CENTOS (, also Związek Towarzystw Opieki nad Dziećmi i Sierotami; Yiddish: Farband far Kinder Szuc un Jatomim Ferzorgung; literally, Central Society for the Care of Orphans, or Central Union of Associations for the Care of Jewish Children and Orphans) was a Polish-Jewish children's-aid society. Founded in 1924, it became a "leading organization for Jewish childcare" in the Second Polish Republic and was highly active in the Warsaw Ghetto during The Holocaust in Poland.

Interwar Poland

CENTOS was founded in April 1924 by Jewish activists who sought to help children who had become orphaned in the aftermath of World War I. It was formed by the integration of hundreds of smaller regional institutions, mostly focused on caring for Jewish orphans. In addition to its headquarters, it had nine regional committees. It was affiliated with the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, which provided it with financial support. It also received support from Polish central and local governments. Another major source of income was individual donors, estimated at between 40,000 and 50,000.

CENTOS' first chairman was Polish politician and social activist . Other major interwar activists included  Witold Wiesenberg, Maks Schaff, Anzelm Halpern, and Józef Kohn.

CENTOS aided disadvantaged families and ran orphanages, schools, and clinics. It also organized summer and winter holidays for children of poor families.

CENTOS published several monthly magazines for social workers, teachers, and other professionals involved in child care, two of them in Yiddish (Unzer Kind, which later merged with the similar Dos Kind and Dos Szucloze Kind;) and the Polish-language Przegląd Społeczny. Scholars and activists who wrote for them included Stefania Wilczyńska, who in the late 1930s also worked as a CENTOS inspector. Another author who published in those outlets was Janusz Korczak, whose Warsaw orphanage, with which Wilczyńska was also affiliated, was also supported by CENTOS.

CENTOS was present throughout the Second Polish Republic, but was most active in the Warsaw and Lwów Provinces. In 1928, of some 4,500 orphans in CENTOS' care, the two committees responsible for those two regions each cared for some 1,500 orphans, while the committees responsible for the seven remaining regions cared for the remaining 1,500. CENTOS is estimated to have employed at least 1,000 people.

In the 1930s CENTOS sought to aid German Jews facing growing discrimination in Nazi Germany. In 1938 an estimated 15,000 children were aided by CENTOS, more than half relying on CENTOS infrastructure such as orphanages. That year, CENTOS-affiliated institutions included 26 orphanages, 75 day-care facilities, 3 clinics, and over 30 holiday resorts. CENTOS functioned in over 200 Polish municipalities.

World War II
CENTOS continued to operate following Germany's occupation of Poland in World War II. In 1940 CENTOS was still active in 74 locations in the General Government. In 1940-1941 CENTOS directors included Adolf Bergman and .

Most notably, CENTOS was highly active in the Warsaw Ghetto during the Holocaust in Poland. There were 20 day centers in that Ghetto to look after thousands of children. CENTOS was also present in the Brzesko Ghetto, along with Jewish Social Self-Aid (JSS, Żydowska Samopomoc Społeczna, Jüdische Soziale Selbsthilfe) and the Committee for Aid to Refugees and the Poor. In 1940 CENTOS helped some 130 children. By one estimate, without CENTOS, Jewish orphans in the ghettos would have starved to death within a few months.

CENTOS was also active in the ghettos' Jewish resistance, not only in its official capacity of providing food and shelter, but clandestinely, helping provide cover for resistance operatives, smuggling weapons into the ghettos, and helping maintain communication and smuggling channels between the Jewish and Polish resistance.

CENTOS was not the only Jewish humanitarian aid organization that sought to operate in the early years of the German occupation. Others included Jewish Social Self-Aid and Aid to Jews (Centrala Pomocy dla Żydów, Jüdische Unterstüzungsstelle für das Generalgouvernement, JUS).

Most of the children cared for by CENTOS perished in Nazi German concentration camps in the final stage of the Holocaust, following the liquidations of the Nazi ghettos and the relocation of survivors to the concentration camps. Many CENTOS personnel, including Korczak and Wilczyńska, accompanied the children to the camps and also perished there.

See also
 Children in the Holocaust
 Kehilla (modern)
 Welfare in Poland

References

Further reading

External links
CENTOS school in Warsaw Ghetto, YIVO Archives

1924 establishments in Poland
Humanitarian aid organizations
Organizations for orphaned and abandoned children
Warsaw Ghetto
Charities based in Poland
Children in the Holocaust

CENTOS (charity)


Robert Blake (27 September 1598 – 7 August 1657) was an English naval officer who served as General at sea and the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports from 1656 to 1657. Blake served under Oliver Cromwell during the English Civil War and Anglo-Spanish War, and as the commanding Admiral of the Dutch navy during the First Anglo-Dutch War. Blake is recognized as the "chief founder of England's naval supremacy", a dominance subsequently inherited by the British Royal Navy well into the early 20th century Despite this, due to deliberate attempts to expunge the Parliamentarians from historical records following the Stuart Restoration, Blake's achievements tend to remain relatively unrecognized. Blake's successes, however, are considered to have "never been excelled, not even by Nelson" according to one biographer, while Blake is often compared with Nelson by others.

Early life
Robert Blake was the first son of thirteen children born to Humphrey  Blake and Sarah Williams. He was baptized  at the Church of Saint Mary the Virgin in Somerset on 27 September 1598. He attended Bridgwater Grammar School for Boys, then went up to Wadham College, Oxford. He had hoped to follow an academic career, but failed to secure a fellowship to Merton College, probably in consideration of his political and religious views, but also because the warden of Merton, Sir Henry Savile, had 'an eccentric distaste for men of low stature'. Blake, at  tall, thus failed to meet Savile's 'standard of manly beauty'.

When Blake's father died in 1625 he inherited  the family estate of Knoll Hill. Here, taking on the responsibilities of the eldest son, he took committed much of his time in the duty of educating his many brothers and sisters, and preparing them for adulthood. Blake biographer and historian David Hannay (1853 – 1934) maintains that was a likely reason why Blake never married, while pointing out also that other biographers offer differing reasons. English historian Edward Hyde, who lived in Blake's day writes of Blake, "...he was well enough versed in books for a man who intended not to be of any profession, having sufficient of his own to maintain him in the plenty he affected, and having then no appearance of ambition to be a greater man than he was."

The Blake family had a seat for several generations at (and were Lords of the Manor of) Tuxwell, in the parish of Bishops Lydeard, near Bridgwater, Somerset. The earliest member of the family located in records was Humphrey Blake, who lived in the reign of Henry VIII. Robert Blake's grandfather, also named Robert, was the first of the family to strike out on his own from country life as a merchant, hoping to become rich from Spanish trade. He served as chief magistrate and member of Parliament for Bridgwater several times, in recognition of the esteem in which the townspeople held him. His son, Humphrey, succeeded him in business, and in addition to his father's estates at Puriton (of which he held the lordship), Catcot, Bawdrip and Woolavington, came into the estate at Plainsfield held by the family of his wife, Sarah Williams, since the reign of Henry VII.

After his departure from university in 1625, it is believed that Blake was engaged in trade, and a Dutch writer subsequently claimed that he had lived for 'five or six years' in Schiedam. Having returned to Bridgwater, probably because of the death of his mother in 1638, he decided to stand for election to Parliament.

Political background

In April, 1640, Blake was elected as the Member of Parliament for Bridgwater in the Short Parliament, as one of two Burgesses for Bridgewater. When the English Civil War broke out during the period of the Long Parliament, and having failed to be re-elected in November, Blake began his military career on the side of the parliamentarians despite having no substantial experience of military or naval matters.

Blake returned to Parliament as member for Taunton in 1645, when the Royalist Colonel Windham was expelled. He would later return to recover from an injury sustained in the Battle of Portland. During that time he represented Bridgwater in the Barebone's Parliament of 1653 and First Protectorate Parliament of 1654 and Taunton in the Second Protectorate Parliament of 1656 before returning to sea.

Naval service
Blake is often referred to as the 'Father of the Royal Navy'. As well as being largely responsible for building the largest navy the country had ever known, from a few tens of ships to well over a hundred. He was also the first to keep a fleet at sea over the winter. Blake also produced the navy's first ever set of rules and regulations, The Laws of War and Ordinances of the Sea, the first version of which, containing 20 provisions, was passed by the House of Commons on 5 March 1649, listing 39 offences and their punishments—mostly death. The Instructions of the Admirals and Generals of the Fleet for Councils of War, issued in 1653 by Blake, George Monck, John Disbrowe and William Penn, also instituted the first naval courts-martial in the English navy.

Blake developed new techniques to conduct blockades and landings; his Sailing Instructions and Fighting Instructions, which were major overhauls of naval tactics written while recovering from injury in 1653, were the foundation of English naval tactics in the Age of Sail. Blake's Fighting Instructions, issued by the generals at sea on 29 March 1653, are the first-known instructions to be written in any language to adopt the use of the single line ahead battle formation. Blake was also the first to successfully attack despite fire from shore forts.

English Civil War

Before Blake embarked on a naval career he joined the New Model Army as a captain in Alexander Popham's regiment, Blake distinguished himself at the Siege of Bristol (July 1643) and was promoted to lieutenant colonel. After his leading role in holding Lyme Regis in the Siege of Lyme Regis (April 1644) he was promoted to colonel. He went on to hold the Parliamentary enclave of Taunton during the Siege of Taunton in 1645. Taunton was of great strategic importance as it was situated where all the main roads converged, commanding all lines of communication, which at the time Blake alone understood. After he took it by surprise, the siege earned him national recognition ; it was where he famously declared that he would eat three of his four pairs of boots before he would surrender. He subsequently succeeded in winning the Siege of Dunster (November 1645).

