparatus (100 pages of footnotes and bibliography), would be humbling for many historians." Publishers Weekly found that "Hehn's imperialist theme is compelling" and "powerfully argued".

The title A Low, Dishonest Decade comes from the poem September 1, 1939 by the British-American poet W. H. Auden:

I sit in one of the dives
On Fifty-second Street
Uncertain and afraid
As the clever hopes expire
Of a low dishonest decade:
Waves of anger and fear
Circulate over the bright
And darkened lands of the earth,
Obsessing our private lives;
The unmentionable odour of death
Offends the September night.

Publications

 The German Struggle against the Yugoslav Guerillas in World War II (Columbia University Press, 1979),
 A Low, Dishonest Decade: The Great Powers, Eastern Europe, and the Economic Origins of World War II, 1930-1941 (Bloomsbury Academic, 2002),

References

American historians
Historians of World War II
1927 births
2015 deaths
State University of New York faculty
American expatriates in Japan
University of Oregon alumni
Columbia University alumni
American expatriates in Germany
American expatriates in Yugoslavia
New York University alumni
Temple University faculty

Paul N. Hehn


Eriophorum vaginatum, the hare's-tail cottongrass, tussock cottongrass, or sheathed cottonsedge, is a species of perennial herbaceous flowering plant in the sedge family Cyperaceae. It is native to bogs and other acidic wetlands throughout the Holarctic Kingdom. It is a 30–60 cm high tussock-forming plant with solitary spikes.

Description

Eriophorum vaginatum is a 30– to 60-cm-high tussock-forming plant with extremely narrow, almost hair-like leaves. On the flowering stems there is a single, inflated leaf-sheath, without a lamina, hence the species epithet ("sheath" is "vagina" in latin). The inflorescence is a dense, tufted, solitary spike. Fruiting stems elongate considerably, reaching well above the leaves.

Distribution and habitat

Eriophorum vaginatum occurs throughout much of the boreal and arctic zones of Eurasia and North America. It prefers acidic, moist to wet, peaty soil and may be dominant in bogs, poor fens and the heathlands of Western Europe. It is also common on the tundra.
Common in Scotland, it is sometimes referred to as draw-ling or drawmoss.

References

External links
Eriophorum vaginatum in Flora of North America
USDA PLANTS Profile

vaginatum
Flora of Asia
Flora of Europe
Flora of Northern America
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Eriophorum vaginatum


In baseball, a single is the most common type of base hit, accomplished through the act of a batter safely reaching first base by hitting a fair ball (thus becoming a runner) and getting to first base before a fielder puts him out.  As an exception, a batter-runner reaching first base safely is not credited with a single when an infielder attempts to put out another runner on the first play; this is one type of a fielder's choice.  Also, a batter-runner reaching first base on a play due to a fielder's error trying to put him out at first base or another runner out (as a fielder's choice) is not credited with a single.

On a single hit to the outfield, any runners on second base or third base normally score, and sometimes the runner from first base is able to advance to third base.  Depending on the location of the hit, a quick recovery by the outfielder can prevent such an advance or create a play on the advancing runner.

Hitters who focus on hitting singles rather than doubles or home runs are often called "contact hitters".  Contact hitters who rely on positioning their hits well and having fast running speed to achieve singles are often called "slap hitters".  Ty Cobb, Pete Rose, Tony Gwynn, and Ichiro Suzuki are examples of contact hitters; of these, Rose and Suzuki might be called slap hitters.

Unlike doubles or other types of extra base hits, singles do not remove the possibility of multiple force plays on the next fair ball; in fact, the batter achieving the single will be forced to advance to second base on the next play, creating the possibility of a force double play.

Symbol
There is no universally accepted symbol for a single.  Most often, singles are not reported; rather, the total number of hits, doubles, triples, and home runs is reported; then, hits minus these "extra base hits" yields the number of singles.

