An expiration date or expiry date is a previously determined date after which something should no longer be used, either by operation of law or by exceeding the anticipated shelf life for perishable goods. Expiration dates are applied to selected food products and to some other manufactured products like infant car seats where the age of the product may impact its safe use.

The legal definition and usage of terms will vary between countries and products.
Different terms may be used for products that tend to spoil and those that tend to be shelf-stable.
The term Use by is often applied to products such as milk and meat that are more likely to spoil and can become dangerous to those eating them.  Such products should not be consumed past the date shown.
The term Best before is often applied to products that may deteriorate slightly in quality, but are unlikely to become dangerous as a result, such as dried foods. Such products can be eaten after their Best before date at the discretion of the consumer.
Storage and handling conditions will affect whether and when an item will spoil, so there is inherent variability in dating.

A time temperature indicator is a sensing label or device that indicates whether a product has been exposed to dangerously high or low temperatures. These indicators are often used for determining whether a product is spoiled due to external factors even if it is before the expiration date.

Arbitrary expiration dates are also commonly applied by companies to product coupons, promotional offers and credit cards. In these contexts, the expiration date is chosen for business reasons or to provide some security function rather than any product safety concern.
Expiration date is often abbreviated EXP or ED.

Terms

Use by

Generally, foods that have a use by date written on the packaging should not be eaten after the specified date. This term is generally applied to foods that may go bad due to physical instability,  chemical spoilage, bacterial spoilage, pathogenic spoilage, or other factors that can make the food injurious to health. Milk, meat, fish and eggs are all subject to spoilage. Such foods should be thrown away if past their use by date or if showing signs of deterioration such as changes in smell or color.   Fruits, vegetables, breads and other baked goods can also spoil, but may be less likely to become dangerous.  It is important to follow storage and preparation instructions carefully for perishable foods.  Some product may require refrigeration.  Others may need to be cooked to particular temperatures.

Most U.S. expiration dates are used as guidelines based on normal and expected handling and exposure to temperature. Use prior to the expiration date does not guarantee the safety of a food or drug, and a product is not necessarily dangerous or ineffective after the expiration date.  According to the United States Department of Agriculture, "canned foods are safe indefinitely as long as they are not exposed to freezing temperatures, or temperatures above 90 °F (32.2 °C). If the cans look okay, they are safe to use. Discard cans that are dented, rusted, or swollen. High-acid canned foods (tomatoes, fruits) will keep their best quality for 12 to 18 months; low-acid canned foods (meats, vegetables) for 2 to 5 years". .

Expiration dates for infant formula should not be ignored. If formula is stored too long, it may lose its nutritional value.

The expiration date of pharmaceuticals specifies the date the manufacturer guarantees the full potency and safety of a drug. Most medications continue to be effective and safe for a time after the expiration date. A rare exception is a case of renal tubular acidosis purportedly caused by expired tetracycline. A study conducted by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration covered over 100 drugs, prescription and over-the-counter. The study showed that about 90% of them were safe and effective as long as 15 years past their expiration dates. Joel Davis, a former FDA expiration-date compliance chief, said that with a handful of exceptions - notably nitroglycerin, insulin and some liquid antibiotics - most expired drugs are probably effective.

Best before

Best before or best by dates appear on a wide range of frozen, dried, tinned and other foods. These dates are advisory and refer to the quality of the product, in contrast with use by dates, which may indicate that the product may no longer be safe to consume after the specified date. Food kept after the best before date will not necessarily be harmful, but may begin to lose its optimum flavour and texture.

Eggs can be a special case, since they may contain salmonella which multiplies over time; they should therefore be eaten before the best before date.  In Britain, this is 21 days from when they were laid. In the USA, this is a maximum of 45 days after the eggs are packed.  Quality of the eggs will degrade over time, due to a variety of factors.  As a result, some prefer to use fresher eggs for eating and eggs a few days old for cooking.

Sometimes the packaging process involves using pre-printed labels, making it impractical to write the best before date in a clearly visible location. In this case, wording like best before see bottom or best before see lid might be printed on the label and the date marked in a different location as indicated.

Best if used by
Best if used by/before is a date which is commonly found on labels of meat, egg, or poultry products. The stated date specifies how long the product will be of top quality or taste. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) reinforces a push by the food industry to make Best if used by the normal wording to show the date when a product will keep its best quality until.

Although United States federal law does not require product food dating, the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) oversees meat, egg, and poultry products where dates are voluntarily put on in a genuine way to follow the rules of the FSIS.

Open dating
Open dating is the use of a date stamped on the package of a food product to help determine how long to display the product for sale. This benefits the consumer by ensuring that the product is of best quality when sold. An open date does not supersede a use-by date, if shown, which should still be followed.

Bathroom products and toiletries usually state a time in months from the date the product is opened, by which they should be used. This is often indicated by a graphic of an open tub, with the number of months written inside (e.g., "12M" means use the product within 12 months of opening). Similarly, some food products say "eat within X days of opening".

Sell by
Sell by date is a less ambiguous term for what is often referred to as an "expiration date". Most food is still edible after the expiration date. A product that has passed its shelf life might still be safe, but quality is no longer guaranteed. In most food stores, waste is minimized by using stock rotation, which involves moving products with the earliest sell by date from the warehouse to the sales area, and then to the front of the shelf, so that most shoppers will pick them up first and thus they are likely to be sold before the end of their shelf life. This is important, as consumers enjoy fresher goods, and furthermore some stores can be fined for selling out of date products; most if not all would have to mark such products down as wasted, resulting in a financial loss.

Food waste
According to the UK Waste & Resources Action Programme (WRAP), 33% of all food produced is wasted along the cold chain or by the consumer.  At the same time, a large number of people get sick every year due to spoiled food. According to the WHO and CDC, every year in the USA there are 76 million foodborne illnesses, leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths.

According to former UK minister Hilary Benn, the use by date and sell-by dates are old technologies that are outdated and should be replaced by other solutions or disposed of altogether. The UK government's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs revised guidance in 2011 to exclude the use of sell-by dates. The guidance was prepared in consultation with the food industry, consumer groups, regulators, and Waste & Resources Action Programme (WRAP). It aims to reduce the annual £12bn of wasted supermarket food.

Due to confusion caused by the many types of expiration date labels, as much as 20% of unspoiled food is thrown out by households in developed countries.

Voluntary industry guidelines announced in 2017 from the Grocery Manufacturers Association and the Food Marketing Institute recommend using only "best if used by" or "use by", to avoid confusion that leads to food waste.  In 2019, the Food and Drug Administration urged food manufacturers to adopt the voluntary standards.

The removal of date-labeling and terms such as best if used by, expired by, and use by could potentially reduce food waste from certain food products and groups.

Regulation

Canada

The Canadian Food Inspection Agency produces a  Guide to Food Labelling and Advertising which sets out a "Durable Life Date". The authority for producing the guide comes from the Food and Drugs Act. The guide sets out what items must be labelled and the format of the date. The month and day must be included, and the year if necessary. The format must be year/month/day (with 2- or 4-digit year).

An expiration date on food differs from a best-before date. According to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency "Expiration dates are required only on certain foods that have strict compositional and nutritional specifications which might not be met after the expiration date."

In Canada expiration dates must be used on the following food items (list and comments copied from
CFIA website):

formulated liquid diets (nutritionally complete diets for people using oral or tube feeding methods)
foods represented for use in a very low-energy diet (foods sold only by a pharmacist and only with a written order from a physician)
meal replacements (formulated food that, by itself, can replace one or more daily meals)
nutritional supplements (food sold or represented as a supplement to a diet that may be inadequate in energy and essential nutrients)
human milk substitutes (infant formula)

The concern is that after the expiration date has passed, the food may not have the same nutrient content as specified on the packaging and for the listed regulated products, the nutritional content is quite important. The CFIA recommends that food should be discarded and should not be bought, sold or eaten beyond the stated expiration date.  This contrasts with a best before date which is an indication of how long properly stored prepackaged food is expected to retain its "freshness, taste, nutritional value, or any other qualities claimed by the manufacturer". Passing a best before date is not necessarily a reason to discard the food. "Sell by" and "manufactured on" dates are related concepts that may guide the consumer.

Non-food items may also carry an expiration date. For example, in Canada, all children are required to be secured in an infant car seat while in a motor vehicle that is in motion. Users are required by law to follow manufacturer's directions. There is no specific law that requires an expiration date, but all Transport Canada approved car seats sold in Canada carry a manufacturer applied expiration date that ranges between 6 and 9 years from date of manufacture. The rationale is that car seats are subjected to heat, cold, sun exposure, abuse by the children, and long term storage between children, all of which can degrade the structure and function of the car seat and fail in a crash. Further, beyond the expiration date the manufacturer will no longer be monitoring the safety of the seat through testing. Transport Canada advises to destroy an expired car seat and dispose of it at a landfill or recycling facility, and never to give an expired seat to someone else or to charity.