In March 1649 the newly established Commonwealth government appointed Popham, Blake and Deane as Generals at Sea,  in that respective order of command, even though Blake had little experience at sea up until that time. With Deane committed in Scotland,   Blake's first naval commission was in 1649, as second in command of the Dutch Navy against a domestic enemy with the objective of crushing the weary remnants of the Royalist party. King Charles I's followers were completely conquered and expelled from the mainland in England, but they still continued to fight on the sea and were taking many prizes, causing outcries from many of the merchants.  Parliament was thus compelled to establish a naval administration, which appointed Blake, Popham and Deane as commanders of a fleet they were putting together and outfitting. Some three weeks before the execution of Charles I, on 11 January 1649, Prince Rupert of the Rhine led eight undermanned ships to Kinsale where the King's flag was still flying, in Ireland, in an attempt to prevent the Parliamentarians taking Ireland from the Royalists. Blake blockaded Rupert's fleet in Kinsale from 22 May, allowing Oliver Cromwell, who placed great confidence in Blake, to land at Dublin on 15 August. Blake was driven off by a storm in October and Rupert escaped via Spain to Lisbon. When it was learned that Rupert had fled to Lisbon, all cautionary protocols were suspended for the navy. Blake was recalled to Plymouth to supervise the fitting out of a fleet that was expanded to thirteen ships.  With his refurbished and well supplied fleet,  Blake put to sea in February 1650 and dropped anchor off Lisbon in an attempt to persuade the Portuguese king to expel Rupert. After two months the king decided to back Rupert. Blake was joined by another eight warships commanded by Edward Popham, who brought authority to go to war with Portugal. Blake now bore the risk and responsibility of a prolonged blockade, where now neither food nor water were accessible from the shore, making it necessary to periodically dispatch ships  to Vigo or Cádiz for supplies, to which Richard Bidley, 1899 was given the charge.

Rupert twice failed to break the blockade, which was finally raised after Blake sailed for Cádiz with seven ships he had captured after a three-hour engagement with 23 ships of the Portuguese fleet (during which the Portuguese vice-admiral was also sunk.) Blake re-engaged with Rupert, now with six ships, on 3 November near Málaga, capturing one ship. Two days later Rupert's other ships in the area were driven ashore attempting to escape from Cartagena, securing Parliamentarian supremacy at sea, and the recognition of the Parliamentary government by many European states. Parliament voted Blake 1,000 pounds by way of thanks in February 1651. In June of the same year Blake captured the Isles of Scilly, the last outpost of the Royalist navy, for which he again received Parliament's thanks. Soon afterwards he was made a member of the Council of State.

In 1651 Blake received orders to remove the Royalist Sir John Granville from the Isles of Scilly, where he had been appointed Governor by Charles II after a local rebellion. Granville had around 1,000 men under his command. The majority of Royalists forces were holding the main island of St Mary's, also defended by the guns of Star Castle and several frigates anchored, including the most powerful of the Royalist warships, making a direct assault very dangerous. Blake subsequently decided to secure Tresco and Bryher first, which would give the Commonwealth force a safe anchorage at New Grimsby harbour. After a failed attempt due to unfavourable winds, and other delays Blake finally prevailed and demanded Granville's surrender and ultimately secured the isles, also capturing many commanders and supplies

Bay of Tunis

In April 1655 Blake was selected by Cromwell to sail into the Mediterranean again to extract compensation from  the Duke of Tuscany, the Knights of Malta, and the piratical states of North Africa, that had been attacking English shipping. The Dey of Tunis was the only one who  refused compensation, while also refusing to return captured British sailors held as slaves. and further negotiations became futile.. Blake, aboard his flagship St George, at first, needing to replenish water and other supplies, withdrew his fleet to Trapani, leading the Dey to assume his fleet had retreated, and on.3 April 1655 he returned to Porto Farina. The following morning Blake, with fifteen ships, prepared for an attack on the castle and ships in the harbour which were protected by twenty cannon in the castle, along with other defensive works along the shore. During the assault Blake destroyed the two shore batteries and nine Algerian ships with continual cannon fire from Blake's ships, while the wind off the sea blew the intense smoke from the guns at the castle and into the town, obscuring the enemy's view.  His crews boarded the ships docked in the harbour one at a time and set them ablaze, and within hours they were all reduced to scorched timber and ashes. With only twenty-five killed and forty wounded, it was the first time shore batteries had been neutralized without landing men ashore. Hoping that he had not exceeded his orders, Blake, upon submitting his report to Cromwell, found him most gracious and appreciative of his efforts. At this time Blake received orders to proceed off Cadiz, and carry on hostilities against Spain, with the objective of intercepting the Plate ships and to intercept reinforcements intended for Spanish forces in the West Indies.

Anglo-Spanish War

In February 1656 commercial rivalry with Spain was soon turned to war. In the Anglo-Spanish War Blake blockaded Cádiz, during which one of his captains, Richard Stayner, destroyed most of the Spanish plate fleet at the Battle of Cádiz. A galleon of treasure was captured, and the overall loss to Spain was estimated at £2 million. Blake maintained the blockade throughout the winter, the first time the fleet had stayed at sea over winter.

On 20 April 1657 Blake totally destroyed another armed merchant convoy, the Spanish West Indian fleet, in the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife—a port so well fortified that it was thought to be impregnable to attack from the sea—for the loss of just one ship. With expert marksmanship Blake's artillery successfully laid waste to most of the fort and destroyed or reduced the Spanish fleet to ashes. Although the silver had already been landed, Blake's victory delayed its arrival at the royal treasury of the Spanish government and earned the new English Navy respect throughout Europe. As a reward Blake was given an expensive diamond ring by Cromwell. The action also earned him respect 140 years later from Lord Nelson who lost his arm there in a failed attack; in a letter written on 17 April 1797, to Admiral Sir John Jervis, Nelson wrote "I do not reckon myself equal to Blake", before going on to outline the plans for his own attack.

First Anglo-Dutch War

Blake's next adventures were during the First Anglo-Dutch War (1652–1654). The war started prematurely with a skirmish between the Dutch fleet of Maarten Tromp and Blake on 29 May 1652, at the Battle of Dover.

On 19 May 1652, Tromp was patrolling in the English Channel with a fleet of forty ships between Nieuport and the mouth of the Meuse River, to provide protection Dutch merchant ships, while monitoring the activity of the English fleet who had been seizing Dutch merchant ships. Blake was lying in Dover Roads with fifteen ships, with eight others in reserve of the ccoast of Lincolnshire in The Downs. When Tromp failed to lower his flag in salute, Blake, aboard his flagship the James, believing Tromp had just received orders from a Dutch dispatch ketch to commence battle, fired two warning shots, without ball. Subsequently the Battle of Dover  began when Tromp refused to strike his flag, but instead hoisted a red battle flag in defiance,. This caused Blake to fire a third gun, damaging Tromp's ship and wounding some crew members. Tromp in return fired  a warning broadside from his flagship Brederode. Blake in turn fired a broadside and a five-hour battle ensued. The fighting continued until nightfall, where both sides withdrew, the battle having no distinct victor.

The proper war started in June with an English campaign against the Dutch East Indies, Baltic and fishing trades by Blake, in command of around 60 ships. On 5 October 1652 Dutch Vice-Admiral Witte Corneliszoon de With, underestimating the strength of the English, attempted to attack Blake, but due to the weather it was Blake who attacked on 8 October 1652 in the Battle of the Kentish Knock, sending de With back to the Netherlands in defeat. The English government seemed to think that the war was over and sent ships away to the Mediterranean. Blake had only 42 warships when he was attacked and decisively defeated by 88 Dutch ships under Tromp on 9 December 1652 in the Battle of Dungeness, losing control of the English Channel to the Dutch. Meanwhile, the ships sent away had also been defeated in the Battle of Leghorn. Following the navy's poor performance at Dungeness, Blake demanded that the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty enact major reforms. They complied by, among other things, enacting Articles of War to reinforce the authority of an admiral over his captains.

After the Battle of Dungeness in November 1652 the Dutch navy was in control of the English Channel through the winter of 1652-1653, allowing trade and commerce to once again resume. During this time, however, the English fleet had been refitted and reorganized, and by the beginning of February the English fleet numbered about eighty ships, which were promptly put into operation on 11 February under the joint command of the generals-at-sea Blake, Monck and Deane, setting the stage for the Battle of Portland. Blake's main objective was to intercept Lieutenant-Admiral Tromp, who was expected to escort a large merchant fleet from the Mediterranean to the Netherlands.
The English fleet was divided into three squadrons, the Red, Blue and White, each with its own vice- and rear-admirals which for the first time in British naval history established an ordered command hierarchy for the British Navy. Blake, aboard his flagship the Triumph, was in command of the red squadron, with Monck in command of the Blue and Penn in command of the white.
Blake was informed that Tromp's fleet  was approaching and was no more than forty leagues to the west.
Tromp had the great responsibility of getting his merchant convey home to safety, but when he learned that Blake was waiting for him in the channel, and that his fleet of warships was about the same size as Blake's fleet, and with the weather gage in his favor, he decided to take the initiative and move on Blake's fleet, leaving his convoy of merchant ships about four miles up wind.

