Republic (; ) is a Socratic dialogue, authored by Plato around 375 BCE, concerning justice (), the order and character of the just city-state, and the just man. It is Plato's best-known work, and one of the world's most influential works of philosophy and political theory, both intellectually and historically.

In the dialogue, Socrates discusses the meaning of justice and whether the just man is happier than the unjust man with various Athenians and foreigners. He considers the natures of existing regimes and then proposes a series of hypothetical cities in comparison, culminating in Kallipolis (Καλλίπολις), a utopian city-state ruled by a class of philosopher-kings. They also discuss ageing, love, theory of forms, the immortality of the soul, and the role of the philosopher and of poetry in society. The dialogue's setting seems to be the time of the Peloponnesian War.

Place in Plato's corpus
Republic is generally placed in the middle period of Plato's dialogues. However, the distinction of this group from the early dialogues is not as clear as the distinction of the late dialogues from all the others. Nonetheless, Ritter, Arnim, and Baron—with their separate methodologies—all agreed that the Republic was well distinguished, along with Parmenides, Phaedrus and Theaetetus.

However, the first book of the Republic, which shares many features with earlier dialogues, is thought to have originally been written as a separate work, and then the remaining books were conjoined to it, perhaps with modifications to the original of the first book.

Outline

Book I: Aging, Love and the Definitions of Justice

While visiting the city of Piraeus with Glaucon, Socrates is invited to join Polemarchus for a dinner and festival. They eventually end up at Polemarchus' house where Socrates encounters Polemarchus' father Cephalus.

In his first philosophical conversation with the group members, Socrates gets into a conversation with Cephalus. The first real philosophical question posed by Plato in the book is when Socrates asks "is life painful at that age, or what report do you make of it?" when speaking to the aged Cephalus.

Cephalus answers by saying that many are unhappy about old age because they miss their youth, but he finds that "old age brings us profound repose and freedom from this and other passions. When the appetites have abated, and their force is diminished, the description of Sophocles is perfectly realized. It is like being delivered from a multitude of furious masters." The repose gives him time to dedicate himself to sacrifices and justice so that he is prepared for the afterlife.

Socrates then asks his interlocutors for a definition of justice. Three are suggested:
Cephalus: To give each what is owed to them (331c)
Polemarchus: To give to each what is appropriate to him (332c)
Thrasymachus: What is advantageous for the stronger (338c)

Socrates refutes each definition in turn:
One may owe it to someone to return them a knife one has borrowed, but if he has since gone mad and would only harm himself with it, returning the knife would not be just.
Polemarchus suggests that what is appropriate is to do good to friends and bad to enemies, but harming someone tends to make them unjust, and so on his definition, justice would tend to create injustice.
If it is just to do what rulers (the stronger) say and rulers make mistakes about their advantage, then it is just to do what is disadvantageous for the stronger.

Thrasymachus then responds to this refutation by claiming that insofar as the stronger make mistakes, they are not in that regard the stronger. Socrates refutes Thrasymachus with a further argument: Crafts aim at the good of their object, and therefore to rule is for the benefit of the ruled and not the ruler.

At this point, Thrasymachus claims that the unjust person is wiser than the just person, and Socrates gives three arguments refuting Thrasymachus. However, Thrasymachus ceases to engage actively with Socrates's arguments, and Socrates himself seems to think that his arguments are inadequate, since he has not offered any definition of justice. The first book ends in aporia concerning the essence of justice.

Book II: Glaucon and Adeimantus's Challenge

Glaucon and Adeimantus are unsatisfied with Socrates's defense of justice. They ask Socrates to defend justice against an alternative view that they attribute to many. According to this view, the origin of justice is in social contracts. Everyone would prefer to get away with harm to others without suffering it themselves, but since they cannot, they agree not to do harm to others so as not to suffer it themselves. Moreover, according to this view, all those who practice justice do so unwillingly and out of fear of punishment, and the life of the unpunished unjust man is far more blessed than that of the just man. Glaucon would like Socrates to prove that justice is not only desirable for its consequences, but also for its own sake. To demonstrate the problem, he tells the story of Gyges, who – with the help of a ring that turns him invisible – achieves great advantages for himself by committing injustices. Many think that anyone would and should use the ring as Gyges did if they had it. Glaucon uses this argument to challenge Socrates to defend the position that the just life is better than the unjust life.

Adeimantus supplements Glaucon's speech with further arguments. He suggests that the unjust should not fear divine judgement, since the very poets who wrote about such judgement also wrote that the gods would grant forgiveness to those who made religious sacrifice.

Book II–IV: The city and the soul

Socrates suggests that they use the city as an image to seek how justice comes to be in the soul of an individual. After attributing the origin of society to the individual not being self-sufficient and having many needs which he cannot supply himself, Socrates first describes a "healthy state" made up of producers who make enough for a modest subsistence, but Glaucon considers this hardly different than "a city of pigs." Socrates then goes on to describe the luxurious city, which he calls "a fevered state". Acquiring and defending these luxuries requires a guardian class to wage wars.

They then explore how to obtain guardians who will not become tyrants to the people they guard. Socrates proposes that they solve the problem with an education from their early years. He then prescribes the necessary education, beginning with the kind of stories that are appropriate for training guardians. They conclude that stories that ascribe evil to the gods or heroes or portray the afterlife as bad are untrue and should not be taught. They also decide to regulate narrative and musical style so as to encourage the four cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, justice and temperance. Socrates avers that beautiful style and morally good style are the same. In proposing their program of censored education, they are repurifying the luxurious or feverish city. Socrates counters the objection that people raised in censorship will be too naive to judge concerning vice by arguing that adults can learn about vice once their character has been formed; before that, they are too impressionable to encounter vice without danger.

They suggest that the second part of the guardians' education should be in gymnastics. With physical training they will be able to live without needing frequent medical attention: physical training will help prevent illness and weakness. Socrates claims that any illness requiring constant medical attention is too unhealthy to be worth living. By analogy, any society that requires constant litigation is too unhealthy to be worth maintaining.

Socrates asserts that both male and female guardians be given the same education, that all wives and children be shared, and that they be prohibited from owning private property so that guardians will not become possessive and keep their focus on the good of the whole city. He adds a third class distinction between auxiliaries (rank and file soldiers) and guardians (the leaders who rule the city).

In the fictional tale known as the myth or parable of the metals, Socrates presents the Noble Lie (γενναῖον ψεῦδος, gennaion pseudos), to convince everyone in the city to perform their social role. All are born from the womb of their mother country, so that all are siblings, but their natures are different, each containing either gold (guardians), silver (auxiliaries), or bronze or iron (producers). If anyone with a bronze or iron nature rules the city, it will be destroyed. Socrates claims that if the people believed "this myth...[it] would have a good effect, making them more inclined to care for the state and one another." Socrates claims the city will be happiest if each citizen engages in the occupation that suits them best. If the city as a whole is happy, then individuals are happy.

In the physical education and diet of the guardians, the emphasis is on moderation, since both poverty and excessive wealth will corrupt them (422a1). He argues that a city without wealth can defend itself successfully against wealthy aggressors. Socrates says that it is pointless to worry over specific laws, like those pertaining to contracts, since proper education ensures lawful behavior, and poor education causes lawlessness (425a–425c).

Socrates proceeds to search for wisdom, courage, and temperance in the city, on the grounds that justice will be easier to discern in what remains (427e). They find wisdom among the guardian rulers, courage among the guardian warriors (or auxiliaries), temperance among all classes of the city in agreeing about who should rule and who should be ruled. Finally, Socrates defines justice in the city as the state in which each class performs only its own work, not meddling in the work of the other classes (433b).

The virtues discovered in the city are then sought in the individual soul. For this purpose, Socrates creates an analogy between the parts of the city and the soul (the city–soul analogy). He argues that psychological conflict points to a divided soul, since a completely unified soul could not behave in opposite ways towards the same object, at the same time, and in the same respect (436b). He gives examples of possible conflicts between the rational, spirited, and appetitive parts of the soul, corresponding to the rulers, auxiliaries, and producing classes in the city. Having established the tripartite soul, Socrates defines the virtues of the individual. A person is wise if he is ruled by the part of the soul that knows "what is beneficial for each part and for the whole," courageous if his spirited part "preserves in the midst of pleasures and pains" the decisions reached by the rational part, and temperate if the three parts agree that the rational part lead (442c–d). They are just if each part of the soul attends to its function and not the function of another. It follows from this definition that one cannot be just if one does not have the other cardinal virtues. In this regard, Plato can be seen as a progenitor of the concept of 'social structures'.