European Union
In the EU food quality dates are governed by Regulation (EU) 1169/2011, "On the Provision of Food Information to Consumers".

As of 2020, the European Food Safety Authority outlined a risk-based approach for food business operators (FBO) to use in deciding the type of date marking to be used on different types of products, (i.e. 'best before' date or 'use by' date), determining a desirable shelf-life (i.e. time) and identifying relevant content to be put on food labels to ensure food safety.

Germany
In Germany, practices differentiate between the "Mindesthaltbarkeitsdatum" (MHD), roughly minimum shelf-life and "Verbrauchsdatum", which is more in line with the common expiry date. Products that spoil quickly, such as minced meat, have to be given a Verbrauchsdatum and are barred from sale upon expiry. Other products are given Mindesthaltbarkeitsdatum, which is set by the individual producers of said product and do not bar the product from being sold past the date determined. Products with an expired MHD may be sold if the seller is satisfied that the goods are in perfect condition. Accordingly, it follows that the customer is not entitled to compensation if he unintentionally acquires a product with an expired shelf life, provided that the product can still be regarded as faultless. Neither the MHD nor the Verbrauchsdatum provide legal rights if a product is no longer fit for consumption before the indicated date and the manufacturer can prove the credibility of his claims.

The MHD has been criticized for possibly causing food waste. For example, the then Minister Christian Schmidt complained that many still edible foods with an expired MHD would be thrown away by consumers who would misunderstand the MHD as an expiration date.

Hong Kong
In Hong Kong,  prepackaged food which from the microbiological point of view is highly perishable and is therefore likely after a short period to constitute an immediate danger to human health, are required to use the 'Use by' label instead of the 'Best before' label. Examples include pasteurised fresh milk,  packed egg and ham sandwiches, etc. Dates are usually presented in the DD MM YY (or YYYY) format.

United Kingdom

Until 1980 there was no legal requirement for food to be labelled with date information, although some retailers had long been using dates, often in coded form not intelligible to purchasers, to help with stock control.

Great Britain first introduced legislation in 1980 when the Food Labelling Regulations harmonized UK law with the 1979 EC Labelling Directive (79/112/EC), which required a 'date of minimum durability' – the 'best-before' date – but allowed member states to use their own terms, thus allowing the UK to use the sell-by date. When introduced, food could be sold after this date; it was information to help consumers, not a requirement. It later became illegal to sell food past its 'use-by' date.

Best practices include the labeling of foods with either a 'best before' or a 'use by' date so that consumers can help to ensure the safety of their food and lessen the amount of consumer food waste.
Dates must be in day/month or day/month/year format. Technical expertise should be hired for regular end-of-shelf-life safety and quality testing. Shelf life trials should be conducted using the same ingredients, equipment, procedures and manufacturing environment as will be used during  production.

United States
Sale of expired food products, per se, is lightly regulated in the US.  Some states restrict or forbid the sale of expired products, require expiration dates on all perishable products, or both, while other states do not. However, sale of contaminated food is generally illegal, and may result in product liability litigation if consumption of the food results in injury.

The Food and Drug Administration in the United States notes that "[a] principle of U.S. food law is that foods in U.S. commerce must be wholesome and fit for consumption". However, with the exception of infant formula, the United States government does not require or specify uniform terminology for use on food labels, the use of date labeling is entirely at the discretion of the manufacturer, and dates on labels do not indicate product safety. U.S. law does state that labels should be truthful and not misleading. Specific foods may be subject to regulations from the Food Safety and Inspection Service.

After losing a lawsuit, pharmacy chain CVS implemented a system that causes its registers to recognize expired products and avert their sale.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), which regulates fresh poultry and meats, only requires labeling of the date when poultry is packed. However, many manufacturers also voluntarily add sell-by or use-by dates.

Beer

Freshness date
A freshness date is the date used in the American brewing industry to indicate either the date the beer was bottled or the date before which the beer should be consumed.

Beer is perishable. It can be affected by light, air, or the action of bacteria.  Although beer is not legally mandated in the United States to have a shelf life, freshness dates serve much the same purpose and are used as a marketing tool.

Beginnings of freshness dating
General Brewing Company of San Francisco marketed their Lucky Lager Beer as "Age Dated" as early as late 1935. They stamped a date on each can lid to indicate that the beer was brewed before that date. This was not to ensure that the beer was "fresh" but to ensure that it had been aged properly.  So many breweries had rushed beer to market before it was ready when Prohibition ended, that customers were wary of getting "green" beer. The Boston Beer Company, maker of Samuel Adams, was among the first contemporary brewers to start adding freshness dates to their product line in 1985.  For ten years there was a slow growth in  brewers adding freshness dates to their beer.  The practice grew in popularity after the Anheuser-Busch company's "Born-On dates" starting in 1996. Many other brewers have started adding freshness dates to their products, but there is no standard for what the date means.  For some companies, the date on the bottle or can will be the date that the beer was bottled; others have the date by which the beer should be consumed.

Further reading
 Europe

 United States
    Includes a list of the many terms used in the United States food industry.
 Labuza, T. P., Szybist, L.,  Open dating of Foods, Food and Nutrition Press, 2001; other edition: Wiley-Blackwell, 2004,

References

Food safety
Drug safety

Product safety

Expiration date


Vilnius County () is the largest of the 10 counties of Lithuania, located in the east of the country around the city Vilnius and is also known as Capital Region () by the statistics department and Eurostat. On 1 July 2010, the county administration was abolished, and since that date, Vilnius County remains as the territorial and statistical unit.

History

Until the Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in late 18th century the area belonged to the Vilnius Voivodship and Trakai Voivodship of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In the Russian Empire it belonged to the Northwestern Krai and approximately corresponded to its Vilna Governorate (as of 1843). During World War I, following the German offensive of 1915, it was occupied by the German army. After the war, some parts of the area was ruled by local Polish self-government established after the German Ober-Ost army withdrew from the area.

Following the start of the Polish-Bolshevik War in 1919, it was occupied by the Red Army, which was pushed back by the Polish Army. In 1920, it was again occupied by the Red Army, but the Soviets officially recognized the sovereignty of the Lithuanian Republic over the city immediately after defeat during Battle of Warsaw. During their retreat, the Bolsheviks passed the sovereignty over the area to Lithuania. The Polish commander Józef Piłsudski ordered his subordinate general Lucjan Żeligowski to "rebel" his Lithuanian-Belarusian division and capture the city of Vilnius, without declaring war on Lithuania. The area of the future Vilnius County was seized by the Polish forces without significant opposition from Lithuanian forces and Gen. Żeligowski created a short-lived state called the Republic of Central Lithuania. Following the elections held there in 1922 the state was incorporated into Poland (see Vilnius region, Central Lithuania).

As a result of the Nazi-Soviet Alliance and the Polish Defensive War of 1939, the area was captured by the Soviet Union, which transferred parts of what is now Vilnius County and Utena County to Lithuania, only to annex it the following year. In 1941, it was conquered by the Nazi Germany. During World War II, the area saw formation of many resistance units, most notably the Polish Home Army and, after 1943, Soviet partisans. After the war, Vilniaus Apskritis existed as a relic of the pre-war independent state in Lithuanian SSR between 1944 and 1950. In this period, a significant part of its population moved to Poland during the so-called repatriation.

After 1990, when Lithuania became independent, Vilnius county was re-established differently in 1994. This entity has different boundaries than any previous entity and is not directly related to previous entities in this area. The mission of the county is different as well: its primary goal (as in that of Lithuania's other counties) is to oversee that municipalities in its area follow the laws of Lithuania.

Municipalities
The county is subdivided into six district municipalities, one municipality and one city municipality:

Demographics

According to the 2021 census, the county population was 810,797 people, of which:
 Lithuanians – 63.07% (511,426)
 Poles – 21.08% (170,919)
 Russians – 8.65% (70,170)
 Belarusians – 2.59% (21,055)
 Ukrainians – 0.76% (6,170)
 Others / did not specify – 3.82% (31,048)

Economy
The Nominal GDP per capita of Vilnius County was about €29,800 , making it the richest county in Lithuania and second in Baltic States. As of 2022 the average monthly gross wage in Vilnius County reached €2,002. Vilnius County accounts for almost half of Lithuania's gross domestic product.