While Blake's fleet had recently been outfitted with fresh supplies and ammunition, Tromp has been out to sea since November and was in short supply of ammunition.
Knowing that Tromp's fleet and convoy of merchant ships had to pass his way to reach their destination, Blake was not compelled to go out searching for them. On 18 February the Dutch fleet of seventy-five ships came into Blake's view, but his squadrons had not yet grouped into their formations, having arrived there in haste at short notice. His red squadron was in position, but the White squadron was several miles to the east, while the Blue squadron was at some distance to the west, leaving Blake with about a dozen ships to face the entire Dutch fleet, which had the wind in their favor.
Tromp seized the advantageous opportunity and moved on Blake's lone squadron, and at eight in the morning a furious battle commenced.  Subsequently Blake's squadron endured heavy damage and casualties, with 100 lives lost on the Triumph, but the squadron was able to keep the Dutch fleet at bay.   While the battle raged furiously, Blake was severely wounded in his thigh, while his flag-captain Andrew Ball was killed. Several hours would pass before Blake's other squadrons arrived at the scene. As Tromp's ships began to use up their supply of powder, they retreated from the engagement and headed for home, while the withdrawal of the remaining ships turned into a desperate flight for survival.

Thanks to its command of the sea, the fleet was able to supply Cromwell's army with provisions as it successfully marched on Scotland. By the end of 1652 the various English colonies in the Americas had also been secured.

At the Battle of the Gabbard on 12 and 13 June 1653 Blake reinforced the ships of Generals Richard Deane and George Monck and decisively defeated the Dutch fleet, sinking or capturing 17 ships without losing one. Now also the North Sea was brought under English control, and the Dutch fleet was blockaded in various ports until the Battle of Scheveningen, where Tromp was killed.

Peace with the Dutch achieved, Blake sailed in October 1654 with 24 warships as commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean Fleet, successfully deterring the Duke of Guise from conquering Naples. In 1656, the year before his death, Blake was appointed Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports.

Final days and legacy

On 13 March 1655, Blake, still in active service while aboard the Naseby, made out his last will and testament. The first item, consisting of a paragraph, began with, "I bequeath my soul unto the hands of my most merciful Redeemer, the Lord Jesus Christ..." He left the towns of Bridgewater and Taunton £100 each to be dispersed among their the poor. He left his brother Humphrey his manor house, while leaving his other brothers considerable sums of money. Among other items bequeathed to other family members and friends, he left the gold chain that was awarded him by the Parliament to his nephew Robert, son of his deceased brother.

After again cruising off Cadiz for a while, Blake, aboard his flagship Saint George turned for home, but on 7 August 1657 at ten o'clock in the morning he died of old wounds within sight of Plymouth where a hero's welcome was planned for him. After lying in state in the Queen's House, Greenwich, he was given a full state funeral moved to Westminster Abbey where the procession they were received by a military guard and saluted with salvoes of artillery before he was interned. Present at the ceremony were Oliver Cromwell and the members of the Council of State (although his internal organs had earlier been buried at St Andrew's Church, Plymouth). After the restoration of the Monarchy his body was exhumed in 1661 and placed in a common grave in St Margaret's churchyard, adjoining the Abbey, on the orders of the new king, Charles II.

In Westminster Abbey, a stone memorial of Robert Blake, unveiled on 27 February 1945, can be found in the south choir aisle. St Margaret's Church, where Blake was reburied, has a stained-glass window depicting Blake's life, together with a brass plaque to his memory, unveiled on 18 December 1888. A modern stone memorial to Blake and the other Parliamentarians reburied in the churchyard has been set into the external wall to the left of the main entrance of the church.

In 1926 the house in Bridgwater, where it is believed that Blake was born, was purchased and turned into the Blake Museum, where a room is devoted to him and his exploits.

Blake is one of four maritime figures depicted with a statue on the facade of Deptford Town Hall, in the London Borough of Lewisham. Blake and his flagship Triumph are featured on a second class postage stamp issued in 1982.

In 2007 various events took place in Bridgwater, Somerset, from April to September to commemorate the 350th anniversary of the death of Robert Blake. These included a civic ceremony on 8 July 2007 and a 17th-century market on 15 July 2007. In the Royal Navy a series of ships have carried the name HMS Blake in honour of the general at sea.

As noted by one of Blake's biographers, Blake was responsible for the "... birth of a real British Navy ... Hitherto, expeditions had been entrusted to Court favourites, whose main inspiration was not patriotism, but gain ; now, patriotism, not profit, was to be its watchword ; glory, not gold, its
reward."

Relatives
Blake's brother, Benjamin Blake (1614–1689), served under Robert, emigrated to Carolina in 1682, and was the father of Joseph Blake, governor of South Carolina in 1694 and from 1696 to 1700.

Blake's brother Samual Blake fought under Popham before being killed in a duel in 1645.

A collateral relative was the historian Robert Blake, Baron Blake (1916–2003).

See also
 British ensign
 Military history of the United Kingdom
 Glossary of nautical terms : (A–L),  (M–Z)

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

 Knight, Frank, (1971). General-at-Sea The Life of Admiral Robert Blake London Macdonald

 1899, Lawrence and Bullen, Ltd. publication

External links

 The Blake Museum, Bridgwater
 The Friends of Blake Museum, Bridgwater
 Admiral Blake – Article in Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, 29 May 1852
 Robert Blake, admiral and general at sea, William Hepworth Dixon, 1852

Military personnel from Somerset
English admirals
English generals
Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports
Alumni of Wadham College, Oxford
People from Bridgwater
Burials at Westminster Abbey
1598 births
1657 deaths
English merchants
Burials at St Margaret's, Westminster
17th-century English merchants
17th-century Royal Navy personnel
Royal Navy personnel of the Anglo-Dutch Wars
English MPs 1640 (April)
English MPs 1653 (Barebones)
English MPs 1654–1655
English MPs 1656–1658
17th-century English businesspeople
Parliamentarian military personnel of the English Civil War
Lords of the Admiralty
People who died at sea

Robert Blake (admiral)


Immortals Fenyx Rising is a 2020 action-adventure video game developed by Ubisoft Quebec and published by Ubisoft. The game was released for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Stadia, Windows, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S.

Immortals Fenyx Rising tells the story, as narrated by Prometheus to Zeus, of Fenyx, a mortal who in order to rescue Fenyx's brother must stop the evil Typhon after his escape from the underworld. The game received positive reviews from critics.

Gameplay
Immortals is an action-adventure game played from a third-person perspective. The player can customize the gender, voice, and the appearance of Fenyx. After unlocking the Hall of Gods, the player can use Aphrodite's Beauty Chair to make further changes at any point in the game. The game is set on the Golden Isle, a large open world consisting of seven distinct regions inspired by Greek mythology. The player is accompanied by Phosphor, a bird who can identify locations of interest on the map. Fenyx can traverse the world quickly through climbing cliffs, riding on a mount, and flying using the wings of Daedalus. The full open world is accessible from the start of the game. As players explore the world, they encounter rifts which teleport them to the Vaults of Tartaros, which are a series of platforming challenges that require players to utilize both Fenyx's combat and traversal abilities. Players can complete various side-objectives and optional puzzles.

The world of the Golden Isle is occupied with various enemies inspired by Greek mythology, including minotaurs to cyclopes. There are two modes of melee attack: fast and weak light attacks with a sword and slow and strong heavy attacks with an axe. Fenyx can use bow and arrows to defeat enemies. Players need to manage Fenyx's stamina during combat as they will become exhausted after repeated attacks. As players progress in the game, they can unlock powerful godlike abilities. For instance, Fenyx can unlock Ares' Wrath, a group of spears that thrust enemies into the air. Armor and weapons can be upgraded by collecting sufficient crafting resources.

Story
After spending eons imprisoned under a mountain by Zeus, Typhon escapes and takes his revenge on the Olympian gods, severing them from their godly essences and robbing them of their powers. Zeus flees and meets Prometheus, seeking to secure his aid in battling Typhon. Prometheus instead makes a wager with Zeus that if Typhon can be beaten by a mortal, then he will be freed from his imprisonment. Prometheus uses his power of foresight to tell the story of Fenyx.

Fenyx, a young Greek shield-bearer of the Delian League, survives a shipwreck and washes up on the Golden Isle. She is shocked to find that the surviving crew and the Golden Isle's residents have all turned to stone. After recovering several artifacts belonging to legendary Greek heroes and receiving a prophecy, Fenyx rescues a young stranger who later turns out to be Hermes. He informs her about the situation and the grave threat Typhon poses as he seeks to break the barrier between the mortal realm and Tartaros and reform the world in his own image. Determined to stop Typhon and save humanity, Fenyx agrees to venture out into the Golden Isle to restore the deposed Olympian gods. Through their efforts, Fenyx befriends a magical bird companion named Phosphor and manages to restore Aphrodite (who became a tree without her passion), Ares (who turned into a rooster without pride), Hephaistos (who became one of his automatons without suffering), and Athena (who turned into a child with no judgment). Fenyx defeats the spirits of Achilles, Atalanta, Herakles, and Odysseus, who had all been corrupted by Typhon.

Despite the gods having been restored, they revert to their usual bickering and infighting when they cannot agree on a plan to stop Typhon. Fenyx's older brother Ligyron, who escaped the petrification curse, arrives and tells the gods of his plan to steal Hephaistos' chains from Typhon, enchant them using the blood of the gods, and use them to imprison Typhon once again. The gods agree to Ligyron's plan, but Fenyx is frustrated that he refuses to bring her along in order to protect him from danger. The gods encourage Fenyx to go after Ligyron so as not to let him steal the glory Fenyx deserves.

Fenyx scales the mountain at the center of the Golden Isle and manages to witness Ligyron collaborating with Typhon, collecting all the ingredients necessary to create a poison capable of killing the gods. In return, Typhon will allow Ligyron to become a god in his new world and rule the Golden Isle. Fenyx confronts Ligyron and defeats him, forcing Ligyron to flee to Tartaros. Fenyx follows him and confronts Typhon himself, being able to best him in battle. With his last breath, Typhon reveals that Fenyx is actually a demigod and Hermes' child.