Book V–VI: The Ship of State

Socrates, having to his satisfaction defined the just constitution of both city and psyche, moves to elaborate upon the four unjust constitutions of these. Adeimantus and Polemarchus interrupt, asking Socrates instead first to explain how the sharing of wives and children in the guardian class is to be defined and legislated, a theme first touched on in Book III. Socrates is overwhelmed at their request, categorizing it as three "waves" of attack against which his reasoning must stand firm. These three waves challenge Socrates' claims that

 both male and female guardians ought to receive the same education
 human reproduction ought to be regulated by the state and all offspring should be ignorant of their actual biological parents
 such a city and its corresponding philosopher-king could actually come to be in the real world.

In Books V–VII the abolition of riches among the guardian class (not unlike Max Weber's bureaucracy) leads controversially to the abandonment of the typical family, and as such no child may know his or her parents and the parents may not know their own children. Socrates tells a tale which is the "allegory of the good government". The rulers assemble couples for reproduction, based on breeding criteria. Thus, stable population is achieved through eugenics and social cohesion is projected to be high because familial links are extended towards everyone in the city. Also the education of the youth is such that they are taught of only works of writing that encourage them to improve themselves for the state's good, and envision (the) god(s) as entirely good, just, and the author(s) of only that which is good.

Socrates' argument is that in the ideal city, a true philosopher with understanding of forms will facilitate the harmonious co-operation of all the citizens of the city—the governance of a city-state is likened to the command of a ship, the Ship of State. This philosopher-king must be intelligent, reliable, and willing to lead a simple life. However, these qualities are rarely manifested on their own, and so they must be encouraged through education and the study of the Good.

Book VI–VII: Allegories of the Sun, Divided Line, and Cave

The Allegory of the Cave primarily depicts Plato's distinction between the world of appearances and the 'real' world of the Forms., Just as visible objects must be illuminated in order to be seen, so must also be true of objects of knowledge if light is cast on them.

Plato imagines a group of people who have lived their entire lives as prisoners, chained to the wall of a cave in the subterranean so they are unable to see the outside world behind them. However a constant flame illuminates various moving objects outside, which are silhouetted on the wall of the cave visible to the prisoners. These prisoners, through having no other experience of reality, ascribe forms to these shadows such as either "dog" or "cat". Plato then goes on to explain how the philosopher is akin to a prisoner who is freed from the cave. The prisoner is initially blinded by the light, but when he adjusts to the brightness he sees the fire and the statues and how they caused the images witnessed inside the cave. He sees that the fire and statues in the cave were just copies of the real objects; merely imitations. This is analogous to the Forms. What we see from day to day are merely appearances, reflections of the Forms. The philosopher, however, will not be deceived by the shadows and will hence be able to see the 'real' world, the world above that of appearances; the philosopher will gain knowledge of things in themselves. At the end of this allegory, Plato asserts that it is the philosopher's burden to reenter the cave. Those who have seen the ideal world, he says, have the duty to educate those in the material world. Since the philosopher recognizes what is truly good only he is fit to rule society according to Plato.

Book VIII–IX: Plato's five regimes
In Books VIII–IX stand Plato's criticism of the forms of government. Plato categorized governments into five types of regimes: aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny.

The starting point is an imagined, alternate aristocracy (ruled by a philosopher-king); a just government ruled by a philosopher king, dominated by the wisdom-loving element. Aristocracy degenerates into timocracy when, due to miscalculation on the part of its governing class, the next generation includes persons of an inferior nature, inclined not just to cultivating virtues but also producing wealth. In a timocracy, governors will apply great effort in gymnastics and the arts of war, as well as the virtue that pertains to them, that of courage. As the emphasis on honor is compromised by wealth accumulation, it is replaced by oligarchy. The oligarchic government is dominated by the desiring element, in which the rich are the ruling class. Oligarchs do, however, value at least one virtue, that of temperance and moderation—not out of an ethical principle or spiritual concern, but because by dominating wasteful tendencies they succeed in accumulating money.

As this socioeconomic divide grows, so do tensions between social classes. From the conflicts arising out of such tensions, the poor majority overthrow the wealthy minority, and democracy replaces the oligarchy preceding it. In democracy, the lower class grows bigger and bigger. A visually appealing demagogue is soon lifted up to protect the interests of the lower class, who can exploit them to take power in order to maintain order. Democracy then degenerates into tyranny where no one has discipline and society exists in chaos. In a tyrannical government, the city is enslaved to the tyrant, who uses his guards to remove the best social elements and individuals from the city to retain power (since they pose a threat), while leaving the worst. He will also provoke warfare to consolidate his position as leader. In this way, tyranny is the most unjust regime of all.

In parallel to this, Socrates considers the individual or soul that corresponds to each of these regimes. He describes how an aristocrat may become weak or detached from political and material affluence, and how his son will respond to this by becoming overly ambitious.The timocrat in turn may be defeated by the courts or vested interests; his son responds by accumulating wealth in order to gain power in society and defend himself against the same predicament, thereby becoming an oligarch. The oligarch's son will grow up with wealth without having to practice thrift or stinginess, and will be tempted and overwhelmed by his desires, so that he becomes democratic, valuing freedom above all. The democratic man is torn between tyrannical passions and oligarchic discipline, and ends up in the middle ground: valuing all desires, both good and bad. The tyrant will be tempted in the same way as the democrat, but without an upbringing in discipline or moderation to restrain him. Therefore, his most base desires and wildest passions overwhelm him, and he becomes driven by lust, using force and fraud to take whatever he wants. The tyrant is both a slave to his lusts, and a master to whomever he can enslave. Socrates points out the human tendency to be corrupted by power leads down the road to timocracy, oligarchy, democracy and tyranny. From this, he concludes that ruling should be left to philosophers, who are the most just and therefore least susceptible to corruption. This "good city" is depicted as being governed by philosopher-kings; disinterested persons who rule not for their personal enjoyment but for the good of the city-state (polis). The philosophers have seen the "Forms" and therefore know what is good. They understand the corrupting effect of greed and own no property and receive no salary. They also live in sober communism, eating and sleeping together.

Book X: Myth of Er

Concluding a theme brought up most explicitly in the Analogies of the Sun and Divided Line in Book VI, Socrates finally rejects any form of imitative art and concludes that such artists have no place in the just city. He continues on to argue for the immortality of the psyche and espouses a theory of reincarnation. He finishes by detailing the rewards of being just, both in this life and the next. Artists create things but they are only different copies of the idea of the original.
"And whenever any one informs us that he has found a man who knows all the arts, and all things else that anybody knows, and every single thing with a higher degree of accuracy than any other man—whoever tells us this, I think that we can only imagine to be a simple creature who is likely to have been deceived by some wizard or actor whom he met, and whom he thought all-knowing, because he himself was unable to analyze the nature of knowledge and ignorance and imitation."

He speaks about illusions and confusion. Things can look very similar, but be different in reality. Because we are human, at times we cannot tell the difference between the two.

With all of us, we may approve of something, as long we are not directly involved with it. If we joke about it, we are supporting it.

Sometimes we let our passions rule our actions or way of thinking, although they should be controlled, so that we can increase our happiness.

Legacy

Ancient Greece and Rome

Aristotle systematises many of Plato's analyses in his Politics, and criticizes the propositions of several political philosophers for the ideal city-state.

Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, wrote his version of an ideal society, Zeno's Republic, in opposition to Plato's Republic. Zeno's Republic was controversial and was viewed with some embarrassment by some of the later Stoics due to its defenses of free love, incest, and cannibalism and due to its opposition to ordinary education and the building of temples, law-courts, and gymnasia.

The English title of Plato's dialogue is derived from Cicero's De re publica, written some three centuries later. Cicero's dialogue imitates Plato's style and treats many of the same topics, and Cicero's main character Scipio Aemilianus expresses his esteem for Plato and Socrates.

Augustine of Hippo wrote his The City of God; Augustine equally described a model of the "ideal city", in his case the eternal Jerusalem, using a visionary language not unlike that of the preceding philosophers.