References

External links
Social and demographic characteristics of Vilnius County
Economy of Vilnius County
Environment of Vilnius County

Counties of Lithuania

Vilnius County


Henri Fauconnier (26 February 1879  – 14 April 1973) was a French writer, known mainly for his novel Malaisie, which won the Prix Goncourt in 1930. He was part of the Groupe de Barbezieux.

Family
Fauconnier was born at the Villa Musset Barbezieux (Charente), the son of Charles, a brandy dealer who operated on his property near Cru Chevanceaux, and Melanie, who lived in Limoges, where she was the best friend of Anna Haviland of Haviland porcelain. Haviland had arranged the 1874 marriage between the pair after she had married George Boutelleau, Barbezilien poet, playwright and novelist (his family produced and promoted the brandy butter Charente). Fauconnier was the third of six children. His siblings included Genevieve Fauconnier (1886–1969), herself an award-winning writer who received the Prix Femina in 1933. He later sired his own son, Bernard.

Biography

In Barbezieux
In a cultured, artistic Catholic family of six children, Fauconnier lived very freely with his siblings, cousins and friends in the garden and cellars of Musset. His friend Jacques Boutelleau (who would later be known under the pen name Jacques Chardonne following the publication of The Epithalame in 1921) came every day. They published a newspaper, and dramas were played on the castle square with text and music written by Fauconnier. In 1901, Fauconnier's father died following a long illness, and Fauconnier left Bordeaux for England, where he taught French music for two years in the small college of Wells House. There, a journal article drew his attention, suggesting there was a fortune to make in Borneo by planting sago. The idea took shape: if he wanted to write, he must first become a man of leisure. The easiest way to become a man of leisure would be to first make a fortune.

Malaysia
He left Marseille on 10 March 1905. On a stopover in Singapore, a month later, he decided to leave for the Borneo rubber plantations of Malaysia, which seemed more promising. He got an internship at his expense to a planter Klang near Kuala Lumpur so that he could learn the craft and the two essential languages, Malay and Tamil. In August, he discovered the location where he would eventually open his own plantation, in fertile land located on the distant hills beyond the Selangor River. He obtained a grant of  and settled in Rantau Panjang in early 1906, when he built his first "Maison des Palmes". He loved all people, places, landscapes, hard work, the climate, life and 'la vie'. His mother mobilizes funds for this rich uncle to "give" her younger sisters. Thanks to these 20,000 francs, and the funds that his friend Jacques puts into his business, he was able to begin planting. In 1908, he founded at Brussels the "Plantation Fauconnier & Posth", with the assistance of the banker Adrian Hallet. He converted all he had in stocks and founder shares. Some friends joined the Charente to help expand its plantations. His grew wealthy with a doubling in the price of rubber in two years and the tripling of the value of its shares in the single year 1910. He was then chief of the Hallet plantation group, in the Far East (Sumatra, Java, Indochina and Malaysia). In 1911, on an idea of Hallet, he sent a few bags of seeds of palm oil (Elaeis guineensis) from Sumatra to Malaysia which would grow into the vast plantations of Malaysia. He established Tennamaram near Rantau Panjang, the first plantation of palm oil from Malaysia. After several visits to Malaysia, his family joined him there to settle. But, he felt that a page in his life had turned: material success was assured, and it had only been a means to an end. Keeping an eye on the plantation, he arranged to delegate his powers so that he might finally devote himself to writing.

World War I and marriage
But nobody expected World War I. Fauconnier married Madeleine Meslier, the sister of a planter who was a childhood friend of Barbezieux, but refused the French Consul's request that he remain where he was to ensure the continued production of rubber. Instead, he enlisted with the other French men at the plantation. After a few months in a depot of Périgueux (a place of prevailing squalor, stupidity, and military negligence), he arrived where he would remain as second class in most major battles except for two periods: first, for training officer school at Mourmelon-le-Grand in late 1916, and, second, for leave in Malaysia after his marriage in Charente in March 1917. From there he left for a few months to Indochina with the Annamese sharpshooters to attend Auguste Chevallier. In autumn 1917, he was reclaimed by France as an interpreter for the British army. He left his wife in Saigon, pregnant and sick. (When she returned with her daughter in April 1918, the ship which carried them in the Mediterranean was torpedoed.) Throughout the war, he cursed the Europeans and dreamed of being in Malaysia. The letters he wrote his wife in this period were published in 1998 as Letters to Madeleine, 1914-1918.

In Tunisia
After he was discharged, he left his wife in Switzerland, near Chardonne, as she was threatened with tuberculosis. Then he left to return to the plantations, which needed his help to expand Hallet. Through 1928, he made several inspection trips to Malaysia and Indochina, bound first by a long rubber crisis. Then, to ensure a more stable income, he accepted a position as director of several companies of tropical plantations. Liking neither the city of Paris nor the climate of France, he settled in Rades, near Tunis, in 1925. This was, for him, a compromise of remoteness and climate between Malaysia and the Charente. He occupied "The Terrace", a large low house in Arabic style surrounded by a huge garden.

Malaisie and the Prix Goncourt
In 1931, Jean Paulhan offered to publish Fauconnier's book on Malaysia, enthusiastic about the chapter Fauconnier had displayed. Malaisie, published by Stock, proved very popular and highly respected. But the celebrity that attended on its publication and his winning of the Prix Goncourt did not change Fauconnier. He kept to his usual practices. Being a writer, was not a priority for him; he saw himself as a "man of letters", and his letters show all his correspondent qualities. But he did enjoy his correspondences with other writers, including John Amrouche, Georges Bernanos, Henri Bosco, Jean Cocteau, Colette, Lucie Delarue-Mardrus, Alfred Fabre-Luce, Paul Géraldy, André Gide, Jean Giono, Jean Guéhenno, A. Guibert, Henri de Keyserling, Roger Martin du Gard, Maurice Maeterlinck, Jean Paulhan, Romain Rolland, Jean Schlumberger, and Robert Stiller.

Fauconnier was not the only successful writer in his family; in 1933, the Prix Femina was awarded to his sister Genevieve for her best-selling novel Claude. When she received the reward, Fauconnier and Genevieve Fauconnier became the only brother and sister in France to have ever received the Prix Goncourt and Prix Femina awards.

Visions
Fauconnier had hated the Treaty of Versailles: he knew that Europe took the huge risk of repeating the vile war of 1914-18. He did not suffer unduly during the Depression of the 1930s because of his resources in Malaysia, but he was troubled deeply by the rise of Nazism, fascism in Italy, the conquest of Abyssinia, and the Spanish Civil War. In October 1938, he published anonymously a collection New Visions discussing some of his past life (it included "The Lady", "Christmas Malay", "Indian Dravidian", "Barbara", "The Asphodèles" and "Vision"). The following summer, fearing the ambitions of Benito Mussolini on Tunisia, he took his family from "the Terrace" to settle in Musset.

World War II and the last years
Life was not easy during World War II. His children grew up and, despite reservations, he repatriated to France. He was being gradually cut off from his resources in Belgium, England, Malaysia, and Indochina. He had neither the desire nor the courage to write, but preferred instead to listen to the B.B.C. The postwar period was also difficult, but in 1947 he agreed to be leader of the "Group of Federalists Writers" for the "United States of Europe". It was the hope of the group that, in reconciling the people of Europe, they might prevent its governments from claiming national missions.

In 1957, he was offered a trip to Malaysia for nostalgia's sake by a society of plantations, which had included the Socfin Rivaud Group. Afterwards, he settled into a quiet retirement during which he remained busy playing tennis and chess, gardening and swimming, dreaming of an opportunity to resume writing a sequel to Malaisie and continuing his correspondence. He divided his time between the Côte d'Azur, Paris (where his children and grandchildren lived), and the Charente.

In April 1973, Fauconnier died in Paris and was buried in Barbezieux. His only wish was that Musset be kept in the family.

Works
 Malasia Artes Gráficas Larra, 1931
 Visions Stock (Delamain et Boutelleau), 1938
 Lettres à Madeleine: 1914-1919, Stock, 1998,

English translations
 Malaisie, Translated by Eric Sutton, The Macmillan company, 1931
 The Soul of Malaya Translated by Eric Sutton E. Mathews and Marrot, 1931

References

External links

Sources
 Bernard Fauconnier, La fascinante existence d'Henri Fauconnier : Prix Goncourt 1930, préface Jean-Loup Avril, Editions G.D., Saint Malo, 2004.
 Annie David, interview de Bernard Fauconnier, son of Henri, Trente ans après la mort d'Henri Fauconnier, son fils Bernard évoque sa vie exotique et leurs relations houleuses... .
 Véronique Bonnet-Nora, La Maison des Palmes, 2003, documentaire de 50 minutes.