Sometimes, 1B is used as the symbol for singles; however, this symbol is more commonly used for the first baseman or for first base itself.  Another possible symbol is a horizontal line, -.  The letter S is never used as a symbol for single, because it is the symbol for strike.

Singles leaders, Major League Baseball

Career

 Pete Rose - 3215
 Ty Cobb - 3053
 Eddie Collins - 2643
 Cap Anson - 2598
 Derek Jeter -  2595
 Willie Keeler -2513
 Ichiro Suzuki - 2464
 Honus Wagner - 2422
 Rod Carew - 2404
 Tris Speaker - 2383

Season
 Ichiro Suzuki () - 225
 Willie Keeler (1898) - 206
 Ichiro Suzuki () - 203
 Lloyd Waner () - 198
 Willie Keeler (1897) - 193

Game

Johnny Burnett holds the record for most singles in a game. He hit seven singles on July 10, 1932, for the Cleveland Indians in an 18–17 loss to the Philadelphia Athletics. 19 players have hit six singles in a game.

See also
 Infield hit
 Single (cricket)
 Double (baseball)
 Triple (baseball)
 Home Run

References

External links
 List of career singles leaders, Baseball-Reference.com
 List of single-season singles leaders, Baseball-Reference.com
 Yearly League Leaders & Records for Singles (Baseball-Reference.com)

Baseball terminology
Batting statistics

Single (baseball)


Count Nikolay Mikhailovich Kamensky (; 27 December 1776 – 4 May 1811) was a Russian general who outlived his father, Field Marshal Mikhail Kamensky, by two years.

Life and career
Nikolay and his elder brother Sergei were educated at a cadet school. In 1787, he was appointed Aide-de-camp to his father. He participated in the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792. French count Louis Langeron, who fought on the Russian Army during this conflict, wrote in his memoirs about Kamensky's behavior during the war. According to him, after being upset by a storm that affected his army, Kamensky took all the Tatar prisoners his army had captured and beheaded them. Later, a Jewish person was tied naked to a post and cold water was sprayed on him, leaving him to freeze to death. Kamensky would later have burned down an entire village and left its inhabitants in the snow to die of cold and hunger, then taking all the surviving animals with his army.

Emperor Paul promoted him to Major General in 1799, the year when Kamensky chose to join Suvorov during the Swiss Campaign against Napoleon.

In the Battle of Austerlitz Kamensky, subordinate to Peter Bagration, lost 1,600 men and barely managed to escape alive. He distinguished himself at Eylau, for which he received the Order of Saint George. Thereupon he was sent with 8,000 soldiers to relieve the siege of Danzig but failed in his objective, losing as many as 1,500 men in the process. The following Battle of Heilsberg cost the lives of 1,700 soldiers under his command.

By the time the Finnish War — the most brilliant campaign of his career — broke out in 1808, Kamensky had a reputation for being reckless with his soldiers' lives. However, he was promoted to Full General in 1809 and achieved important successes against the Swedes at Kuortane and Oravais. It was he who came up with a daring plan of the Russian infantry's crossing the frozen Gulf of Bothnia from Finland towards Umeå and Åland, which forced Sweden to cede Finland to Tsar Alexander.

The war in the north over, Kamensky succeeded Bagration in charge of the Danube Army, which operated against the Turks in the Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812). Accompanied by his elder brother, Kamensky stormed Silistra and Pazardzhik but failed to take Shumen and, initially, Rousse. They together defeated a Turkish force of 40,000 at the Battle of Batin on 9 September 1810.

On 26 October 1810, he roundly defeated a 40,000-strong army of Osman Pasha at Vidin. The Russians lost only 1,500 men, compared with losses of 10,000 for their opponents.

On 4 February 1811, Kamensky caught fever and was transported to Odessa for convalescence, leaving Louis Alexandre Andrault de Langeron in command. He died three months later at the age of 34. Kamensky is related to actress Helen Mirren, whose great-great-great-great-grandfather was his father.