Middle Ages

Ibn Rushd
Islamic philosophers were much more interested in Aristotle than Plato, but not having access to Aristotle's Politics, Ibn Rushd (Averroes) produced instead a commentary on
Plato's Republic. He advances an authoritarian ideal, following Plato's paternalistic model. Absolute monarchy, led by a philosopher-king, creates a justly ordered society. This requires extensive use of coercion, although persuasion is preferred and is possible if the young are properly raised. Rhetoric, not logic, is the appropriate road to truth for the common man. Demonstrative knowledge via philosophy and logic requires special study. Rhetoric aids religion in reaching the masses.

Following Plato, Ibn Rushd accepts the principle of women's equality. They should be educated and allowed to serve in the military; the best among them might be tomorrow's philosophers or rulers. He also accepts Plato's illiberal measures such as the censorship of literature. He uses examples from Arab history to illustrate just and degenerate political orders.

Gratian
The medieval jurist Gratian in his Decretum (ca 1140) quotes Plato as agreeing with him that "by natural law all things are common to all people." He identifies Plato's ideal society with the early Church as described in the Acts of the Apostles. "Plato lays out the order", Gratian comments, "for a very just republic in which no one considers anything his own."

Thomas More
Thomas More, when writing his Utopia, invented the technique of using the portrayal of a "utopia" as the carrier of his thoughts about the ideal society. More's island Utopia is also similar to Plato's Republic in some aspects, among them common property and the lack of privacy.

Hegel
Hegel respected Plato's theories of state and ethics much more than those of the early modern philosophers such as Locke, Hobbes and Rousseau, whose theories proceeded from a fictional "state of nature" defined by humanity's "natural" needs, desires and freedom. For Hegel this was a contradiction: since nature and the individual are contradictory, the freedoms which define individuality as such are latecomers on the stage of history. Therefore, these philosophers unwittingly projected man as an individual in modern society onto a primordial state of nature. Plato however had managed to grasp the ideas specific to his time:

For Hegel, Plato's Republic is not an abstract theory or ideal which is too good for the real nature of man, but rather is not ideal enough, not good enough for the ideals already inherent or nascent in the reality of his time; a time when Greece was entering decline. One such nascent idea was about to crush the Greek way of life: modern freedoms—or Christian freedoms in Hegel's view—such as the individual's choice of his social class, or of what property to pursue, or which career to follow. Such individual freedoms were excluded from Plato's Republic:

Greece being at a crossroads, Plato's new "constitution" in the Republic was an attempt to preserve Greece: it was a reactionary reply to the new freedoms of private property etc., that were eventually given legal form through Rome. Accordingly, in ethical life, it was an attempt to introduce a religion that elevated each individual not as an owner of property, but as the possessor of an immortal soul.

20th century

Mussolini admired Plato's The Republic, which he often read for inspiration. The Republic expounded a number of ideas that fascism promoted, such as rule by an elite promoting the state as the ultimate end, opposition to democracy, protecting the class system and promoting class collaboration, rejection of egalitarianism, promoting the militarization of a nation by creating a class of warriors, demanding that citizens perform civic duties in the interest of the state, and utilizing state intervention in education to promote the development of warriors and future rulers of the state. Plato was an idealist, focused on achieving justice and morality, while Mussolini and fascism were realist, focused on achieving political goals.

Martin Luther King Jr. nominated The Republic as the one book he would have taken to a deserted island, alongside the Bible.

21st century
In 2001, a survey of over 1,000 academics and students voted the Republic the greatest philosophical text ever written. Julian Baggini argued that although the work "was wrong on almost every point, the questions it raises and the methods it uses are essential to the western tradition of philosophy. Without it we might not have philosophy as we know it." In 2021, a survey showed that The Republic is the most studied book in the top universities in the United States.

Cultural influence
Plato's Republic has been influential in literature and art.
 Aldous Huxley's Brave New World has a dystopian government that bears a resemblance to the form of government described in the Republic, featuring the separation of people by professional class, assignment of profession and purpose by the state, and the absence of traditional family units, replaced by state-organized breeding.
The Orwellian dystopia depicted in the novel 1984 had many characteristics in common with Plato's description of the allegory of the Cave as Winston Smith strives to liberate himself from it.
In the early 1970s the Dutch composer Louis Andriessen composed a vocal work called De Staat, based on the text of Plato's Republic.
In Robert A. Heinlein's Starship Troopers, his citizen can be compared to a Platonic Guardian, without the communal breeding and property, but still having a militaristic base. Although there are significant differences in the specifics of the system, Heinlein and Plato both describe systems of limited franchise, with a political class that has supposedly earned their power and wisely governs the whole. Republic is specifically attacked in Starship Troopers. The arachnids can be seen as much closer to a Republic society than the humans.
The film The Matrix models Plato's Allegory of the Cave.
In fiction, Jo Walton's 2015 novel The Just City explored the consequences of establishing a city-state based on the Republic in practice.
See also Ring of Gyges: Cultural influences

Criticism

Gadamer
In his 1934 Plato und die Dichter (Plato and the Poets), as well as several other works, Hans-Georg Gadamer describes the utopic city of the Republic as a heuristic utopia that should not be pursued or even be used as an orientation-point for political development. Rather, its purpose is said to be to show how things would have to be connected, and how one thing would lead to another—often with highly problematic results—if one would opt for certain principles and carry them through rigorously. This interpretation argues that large passages in Plato's writing are ironic, a line of thought initially pursued by Kierkegaard.

Popper
The city portrayed in Republic struck some critics as harsh, rigid, and unfree; indeed, as totalitarian. Karl Popper gave a voice to that view in his 1945 book The Open Society and Its Enemies, where he singled out Plato's state as a dystopia. Popper distinguished Plato's ideas from those of Socrates, claiming that the former in his later years expressed none of the humanitarian and democratic tendencies of his teacher. Popper thought Plato's envisioned state totalitarian as it advocated a government composed only of a distinct hereditary ruling class, with the working class—who Popper argues Plato regards as "human cattle"—given no role in decision making. He argues that Plato has no interest in what are commonly regarded as the problems of justice—the resolution of disputes between individuals—because Plato has redefined justice as "keeping one's place".

Popper insists that Republic "was meant by its author not so much as a theoretical treatise, but as a topical political manifesto", and Bertrand Russell argues that at least in intent, and all in all not so far from what was possible in ancient Greek city-states, the form of government portrayed in the Republic was meant as a practical one by Plato.

Voegelin
Many critics have suggested that the dialogue's political discussion actually serves as an analogy for the individual soul, in which there are also many different "members" that can either conflict or else be integrated and orchestrated under a just and productive "government." Among other things, this analogical reading would solve the problem of certain implausible statements Plato makes concerning an ideal political republic. Norbert Blössner (2007) argues that the Republic is best understood as an analysis of the workings and moral improvement of the individual soul with remarkable thoroughness and clarity. This view, of course, does not preclude a legitimate reading of Republic as a political treatise (the work could operate at both levels). It merely implies that it deserves more attention as a work on psychology and moral philosophy than it has sometimes received.

Eric Voegelin in Plato and Aristotle (Baton Rouge, 1957), gave meaning to the concept of 'Just City in Speech' (Books II–V). For instance, there is evidence in the dialogue that Socrates himself would not be a member of his 'ideal' state. His life was almost solely dedicated to the private pursuit of knowledge. More practically, Socrates suggests that members of the lower classes could rise to the higher ruling class, and vice versa, if they had 'gold' in their veins—a version of the concept of social mobility. The exercise of power is built on the 'noble lie' that all men are brothers, born of the earth, yet there is a clear hierarchy and class divisions. There is a tripartite explanation of human psychology that is extrapolated to the city, the relation among peoples. There is no family among the guardians, another crude version of Max Weber's concept of bureaucracy as the state non-private concern. Together with Leo Strauss, Voegelin considered Popper's interpretation to be a gross misunderstanding not only of the dialogue itself, but of the very nature and character of Plato's entire philosophic enterprise.

The paradigm of the city—the idea of the Good, the Agathon—has manifold historical embodiments, undertaken by those who have seen the Agathon, and are ordered via the vision. The centerpiece of the Republic, Part II, nos. 2–3, discusses the rule of the philosopher, and the vision of the Agathon with the Allegory of the Cave, which is clarified in the theory of forms. The centerpiece is preceded and followed by the discussion of the means that will secure a well-ordered polis (city). Part II, no. 1, concerns marriage, the community of people and goods for the guardians, and the restraints on warfare among the Hellenes. It describes a partially communistic polis. Part II, no. 4, deals with the philosophical education of the rulers who will preserve the order and character of the city-state.