1879 births
1973 deaths
People from Barbezieux-Saint-Hilaire
20th-century French novelists
Writers from Nouvelle-Aquitaine
French male novelists
20th-century French male writers
Prix Goncourt winners

Henri Fauconnier


Juan Carlos Gumucio Quiroga (November 7, 1949 – February 25, 2002) was a Bolivian-born journalist and writer, and the second husband of Marie Colvin.

Career

Gumucio worked as a journalist for over 30 years, having started his career in his hometown, Cochabamba, as a crime reporter for Los Tiempos and Radio Centro. During the early 1970s, Gumucio was forced to leave his native Bolivia for Argentina following a military coup.  Due to his involvement with activism in left-wing politics, he was unable to return to Bolivia and moved to Washington where he worked for a period as a political attaché in the Bolivian embassy in the United States and as press secretary for the Organization of American States before joining the Associated Press news agency in New York as a reporter. He was later posted to Rome, Tehran and Beirut. When AP ordered its foreign staff to leave Lebanon, after its bureau chief Terry Anderson had been kidnapped, Juan Carlos joined The Times and afterwards the Spanish daily El País, as its Middle East correspondent.

Gumucio was one of the few Western journalists to remain in West Beirut after the hostage crisis reached its height. Most of the foreign press corps fled in 1986.

Robert Fisk would later describe Gumucio as "a big man with the energy of a hyperactive puppy dog and a deceptively mild, bland humour that concealed a dark understanding of his colleagues' weaknesses".

Personal life

Gumucio was the son of Azul Quiroga and architect René Gumucio, from an old-established and once affluent family. When Juan Carlos was three, his father, an architect, left to live in California. His mother Azul Quiroga later remarried into the aristocratic Patiño family (see Simón Iturri Patiño).

Gumucio was involved in left-wing politics in Bolivia and was forced to leave for Argentina following a military coup. He had a daughter, Mónica, with his first wife but was, due to his political involvement, deemed unsuitable and dangerous by his family-in-law. He was separated from his wife and child. He met third wife Agneta Ramberg, with whom he had his second daughter, in Beirut during the Lebanese Civil War, and his fourth wife, Marie Colvin, in Jerusalem in 1996.

In 1994, he went to Jerusalem, for El País. He was named Spain's journalist of the year in 1995. Gumucio, who was known for his risque sense of humor and relentless reporting, was able to smuggle himself into Kosovo, after foreign journalists were denied entry, by posing as a "visiting professor of sociology" who wished to "show solidarity with the Serb people". He was promptly whisked to Belgrade, where he calmly delivered a speech at the university. El Pais later moved him to London.

In late 2000, he returned to Cochabamba, where he became visiting Lecturer of Journalism at the university, before retiring to a village  away.

After many years of battling depression and alcoholism, Gumucio, 52, died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound  outside of Cochabamba, Bolivia, on February 25, 2002.

References

External links
 Juan Carlos Gumucio, por Robert Fisk y Alfonso Gumucio
 Obituary in The Independent newspaper on February 22, 2002 by Robert Fisk
 Associated Press Obituary

1949 births
2002 suicides
2002 deaths
Associated Press reporters
Bolivian journalists
Male journalists
Suicides by firearm in Bolivia
American war correspondents
20th-century journalists
People from Cochabamba
El País people
The Times journalists

Juan Carlos Gumucio


Paul Languedoc is an American audio engineer and luthier who is most closely associated with the rock band Phish.

Professional career
He was the soundman for rock group Phish prior to the band's breakup in 2004. As the band's chief sound engineer and house mixer, he recorded their double-CD A Live One, and all 20 volumes of the Live Phish Series. He also built guitars and basses for Trey Anastasio and Mike Gordon. A luthier by trade, he built his first guitar when he was 18 years old. He later spent four years working for Alan Stack at Time Guitars in Burlington, Vermont, and by the time he had joined Phish in 1986 at age 28, he had built hundreds of instruments. Since then, he has built only for Anastasio and Gordon, and his original designs have given Phish its own unique instrumental identity. Languedoc has a preference for European hardwoods of the types used for building cellos, specializing in inlay work in mother-of-pearl and abalone. Languedoc first worked with Phish on October 15, 1986, at a concert at Hunt's in Burlington, Vermont. He took part in some of the band's earliest tours. He remained with the band until their 2004-2009 hiatus, when Phish resumed touring and recording in 2009, Paul Languedoc declined to join them, deciding to retire from the road to focus on his luthier duties.  In March 2009, Garry Brown took over the task of soundman for Phish.

Gordon says Languedoc's striking instruments are only one aspect of the many talents he brings to the Phish sound. "We're really lucky to have Paul. He gives us the freedom to do our own thing."

Guitars
Named for its intricate headstock inlay, the Dragon bass (built in 1989) has a five-piece curly-maple neck and a bound ebony fingerboard. The body is solid koa, with a face of curly-maple veneer. The guitar bridge and machine heads were made by Schaller. Mike Gordon custom-ordered the instrument's active, 18-volt Mørch pickups from Denmark; they came with myriad knobs and switches Gordon did not want. "I have trouble making decisions," he says. "I probably change my instrument settings only every two years." The three larger knobs on the bass control volume (one per pickup) and pickup blend; the four micro-switches and three smaller knobs are for various midrange contours and high and low boosts. (Languedoc comments, "Even I don't know what they all do!")

Gordon and Languedoc both call the Fish — also named for its inlays — "a bit of an experiment." The bass, which was built about two years ago, has a two-piece curly-maple body with an interior chamber, a koa face with an f-hole and multiple-layered binding, and only one knob, which blends between the two EMG ASB-5 pickups. Mike eventually wants to add a piezo bridge transducer to accentuate the highs of the instrument's hollow body.

In 2006, Paul Languedoc started Languedoc Guitars, selling handmade instruments through his web site. The guitars for sale are near replicas of the hollow-body guitar Trey Anastasio of Phish currently plays. The G2 model guitar sold for $10,000 and the G4 model sold for $7500 as recently as 2009. The G2 features two "F" holes and a pair of Seymour Duncan '59 Model humbuckers; and the G4 has a single "F" hole and a Duncan Custom 5 in the bridge position and a '59 in the neck.  As recently as February 2020, Languedoc has zero inventory of new guitars for sale, and his wait-list for future new builds remains listed on his website as "full" and "closed" to accepting new names.

By 2021, he is selling a limited supply of brand new custom made guitars for $20,000 with a 25% deposit to begin.  For the custom build, the customer can choose body woods, color (if any), binding, and fretboard inlay.

References

External links
 Paul Languedoc at Phish.net
 www.languedocguitars.com

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American luthiers
Support staff of Phish
Musicians from Burlington, Vermont

Paul Languedoc


Godfrey Davies  (13 May 1892 – 28 May 1957) was an English historian of the 17th century and member of the research staff of the Huntington Library. The Mississippi Valley Historical Review summarized his contributions by noting: "Through his published works he came to be recognized as a leading authority in seventeenth-century English history, and through his innumerable services to British and American students who have worked at the Huntington Library during the past quarter of a century he made a leading contribution not only to his own but also to many fields of historical scholarship."

Early life, family, and education
Godfrey Davies was born on 13 May 1892 at Cirencester, Gloucestershire, the second son of (Sir) Thomas Davies (d. 1939), Member of Parliament for Cirencester and Tewkesbury, 1918–1929. Godfrey was educated at Chipping Campden Grammar School and was elected in 1910 to a Townsend Scholarship at Pembroke College, Oxford, where he received his second class bachelor's degree in modern history on 26 November 1914 and his master's degree on 26 May 1917. He married Margret Fitz Randolph Gay (1901-1989) on 17 June 1939. The couple are buried in the Mountain View Columbarium.