Throughout the story, Zeus comes to realize how much he has mistreated his children and the other gods and becomes regretful at how he had become such a poor parent and husband. He interrupts the story when he hears Fenyx is supposed to be Hermes' child, pointing out it should not be possible. Prometheus admits that he had manipulated and fabricated parts of the story. He arranged his Titan brother Atlas to free Typhon and shipwreck Fenyx on the Golden Isle. In addition, he hid details that Fenyx is actually a demigod child of Thetis and Zeus and that in reality, Typhon told him that it was Zeus who turned all of humanity to stone. At that moment, Fenyx arrives with Typhon's poison, confirming the entire story was part of Prometheus' revenge plot to have Zeus killed.

Zeus admits that even though he created them, he wanted to destroy humanity due to their flaws, but has come to realize that humanity's flaws are merely a reflection of the flaws the gods and he himself possess as well. He feels he does not deserve to live and does not put up any resistance. Fenyx reveals she does not have any intention of killing Zeus, wanting instead to inspire him to be a better father to his children and a better god. Typhon reappears, furious that Fenyx will not kill Zeus as planned. He consumes the poison to empower himself and captures Zeus, taunting Fenyx to come and try to stop him. Fenyx follows Typhon back to Tartaros and battles him again, but Typhon manages to slay Phosphor and Fenyx begins to lose ground against him until Zeus escapes and rallies the other gods to come to Fenyx's aid. Working together, they are able to defeat Typhon once and for all as he succumbs to the poison he consumed.

Afterward, as a reward for helping defeat Typhon, Zeus agrees to return humanity to normal, restores Phosphor as a new creature, the phoenix, and invites Fenyx to live on the Golden Isle with the gods. Fenyx agrees, as long as she gets to keep an eye on Zeus to make sure he is committed to becoming a better god and father. Meanwhile, Zeus sends Ligyron to free Prometheus as part of the wager, but not before tormenting Prometheus by having Ligyron tell his own story of Fenyx, much to Prometheus' annoyance.

Development
Immortals Fenyx Rising was developed by Ubisoft Quebec, the team which created Assassin's Creed Odyssey. Game director Scott Phillips added that the project originated from a software bug the team discovered during the development of Odyssey, which changed the humans on the player's crew into giant cyclopses, and decided that it would be a good idea to create a separate game that embraces the mythological side of Greece. Due to the positive reception of Odyssey, Ubisoft's management agreed to greenlight the project.

The game was announced as Gods and Monsters during E3 2019. Initially set to be released on February 26, 2020, the game was delayed in October 2019 after another Ubisoft tentpole release, Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon Breakpoint, failed to be commercially successful. According to Ubisoft, the delay gave additional time for the development team to "ensure that their respective innovations are perfectly implemented so as to deliver optimal experiences for players." Quebec studio used the additional time to add Zeus and Prometheus as the game's duo narrators, replacing Greek poet Homer, who was initially intended to fulfill this role. A work-in-progress build of the game was leaked on Stadia under the codename Orpheus in June 2020. It was re-revealed as Immortals Fenyx Rising on September 10, 2020. The studio decided to rename the game to reflect its narrative focus and put more emphasis on Fenyx, the game's protagonist. The change appeared to be a result from a trademark dispute with Monster Energy, which challenged the Gods and Monsters name, believing it would cause confusion.

Jeffrey Yohalem, who wrote for previous Ubisoft titles such as Assassin's Creed II, Far Cry 3, and Child of Light, served as narrative director and lead writer. The humourparticularly that involving the bickering between the narrators Zeus and Prometheuswas inspired by films such as Robin Hood: Men in Tights, The Princess Bride, and The Naked Gun. In regards to adaptating Greek mythology for modern audiences, Yohalem explained that he did not want to avoid the darker aspects of its gods and heroes (providing the example of Theseus's kidnapping of Helen of Troy), and instead wanted to specifically highlight those elements through a modern perspective, as it "[speaks] to our current political climate and who we are as human beings on social media." Yohalem believed that the capability of Greek gods and heroes to commit evil acts made them more human, saying that "[the] Greeks believed in balance where what makes us human and makes us complete are both our strengths and weaknesses."

Gareth Coker, who previously worked on Ori and the Blind Forest and its sequel Ori and the Will of the Wisps, composed the score. Ancient Greek instruments such as lyre and kithara were used when he was recording the music. Coker commissioned these instruments from a Greek luthier and had them transported across the Atlantic.

The game was released on December 3, 2020 for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Stadia, Windows, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S. A free demo for the game was released for Stadia users before the game's official launch. A version for Amazon Luna released the following day. The first of three DLC packs for the game, A New God, was released on January 28, 2021. This story arc is set in Olympos, there Fenyx must overcome the trials from the Gods to earn a place among the Gods. The second DLC pack, Myths of the Eastern Realm was released on March 25, 2021. Based on Chinese mythology, the player plays as Ku, a brave new hero that must help the Goddess Nuwa to restore the balance between Heaven and Earth. The final DLC pack, The Lost Gods, was released on April 22, 2021. In this story arc, the players plays as Ash, a new hero on an epic journey to reunite the Greek Gods including Poseidon and Hades, and bring them back to the Pantheon.

Reception

Immortals Fenyx Rising received "generally favorable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Its narrative, humor, combat, progression-systems, soundtrack, and open world-design received praise. Criticism was directed towards its lack of innovation, with many critics and players criticizing its similarities to The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild.

References

External links

2020 video games
Action-adventure games
Nintendo Switch games
Open-world video games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation 5 games
Single-player video games
Stadia games
Ubisoft games
Video games adapted into comics
Video games based on Greek mythology
Video games developed in Canada
Video games with gender-selectable protagonists
Video games scored by Gareth Coker
Video games set in ancient Greece
Video games set on fictional islands
Windows games
Xbox One games
Xbox Series X and Series S games

Immortals Fenyx Rising


Fort Watauga, also known as Fort Caswell, was a fortification located in the Watauga River's Sycamore Shoals near modern-day Elizabethton, Tennessee. It was constructed from 1775 to 1776 by the Watauga Association, a semi-autonomous government founded by American settlers living near the river, to defend the settlers against attacks from British-allied Indians. The fort was originally named Fort Caswell after the governor of North Carolina, Richard Caswell.

In the 1970s, as part of the United States Bicentennial celebrations, the government of Tennessee authorized a reconstruction of Fort Watauga.  A group of archaeologists conducted excavations in the Sycamore Shoals area and uncovered several trenches believed to have been part of the fort's walls.  The fort was then rebuilt based on information gained about the fort's design from the excavation, descriptions of the fort in historical sources, and the general design of typical Appalachian frontier forts.  The reconstructed fort is now part of Sycamore Shoals State Historic Park.

History

Watauga settlement

During the late 1760's, Anglo-American colonists began establishing settlements in the Holston, Watauga and Nolichucky river valleys in the southwestern region of the British colony of Virginia. Along the Watauga River, white settlers were drawn to the Watauga Old Fields, an ancient Indian gathering place. The Watauga Old Fields consisted of flat, cleared land located along the Sycamore Shoals, a relatively low stretch of the Watauga River where colonists and explorers could cross with ease. The settlers quickly came into conflict with the Cherokee and other Indian tribes which had traditionally used the region as a hunting ground and resisted American invasion with force.

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 and several subsequent treaties placed the boundary of British-controlled territory at the southern fork of the Holston River, and in the early 1770's, Anglo-American settlers outside this boundary were ordered by the Crown to leave. Though the settlers leased their lands from Cherokee chiefs in 1772 and purchased them in 1775, they were still ordered to leave as these agreements violated the 1763 proclamation. In addition, a Cherokee faction led by the young chief Dragging Canoe vehemently opposed the sale of tribal lands to the colonists, and threatened to attack any American settler in the region. In 1774 and 1775, both British Indian Department official John Stuart and governor of North Carolina Josiah Martin issued repeated calls for settlers south of the Holston to leave.

July 1776 Cherokee invasion

The outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775 further agitated the tense situation on the Appalachian frontier. Settlers along with Watauga and Nolichucky river generally supported the Patriot cause, and formed a committee of safety along with founding the Washington District. In January 1776, Dragging Canoe and the British forged an alliance, and in April of that year British agents supplied the Cherokee with a large cache of weapons to use in attacks against American colonists. Now well-armed, the Cherokee sent a message to settlers along the Watauga River, giving them twenty days to leave Cherokee lands or face attack.

The settlers, meanwhile, had been anticipating a Cherokee attack. They undertook various preparatory measures, which included buying weapons and ammunition via the Fincastle County, Virginia committee of safety, gathering foodstuffs and medicine, and constructing and strenghtening various fortifications in the region. One of these forts was Fort Caswell, named after the governor of North Carolina, Richard Caswell. In early July 1775, Cherokee woman Nancy Ward tipped off the Cherokee attack plans to American trader Isaac Thomas, who proceeded to deliver the news to John Sevier, who was at the Nolichucky settlement (near modern Limestone) overseeing the construction of Fort Lee.  The news alarmed the settlers, and most of them fled to Fort Caswell, forcing Sevier to flee likewise and abandon Fort Lee's completion.