In part II, the Embodiment of the Idea, is preceded by the establishment of the economic and social orders of a polis (part I), followed by an analysis (part III) of the decline the order must traverse. The three parts compose the main body of the dialogues, with their discussions of the "paradigm", its embodiment, its genesis, and its decline.

The introduction and the conclusion are the frame for the body of Republic. The discussion of right order is occasioned by the questions: "Is justice better than injustice?" and "Will an unjust man fare better than a just man?" The introductory question is balanced by the concluding answer: "Justice is preferable to injustice". In turn, the foregoing are framed with the Prologue (Book I) and the Epilogue (Book X). The prologue is a short dialogue about the common public doxai (opinions) about justice. Based upon faith, and not reason, the Epilogue describes the new arts and the immortality of the soul.

Strauss and Bloom
Some of Plato's proposals have led theorists like Leo Strauss and Allan Bloom to ask readers to consider the possibility that Socrates was creating not a blueprint for a real city, but a learning exercise for the young men in the dialogue. There are many points in the construction of the "Just City in Speech" that seem contradictory, which raise the possibility Socrates is employing irony to make the men in the dialogue question for themselves the ultimate value of the proposals. In turn, Plato has immortalized this 'learning exercise' in Republic.

One of many examples is that Socrates calls the marriages of the ruling class 'sacred'; however, they last only one night and are the result of manipulating and drugging couples into predetermined intercourse with the aim of eugenically breeding guardian-warriors. Strauss and Bloom's interpretations, however, involve more than just pointing out inconsistencies; by calling attention to these issues they ask readers to think more deeply about whether Plato is being ironic or genuine, for neither Strauss nor Bloom present an unequivocal opinion, preferring to raise philosophic doubt over interpretive fact.

Strauss's approach developed out of a belief that Plato wrote esoterically. The basic acceptance of the exoteric-esoteric distinction revolves around whether Plato really wanted to see the "Just City in Speech" of Books V–VI come to pass, or whether it is just an allegory. Strauss never regarded this as the crucial issue of the dialogue. He argued against Karl Popper's literal view, citing Cicero's opinion that Republic's true nature was to bring to light the nature of political things. In fact, Strauss undermines the justice found in the "Just City in Speech" by implying the city is not natural, it is a man-made conceit that abstracts away from the erotic needs of the body. The city founded in Republic "is rendered possible by the abstraction from eros".

An argument that has been used against ascribing ironic intent to Plato is that Plato's Academy produced a number of tyrants who seized political power and abandoned philosophy for ruling a city. Despite being well-versed in Greek and having direct contact with Plato himself, some of Plato's former students like Clearchus, tyrant of Heraclea; Chaeron, tyrant of Pellene; Erastus and Coriscus, tyrants of Skepsis; Hermias of Atarneus and Assos; and Calippus, tyrant of Syracuse ruled people and did not impose anything like a philosopher-kingship. However, it can be argued whether these men became "tyrants" through studying in the academy. Plato's school had an elite student body, some of whom would by birth, and family expectation, end up in the seats of power. Additionally, it is important that it is by no means obvious that these men were tyrants in the modern, totalitarian sense of the concept. Finally, since very little is actually known about what was taught at Plato's Academy, there is no small controversy over whether it was even in the business of teaching politics at all.

Fragments
Several Oxyrhynchus Papyri fragments were found to contain parts of Republic, and from other works such as Phaedo, or the dialogue Gorgias, written around 200–300 CE. Fragments of a different version of Plato's Republic were discovered in 1945, part of the Nag Hammadi library, written . These findings highlight the influence of Plato during those times in Egypt.

Translations

See also

Collectivism and individualism
Cultural influence of Plato's Republic
Mixed government
Nous
Orthotes Onomaton
Plato's number

Notes

Further reading

External links

Texts of the Republic:
e-text Plato's Republic, translated by Benjamin Jowett with introduction at Project Gutenberg. (The same translation with Stephanus numbers, side notes and full index.)
Plato's Republic, translated by Paul Shorey (1935) annotated and hyperlinked text (English and Greek) at Perseus Project

 Approaching Plato: A Guide to the Early and Middle Dialogues at Belmont University

Ethics and Politics in The Republic at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Political philosophy literature
Dialogues of Plato
Utopian theory
Political philosophy in ancient Greece
Justice
Political textbooks
Nag Hammadi library

Republic (Plato)


Awadh Kishore Narain (A. K. Narain, 28 May 1925 – 10 July 2013) was an Indian historian, numismatist and archaeologist, who published and lectured extensively on the subjects related to South and Central Asia.  He was well known for his book, The Indo-Greeks, published by Clarendon Press in 1957, in which he discussed the thesis of British historian Sir William Woodthorpe Tarn.

Background
Professor Narain was born in 1925 in Gaya in Bihar, India and died on 10 July 2013 in Varanasi, India, his home for most of his life. In 1947 he was awarded a Post Graduate Degree in Ancient Indian History, Culture (AIHC) and Archaeology from Banaras Hindu University (BHU) securing first position in the university and claiming the Dayaram Sahni Gold Medal. He earned his PhD degree from the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London in 1954.

Career
In his long association with his alma mater he held many academic and administrative positions at BHU. He was the Manindra Chandra Nandi Professor of AIHC & Archaeology; Head of the Department of AIHC & Archaeology; Principal, College of Indology; Dean, Faculty of Arts and Director of Archaeological Excavations and Explorations Programme of the university.  In 1971, he was appointed Professor of History and South Asian Studies at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, USA, where he was also the Chair of the Buddhist Studies Program.

In 1987, Narain was granted early retirement from the University of Wisconsin–Madison and returned to India to found the Bhikkhu J. Kashyap Institute of Buddhist and Asian Studies of which he was the first Director. He remained Professor Emeritus of History and of Languages and Cultures of Asia at University of Wisconsin–Madison.

Narain was a Visiting Research Associate, School of Oriental and African Studies, London; Visiting professor, Macalester College, St. Paul, Minnesota; Visiting professor, Visvabharati, Shantiniketan; Fellow, Institute of Research in Humanities, University of Wisconsin; Fellow, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, and Visiting Fellow at Columbia University and New York University.

He was the recipient of many notable awards and research grants including the Holkar Fellowship, the Chakravikrama Gold Medal, a Rockefeller Grant, a Ford Foundation grant and a Guggenheim Fellowship. He was a Life Fellow of the Royal Numismatic Society, London and Honorary Fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. He was also an Honorary Member of the International Association of Buddhist studies.

Narain was also known for his extensive editorial contributions and many academic journals.  He published over one hundred articles and reviews on topics related to history, polity, art, archaeology, anthropology, iconography, epigraphy and palaeography, numismatics and religion in various national and international journals.

Narain's later research was about the history of peoples of Central Asia who followed the Indo-Greeks, e.g. the Indo–Scythians, Indo–Parthians and the Yue Zhi-Kushans. He organised an international conference in London on the problem of the dating of Kanishka.  He continued working on the history of these people, their movements and interactions in the context of South and Central Asia. At the time of his death, he was working on a multi-volume project entitled "From Kurush (Cyrus) to Kanishka", several volumes of which were ready for publication.  Two other areas of Narain's interest were historiography and Buddhist studies.