Professional career
As early as 1915, C. H. Firth, the Regius Professor of History at Oxford from 1904 to 1925, used Davies an assistant. In that year, as Davies related it, Firth entrusted him to "try my 'prentice hand on the task of preparing them for the press." As Firth's assistant, Davies became a member of the Faculty of Modern History at the University of Oxford from 1919 until Firth's retirement in 1925. After Firth's death in 1936, Davies wrote the memoir of Firth's life for the Proceedings of the British Academy published in 1937, edited for publication Firth's A Commentary on Macaulay's History of England (Macmillan, 1938), saw through publication Firth's posthumously published Essays, Historical and Literary (Oxford University Press, 1938) and completed his Regimental History of Cromwell's Army (1940).  Davies' mentor and his working library remained an inspiration throughout Davies' career. In the introduction to his last major book, The Restoration of Charles II, 1658-1660 (1955), Davies wrote "Though Sir Charles Firth had passed away before I wrote a sentence of this book, his inspiration has remained with me until its completion. Much of it has been written from books and pamphlets that were once his. The memory of many conversations with him has often guided me in my researches and composition. My debt to him is greater than I can find words to acknowledge."<ref>Godfrey Davies, The Restoration of Charles II, 1658-1660 (San Marino: The Huntington Library, 1955), p. viii.</ref>

In February 1923, a joint committee of the Royal Historical Society and the American Historical Society nominated Davies to be the editor of what would become Davies' most widely used work, Bibliography of British History. Stuart Period, 1603–1714. Sir Charles Firth played an important role for Davies in compiling this work. As Davies noted in his introduction to the first edition in 1928, "He has assisted at every stage of the growth of this bibliography; his library and unrivalled store of knowledge were always open to me. he has read the typescripts and the proofs, and encouraged me in every way."

In 1925, the University of Chicago appointed Davies an assistant professor of history. Five years later, in 1930, he joined the research staff of the Huntington Library, rising to become its chairman in 1949–1951. He also served as editor of the Huntington Library Quarterly from 1937 to 1948. In 1930, the California Institute of Technology appointed him an associate professor, a post he held until his death in 1957. Between 1938 and 1945, he was also a lecturer in history at the University of California, Los Angeles.Death Notice, Journal of Southern History, vol. 23, no. 3 (August 1957), p. 412.

He lived the latter part of his life in San Marino, California, where he was a research scholar at the Huntingdon Library. The British Academy elected him a Corresponding Fellow and Pembroke College, Oxford, elected him an Honorary Fellow in 1955. He died on 28 May 1957 in Los Angeles.

Publications
 Dundee Court-martial Records: 1651. Clarke Papers, vol. 21, S.l.: S.n., 1917.
 Autobiography of Thomas Raymond and Memoirs of the family of Guise of Elmore, Gloucestershire; edited for the Royal Historical Society by G. Davies, Camden, Third Series, vol. 28. (London, 1917).
 A Student's Guide to the Manuscripts Relating to English History in the Seventeenth Century in the Bodleian Library. Helps for Students of History, No. 47. (London: New York: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge; Macmillan, 1922).
 The Early History of the Coldstream Guards. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924).
 Papers of devotion of James II : being a reproduction of the MS. in the handwriting of James the Second now in the possession of Mr. B. R. Townley Balfour with an introduction by Godfrey Davies. Publications of the Roxburghe Club, no. 181. (London: Roxburghe Club, 1928).
 Bibliography of British History: Stuart Period, 1603–1714. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1928; 2nd edition, 1970).
 The Early Stuarts, 1603–1660. Oxford History of England, vol. 9. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1937, 1945, 1959).
 Essays, Historical & Literary, by C. H. Firth and Godfrey Davies. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1938).
 The Leveller Tracts, 1647–1653, edited by William Haller and Godfrey Davies. (New York: Published by Columbia University Press in Cooperation with Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery, 1944; reprinted Gloucester, Mass.: P. Smith, 1964).
 The Regimental History of Cromwell's army by Sir Charles Firth ... assisted by Godfrey Davies. (Oxford: Clarendon Pres, 1940).
 The Western country in 1793: reports on Kentucky and Virginia ed. by Marion Tinling and Godfrey Davies. (San Marino: Huntington Library, 1948).
 The Fortunes & Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders &c. . . by Daniel Defoe. Introduction by Godfrey Davies. New York [and Toronto]: Rinehart & Co., Inc. [1949])
 Supplements to the Short-title Catalogue, 1641–1700, by Mary Isabel Frey, Godfrey Davies, Donald Goddard Wing, and W. H. Hutchinson. . San Marino, Calif.: [Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery,], 1953).
 Wellington and His Army. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1954).
 G. A. Henty and History. 1955.
 The Restoration of Charles II, 1658–1660. (San Marino: Huntington Library Publications, 1955; Oxford University Press: London, 1969).
 The works of John Dryden, edited by H.T. Swedenberg, associate editors:  Frederick M. Carey, Godfrey Davies, Hugh G. Dick, Samuel H. Monk, John Harrington Smith. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1956) volume 1.
 Essays on the Later Stuarts.'' (Huntington Library Publications. San Marino, Calif.: Huntington Library, 1958; reprinted Westport: Greenwood Press, 1975). [Pages 125-133 contain a "Bibliography of the Writings of Godfrey Davies."]

Papers
The Godfrey Davies Papers and Correspondence are located at the Huntington Library, San Marino, California, USA, and consist of 4,500 pieces in 128 boxes with an additional deposit of 4 boxes.

External links

References

1892 births
1957 deaths
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy
Alumni of Pembroke College, Oxford
University of Chicago faculty
University of California, Los Angeles faculty
California Institute of Technology faculty
People from Cirencester
20th-century English historians
People from San Marino, California

Godfrey Davies


Charles Richard Sharpe  (2 April 1889 – 18 February 1963) was an English recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.

Charles Sharpe was a farmer's boy from Pickworth, near Bourne, Lincolnshire, who ran away from home to join the army at the age of sixteen. He had served with the 2nd battalion in the Bermuda Garrison before the war, arriving on the Western Front with that battalion 6 November 1914.

He was an Acting Corporal in the 2nd Battalion, Lincolnshire Regiment, British Army and 26 years old when the following deed took place during the Battle of Aubers Ridge in First World War for which he was awarded the VC.

On 9 May 1915 at Rouges Bancs, France, Corporal Sharpe was in charge of a blocking party sent forward to take a portion of the German trench. He was the first to reach the enemy's position and using bombs with great effect he himself cleared them out of a trench  long. By this time all his party had fallen and he was then joined by four other men with whom he attacked the enemy with bombs and captured a further trench  long.

He later achieved the rank of Company Sergeant Major. He left the army in 1928.

On return to civilian life, he worked at a number of jobs, notably as a physical training instructor to boys at the Hereward Camp approved school at Bourne.  In World War II a number of bombs were dropped on the approved school, a row of wooden huts adjacent to Bourne Woods that may have been mistaken for a military camp; Sharpe was injured.

The Medal
His medal is held by South Kesteven District Council, Grantham.

References

Bibliography
Monuments to Courage (David Harvey, 1999)

External links
Location of grave and VC medal (Lincolnshire)

1889 births
1963 deaths
Military personnel from Lincolnshire
Burials in Lincolnshire
People from Bourne, Lincolnshire
Royal Lincolnshire Regiment soldiers
British World War I recipients of the Victoria Cross
British Army personnel of World War I
British Army recipients of the Victoria Cross

Charles Richard Sharpe


Maurice Xiberras GMH (14 November 1936 – 19 March 2017) was a Gibraltarian teacher, trade unionist and politician. He was regarded as being a strong defender of British sovereignty, who believed there was no future for Gibraltar without the continuing close relationship with the United Kingdom.

Education and teaching career
Xiberras began his professional career as a teacher. He obtained his Teaching certificate from the University of Bristol, where he later became Assistant Lecturer at its Department of Hispanic Studies from 1961 to 1963. In 1964, prior to becoming a politician, he became one of the top Gibraltarian teachers assisting the Christian Brothers as teacher and Head of Department at the Gibraltar Grammar School. He maintained this position until 1979. The change would mean great sacrifice for him, however, he was encouraged to make the move by UK MPs who reportedly told him that "although he had a great future as a teacher this must be given up for the greater good of Gibraltar!"

He returned to teaching after retiring from politics in 1979. From 1980, he taught history, Spanish, politics and Latin, coached football and cricket and was Senior Counsellor at Hampton School in London, famed for splitting his Latin classes into 'Pansies' and 'Daffodils' for vocabulary tests. He retired from teaching in 2002. Xiberras also holds a first class Master of Arts with Honours from the University of Edinburgh.

In 1995 he also obtained a Diploma in psychotherapy from the British Association of Analytical Body Psychotherapy (BAABP) in London.

Political career
An integrationist from the outset – he was involved in the drafting of the Pro Integration Movement's manifesto in 1967 – Xiberras sat alongside Major Robert Peliza as a member of the Integration with Britain Party (IWBP). As a member of its team at the Constitutional Conference chaired by Lord Shepherd in 1968 that drafted the 1969 Gibraltar Constitution. He entered the House of Assembly after the 1969 elections, becoming the Minister for Labour, Social Security, and Housing under the IWBP Government and by 1970 he was the de facto Deputy Chief Minister, deputising for Major Peliza as Chief Minister in his absence. In the 1972 elections he retained his seat, but upon the victory of the Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights (AACR), he moved to the Opposition seats along with his six IWBP colleagues. Almost immediately, in October 1972, he succeeded Major Peliza as party leader and therefore as Leader of the Opposition.