The Cherokee invasion began in mid-July, 1776.  When the invaders reached the Nolichucky, a contingent led by a chief known as "The Raven" split off toward Carter's Valley (near modern Kingsport), where he chased away the settlers and burned their cabins and farms.  Two contingents led by Dragging Canoe and Old Abraham of Chilhowee (or Abram) proceeded up the Nolichucky where they burned the abandoned Fort Lee.  This force then split up, with Dragging Canoe marching north to attack the Holston settlements and Old Abraham marching east to attack Fort Watauga.  As Dragging Canoe approached Eaton's Station (in the vicinity of Long Island of the Holston), the fort's garrison, led by Captain John Thompson, feared the Cherokees would bypass the fort and destroy their farms, and thus marched out to engage them at Island Flats.  13 Cherokee were killed and dozens (including Dragging Canoe) were wounded, and the Cherokee force retreated.

The siege of Fort Caswell

With the Cherokee approaching, some 150 to 200 settlers crowded into Fort Caswell.  The fort's garrison consisted of roughly 75 men under the command of John Carter (the Committee of Safety commissioner), with James Robertson and John Sevier as subordinates.  Old Abraham of Chilhowee's contingent of Cherokee warriors arrived at Fort Caswell in the early morning hours of July 21.  The sudden appearance of the invaders surprised several women out milking cows, forcing them to rush to get back inside the fort.  One of them, Catherine "Bonnie Kate" Sherrill, the future wife of John Sevier, was unable to get back inside before the gate was locked and had to be pulled over the palisades by Sevier.  The initial Cherokee attack lasted about three hours, with both sides exchanging gunfire. During the attack, several Cherokees managed to get close enough to the fort to attempt to set it on fire, but were forced back after Ann Robertson Johnson (sister of James Robertson) threw scalding hot water at them.

Unable to take the fort, the Cherokee halted the assault and settled in for a lengthy siege.  In the ensuing days, a teenager named Tom Moore was captured outside the fort and taken to Tuskegee, where he was burned at the stake.  Another captive, Lydia Russell Bean, wife of early settler William Bean, was about to meet the same fate when Nancy Ward intervened and used her authority as a Beloved Woman to spare her.  After approximately two weeks, the Cherokee lifted the siege and retreated.  The arrival of the Virginia militia under William Christian later that year largely ended the threat to the fort.

The fort in later years
In September 1780, the Overmountain Men— the frontier militia that helped defeat an army of British loyalists at the Battle of Kings Mountain— mustered at Sycamore Shoals on the grounds around Fort Watauga.  After this event, the fort largely vanished from historical records, but it still occasionally appeared in land deeds as late as 1819.

In 1909, the Daughters of the American Revolution placed a monument near the site of the fort.  In the mid-1970s, the state of Tennessee reconstructed the fort in anticipation of the nation's 1976 bicentennial celebrations.  The state funded archaeological excavations and historical research to determine the fort's design and location.  The Watauga Historical Association, formed in the late 1950s, was instrumental in the creation of Sycamore Shoals State Historic Park.

Location and design

19th-century historian J. G. M. Ramsey provided the most often-cited description of the Fort Watauga location in his Annals of Tennessee, published in 1852.  Ramsey, who visited Elizabethton and observed what he believed were the fort's remains, placed the fort location at approximately  northeast of the mouth of Gap Creek, along what is now the intersection of West G Street and Monument Place (the site is marked by the 1909 D.A.R. monument).

A contemporary and corresponding friend of Ramsey, Wisconsin historian Lyman C. Draper, placed Fort Watauga at a different location, approximately  downstream from the mouth of the Doe River (about 2 miles northeast of Ramsey's location), at a point that is the in outfield of the Joe O'Brien Field, immediately south of the Watauga River

The Ramsey location for Fort Watauga also places the stockade fort two miles further distant west from the historic homesteads of John Carter, John Sevier, and James Robertson (all who were militia leaders and defenders during the July, 1776 Cherokee siege of Fort Watauga) than does the Draper location. The early Tennessee explorer and pioneer James Robertson first build his homestead during 1770-1771 along the north side of the Watauga River at the mouth of the Doe River. Draper also recorded that the historic site of Fort Watauga was also located approximately four miles away from the John Sevier plantation that was located near the mouth of Stoney Creek, south of the Watauga River in Lynn Valley.

Little detail is known of the original design of Fort Watauga.  Ramsey described the fort as situated on a knoll, and Draper wrote that the fort was surrounded by an open glade within easy firing distance of the north bank of the Watauga River. The 1974 state excavations uncovered partial trench-like formations  west of the D.A.R. marker that state archaeologist Carl Kuttruff believed to be the remains of Fort Watauga based upon the Ramsey description.

The 1974 excavations revealed that the fort had an irregular shape, and that it probably consisted of a group of cabins connected by a stockade.  The shape of the reconstructed fort was based largely on the formations uncovered in these excavations, and its design was based on contemporary Appalachian frontier forts, which typically consisted of log structures (some with overhanging second stories) and a stockade of sharpened poles surrounding a  courtyard. The current reconstructed fort is about  northeast of the Ramsey location and about a mile west of the Draper location.

References

External links
Sycamore Shoals State Park
 Photographs from 2003 re-enactment

Watauga
North Carolina in the American Revolution
Tennessee in the American Revolution
Watauga
Buildings and structures in Carter County, Tennessee
18th-century Cherokee history
Pre-statehood history of Tennessee
Elizabethton, Tennessee

Fort Watauga


Electrical discharge machining (EDM), also known as spark machining, spark eroding, die sinking, wire burning or wire erosion, is a metal
fabrication process whereby a desired shape is obtained by using electrical discharges (sparks). Material is removed from the work piece by a series of rapidly recurring current discharges between two electrodes, separated by a dielectric liquid and subject to  an electric voltage. One of the electrodes is called the tool-electrode, or simply the  or , while the other is called the workpiece-electrode, or . The process depends upon the tool and work piece not making physical contact. Extremely hard materials like carbides, ceramics, titanium alloys and heat treated tool steels that are very difficult to machine using conventional machining can be precisely machined by EDM.

When the voltage between the two electrodes is increased, the intensity of the electric field in the volume between the electrodes becomes greater, causing dielectric break down of the liquid, and produces an electric arc. As a result, material is removed from the electrodes. Once the current stops (or is stopped, depending on the type of generator), new liquid dielectric is conveyed into the inter-electrode volume, enabling the solid particles (debris) to be carried away and the insulating properties of the dielectric to be restored. Adding new liquid dielectric in the inter-electrode volume is commonly referred to as .  After a current flow, the voltage between the electrodes is restored to what it was before the breakdown, so that a new liquid dielectric breakdown can occur to repeat the cycle.

History
The erosive effect of electrical discharges was first noted in 1770 by English physicist Joseph Priestley.

Die-sink EDM
Two Soviet scientists, B. R. Lazarenko  and N. I. Lazarenko, were tasked in 1943 to investigate ways of preventing the erosion of tungsten electrical contacts due to sparking. They failed in this task but found that the erosion was more precisely controlled if the electrodes were immersed in a dielectric fluid.  This led them to invent an EDM machine used for working difficult-to-machine materials such as tungsten.  The Lazarenkos' machine is known as an R-C-type machine, after the resistor–capacitor circuit (RC circuit) used to charge the electrodes.

Simultaneously but independently, an American team, Harold Stark, Victor Harding, and Jack Beaver, developed an EDM machine for removing broken drills and taps from aluminium castings.  Initially constructing their machines from under-powered electric-etching tools, they were not very successful.  But more powerful sparking units, combined with automatic spark repetition and fluid replacement with an electromagnetic interrupter arrangement produced practical machines.  Stark, Harding, and Beaver's machines were able to produce 60 sparks per second.  Later machines based on their design used vacuum tube circuits that were able to produce thousands of sparks per second, significantly increasing the speed of cutting.

Wire-cut EDM

The wire-cut type of machine arose in the 1960s for making tools (dies) from hardened steel.  The tool electrode in wire EDM is simply a wire.  To avoid the erosion of the wire causing it to break, the wire is wound between two spools so that the active part of the wire is constantly changing.  The earliest numerical controlled (NC) machines were conversions of punched-tape vertical milling machines.  The first commercially available NC machine built as a wire-cut EDM machine was manufactured in the USSR in 1967.  Machines that could optically follow lines on a master drawing were developed by David H. Dulebohn's group in the 1960s at Andrew Engineering Company for milling and grinding machines.  Master drawings were later produced by computer numerical controlled (CNC) plotters for greater accuracy.  A wire-cut EDM machine using the CNC drawing plotter and optical line follower techniques was produced in 1974.  Dulebohn later used the same plotter CNC program to directly control the EDM machine, and the first CNC EDM machine was produced in 1976.

Commercial wire EDM capability and use has advanced substantially during recent decades. Feed rates have increased and surface finish can be finely controlled.

Generalities

Electrical discharge machining is a machining method primarily used for hard metals or those that would be very difficult to machine with traditional techniques.  EDM typically works with materials that are electrically conductive, although methods have also been proposed for using EDM to machine insulating ceramics. EDM can cut intricate contours or cavities in pre-hardened steel without the need for heat treatment to soften and re-harden them. This method can be used with any other metal or metal alloy such as titanium, hastelloy, kovar, and inconel. Also, applications of this process to shape polycrystalline diamond tools have been reported.

EDM is often included in the "non-traditional" or "non-conventional" group of machining methods together with processes such as electrochemical machining (ECM), water jet cutting (WJ, AWJ), laser cutting and opposite to the "conventional" group (turning, milling, grinding, drilling and any other process whose material removal mechanism is essentially based on mechanical forces).