References

Залесский К.А. Наполеоновские войны 1799-1815. Биографический энциклопедический словарь, Москва, 2003.

1776 births
1811 deaths
Counts of the Russian Empire
Imperial Russian Army generals
Recipients of the Order of St. George of the Second Degree
Russian commanders of the Napoleonic Wars
Russian mass murderers
Russian military personnel of the Finnish War
War criminals

Nikolay Kamensky


A nuclear family is a type of family unit. It is made up of a husband, a wife, and their children. Not everyone agrees on what a nuclear family is. Some people say that a nuclear family does not include stepchildren or adopted children. Others say that a nuclear family may include stepchildren or adopted children. A nuclear family is a part of an extended family.

History
The term nuclear family was first used in 1947. However, people have lived in nuclear families for thousands of years. In 2005, archaeologists discovered four 4,600-year-old graves in Germany. Several adults and children who were related were buried in these graves. Researchers think that this proves that people lived in nuclear families a long time ago.

During and before the medieval period in Europe, large family groups, such as clans, were most common. By the late medieval period, the nuclear family had become most common.

References

Anthropology
Sociology
Social groups
Family

Nuclear family


Huddington Court is a 15th-century moated manor house in the village of Huddington in Worcestershire, England, some six miles east of Worcester. It was described by Sir Nikolaus Pevsner as 'the most picturesque house in Worcestershire'. It was the home of the Wintour family, of which the Gunpowder plot conspirators Robert, Thomas and John Wintour are the most notorious. The house is a private residence and is not open to the public. It has been Grade I listed on the National Heritage List for England since 1952.

The Gunpowder Plot

The plans of the Gunpowder Plot to blow up the Houses of Parliament in 1605 were, partially, conceived in Huddington Court.

Two priest holes, believed to have been built by Nicholas Owen, are in the building. One is behind an oak panel in what was the chapel, where mass was said by the resident priest. The main section of the hole has another door which leads to a small room where the priest would not have wanted to suffer from claustrophobia! The other hiding hole is in the room opposite and is a door made to look like a part of the wall. This enters into a quite sizeable room that was only discovered in the 1920s.

Following the arrest  of Guy Fawkes the plotters fled to Huddington Court and arrived at about 2.00 p.m. on Wednesday 6 November. They left early the following morning in the pouring rain and made it as far as Holbeach House in Staffs where following a shoot out they were killed or arrested. Some had fled and were picked up later, including Robert Wintour who evaded capture for two months. Thomas had been wounded and their half brother, John, surrendered his sword at Dudley Castle. They were all executed. Huddington Court was confiscated along with all their estates. However, it was back in family ownership by 1607, most probably via the payment of large fines by the Talbot estates. Robert's wife, Gertrude, being the daughter of Sir John Talbot of Grafton Manor.

Etched into the glass in the main bedroom of the house are the words "past cark, past care", reputedly carved by Lady Wintour with her diamond ring while her husband hid in the woods around the house before his capture. However, this is untrue and it is in fact by a priest by the name of William Clerke, who was hiding out there in the summer of 1603 following his implication in the Bye Plot. He was arrested in Worcester on 13 August that year and executed in Winchester on 29 November.

See also
Winter baronets

References

External links
 Huddington Court

Country houses in Worcestershire
Grade I listed buildings in Worcestershire
Grade I listed houses
Gunpowder Plot
History of Catholicism in England
Houses completed in the 16th century
Wychavon

Huddington Court


Location

Kamtsang Dargye Choekhorling Monastery, known locally as Sambha (Samba, Sampa) gompa (goenpa), is situated in Mustang district, Tukuche Village development committee (VDC), in the Western Development Region, Nepal.  It is about within Tukuche town on the Annapurna trekking route/ gravel road from Pokhara to Jomsom in the Dhaulagiri zone. In 2013 the local higher secondary school, Shree Yogendra HSS was being expanded, and the entrance to the gompa is within the school site; off the main Beni Jomson road, west of the Kali Gandaki river.