Leader of the Opposition
As leader of the Opposition during early 1976, he took part in a Gibraltarian inter-party Constitution Committee which began to work on a proposal of constitutional changes that involved a further integration of Gibraltar with the United Kingdom. Xiberras and the then Chief Minister, Joshua Hassan, travelled to London in June 1976 but were unable to convince the Government of the United Kingdom which, in response issued the Hattersley Memorandum which rejected the proposals. This effectively caused the IWBP to disband. Xiberras also accompanied Chief Minister Hassan, in his position as Leader of the Opposition, as part of the British delegation to Strasbourg, France for meetings with Spanish Foreign Minister Marcelino Oreja. This was to be the first official Spanish Government recognition of Gibraltar's elected representatives.

Xiberras renewed his seat in the 1976 elections again, this time as independent, as he had already resigned as leader of the declining IWBP. In 1977, he again took over as Leader of the Opposition, after the decline of the Gibraltar Democratic Movement bench, led by former IWBP member Joe Bossano. However, Xiberras resigned from his seat in the Gibraltar House of Assembly in 1979, due to family commitments and relocated to the United Kingdom. He was succeeded by Peter Isola.

Further involvement
Although absent from Gibraltar, Xiberras continued his involvement in the politics of Gibraltar by authoring various articles and letters in the local press, opposing the 2002 Joint Sovereignty Deal between the British and Spanish Governments and also the European Constitution, on the ground that it would "make Gibraltar a disputed territory 'in perpetuity'". Xiberras also contested the 2003 elections, obtaining 1,395 votes and therefore not winning a seat at the House of Assembly.

Other work
Xiberras also represented Gibraltar in a variety of sports and was the National Hockey Manager who led the Gibraltar XI to success across Europe.

He offered professional counselling and psychotherapy from his own practice, Surbiton Counselling, in Surbiton.

Honours
Maurice Xiberras was one of the four recipients of the Gibraltar Medallion of Honour in 2009 "for his exceptional service to the political interests of Gibraltar and its people" and was therefore recorded in the Gibraltar Roll of Honour.

Death
Maurice Xiberras died suddenly over the weekend of 18–19 March 2017.

See also
 List of Gibraltarians
 Politics of Gibraltar

References

External links
Maurice Xiberras dies aged 80, Gibraltar Broadcasting Corporation, March 21, 2017

1936 births
2017 deaths
Gibraltarian schoolteachers
Place of birth missing
Gibraltarian people of Maltese descent
Democratic Party for a British Gibraltar politicians
Integration with Britain Party politicians
Alumni of the University of Bristol
British trade unionists
Academics of the University of Bristol
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh

Maurice Xiberras


Alan Cockeram, DSO (December 6, 1894 – September 11, 1957) was a mining executive, military officer and Canadian politician who sat in the House of Commons of Canada in the 1940s. He is best known for having given up his York South seat in order to give Conservative leader Arthur Meighen an opportunity to enter parliament only to see the upstart Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) defeat Meighen in a by-election.

Biography
Cockeram was born in Devon, England and emigrated to Canada in 1913, where he found employment with the Canadian Bank of Commerce in Montreal. He later transferred to a bank branch in Brockville, Ontario.  When World War I broke out he enlisted as a private in the 21st Battalion of Kingston with which he saw service in France, earned three field commissions, was wounded three times, and awarded the Distinguished Service Order after wiping out a German machine-gun nest.

On his return to Canada he joined the F. M. Connell Mining, Exploration and Development Company.  In 1929 he joined the Irish Regiment of Canada, becoming lieutenant colonel and commanding officer of the reserve regiment in 1935. He helped organize the defences Halifax at the beginning of World War II.

He was first elected to the House of Commons in the 1940 federal election as a National Government candidate, which was the banner under which Conservatives were running in that election. He served as parliamentary whip until he rejoined the Irish Regiment, first battalion for active service in World War II as second-in-command, with the rank of major.

He resigned from parliament on November 27, 1941, in order to enable newly elected Conservative leader Arthur Meighen to contest York South in a by-election; however, Meighen was defeated in what had been a safe Tory seat by CCF candidate Joseph Noseworthy in an upset victory which gave the socialist party a major breakthrough in Ontario. Cockeram defeated Noseworthy in the 1945 federal election and was defeated by Noseworthy four years later in the 1949 federal election.

Returning to his career in mining, Cockeram served as president of Peruvian Mines and Minerals and of Merchant Mining Ltd. He died in New York in 1957 while en route to Peru.

References

External links

Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) MPs
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada MPs
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario
1894 births
1957 deaths
Canadian Expeditionary Force officers
Canadian Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Canadian Army personnel of World War II
Canadian Militia officers
Canadian Army officers
Military personnel from Devon
Irish Regiment of Canada
British emigrants to Canada

Alan Cockeram


Emperor Wu of Jin (; 236 - 290) was the founder of Western Jin Dynasty. His name was Sima Yan. He was born in Henei (now Henan Province). His father was Sima Zhao and Sima Yi was his grandfather. They were the imperial officials of Wei Dynasty and seized control over the imperial court. In 265 AD, Sima Yan forced Emperor Cao Huan to abdicate. In 280 AD, he conquered Eastern Wu and unified China.

Emperors and Empresses of China
236 births
290 deaths
People from Henan

Emperor Wu of Jin


Astronauts Day is an American holiday, dedicated to NASA astronauts and their achievements. It is a "floating" holiday, observed on the last Friday of January.

Overview
This date was chosen to commemorate a number of space-related disasters which took place around this time, including the 27 January 1967 deaths of Command Pilot Virgil Grissom, Senior Pilot Edward Higgins White, and Pilot Roger Chaffee aboard Apollo I, and disasters involving the Space Shuttle Challenger on 28 January 1986, and the Space Shuttle Columbia on 1 February 2003.

Observants of this holiday are asked to light a candle in their window, reflect on the sacrifices astronauts have made, and re-dedicate themselves to a personal dream or goal of their own, a reference to a quote from Alan Shepard. While stuck in his suit for hours during a space mission, enduring technical delays, his patience gave out and he said "Why don't you fix your little problem and light this candle!"

See also
Cosmonautics Day (Russia and some former USSR countries)
National Astronaut Day (USA)
Yuri's Night

References

January observances
NASA
Observances in the United States
Science commemorations
Space advocacy

Astronauts Day


Chief Bola Ahmed Adekunle Tinubu  (born 29 March 1952) is a Nigerian politician who is the 16th and current president of Nigeria. He was the governor of Lagos State from 1999 to 2007; and senator for Lagos West in the Third Republic.

Tinubu spent his early life in southwestern Nigeria and later moved to the United States where he studied accounting at Chicago State University. He returned to Nigeria in the early 1990s and was employed by Mobil Nigeria as an accountant, before entering politics as a Lagos West senatorial candidate in 1992 under the banner of the Social Democratic Party. After the military head of state Sani Abacha dissolved the Senate in 1993, Tinubu became an activist campaigning for the return of democracy as a part of the National Democratic Coalition movement.

In the first post-transition Lagos State gubernatorial election, Tinubu won by a wide margin as a member of the Alliance for Democracy. Four years later, he won re-election to a second term. After leaving office in 2007, he played a key role in the formation of the All Progressives Congress in 2013. In 2023, he was elected president of Nigeria.

Background
Tinubu was born in Lagos into the merchant family of Abibatu Mogaji, the Ìyál'ọ́jà of Lagos. He is generally accepted in reliable sources to have been born in 1952; this year of birth is sometimes disputed by political opponents, who argue that he is much older. Some reliable sources note that his age has not been verified.

Education
Tinubu attended St. John's Primary School, Aroloya, Lagos before proceeding to Children Home School in Ibadan. He completed undergraduate studies in the United States, first at Richard J. Daley College in Chicago and then at Chicago State University. He graduated in 1979 with a Bachelor of Science degree in Accounting.

Professional career
Tinubu worked as an accountant for the American companies Arthur Andersen, Deloitte and GTE Services Corporation. After returning to Nigeria in 1983, he joined Mobil Oil Nigeria, and later became a company executive.

Early political career
Tinubu's political career began in 1991, when he joined the Social Democratic Party.

Third Republic

In 1992, he was elected to the Senate, representing the Lagos West constituency in the short-lived Nigerian Third Republic.