Recognition
 Campbell Gold Medal for Life Time Achievements in Ancient History, Numismatics and Archaeology by the Asiatic Society of Bombay, 2010
 Dayaram Sahni Gold Medal for First position in MA (1947), BHU
 Holkar Fellowship for higher studies in London (1952–54)
 Chakravikrama Gold Medal from the Numismatic Society of India
 Rockefeller grant for the International seminars and conference on Historical Writings on Asia, London (1956)
 Fellow, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton
 Ford Foundation grant for work as Consultant for the editing of Special lectures on Indian Civilization at the University of Wisconsin
 Guggenheim Fellowship (1973–74); Recipient of research grants from the American Council of Learned Society, American Philosophical Association etc.
 Life Fellow of the Royal Numismatic Society, London
 Elected Honorary Fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain (1991)
 Visited the USSR for three months in 1965 as a guest of the Academy of Sciences and as Government of India Exchange Scholar.   Visited USSR again in 1973 from USA.
 Visited Mongolia, Poland and Afghanistan as Govt. of India exchange scholar, (1965)
 Member of Justice Khosla Committee appointed by the Govt. of India to review the works of the three National Akademis of India (Sahitya Akademi, Lalit Kala Akademi and Sangeet-Natak Akademi) and the Indian Council of Cultural Relations (1969–70)
 Visited People's Republic of China in 1983 under the Distinguished Scholars' Exchange Program of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, at the invitation of the Academy of Social Sciences, China, and again in 1999 to study the "Mummies" discovered in Xinjiang
 Visited Turkey as specially invited guest on the occasion of their International Symposium on Turcology. Also nominated as one of the organising editors of Hindustan Turk Tarihi Arastirmalari, The Journal of Indo-Turcica (JIT), 2002

Select publications
 The Indo-Greeks (The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1957, 3rd OUP Reprint 1980)
 Coin-types of the Indo-Greek kings (NNM 1), published by Argonaut, Chicago
 Coin-types of Saka-Pahlava kings (NNM 3) Jointly with G.K. Jenkins
 Archaeological Excavations at Rajghat, (in 5 parts) (with excavation colleagues as co-authors)
 Studies in the History of Buddhism (Ed.) (D.K. Publishers, New Delhi, 1980)
 Studies in Pali and Buddhism (Ed.) (D.K. Publishers, new Delhi, 1979)
 Studies in Buddhist Art of South Asia (Ed.), (Kanak Publishers, New Delhi 1984)
 On the "First" Indo-Europeans : the Tokharian-Yuezhi and their Chinese homeland (Indiana University, Bloomington, 1987)
 The Greeks of Bactria and India (a Chapter in The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. VIII), (Cambridge, 1989)
 Indo-Europeans in Inner Asia (a Chapter in The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia), (Cambridge, 1990)
 "Approaches and Perspectives" being the Presidential address at the First Annual Conference of the Indian Society of Greek and Roman Studies 1991, Barelly 1992
 Dr.B.R. Ambedkar, Buddhism and Social Change (Ed. Jointly with D.C.Ahir), (D.K. Publishers, 1993)
 "Asia and the Twenty-first Century : Looking Back and Looking Ahead," being the Presidential Address at the First Conference of the Indian Congress of Asian and Pacific Studies held at Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, in 1995
 The Earliest Sakas of South Asia, being Dr. Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Memorial Lectures, 1993, Patna, 1998
 The Tokharians, a History without Nation-state Boundaries, being the Rajiv Gandhi Memorial Lectures, at the ICSSR-NERC, NEHU, Shillong
 The Date of the Historical Sakyamuni Buddha (editor) 2002
 Saka-Yavanam (a paper back reprint edition of his earlier works on the Indo-Greeks and Sakas) 2002

References

20th-century Indian historians
Indian numismatists
Historians of India
Banaras Hindu University alumni
Academic staff of Banaras Hindu University
1925 births
2013 deaths
People from Gaya, India
Scientists from Bihar
20th-century Indian archaeologists

A. K. Narain


A friar is a member of one of the mendicant orders founded in the twelfth or thirteenth century; the term distinguishes the mendicants' itinerant apostolic character, exercised broadly under the jurisdiction of a superior general, from the older monastic orders' allegiance to a single monastery formalized by their vow of stability. A friar may be in holy orders or be a brother. The most significant orders of friars are the Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustinians, and Carmelites.

Definition
Friars are different from monks in that they are called to the great evangelical counsels (vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience) in service to society, rather than through cloistered asceticism and devotion. Whereas monks live in a self-sufficient community, friars work among laypeople and are supported by donations or other charitable support. Monks or nuns make their vows and commit to a particular community in a particular place. Friars commit to a community spread across a wider geographical area known as a province and so they will typically move around, spending time in different houses of the community within their province.

Etymology
The English term friar is derived from the Norman French word frere (brother), from the Latin frater (brother), which was widely used in the Latin New Testament to refer to members of the Christian community. Fray is sometimes used in Spain and former Spanish colonies such as the Philippines or the American Southwest as a title, such as in Fray Juan de Torquemada.

Orders

In the Roman Catholic Church, there are two classes of orders known as friars, or mendicant orders: the four great orders and the so-called lesser orders.

Major orders
The four great orders were mentioned by the Second Council of Lyons (1274):

 The Carmelites, founded  1155. They are also known as the White Friars because of the white cloak which covers their brown habit. They received papal approval from Honorius III in 1226 and later by Innocent IV in 1247. The Carmelites were founded as a purely contemplative order, but became mendicants in 1245. There are two types of Carmelites, those of the Ancient Observance (OCarm) and those of the Discalced Carmelites (OCD), founded by St. Teresa of Ávila in the 16th century.

 The Franciscans, founded in 1209. They are also known as the Friars Minor. The Franciscans were founded by St. Francis of Assisi and received oral papal approval by Innocent III in 1209 and formal papal confirmation by Honorius III in 1223. Today the Friars Minor is composed of three branches: the Order of Friars Minor (Brown Franciscans), Order of Friars Minor Capuchin (Brown Friars with long pointed hoods) and the Order of Friars Minor Conventual wearing grey or black habits (thus known as Grey Friars). In the Franciscan order, a friar may be an ordained priest or a non-ordained brother.
 The Dominicans, founded  1216. They are also known as the Friar Preachers or the Black Friars from the black mantle (cappa) worn over their white habit. The Dominicans were founded by St. Dominic and received papal approval from Honorius III in 1216 as the Ordo Praedicatorum under the Rule of St. Augustine. They became a mendicant order in 1221.
 The Augustinians, founded in 1244 (the "Little Union") and enlarged in 1256 (the Grand Union). They are also known as the Hermits of St. Augustine or the Austin Friars. Their rule is based on the writings of Augustine of Hippo. The Augustinians were assembled from various groups of hermits as a mendicant order by Pope Innocent IV in 1244 (Little Union). Additional groups were added by Alexander IV in 1256 (Grand Union).

Lesser orders
Some of the lesser orders are:
 the Trinitarians, established in 1198
 the Mercedarians, established in 1218
 the Servites, established in 1240
 the Minims, established in 1474
 the Third Order Regular of St. Francis, a branch of the Third Order of St. Francis, part of the Franciscan Order established in 1447
 the Discalced Carmelites, established in 1568
 the Order of Augustinian Recollects, established in 1598 through the Chapter of Toledo
 the Discalced Trinitarians, established in 1599
 the Order of Penance, established in 1781

Order of Malta
In the Sovereign Military Order of Malta the term Fra' (an abbreviation for the Latin word "frater" meaning "brother") is used when addressing the professed Knights of Justice who have taken vows.

Other Christian traditions
Orders of friars (and sisters) exist in other Christian traditions, including the Order of Lutheran Franciscans, the Order of Ecumenical Franciscans and the Order of Lesser Sisters and Brothers. In the Anglican Communion there are also a number of mendicant groups such as the Anglican Friars Preachers, the Society of Saint Francis and the Order of St Francis.

Other usage of the term
Several high schools, as well as Providence College, use friars as their school mascot.

The Major League Baseball team San Diego Padres have the Swinging Friar ("padre" is also a Spanish word for the priestly title "father"; in 1769 San Diego was founded by Spanish Franciscan friars under Junípero Serra).

The University of Michigan's oldest a cappella group is a male octet known as The Friars. The University of Pennsylvania has a senior honor society known as Friars. Sports teams at Father Dueñas Memorial School on the island of Guam are known as the Friars.

References

Christian religious occupations
Catholicism in the Middle Ages

Friar


Francine DelMonte (D-Lewiston) is a former member of the New York State Assembly who represented the former 138th Assembly District in New York State.  She lost the Democratic primary to former Niagara Falls City Councilman, John Accardo (D-Niagara Falls) in September 2010. She ultimately ran on the Working Families Party line. She was succeeded by former Niagara County Legislator John Ceretto (R-Lewiston). The 138th District encompassed several municipalities including the towns of Lewiston, Cambria, Wilson, Porter, Niagara, Wheatfield, Newfane, and Hartland, the City of Niagara Falls, and the Tuscarora Indian Reservation in Lewiston.