Ideally, EDM can be seen as a series of breakdown and restoration of the liquid dielectric in-between the electrodes. However, caution should be exerted in considering such a statement because it is an idealized model of the process, introduced to describe the fundamental ideas underlying the process. Yet, any practical application involves many aspects that may also need to be considered.  For instance, the removal of the debris from the inter-electrode volume is likely to be always partial. Thus the electrical properties of the dielectric in the inter-electrodes volume can be different from their nominal values and can even vary with time. The inter-electrode distance, often also referred to as spark-gap, is the result of the control algorithms of the specific machine used. The control of such a distance appears logically to be central to this process. Also, not all of the current between the dielectric is of the ideal type described above: the spark-gap can be short-circuited by the debris. The control system of the electrode may fail to react quickly enough to prevent the two electrodes (tool and workpiece) from coming into contact, with a consequent short circuit. This is unwanted because a short circuit contributes to material removal differently from the ideal case. The flushing action can be inadequate to restore the insulating properties of the dielectric so that the current always happens in the point of the inter-electrode volume (this is referred to as arcing), with a consequent unwanted change of shape (damage) of the tool-electrode and workpiece. Ultimately, a description of this process in a suitable way for the specific purpose at hand is what makes the EDM area such a rich field for further investigation and research.

To obtain a specific geometry, the EDM tool is guided along the desired path very close to the work; ideally it should not touch the workpiece, although in reality this may happen due to the performance of the specific motion control in use. In this way, a large number of current discharges (colloquially also called sparks) happen, each contributing to the removal of material from both tool and workpiece, where small craters are formed. The size of the craters is a function of the technological parameters set for the specific job at hand. They can be with typical dimensions ranging from the nanoscale (in micro-EDM operations) to some hundreds of micrometers in roughing conditions.

The presence of these small craters on the tool results in the gradual erosion of the electrode. This erosion of the tool-electrode is also referred to as wear. Strategies are needed to counteract the detrimental effect of the wear on the geometry of the workpiece. One possibility is that of continuously replacing the tool-electrode during a machining operation. This is what happens if a continuously replaced wire is used as electrode. In this case, the correspondent EDM process is also called wire EDM. The tool-electrode can also be used in such a way that only a small portion of it is actually engaged in the machining process and this portion is changed on a regular basis. This is, for instance, the case when using a rotating disk as a tool-electrode. The corresponding process is often also referred to as EDM grinding.

A further strategy consists in using a set of electrodes with different sizes and shapes during the same EDM operation. This is often referred to as multiple electrode strategy, and is most common when the tool electrode replicates in negative the wanted shape and is advanced towards the blank along a single direction, usually the vertical direction (i.e. z-axis). This resembles the sink of the tool into the dielectric liquid in which the workpiece is immersed, so, not surprisingly, it is often referred to as die-sinking EDM (also called conventional EDM and ram EDM). The corresponding machines are often called sinker EDM. Usually, the electrodes of this type have quite complex forms. If the final geometry is obtained using a usually simple-shaped electrode which is moved along several directions and is possibly also subject to rotations, often the term EDM milling is used.

In any case, the severity of the wear is strictly dependent on the technological parameters used in the operation (for instance: polarity, maximum current, open circuit voltage). For example, in micro-EDM, also known as μ-EDM, these parameters are usually set at values which generates severe wear. Therefore, wear is a major problem in that area.

The problem of wear to graphite electrodes is being addressed. In one approach, a digital generator, controllable within milliseconds, reverses polarity as electro-erosion takes place. That produces an effect similar to electroplating that continuously deposits the eroded graphite back on the electrode. In another method, a so-called "Zero Wear" circuit reduces how often the discharge starts and stops, keeping it on for as long a time as possible.

Definition of the technological parameters
Difficulties have been encountered in the definition of the technological parameters that drive the process.

Two broad categories of generators, also known as power supplies, are in use on EDM machines commercially available: the group based on RC circuits and the group based on transistor controlled pulses.

In both categories, the primary parameters at setup are the current and frequency delivered. In RC circuits, however, little control is expected over the time duration of the discharge, which is likely to depend on the actual spark-gap conditions (size and pollution) at the moment of the discharge. Also, the open circuit voltage (i.e. the voltage between the electrodes when the dielectric is not yet broken) can be identified as steady state voltage of the RC circuit.

In generators based on transistor control, the user is usually able to deliver a train of pulses of voltage to the electrodes. Each pulse can be controlled in shape, for instance, quasi-rectangular. In particular, the time between two consecutive pulses and the duration of each pulse can be set. The amplitude of each pulse constitutes the open circuit voltage. Thus, the maximum duration of discharge is equal to the duration of a pulse of voltage in the train. Two pulses of current are then expected not to occur for a duration equal or larger than the time interval between two consecutive pulses of voltage.

The maximum current during a discharge that the generator delivers can also be controlled. Because other sorts of generators may also be used by different machine builders, the parameters that may actually be set on a particular machine will depend on the generator manufacturer. The details of the generators and control systems on their machines are not always easily available to their user. This is a barrier to describing unequivocally the technological parameters of the EDM process. Moreover, the parameters affecting the phenomena occurring between tool and electrode are also related to the controller of the motion of the electrodes.

A framework to define and measure the electrical parameters during an EDM operation directly on inter-electrode volume with an oscilloscope external to the machine has been recently proposed by Ferri et al. These authors conducted their research in the field of μ-EDM, but the same approach can be used in any EDM operation. This would enable the user to estimate directly the electrical parameters that affect their operations without relying upon machine manufacturer's claims. When machining different materials in the same setup conditions, the actual electrical parameters of the process are significantly different.

Material removal mechanism

The first serious attempt at providing a physical explanation of the material removal during electric discharge machining is perhaps that of Van Dijck. Van Dijck presented a thermal model together with a computational simulation to explain the phenomena between the electrodes during electric discharge machining. However, as Van Dijck himself admitted in his study, the number of assumptions made to overcome the lack of experimental data at that time was quite significant.

Further models of what occurs during electric discharge machining in terms of heat transfer were developed in the late eighties and early nineties. It resulted in three scholarly papers: the first presenting a thermal model of material removal on the cathode, the second presenting a thermal model for the erosion occurring on the anode and the third introducing a model describing the plasma channel formed during the passage of the discharge current through the dielectric liquid. Validation of these models is supported by experimental data provided by AGIE.

These models give the most authoritative support for the claim that EDM is a thermal process, removing material from the two electrodes because of melting or vaporization, along with pressure dynamics established in the spark-gap by the collapsing of the plasma channel. However, for small discharge energies the models are inadequate to explain the experimental data. All these models hinge on a number of assumptions from such disparate research areas as submarine explosions, discharges in gases, and failure of transformers, so it is not surprising that alternative models have been proposed more recently in the literature trying to explain the EDM process.

Among these, the model from Singh and Ghosh reconnects the removal of material from the electrode to the presence of an electrical force on the surface of the electrode that could mechanically remove material and create the craters. This would be possible because the material on the surface has altered mechanical properties due to an increased temperature caused by the passage of electric current. The authors' simulations showed how they might explain EDM better than a thermal model (melting or evaporation), especially for small discharge energies, which are typically used in μ-EDM and in finishing operations.

Given the many available models, it appears that the material removal mechanism in EDM is not yet well understood and that further investigation is necessary to clarify it, especially considering the lack of experimental scientific evidence to build and validate the current EDM models. This explains an increased current research effort in related experimental techniques.

In this conclusion, there are following major factors are achieved during machining operations:
 Resulting foremost conclusions can be stated from review of work in this area that EDM performance is generally evaluated on the basis of TWR, MRR, Ra and hardness.
 In material removal rate (MRR) from all selected parameters, spark current (I) is the most significant input factor affecting the machining of workpiece.
 The performance is affected by discharge current, pulse on time, pulse off time, duty cycle, voltage for EDM.
 For tool wear rate (TWR) from the all selected parameters, spark current (I) is the most significant input factor affecting the machining of workpiece followed by spark time and voltage.
 Innovative technology in the EDM is unceasingly progressing to make this procedure further appropriate for the Machining. In the field of manufacturing additional attention is on the optimization of the method by dropping the number of Electrode.

.

Types

Sinker EDM

Sinker EDM, also called ram EDM, cavity type EDM or volume EDM, consists of an electrode and workpiece submerged in an insulating liquid such as, more typically, oil or, less frequently, other dielectric fluids. The electrode and workpiece are connected to a suitable power supply. The power supply generates an electrical potential between the two parts. As the electrode approaches the workpiece, dielectric breakdown occurs in the fluid, forming a plasma channel, and a small spark jumps.

These sparks usually strike one at a time, because it is very unlikely that different locations in the inter-electrode space have the identical local electrical characteristics which would enable a spark to occur simultaneously in all such locations. These sparks happen in huge numbers at seemingly random locations between the electrode and the workpiece. As the base metal is eroded, and the spark gap subsequently increased, the electrode is lowered automatically by the machine so that the process can continue uninterrupted.  Several hundred thousand sparks occur per second, with the actual duty cycle carefully controlled by the setup parameters. These controlling cycles are sometimes known as "on time" and "off time", which are more formally defined in the literature.

The on time setting determines the length or duration of the spark. Hence, a longer on time produces a deeper cavity from each spark, creating a rougher finish on the workpiece. The reverse is true for a shorter on time. Off time is the period of time between sparks. Although not directly affecting the machining of the part, the off time allows the flushing of dielectric fluid through a nozzle to clean out the eroded debris. Insufficient debris removal can cause repeated strikes in the same location which can lead to a short circuit. Modern controllers monitor the characteristics of the arcs and can alter parameters in microseconds to compensate. The typical part geometry is a complex 3D shape, often with small or odd shaped angles.  Vertical, orbital, vectorial, directional, helical, conical, rotational, spin and indexing machining cycles are also used.