After the results of the 12 June 1993 presidential elections were annulled, Tinubu became a founding member of the pro-democracy National Democratic Coalition, a group which mobilized support for the restoration of democracy and recognition of Moshood Abiola as winner of the 12 June election.

Exile and return

Following the seizure of power as military head of state of General Sani Abacha, he went into exile in 1994 and returned to the country in 1998 after the death of the military dictator, which ushered in the transition to the Fourth Nigerian Republic.

In the run-up to the 1999 elections, Bola Tinubu was a protégé of Alliance for Democracy (AD) leaders Abraham Adesanya and Ayo Adebanjo. He went on to win the AD primaries for the Lagos State governorship elections in defeating Funsho Williams and Wahab Dosunmu, a former Minister of Works and Housing. In January 1999, he stood for the position of Governor of Lagos State on the AD ticket and was elected governor.

Governor of Lagos State (1999–2007)
During his 8 years in government, Tinibu initiated new road construction, required to meet the needs of the fast-growing population of the state.

Tinubu, alongside a new deputy governor, Femi Pedro, won re-election into office as governor in April 2003. All other states in the South West fell to the People's Democratic Party in those elections. He was involved in a struggle with the Olusegun Obasanjo-controlled federal government over whether Lagos State had the right to create new Local Council Development Areas (LCDAs) to meet the needs of its large population. The controversy led to the federal government seizing funds meant for local councils in the state. During the latter part of his term in office, he was engaged in continuous clashes with PDP powers such as Adeseye Ogunlewe, a former Lagos State senator who had become minister of works, and Bode George, the southwest chairman of the PDP.

In 2006, Tinubu attempted to persuade the then-vice president of Nigeria Atiku Abubakar to become the head of his party, the Action Congress (AC). Abubakar who was a member of the People's Democratic Party (PDP), had recently fallen out with President Olusegun Obasanjo over Abubakar's ambition to succeed Obasanjo as president. Tinubu offered Abubakar the chance to switch parties and join the AC, offering him his party's presidential candidacy, with the condition that he, Tinubu, would be Atiku Abubakar's running mate. Atiku declined the proposition and, having switched to the AC, chose a running mate from the South East, Senator Ben Obi. Although Atiku ran for office on Tinubu's platform in the election, the PDP still won, in a landslide.

Relations between Tinubu and deputy governor Femi Pedro became increasingly tense after Pedro declared his intention to run for the gubernatorial elections. Pedro competed to become the AC candidate for governor in the 2007 elections, but withdrew his name on the eve of the party nomination. He defected to the Labour Party while still keeping his position as deputy governor. Tinubu's tenure as Lagos State Governor ended on 29 May 2007, when his successor Babatunde Fashola of the Action Congress took office.

Pre-presidency (2007–2023)

2007 general election
In 2009, following the landslide victory of the People's Democratic Party (PDP) in the April 2007 elections, Tinubu became involved in negotiations to bring together the fragmented opposition parties into a "mega-party" capable of challenging the then ruling PDP. In March 2009, there were reports that a plot had been identified to assassinate Tinubu. In February 2013, Tinubu was among several politicians who created a "mega opposition" party with the merger of Nigeria's three biggest opposition parties – the Action Congress of Nigeria (ACN), the Congress for Progressive Change (CPC), the All Nigeria Peoples Party (ANPP), a faction of the All Progressives Grand Alliance (APGA) and the new PDP (nPDP), a faction of the then ruling People's Democratic Party – into the All Progressives Congress (APC).

All Progressives Congress
In 2014, Tinubu supported former military head of state General Muhammadu Buhari, leader of the CPC faction of the APC – who commanded widespread following in Northern Nigeria, and had previously contested in the 2003, 2007 and 2011 presidential elections as the CPC presidential candidate. Tinubu initially wanted to become Buhari's vice presidential candidate but later conceded for Yemi Osibanjo, his ally and former commissioner of justice. In 2015, Buhari rode the APC to victory, ending the 16-year rule of the PDP, and marking the first time an incumbent Nigerian president lost to an opposition candidate.

Tinubu went on to play an important role in the Buhari administration, supporting government policies and holding onto the internal party reins, in lieu of his long-held rumored presidential aspiration. In 2019, he supported Buhari's re-election campaign defeating the PDP candidate Atiku Abubakar. In 2020, following an internal party crisis which led to the removal of Tinubu ally and party chairman Adams Oshiomole, it is believed the move was to scuttle Tinubu's presidential prospects ahead of 2023.

2023 presidential election
On 10 January 2022, Tinubu made his formal announcement of candidacy for president.

On 8 June 2022, Tinubu won the party convention vote of the ruling APC, scoring 1,271, to defeat Vice President Yemi Osinbajo and Rotimi Amaechi who scored 235 and 316 respectively.

On 1 March 2023, INEC declared Tinubu winner of the 2023 presidential election.
He was declared president-elect after he polled 8,794,726 votes to defeat his opponents. His runner-up Atiku Abubakar of the opposition People's Democratic Party (PDP) polled 6,984,520 votes. Labour Party's Peter Obi had 6,101,533 votes to come third.

Presidency (2023–present)
Tinubu constitutionally began his presidency on 29 May 2023. He was sworn in as President of Nigeria by the Chief Justice of Nigeria Olukayode Ariwoola at 10:41 AM (WAT) at an inauguration ceremony held in Eagle Square in Abuja. His government having cleared the legal hurdles of the opposition following the March election is generally accepted unopposed and has international legitimacy. Several heads of state and government attended the swearing-in ceremony. Tinubu was conferred with the highest national honour of the Grand Commander of the Order of the Federal Republic by his predecessor Muhammadu Buhari, and Vice President Kashim Shettima with the second highest honour of the Grand Commander of the Order of the Niger on 25 May 2023.

Tinubu in his inaugural address promulgated the removal of the government subsidy on fuel. The statement in his inaugural address caused initial panic buy and an overnight increase in price at fuel pump stations in Nigeria. The national labour union NLC called for nationwide strike and protests over the increase in fuel price, which was later called off amidst ongoing negotiations with government representatives. The government subsidy on fuel consumption has caused a haemorrhage on the Nigerian public purse for decades and the removal was lauded as a positive development by the World Bank for the Nigerian economy.

President Tinubu on the night of 9 June suspended Godwin Emefiele, the powerful governor of the central bank of Nigeria. Emefiele's suspension was the second ever a head of the apex bank in its history was removed by a Nigerian president. Emefiele was arrested by Nigerian secret police SSS in Lagos attempting to flee the country to Benin. The suspension was viewed as a positive development. Emefiele as a conservative banker ascribed to the old school of propping up the Nigerian naira. Emefiele was replaced by one of his more economical liberal deputies Folashodun Adebisi as acting governor of the Central Bank of Nigeria in a statement by the presidency "sequel to the ongoing investigation of his office and the planned reforms in the financial sector of the economy". The suspension and subsequent arrest of Emefiele by secret police on charges of terrorism financing is seen as not far removed from his ideological leanings and politicising of the apex bank with his initiatives in office such as arbitrage under the Buhari administration and a currency redesign of the Nigerian naira. However, some observers have noted the role of politics in Emefiele's suspension amid a clandestine raise in government debt borrowing ceiling from 5% to 15% through ways and means on the eve of the inauguration of President Tinubu.

On the back of his suspension, the apex bank five days later on 14 June removed all foreign exchange trading restrictions and allowed the national currency to fall to its lowest ever on the market. The move, though not unprecedented, signalled what was expected after the suspension. Tinubu's financial reforms has been seen as surpassing the 1986 SAP regime in a bid to drastically overhaul the Nigerian economy and government finances since the return of democracy two decades prior. On 15 June, President Tinubu inaugurated the national economic council chaired by Vice President Shettima. The Council is mandated to advise the President on economic affairs and is composed of the governor of the central bank and all state governors of the federation. Tinubu's close associate investment banker Wale Edun is the monetary policy czar.

President Tinubu appointed on 3 June Senator George Akume as the Secretary to the Government of the Federation and Femi Gbajabiamila as Chief of Staff to the President. Tinubu suspended the EFCC chairman Abdulrasheed Bawa on 9 June and Nigerian secret police arrested him for abuse of office on the same day following a standoff between SSS agents and the EFFC in Lagos. His suspension like  Emefiele's involved a lot of intrigues as Bawa had previously placed Tinubu under investigation. Bawa was replaced with Abdulkarim Chukkol as acting chairman of the EFCC.