Before serving the 138th District, she was a reporter for the Niagara Gazette. She then served as Chief of Staff for then-Assemblyman Joseph Pillittere. When Pillittere announced his retirement in 1998, DelMonte announced her candidacy. DelMonte lost the Democratic Party primary to then-Niagara County Legislator Renae Kimble and ultimately ran on a third-party line, where she and Kimble were defeated by Robert Daly, who ran on the Republican Party line. Robert Daly replaced Pillittere in January 1998, and Renae Kimble continued serving as a Niagara County Legislator in Niagara Falls until she retired in 2011. DelMonte ran successfully, with the endorsement of the Democratic Party, in 2000, defeating the incumbent Daly.

While in the Assembly, DelMonte authored legislation creating the Niagara Wine Trail, which supports the growing wine industry by attracting thousands of visitors each year. DelMonte has fought for the continued growth of the wine trail and has supported this growing industry.

DelMonte also introduced legislation to create the Underground Railroad Heritage Commission to provide an opportunity for students and families to learn about the role Niagara Falls played during the Civil War, possibly increasing heritage tourism in Niagara Falls with the construction of a new museum and rail terminal.

Niagara Falls also hosts the Seneca Niagara Casino, the state's first urban based Native American casino. Assemblywoman DelMonte championed controversial legislation authorizing the governor to negotiate a compact with the Seneca Nation.

She has also helped secure a portion of the funding for the construction of a new terminal at the Niagara Falls International Airport and secured a $6.6 million grant for Niagara County Community College to create a new culinary arts facility for downtown Niagara Falls within the former Rainbow Centre Factory Outlet. Originally, she was against the proposal for a new airport due to the opinion of Ex-Niagara Falls Mayor Vince Anello.

Assemblywoman DelMonte is an advocate on environmental issues in her district. She has sponsored legislation that prohibits the transport of PCB's from the Hudson River cleanup to the CWM waste disposal site in the Town of Porter.

DelMonte graduated from Buffalo State College and completed course work for a Master of Arts degree from SUNY Albany. She is a lifelong resident of Niagara County. DelMonte was a member of the Agriculture, Economic Development, Racing and Wagering, Energy, Tourism, and Transportation committees. DelMonte was also the Chair of the Assembly Commission on Science and Technology.

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Democratic Party members of the New York State Assembly
Politicians from Niagara Falls, New York
Women state legislators in New York (state)
Buffalo State College alumni
University at Albany, SUNY alumni
21st-century American politicians
21st-century American women politicians

Francine DelMonte


The bluebirds are a group of medium-sized, mostly insectivorous or omnivorous Passerine birds. They are in the genus Sialia of the thrush family (Turdidae).

Bluebirds are one of the few thrush genera in the Americas. They have blue, or blue and rose beige, plumage. Female birds are less brightly colored than males, although color patterns are similar and there is no noticeable difference in size between the two sexes.

Bluebirds are territorial and prefer open grassland with scattered trees. Predators of young bluebirds in the nests may include snakes, cats, and raccoons. Bird species competing with bluebirds for nesting locations include the common starling, American crow, and house sparrows. House sparrows take over the nesting sites of bluebirds, killing young, smashing eggs, and probably killing adult bluebirds.

Bluebirds species include:

 Eastern bluebird, Sialia sialis
 Western bluebird, Sialia mexicana
 Mountain bluebird, Sialia currucoides

References

Thrushes

Bluebird


"Contest of Chaos" is an American comic book crossover storyline written by Stephanie Phillips with art by Alberto Foche, David Cutler, and Alan Robinson, published in 2023 by Marvel Comics. The story involves Agatha Harkness acquiring the Darkhold and corrupting superheroes to fight each other.  The event received mixed to negative reviews from critics with criticism toward the story and the repetitive use of heroes fighting each other.

Publication history
On March 2, 2023, Marvel announced  the event Contest of Chaos which will have Agatha Harkness go into conflict with Scarlet Witch and set off a magical challenge where the heroes will be corrupted into fighting each other.

Plot
Spider-Man defeats the Rhino in New York City but is transported to a magical city in the Amazon rainforest due to Agatha Harkness' spell. Agatha uses Chthon's remains to create a new Darkhold and immobilizes it. Spider-Man encounters Wolverine, who was also transported, and they encounter a purple orb that corrupts them. Spider-Man and Wolverine fight with Wolverine winning due to Spider-Man holding back. Wolverine uses the orb to disappear and gives Agatha the orb while Spider-Man is transported back to New York City. Spider-Man meets up with Jessica Jones to find out what has been happening.

Storm and Iron Man meet up in Mexico due to them hearing voices in their heads leading them to there. They go into Giant Crystal Cave where they are tricked by the crystals into fighting each other. Storm manages to depower Iron Man by shooting at his chest piece when he lets his guard down, but Iron Man shoots a missile destroying the crystals. However, this causes the crystals to use their effect more ending with Storm defeating Iron Man. However, she is taken away by mysterious purple clouds while Iron Man calls Captain Marvel to inform her of the recent events. Meanwhile, Spider-Man realizes that there are a lot of magic users that could be causing the heroes to fight each other, but struggles with narrowing one down. Jones reads about Iron Man and Storm's fight in Mexico, and goes with Spider-Man to meet with Clea Strange to find out what is happening.

Human Torch and Thing are cleaning up a shoe store in Arizona when Human Torch is transported to Hell where he meets Ghost Rider, who was also transported there. Ghost Rider attacks Human Torch, falsely blaming him for trapping them there, but they put aside their differences to fend off demons. Human Torch and Ghost Rider resume fighting as "Hell" is revealed to be an illusion and the two are transported onto a moving train in the American Midwest. The Torch defeats the Rider by knocking off the train with his own chain and just as the train stops in Chicago, Agatha captures Human Torch and locks him up. Clea explains to Spider-Man and Jessica Jones that her sisters tried to capture Chaos to control its destructive potential, and transports the three to Chaos itself.

Moon Knight is in New Jersey hunting the Jersey Devil but encounters Taegukgi who is on a similar mission. Both of them meet up in an area with purple Etsium crystals imbued with Chaos energy, which causes them to fight each other. They take alternate reality forms of themselves due to the Etsium crystals and keep on fighting each other, with Moon Knight surrendering the fight, and Taegukgi touching the purple crystals. Agatha travels to the Bermuda Triangle but is attacked by demons who are angry she created a new Darkhold. Agatha manages to ward off the demons by summoning Wolverine, Human Torch, Taegukgi, and Storm to aid her.

Ghost-Spider is trapped in a medieval fantasy world where she is a knight fighting off an invasion led by White Fox. While fighting, White Fox realizes that the "dream" is actually a haikyo, and when several animatronics steal an orb that Ghost-Spider was supposed to protect, the two team up to recover the orb. They walk into a tunnel where they enter a room where the orb forces them to fight each other while threatening their loved ones. White Fox defeats Ghost-Spider and is taken by the orb, with Ghost-Spider promising to save her. Spider-Man, Jessica Jones, and Clea teleport to the area where Spider-Man and Wolverine previously fought, where Clea explains the reason why the heroes are fighting recently is because someone is using the Chaos magic to manipulate the heroes. Clea tries using her spell to find out who, but is knocked out and meets Agatha's spirit in the astral plane.

Deadpool is walking his symbiote dog Princess in New York City when he is magically transported to Hopper Land, an amusement park in the United Kingdom. The Venom symbiote and its current host Dylan Brock are also transported to Hopper Land, interrupting their search for Venom's previous host and Dylan's father Eddie. One of Agatha's familiars offers Venom and Deadpool an opportunity to compete for a mystical Limited Edition Hopper made up of pure Chaos energy that could alter reality, as well as lifetime tickets for Hopper Land.  Venom and Deadpool engage in a bloody and vicious duel for the prize with Venom ultimately winning. Agatha appears and captures Venom and Dylan while Deadpool is sent back to his apartment. Clea and Agatha briefly engage in the astral plane and Agatha's sprit is knocked back into her physical body in the Bermuda Triangle, where she meets her summoned champions, which now include White Fox and Venom.