Wire EDM

In wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM), also known as wire-cut EDM and wire cutting, a thin single-strand metal wire, usually brass, is fed through the workpiece, submerged in a tank of dielectric fluid, typically deionized water. Wire-cut EDM is typically used to cut plates as thick as 300mm and to make punches, tools, and dies from hard metals that are difficult to machine with other methods.
The wire, which is constantly fed from a spool, is held between upper and lower diamond guides which is centered in a water nozzle head. The guides, usually CNC-controlled, move in the x–y plane. On most machines, the upper guide can also move independently in the z–u–v axis, giving rise to the ability to cut tapered and transitioning shapes (circle on the bottom, square at the top for example). The upper guide can control axis movements in the GCode standard, x–y–u–v–i–j–k–l–.  This allows the wire-cut EDM to be programmed to cut very intricate and delicate shapes.
The upper and lower diamond guides are usually accurate to , and can have a cutting path or kerf as small as  using Ø  wire, though the average cutting kerf that achieves the best economic cost and machining time is  using Ø  brass wire. The reason that the cutting width is greater than the width of the wire is because sparking  occurs from the sides of the wire to the work piece, causing erosion. This "overcut" is necessary, for many applications it is adequately predictable and therefore can be compensated for (for instance in micro-EDM this is not often the case). Spools of wire are long — an 8 kg spool of 0.25 mm wire is just over 19 kilometers in length. Wire diameter can be as small as  and the geometry precision is not far from ± .
The wire-cut process uses water as its dielectric fluid, controlling its resistivity and other electrical properties with filters and PID controlled de-ionizer units. The water flushes the cut debris away from the cutting zone. Flushing is an important  factor in determining the maximum feed rate for a given material thickness.
Along with tighter tolerances, multi axis EDM wire-cutting machining centers have added features such as multi heads for cutting two parts at the same time, controls for preventing wire breakage, automatic self-threading features in case of wire breakage, and programmable machining strategies to optimize the operation.
Wire-cutting EDM is commonly used when low residual stresses are desired, because it does not require high cutting forces for removal of material. If the energy/power per pulse is relatively low (as in finishing operations), little change in the mechanical properties of a material is expected due to these low residual stresses, although material that hasn't been stress-relieved can distort in the machining process.
The work piece may undergo a significant thermal cycle, its severity depending on the technological parameters used. Such thermal cycles may cause formation of a recast layer on the part and residual tensile stresses on the work piece. If machining takes place after heat treatment, dimensional accuracy will not be affected by heat treat distortion.

Fast hole drilling EDM

Fast hole drilling EDM was designed for producing fast, accurate, small, and deep holes. It is conceptually akin to sinker EDM but the electrode is a rotating tube conveying a pressurized jet of dielectric fluid. It can make a hole an inch deep in about a minute and is a good way to machine holes in materials too hard for twist-drill machining. This EDM drilling type is used largely in the aerospace industry, producing cooling holes into aero blades and other components. It is also used to drill holes in industrial gas turbine blades, in molds and dies, and in bearings.

Applications

Prototype production
The EDM process is most widely used by the mold-making, tool, and die industries, but is becoming a common method of making prototype and production parts, especially in the aerospace, automobile and electronics industries in which production quantities are relatively low. In sinker EDM, a graphite, copper tungsten, or pure copper electrode is machined into the desired (negative) shape and fed into the workpiece on the end of a vertical ram.

Coinage die making

For the creation of dies for producing jewelry and badges, or blanking and piercing (through use of a pancake die) by the coinage (stamping) process, the positive master may be made from sterling silver, since (with appropriate machine settings) the master is  significantly eroded and is used only once. The resultant negative die is then hardened and used in a drop hammer to produce stamped flats from cutout sheet blanks of bronze, silver, or low proof gold alloy. For badges these flats may be further shaped to a curved surface by another die. This type of EDM is usually performed submerged in an oil-based dielectric. The finished object may be further refined by hard (glass) or soft (paint) enameling,  or electroplated with pure gold or nickel. Softer materials such as silver may be hand engraved as a refinement.

Small hole drilling

Small hole drilling EDM is used in a variety of applications.

On wire-cut EDM machines, small hole drilling EDM is used to make a through hole in a workpiece through which to thread the wire for the wire-cut EDM operation. A separate EDM head specifically for small hole drilling is mounted on a wire-cut machine and allows large hardened plates to have finished parts eroded from them as needed and without pre-drilling.

Small hole EDM is used to drill rows of holes into the leading and trailing edges of turbine blades used in jet engines. Gas flow through these small holes allows the engines to use higher temperatures than otherwise possible. The high-temperature, very hard, single crystal alloys employed in these blades makes conventional machining of these holes with high aspect ratio extremely difficult, if not impossible.

Small hole EDM is also used to create microscopic orifices for fuel system components, spinnerets for synthetic fibers such as rayon, and other applications.

There are also stand-alone small hole drilling EDM machines with an x–y axis also known as a super drill or hole popper that can machine blind or through holes. EDM drills bore holes with a long brass or copper tube electrode that rotates in a chuck with a constant flow of distilled or deionized water flowing through the electrode as a flushing agent and dielectric. The electrode tubes operate like the wire in wire-cut EDM machines, having a spark gap and wear rate. Some small-hole drilling EDMs are able to drill through 100 mm of soft or hardened steel in less than 10 seconds, averaging 50% to 80% wear rate. Holes of 0.3 mm to 6.1 mm can be achieved in this drilling operation. Brass electrodes are easier to machine but are not recommended for wire-cut operations due to eroded brass particles causing "brass on brass" wire breakage, therefore copper is recommended.

Metal disintegration machining
Several manufacturers produce EDM machines for the specific purpose of removing broken cutting tools and fasteners from work pieces.  In this application, the process is termed "metal disintegration machining" or MDM. The metal disintegration process removes only the center of the broken tool or fastener, leaving the hole intact and allowing a part to be reclaimed.

Closed loop manufacturing
Closed loop manufacturing can improve the accuracy and reduce the tool costs

Advantages and disadvantages
EDM is often compared to Electrochemical Machining.
Advantages of EDM include:
Ability to machine complex shapes that would otherwise be difficult to produce with conventional cutting tools.
Machining of extremely hard material to very close tolerances.
Very small work pieces can be machined where conventional cutting tools may damage the part from excess cutting tool pressure.
There is no direct contact between tool and work piece. Therefore, delicate sections and weak materials can be machined without perceivable distortion.
A good surface finish can be obtained; a very good surface may be obtained by redundant finishing paths.
Very fine holes can be attained.
Tapered holes may be produced.
Pipe or container internal contours and internal corners down to R .001".

Disadvantages of EDM include:
Difficulty finding expert machinists.
The slow rate of material removal.
Potential fire hazard associated with use of combustible oil based dielectrics.
The additional time and cost used for creating electrodes for ram/sinker EDM.
Reproducing sharp corners on the workpiece is difficult due to electrode wear.
Specific power consumption is very high.
Power consumption is high.
"Overcut" is formed.
Excessive tool wear occurs during machining.
Electrically non-conductive materials can be machined only with specific set-up of the process.

See also
 Electro chemical machining

References

Bibliography

External links
 New Arc Detection Technology for Highly Efficient Electro-Discharge Machining
 Engineering Design For Electrical Discharge Machining
  by Steve Mould (Apr 2023)

Electric arcs
Machining
Metallurgical processes
Articles containing video clips
Hole making

Electrical discharge machining


Randy Jenelle Givens  (born March 27, 1962) is an American former track and field athlete who competed in sprinting events. She set personal bests of 11.06 seconds for the 100-meter dash and 22.31 seconds for the 200-meter dash. Givens was a 200 m finalist at the 1984 Olympic Games and represented her country at the 1983 World Championships in Athletics. She was the 200 m gold medalist at the 1983 Pan American Games and returned to win a silver medal at the 1987 edition.

Givens established herself as a college athlete with the Florida State Seminoles and won four sprint titles (two individual, two relay) at the NCAA Women's Championships in 1984. She was also a multiple medalist at the 1983 Summer Universiade, taking 200 m and relay gold medals and a 100 m silver medal.

Early life and college
Born in Alexandria, Louisiana, she grew up in Amityville, New York and attended Amityville Memorial High School. She went on to attend Florida State University from 1980 to 1984 and competed for their Florida State Seminoles collegiate team. The team was very successful during the period which also included Olympic medalist sprinters Marita Payne and Michelle Finn. Givens' first competitions were in the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) conference, which was a women's counterpart to the then-male dominated National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). At the AIAW indoor championships in 1981 she made the 300-meter dash final then won her first title, anchoring the Seminoles to victory in the 4×200-meter relay. She repeated that feat in the 4×100-meter relay at the AIAW outdoor meet, where she also placed third in the 200-meter dash. The following year she came third in the 300 m indoors and anchored the team to the runner-up spot in the 880-yard relay.

NCAA track competition for women was instituted in 1982 and Givens competed at the NCAA Women's Division I Outdoor Track and Field Championships. There she placed third in the 200 m, seventh in the 100-meter dash, and was a member of both the second-placed 4×100-meter and 4×400-meter relay teams. This performance helped the Florida State Seminoles track and field team to third place in the college rankings at the championship. She also won the collegiate 100 m at the Penn Relays that season. At the 1983 NCAA Championships she was again third in the 200 m, improved one place to sixth in the 100 m, and claimed both relay titles, resulting in a runner-up team finish for the Seminoles behind the UCLA Bruins.