Founding

The founder of Sambha gompa is understood to have come from the DoKham area of Tibet, but his name is unknown. He lived in the village of Tukuche for some time and died during a period of mediation. Seven days after his death he became a rainbow body confirming his achievement of enlightenment. In 1935 the gompa was re-established by members of the Tulachan family.

Incarnations
The first and second incarnations (tulku) are understood to have been born into the Kharghar caste and came from Tibet.

3rd incarnation: Bhattachan family

During the tenure of the third incarnation the location of the gompa was moved to its current location. At the time there was no bridge and the river was difficult to cross. Therefore, the villagers offered land to the monks to relocate the gompa within Tukuche village to ease their access.

4th incarnation: Was from the Tulachan family based in Tukuche, whose given name was Karma Tashi Singye, but known locally as Dr Mangal Singh, having gained a medical doctorate in Switzerland. He died aged 49.

5th incarnation: Born 28 years after the death of the previous incarnation, also from the Tulachan family in Tukuche has the monastic name Karma Dhomchhe Norbu Tenpi Gyaltshen Palsamgpo Rinpoche. He is the nephew of current head lama (2016) of Chhairo gompa Shashi Dhoj Tulachan. He was recognised by three senior rinpoches including Tai Situpa Rinpoche. He was enthroned aged 8 in 2004 in India.

He is currently studying at Palpung Monastery in Himachal Pradesh under Kenting Tai Situpa. In order for the young tulku to be accepted by the thakali community, he needs to be enthroned in Sambha gompa, requiring extensive reconstruction of the residential quarters of the monastery.

Artistic provenance
Lama Chh'eon-che, of the Gtsag Bris school of painting, was responsible for paintings on the wall behind the altar c. 1994.

Other frescoes in the gompa depicting the sixteen Arhat on the south, north and eastern walls are by Khaipa Chhogyal, a distant relative of Kamal Dhoj Tulachan, Shashi Dhoj Tulachan's late father.

Khaipa of Lupra is believed to have painted the Sin-yeb, but this painting no longer remains.

Damaged roof timbers mean that water ingress has damaged many paintings in recent years. Although roof repairs commenced in 2015, this has yet to be completed due to lack of funds.

Monastic activity

In 2013 there was very limited monastic activity. Tukuche has lost much of its population due to changes in trade routes and rural urban migration suffered by many small villages. This first occurred in the 1960s when China tried to restrict movement of Tibetans and most recently during the 2008 Olympics.
Lama Shashi Dhoj Tulachan an artist from Tukuche village, is responsible for the continued management of the gompa and is seeking support for its physical and spiritual renovation, in addition to the restoration work at Chhairo gompa which he is also responsible for.
A nun (anim) who also takes care of Rani gompa, looks after the site.

There is a part time monk sponsored by the current Ven Gyalpo Rinpoche who undertakes monastic rituals as required.

Tulku quarters

To the south of the monastery are the historical residential quarters for the monk body.
These facilities are not currently habitable and the courtyard is used for general storage from the gompa next door.

Architecture and restoration plans

The gompa was restored in the 2000s.

A stupa was constructed in the courtyard in memory of a Japanese man, married to a local Nepali, who was a donor for the reconstruction works.

Water ingress and damaged roof timbers required roof repairs to be started in 2015, however this has stalled due to lack of funds.

Reconstruction of the tulku and lama quarters is planned to enable enthronement of the current tulku, who is studying in India. Funding limitations have delayed this work and the frescoes continue to be affected by rain water.

Shrine imagery was removed whilst the roof was replaced. A number of items remain with individual villagers until the work is completed.

References

Reynolds, Kev, Annapurna: A Trekker's Guide, Milnthorpe: Cicerone, 2003,

Buddhist monasteries in Nepal
16th-century establishments in Nepal

Sambha gompa