Cyclops awakens in a seemingly abandoned town in Iceland and encounters Captain Marvel, who is also unclear on how she ended there. The two are prevented from leaving by a force field created by Chaos magic surrounding the town and egged on by the energies radiating from the Chaos, begin acting irrational and aggressive towards each other. Realizing that a fish imbued with Chaos energy will allow one of them to escape, Cyclops and Captain Marvel fight each other. Captain Marvel absorbs a large amount of Cyclops' optic energy; Cyclops warns her that her acquired energy will potentially kill him and civilians if they continue to fight. Captain Marvel surrenders and collapses from the energy overload, allowing Cyclops to claim the fish.  Cyclops becomes magically possessed and transported to Agatha while Captain Marvel is transported away.  Meanwhile, Clea realizes that Agatha's plan to create a new Darkhold involves using Chaos energy generated from her possessed Champions, which would result in worse outcome if it fails.  Clea and Jones track Agatha's location in the Bermuda Triangle as Spider-Man contacts the Avengers (Scarlet Witch, Iron Man, Captain Marvel, Captain America, Black Panther, Thor, and Vision).

The Avengers try to go meet Agatha, but they are attacked by Agatha's possessed heroes. Scarlet Witch is nearly killed by Cyclops, but Captain Marvel saves her. Spider-Man, Jessica Jones, and Clea arrive. Captain Marvel realizes that Agatha is trying to create a new Darkhold as she and Wanda meet Agatha. Wanda and Captain Marvel try to appease and calm down Agatha, but it does not work. During the chaos, Agatha drops the Darkhold and Carol Danvers picks it up which causes a huge explosion. When the dust settles, the possessed heroes are free and Agatha is missing while the rest of the heroes escape and relax on a beach. Agatha wakes up on a beach and realizes that her new Darkhold has taken on a sentient form and is slowly gaining power.

Reading order
 Scarlet Witch Annual #1
 Spider-Man Annual (Volume 4) #1
 Iron Man Annual (Volume 4) #1
 Fantastic Four Annual (Volume 3) #1
 Moon Knight Annual (Volume 4) #1
 Spider-Gwen Annual (Volume 2) #1
 Venom Annual (Volume 3) #1
 X-Men Annual (Volume 5) #1
 Avengers Annual (Volume 5) #1

Critical reception
According to Comicbook Roundup, Scarlet Witch Annual #1 received an average rating of 8.8 out of 10 based on 6 reviews.

According to Comicbook Roundup, Spider-Man Annual #1 received an average rating of 5.8 out of 10 based on 5 reviews.

According to Comicbook Roundup, Invincible Iron Man Annual #1 received an average rating of 5.7 out of 10 based on 2 reviews.

According to Comicbook Roundup, Fantastic Four Annual #1 received an average rating of 6 out of 10 based on 1 review.

According to Comicbook Roundup, Moon Knight Annual 2023 received an average rating of 6.9 out of 10 based on 3 reviews.

According to Comicbook Roundup, Venom Annual #1 received an average rating of 8 out of 10 based on 1 review.

According to Comicbook Roundup, X-Men Annual 2023 received an average rating of 3 out of 10 based on 1 review.

According to Comicbook Roundup, Avengers Annual 2023 received an average rating of 6 out of 10 based on 1 review.

References

Contest of Chaos


Say Anything... is a 1989 American teen romantic comedy drama film written and directed by Cameron Crowe (in his feature directorial debut). The film follows the romance between Lloyd Dobler (John Cusack), an average student, and Diane Court (Ione Skye), the class valedictorian, immediately after their graduation from high school.

Say Anything... was theatrically released in the United States on April 14, 1989, by 20th Century Fox. The film received highly positive reviews from critics. In 2002, Entertainment Weekly ranked Say Anything... as the greatest modern movie romance, and it was ranked number 11 on Entertainment Weekly list of the 50 best high school movies.

Plot

At the end of their senior year of high school, noble underachiever Lloyd Dobler falls for valedictorian Diane Court and plans to ask her out, though they belong to different social groups.

Lloyd's parents are stationed in Germany for the Army, so he lives with his sister Constance, a single mother, and has no plans yet for his future. Diane comes from a sheltered academic upbringing, living with her doting divorced father Jim, who owns the retirement home where she works. She will take up a prestigious fellowship in England at the end of the summer.

Lloyd offers to take Diane to their graduation party. She agrees, to everyone's surprise. Their next "date" is a dinner at Diane's, where Lloyd fails to impress Jim, and the Internal Revenue Service informs the latter he is under scrutiny.

Diane introduces Lloyd to the retirement home residents and he teaches her to drive her manual transmission Ford Tempo graduation gift. They grow closer and become intimate, to her father's concern. Lloyd's musician best friend Corey, who has never gotten over her cheating ex-boyfriend, Joe, warns him to take care of Diane.

Jim urges Diane to break up with Lloyd, feeling he is not an appropriate match, and suggests she give Lloyd a pen as a parting gift. Worried about her father, Diane tells Lloyd she wants to stop seeing him and concentrate on her studies, giving him the pen. Devastated, he seeks advice from Corey, who tells him to "be a man". Meanwhile, Jim discovers his credit cards are declined as the investigation drags on.

At dawn, Lloyd plays "In Your Eyes" by Peter Gabriel, which was playing when they became intimate, on a boombox, standing under her open bedroom window. The next day, Diane meets with the IRS investigator, who says they have evidence incriminating Jim with embezzling funds from his retirement home residents. He suggests she accept the fellowship as matters with her father will worsen.

Diane finds the cash concealed at home and confronts Jim, who tells her he took it to give her financial independence. Jim feels justified in doing so as he provided better care of his residents than their families. Distraught, she reconciles with Lloyd at his kickboxing gym.

At the end of summer, Jim is incarcerated on a nine-month sentence. Lloyd visits him at the prison, saying he is going with Diane to England; Jim reacts with anger. Lloyd gives him a letter from Diane, but she arrives to say goodbye and they embrace. She gives him the pen she gave Lloyd, asking him to write to her in England. Lloyd comforts Diane, who is afraid of flying, on their flight.

Cast

 John Cusack as Lloyd Dobler
 Ione Skye as Diane Court
 John Mahoney as Jim Court
 Lili Taylor as Corey Flood
 Amy Brooks as D.C.
 Pamela Adlon as Rebecca
 Jason Gould as Mike Cameron
 Loren Dean as Joe
 Polly Platt as Mrs. Flood
 Bebe Neuwirth as Mrs. Evans
 Jeremy Piven as Mark
 Eric Stoltz as Vahlere
 Kim Walker as Sheila
 Chynna Phillips as Mimi
 Joan Cusack as Constance Dobler (uncredited)
 Philip Baker Hall as IRS Boss
 Richard Portnow as IRS Agent Stewart
 Joanna Frank as Mrs. Kerwin
 John Hillner as Court's Attorney
 Dan Castellaneta as Diane's teacher (uncredited)
 Lois Chiles as Diane's mother (uncredited)

Casting
Jennifer Connelly and Ione Skye vied for the role of Diane Court, but Skye was cast. Robert Downey Jr. was offered the role of Lloyd Dobler, but turned it down. Christian Slater and Kirk Cameron were also considered for the role. Dick Van Dyke and Richard Dreyfuss were considered for the role of Jim Court.

Soundtrack
AllMusic wrote that the soundtrack, like the film, is "much smarter than the standard teen fare of the era." The soundtrack consists of these songs:

Critical reception
Say Anything... received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 98% based on 49 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1/10. The website's consensus reads, "One of the definitive Generation X movies, Say Anything is equally funny and heartfelt—and it established John Cusack as an icon for left-of-center types everywhere." On Metacritic the film has a score of 86 based on reviews from 19 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B+ on scale of A to F.

Giving the film four stars out of four, Chicago Sun-Times film critic Roger Ebert called Say Anything... "one of the best films of the year—a film that is really about something, that cares deeply about the issues it contains—and yet it also works wonderfully as a funny, warmhearted romantic comedy." He later included it in his 2002 Great Movie list, writing, "Say Anything exists entirely in a real world, is not a fantasy or a pious parable, has characters who we sort of recognize, and is directed with care for the human feelings involved."

In a less positive review, Variety called it a "half-baked love story, full of good intentions but uneven in the telling." But, the review also said the film's "[a]ppealing tale of an undirected army brat proving himself worthy of the most exceptional girl in high school elicits a few laughs, plenty of smiles and some genuine feeling." In a mixed review, Caryn James of The New York Times wrote:
[The film] resembles a first-rate production of a children's story. Its sense of parents and the summer after high school is myopic, presented totally from the teenagers' point of view. Yet its melodrama—Will Dad go to prison? Will Diane go to England?—distorts that perspective, so the film doesn't have much to offer an actual adult, not even a sense of what it's truly like to be just out of high school these days. The film is all charming performances and grace notes, but there are plenty of worse things to be.