The peak of her collegiate track career came at the 1984 NCAA Division I Outdoor Track and Field Championships. She achieved a sprint quadruple by winning the 100 m, 200 m, 4 × 100 m relay and mile relay titles. The Florida State women comfortably won their first NCAA title, over twenty points ahead of the Tennessee Volunteers. Givens was that year's Broderick Award (now the Honda Sports Award) winner in the track and field section.

During her time at Florida State she set school records in the 100 m (11.06 seconds) and 200 m (22.31), as well as the indoor 300-yard dash and 300-meter dash. As of 2015, all the latter three times remain the school records for Florida State. She also set five records at the Penn relays, in the 100 m and both relays. She was inducted into the Florida State Athletic Hall of Fame in 1989.

During her post-collegiate career she was a member of the Puma Track Club.

National and international career
Givens was a frequent finalist at the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships, coming fifth in the 200 m in 1980 and 1981, then reaching her first national podium in 1982 with a third-place finish. At the 1983 USA Championships she ran a lifetime best of 22.31 seconds to place fourth in the 200 m and was also fifth over 100 m. At the 1984 United States Olympic Trials she came third in the 200 m, earning Olympic selection, and was again ranked fifth over 100 m. After missing the 1985 season, she had her highest national placing at the 1986 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships, taking second place to Pam Marshall. In the last national final of her career, she came eighth over 200 m in 1987.

Givens' international career overlapped with her time at college. She competed at the highest level of student sport at the 1983 Summer Universiade and came away with a gold medal in the 200 m (ahead of schoolmate Marita Payne), becoming the first American to win that title. She was also silver medalist behind Beverly Kinch in the 100 m, and claimed a second gold medal in the 4×100 m relay.

After a strong performance at the national championships she was chosen for the inaugural 1983 World Championships in Athletics. Her time of 23.01 seconds to win her heat was briefly the championship record. Givens reached the semi-finals of the 200 metres at the World Championships in Athletics and ranked 13th overall. She was also part of the relay team at the meet, but the American women did not perform to their usual high standard and were eliminated in the first round, one hundredth of a second behind Canada. The 1983 Pan American Games followed shortly after that same month and Givens won the 200 m title, succeeding Evelyn Ashford, and also shared in the 4×100 m relay gold medals with Jackie Washington, Alice Jackson and college teammate Brenda Cliette.

A third-place finish at the Olympic Trials earned her the right to compete at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics. There she steadily improved through the Olympic 200 m rounds and placed sixth in the final with a time of 22.36 seconds – the second-fastest of her career.

After graduating from Florida State, Givens appeared in two further major international competitions. At the 1986 Goodwill Games she came fifth over 200 m and was a 4×100 m relay gold medalist alongside Michelle Finn, Diane Williams and Evelyn Ashford. She returned to defend her 200 m title at the 1987 Pan American Games held in Indianapolis, but was beaten into second place by her compatriot Gwen Torrence.

Personal records
100-meter dash – 11.06 seconds (1984)
200-meter dash – 22.31 seconds (1983)

National titles
NCAA Women's Division I Outdoor Track and Field Championships
100-meter dash: 1984
200-meter dash: 1984
4×100-meter dash: 1983, 1984
4×400-meter/mile relay: 1983, 1984

International competitions

References

External links

Living people
1962 births
People from Alexandria, Louisiana
People from Amityville, New York
Sportspeople from Suffolk County, New York
Track and field athletes from Louisiana
Track and field athletes from New York (state)
American female sprinters
African-American female track and field athletes
Olympic track and field athletes for the United States
Athletes (track and field) at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Pan American Games gold medalists for the United States
Pan American Games medalists in athletics (track and field)
Athletes (track and field) at the 1983 Pan American Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 1987 Pan American Games
World Athletics Championships athletes for the United States
Florida State Seminoles women's track and field athletes
Pan American Games silver medalists for the United States
Universiade medalists in athletics (track and field)
Goodwill Games medalists in athletics
FISU World University Games gold medalists for the United States
Universiade silver medalists for the United States
Medalists at the 1983 Summer Universiade
Competitors at the 1986 Goodwill Games
Medalists at the 1983 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 1987 Pan American Games
Olympic female sprinters
21st-century African-American people
21st-century African-American women
20th-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American people

Randy Givens


Thomas Forrest Kelly (born 1943) is an American musicologist, musician, and scholar. He is the Morton B. Knafel Professor of Music at Harvard University. His most recent books include: The Role of the Scroll (2019), Capturing Music: The Story of Notation (2014), and Music Then and Now (2012).

Career

Thomas Forrest Kelly was born in Greensboro, North Carolina. He attended Groton School, and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (A. B. 1964). Two years in France on a Fulbright grant allowed him to study organ with Jean Langlais privately and at the Schola Cantorum de Paris ( 1966), and the Royal Academy of Music (LRAM 1964). His graduate study was at Harvard University (A. M. 1970, PhD 1973).

Kelly is Morton B. Knafel Professor of Music at Harvard University, where he served as Chair of the Music Department from 1999 to 2004. In 2005 he was named a Harvard College Professor in recognition of his teaching of undergraduates. Before coming to Harvard he taught at Oberlin Conservatory (where he was the director of the program in Historical Performance and served as acting Dean of the Conservatory); he taught at the Five College Consortium in Massachusetts (Amherst, Smith, Mount Holyoke, Hampshire Colleges and the University of Massachusetts), where he was the founding director of the Five College Early Music Program. From 1972 to 1979 he taught at Wellesley College. He was a visiting scholar at King's College, Cambridge (1976–77) and a  at the École pratique des hautes études, Paris (1998).

Honors

Kelly is a Chevalier of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres of the French Republic, 2010. He is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Academy in Rome, and the Medieval Academy of America. He has held awards from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the American Council of Learned Societies (twice). His book The Beneventan Chant (Cambridge, 1989) was awarded the Otto Kinkeldey Award of the American Musicological Society for the most distinguished work of musicological scholarship of 1989. He received a Distinguished Alumnus Award from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 2005. Kelly also is an honorary citizen of the city of Benevento (Italy).

Musical activities

In addition to the performance and conducting connected with his teaching, Kelly was the Artistic Director of the Castle Hill Festival (Massachusetts, 1973–1983); the Director of the International Early Dance and Music Institute (1982–1984), and the Music Director of the Cambridge Society for Early Music (1977–1978).

Publications

Kelly has two principal areas of interest: medieval music and culture, and the performance of music of the past (often called Early Music or Historical Performance). He is a frequent lecturer and broadcaster. He has given regular series of talks for the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the New York Philharmonic, the Smithsonian Institution, the Los Angeles Philharmonic, and others. He has had a regular radio show, and well as many guest appearances.

Books for general readers
 The Role of the Scroll: An Illustrated Introduction to Scrolls in the Middle Ages (New York: W. W. Norton, 2019.)
 Capturing Music. The Story of Notation (New York: W. W. Norton, 2014.)
 First Nights: Five Musical Premieres (Yale University Press, 2000.)
 First Nights at the Opera (Yale University Press, 2004; paperback edition 2006.)
 Early Music: A Very Short Introduction. (Oxford University Press, 2011. German edition 2014.)
 Music Then and Now. (New York: W. W. Norton, 2012.)

Scholarly books
The Beneventan Chant (Cambridge University Press, 1989)
 Awarded the Otto Kinkeldey Prize of the American Musicological Society. Paperback edition 2009; Italian translation in press.
The Exultet in Southern Italy (Oxford University Press, New York, 1996)
The Ordinal of Montecassino and Benevento: Breviarium sive ordo officiorum, 11th century (Spicilegium Friburgense 45, Freiburg (Switzerland), Presses Universitaires, 2008)
Les témoins manuscrits du chant bénéventain: le répertoire subsistant de l'ancienne liturgie de l'Italie du sud reproduit d'après tous les témoins manuscrits connus (Paléographie musicale, Volume XXI. Solesmes: Abbaye Saint-Pierre, 1992.)
The Practice of Medieval Music. (Ashgate Variorum series, 2010. First of two volumes of reprints.)
The Sources of Benevantan Chant. (Ashgate Variorum series, 2011. Second of two volumes of reprints.)

Books edited by Kelly
 The Cambridge History of Medieval Music (general editor with Mark Everist): in preparation, Cambridge University Press.
Ambrosiana at Harvard. Co-edited with Matthew Mugmon. (Harvard University Press, 2010.)
The Century of Bach and Mozart: Perspectives on Historiography, Composition, Theory, and Performance, in Honor of Christoph Wolff Co-edited with Sean Gallagher. (Harvard University Department of Music, 2009, paperback edition 2009.)
Music in Medieval Europe (Ashgate, 2009.)
 A 7-volume reference and reprint series of which Kelly is general editor and editor for the two volumes below.
Oral and Written Transmission in Chant. (Ashgate 2009)
Chant and its Origins (Ashgate 2009).
La Cathédrale de Bénévent, sous la direction de Thomas Forrest Kelly, Esthétiques et Rituels des Cathédrales d'Europe (Ghent and Amsterdam: Ludion, 1999.)
 Kelly edited the volume and contributed the introduction and one chapter.
Plainsong in the Age of Polyphony. Essays edited and with an introduction by Thomas Forrest Kelly. (Cambridge University Press, 1992; paperback edition 2009.)

Kelly has also published more than 50 scholarly articles.

External links
Thomas Forrest Kelly's Website
Harvard Department of Music Website – Thomas Forrest Kelly

References

American musicologists
1943 births
Living people
Musicians from Greensboro, North Carolina
Harvard University alumni
Harvard University faculty
Chevaliers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
Groton School alumni
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill alumni

Thomas Forrest Kelly