President Tinubu on 19 June proclaimed Mallam Nuhu Ribadu as the National Security Adviser. The appointment of Nuhu Ribadu, a former police officer, was viewed as a radical turn from the military establishment which has long dominated the state security apparatus of Nigeria. President Tinubu purged the leadership of the entire armed and paramilitary forces on 19 June retiring in the process over one hundred and fifty major generals. The direction of state security under Tinubu is expected to be led by civilian control of the military under the Office of the National Security Adviser, a statutory constitutional body established in 1993.

Tinubu embarked on his first foreign visit as Nigerian president to Paris on 21 June to attend a global financial summit held at Palais Boignart from 22 to 24 June. He left Paris for London on a "private visit" where he met with his predecessor Muhammadu Buhari. Tinubu despite drastic changes in fiscal and monetary policies has yet to constitute his cabinet. He has made calls for a coalition government in order to bring opposition leaders under him. A constitutional amendment passed by his predecessor made provisions for the President to appoint Ministers within the first sixty days in office. Tinubu dissolved the boards of all ministries, departments and agencies of Nigeria on 19 June. Having spent one month in office and with the conclusion of parliamentary leadership elections Tinubu is constrained by law to send ministerial nominations to the Senate for hearing before July 29.

In August 2023, he advocated for military intervention into Niger during the 2023 Nigerien crisis. This was criticised by the opposition.

Ideology and public image
Tinubu has throughout his political career espoused a comprehensive political and economic platform. Tinubu's ideal of progressivism include the values of egalitarianism, social justice, liberty, and the recognition of fundamental rights. He views the state as a positive advocate for the public welfare and its intervention in Nigerian society as necessary to ensure equality, justice, and social harmony. This ideal is not so far removed from his activism of democracy during the military dictatorship in Nigeria.

Economic views
His presidency and economic policies known as Tinubunomics is expected to be a politico-ideological departure from Buharism, albeit, most international economists are yet to ascertain the nature of this departure in economic terms although reforms in his first month in office has shown a departure from the previous administration. The World Bank and IMF have pointed out the need for the incoming government to establish macro-structural adjustments on the scale of the late 1980s reform to re-herald the Nigerian economy amidst a global slowdown. Tinubunomics has been outlined in a book he co-authored with Brian Browne, an American consul general in Lagos.

The Lion of Bourdillon

Tinubu has been widely perceived as the "Godfather of Lagos". His role in pulling the strings of the mega city-state was exposed in The Lion of Bourdillon, a 2015 documentary film highlighting Tinubu's political and financial grip on the city-state. Tinubu filed a ₦150 billion libel suit against the producers, Africa Independent Television (AIT). The documentary ceased airing on 6 March 2015. He has attempted to strongarm the political process, including in December 2009, when it was reported that Fashola and Tinubu had fallen out over the issue of Fashola's re-election as Governor of Lagos in 2011, with Tinubu preferring the commissioner for environment, Muiz Banire. A similar conflict took place in 2015 over Fashola's successor, Akinwunmi Ambode, pitting Fashola against Tinubu, who threw his full weight behind Ambode. Ambode succeeded Fashola, was ousted by Tinubu and replaced by incumbent Babajide Sanwo-Olu.

Allegations of corruption
In 1993, his assets were frozen by the United States government as a result of a court case asserting that the American government had "probable cause" to believe Tinubu's American bank accounts held the proceeds of heroin dealing. He settled with the U.S. government and forfeited about $460,000 later that year. Court documents and later reporting on the case suggested he worked in league with two Chicago heroin dealers.

In April 2007, after the general elections, but before the governor-elect Babatunde Fashola had taken office, the Federal Government brought Tinubu before the Code of Conduct Bureau for trial over the alleged illegal operation of 16 separate foreign accounts.

In January 2009, the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission cleared Tinubu and governors James Ibori of Delta State and Obong Victor Attah of Akwa Ibom State of charges of conspiracy, money laundering, abuse of office and official corruption in relation to a sale of Vmobile network shares in 2004. In September 2009, there were reports that the British Metropolitan Police were investigating a transaction in which the Lagos State government made an investment in Econet (now Airtel). Tinubu said the transaction was straightforward and profitable to the state, with no intermediaries involved. The Federal Government rejected a request by Britain to release evidence needed for further investigation and prosecution of the three Nigerian ex-governors in a London court.

During the 2019 election, a bullion van was seen entering Tinubu's residence on Bourdillion Road in Ikoyi, which caused him to later exclaim: "I keep money anywhere I want."

Personal life
Tinubu married Oluremi Tinubu, who is a former senator representing the Lagos Central senatorial district, in 1987. They have three children, Zainab Abisola Tinubu, Habibat Tinubu and Olayinka Tinubu. He fathered three children from previous relationships, Kazeem Olajide Tinubu (12 October 1974 – 31 October 2017), Folashade Tinubu (born 17 June 1976) and Oluwaseyi Tinubu (born 13 October 1985).

Tinubu's mother, Abibatu Mogaji, died on 15 June 2013 at the age of 96. On 31 October 2017, his son, Jide Tinubu, died in London.

Tinubu is a Muslim.

Honours and decorations

National honours

 :
  Grand Commander of the Order of the Federal Republic (GCFR) (25 May 2023)

Traditional titles
Tinubu holds two traditional chieftaincies; he is the "Asiwaju" of Lagos and the "Jagaba" of the Borgu Emirate in Niger State.

See also
 Timeline of Lagos, 2000s

References

External link

1952 births
Living people
Yoruba politicians
Governors of Lagos State
Politicians from Lagos
Members of the Senate (Nigeria)
ExxonMobil people
Action Congress of Nigeria politicians
National Democratic Coalition (Nigeria) politicians
Alliance for Democracy (Nigeria) politicians
Chicago State University alumni
All Progressives Congress politicians
Bola
Nigerian expatriates in the United States
21st-century Nigerian politicians
Nigerian Muslims

Bola Tinubu


Ingalls is an unincorporated community in Menominee County, Michigan, United States. Ingalls is located in Mellen Township along U.S. Highway 41,  south of Stephenson. Ingalls has a post office with ZIP code 49848.

History
Thomas Caldwell first settled Ingalls in 1858. The community was named after Eleazer Stillman Ingalls (1820–1879), a judge who organized Menominee County, in 1863. A station on the Chicago and North Western Railway opened in Ingalls in 1872. A post office opened in Ingalls on June 20, 1879; Louis Dobeas (1847–1933) was the first postmaster.

References

Unincorporated communities in Menominee County, Michigan
Populated places established in 1858
1858 establishments in Michigan
Unincorporated communities in Michigan

Ingalls, Michigan


The Canal de la Sambre à l'Oise () is a canal in northern France. It forms a connection between the canalised river Sambre (Meuse basin) at Landrecies and the Oise (Seine basin) at La Fère. The canal is  long, and has 38 locks. The junction made at La Fère is with a branch of the Canal de Saint-Quentin, while the Canal latéral à l'Oise is joined 10.5 km further downstream at Chauny. It was used by the standard Freycinet-gauge péniches,  long, and    in beam, carrying up to 250 tonnes. The canal, also a popular waterway for boats heading south from the Netherlands and Belgium to the central French waterways, had to be closed in 2006 when two aqueducts were found to be in danger of failing. Funding has been put in place by the owner, Voies Navigables de France, and the local authorities, with support from the State. The canal was reopened in July 2021.

World War I battle
The Sambre–Oise Canal saw one of the last Allied victories of World War I before the Armistice with Germany which came into effect at 11.00 am on 11 November 1918.

The forcing of the Sambre–Oise Canal took place on 4 November 1918. Participating in the operation were the 2nd Battalion Royal Sussex, as well as the 2nd Manchesters, to which the poet Wilfred Owen belonged. The Lancashire Fusiliers also took part in the battle. The British forces were to cross some fields surrounded by high hedges, then cross the canal at a point where there was a lockhouse. The Germans had this area defended with machine guns and rifle teams.

As the 2nd Battalion advanced on the canal, the Royal Engineers placed small footbridges across the lock. Some Royal Sussex Regiment men actually climbed up onto the lock gates, one of them firing his Lewis gun from the hip as he went. Eventually the British managed to take the lockhouse and pushed on to their final objective near the Étreux road.

Wilfred Owen, officer and poet, was killed as he crossed the Sambre–Oise Canal at the head of a raiding party: Owen's death occurred only a week before the war ended.

See also
Battle of the Sambre (1918)

References

External links
 Canal de la Sambre à l'Oise (and river Sambre) with maps and details of places, moorings and facilities for boats, by the author of Inland Waterways of France, Imray
 Navigation details for 80 French rivers and canals (French waterways website section)

Western Front (World War I)
Canals in France
Canals opened in 1839

Sambre–Oise Canal