Cultural influence
The film features one of the most culturally recognizable scenes in American movie history, in which John Cusack holds a boombox above his head outside Diane's bedroom window to let her know that he has not given up on her. Crowe and producer James L. Brooks believed the scene could become a hallmark of the movie, though Crowe found it difficult to film because Cusack felt it was "too passive". The scene was first scored with Fishbone's "Question of Life", but after viewing the scene, Crowe opted to replace it with Peter Gabriel's "In Your Eyes" to better fit the mood that he wished to convey. Gabriel initially turned down Crowe because he confused the film with another film in production at the time, a John Belushi biography called Wired.

"That scene is like Romeo under the trellis," said Crowe reminiscing about the iconic scene. "But I have this feeling when I watch it that it's filled with double emotion – both with the story and the actors, whose own trepidation bleeds in."

In a September 2012 interview with Rolling Stone, discussing the 25th anniversary of So (from which "In Your Eyes" hails), Gabriel commented on the cultural impact of the scene, "It definitely gave [the song] a second life, because now it's so often parodied in comedy shows and it is one of the modern day Romeo and Juliet balcony clichés. I've talked to John Cusack about that. We're sort of trapped together in a minuscule moment of contemporary culture." In October 2012, as Gabriel played the first few bars of the song during a performance at the Hollywood Bowl, Cusack walked onto the stage, handed him a boombox and took a bow, before quickly walking off again. Cameron Crowe was also present at the concert and later tweeted "Peter Gabriel and John Cusack on stage together at the Hollywood Bowl tonight. Won't forget that... ever."

At a concert in Madison Square Garden on September 18, 2023 (touring his album I/O), Gabriel held up an inflatable toy boombox during a performance of "In Your Eyes," reported as "a nod to Lloyd Dobler."

Canceled TV series
A television series based on the movie was planned by NBC and 20th Century Fox, but producers Aaron Kaplan and Justin Adler did not know that Crowe had not approved of the project. When they found out his views, the show was dropped.

References

External links

 Say Anything...' says so much", Los Angeles Times, October 25, 2009.

20th Century Fox films
American coming-of-age comedy-drama films
American romantic comedy-drama films
American teen comedy-drama films
American teen romance films
Coming-of-age romance films
Films directed by Cameron Crowe
Films produced by James L. Brooks
Films scored by Anne Dudley
Films scored by Richard Gibbs
Films set in Seattle
Films shot in Washington (state)
Films with screenplays by Cameron Crowe
Gracie Films films
1980s American films
1980s coming-of-age comedy-drama films
1980s English-language films
1980s romantic comedy-drama films
1980s teen comedy-drama films
1980s teen romance films
1989 comedy-drama films
1989 directorial debut films
1989 films

Say Anything...


Mujhse Shaadi Karogi () is a 2004 Indian Hindi-language romantic comedy movie directed by David Dhawan and produced by Sajid Nadiadwala. The movie stars Salman Khan, Akshay Kumar and Priyanka Chopra in the lead roles. The supporting cast includes Amrish Puri, Kader Khan, Satish Shah and Rajpal Yadav.

Mujhse Shaadi Karogi was released on July 30, 2004 to positive reviews, receiving praise for its direction, performances, music, cinematography, art direction, costumes and styling. With a box-office gross of  565 million, the movie was a commercial success, becoming the third-highest-grossing Indian film of the year. Mujhse Shaadi Karogi was nominated for three Filmfare Awards. The film received thirteen nominations at the 2005 IIFA Awards, including Best Film, Best Director (Dhawan), Best Actor (Khan) and Best Actress (Chopra), winning five awards. It received ten Screen Awards nominations, including Best Film.

Cast
 Salman Khan as Sameer Malhotra
 Akshay Kumar as Shani "Sunny" / Arun Khanna
 Priyanka Chopra as Rani Singh
 Amrish Puri as Colonel Jugraj Singh
 Kader Khan as Mr. Duggal
 Satish Shah as Suraj Prakash
 Rajpal Yadav as Raj Purohit Jyotshi and Paul
 Amrita Arora as Roma
 Vindu Dara Singh as a gang member
 Supriya Karnik as Rama Jugraj Singh, the colonel's wife and Rani's mother
 Shashikala as Grandma Malhotra
 Upasana Singh as Mrs. Suraj Prakash
 Parth Dave as young Sameer
 Shefali Jariwala as Bijili
 Sajid Khan as himself
 Kurush Deboo as a dog-seller
 Rajesh Vivek as Chutki Baba

Cricketers made cameo appearances as themselves:
 Irfan Pathan
 Javagal Srinath
 Ashish Nehra
 Harbhajan Singh
 Parthiv Patel
 Kapil Dev
 Mohammad Kaif
 Navjot Singh Sidhu

References

Mujhse Shaadi Karogi


Chevalier is a 2022 American biographical drama film based on the life of the titular French-Caribbean musician Joseph Bologne, Chevalier de Saint-Georges, played by Kelvin Harrison Jr. The film is directed by Stephen Williams and written by Stefani Robinson. The film also stars Samara Weaving, Lucy Boynton, Marton Csokas, Alex Fitzalan, Minnie Driver, and Ronkẹ Adékoluẹjo.

Chevalier had its world premiere at the 47th Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 2022, and was released in the United States by Searchlight Pictures on April 21, 2023. The film received generally favorable reviews from critics.

Plot
In the late 1700s in Paris, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is performing on stage when a man who introduces himself as Joseph Bologne requests to accompany his performance of Violin Concerto No. 5. Initially both Mozart and the audience underestimate Joseph, but once he impresses them with his performance, the two musicians perform battling cadenza pieces, ending in a triumph for Joseph.

Joseph is born in Guadeloupe to plantation owner  and Nanon, an enslaved woman of African descent on de Bologne's plantation. As a child, Joseph is taken to a Parisian boarding school after his father notices his skill at violin and composition. Joseph is harassed by many of his peers and teachers but excels at his studies, music, and fencing. At the French court, Marie Antoinette is impressed by his skills after seeing him fence, and she knights him Chevalier de Saint-Georges ("Chevalier" is French for "knight"). Saint-Georges becomes a favored companion of the Queen and is popular member of court. Saint-Georges also attracts the attention of many female suitors, namely Marie-Madeleine Guimard, but he himself is attracted to .

Saint-Georges seeks to become the director of the Paris Opera, but the committee in charge favors Christoph Willibald Gluck. He goes to Marie-Joséphine's cousin, Stéphanie Félicité, comtesse de Genlis, who agrees to produce an opera for him to impress committee members. Marie-Joséphine agrees to be the lead singer of his opera, even though her husband, Marc-René de Montalembert, refuses to allow her to perform. She leads the opera anyway, and begins an affair with Saint-Georges.

After his father's death, Saint-Georges' mother is freed from enslavement and meets him in Paris. Saint-Georges slowly grows to resent his mother as she sees him as rejecting his true-self in order to appease the white-dominated society around him. He is also ambivalent to the growing social discontent, intellectual discourse, and the large black population that surrounds him in Paris.

Marie Antoinette informs Saint-Georges that he has been barred from seeking the directorship of the Paris Opera on account of his race. She refuses to defend him as her standing is in decline among the nobility and the people. Saint-Georges later attends the opera, now headed by Gluck, and becomes intoxicated. After he has an outburst at Gluck, Guimard, and the Queen, Marc-René has him apprehended and threatens to break his fingers if he ever sees his wife again. Months later, Marie-Joséphine gives birth to a child, but because it has dark skin color, Marc-René has it killed. Outcast from high society, Saint-Georges becomes close with his mother and embraces more of his heritage and those who share his skin color.

As the French Revolution begins, Saint-Georges is inspired to compose a new concert to put on in support of the revolutionaries. Marie-Joséphine and Marie Antoinette both visit him separately, but he rejects both of their advances to rekindle their friendship. The Queen threatens to revoke his status as Chevalier and have him arrested if he puts on his concert. Saint-Georges plays the concert anyway, without wearing his powdered wig, and is nearly arrested by Marc-René. The audience members, however, rise up against the officers and Marc-René is forced to let him go. As the audience erupts in chaos, Chevalier walks out, passing the Queen and protestors.

The post script reads that in 1802, Napoleon prohibited Chevalier's music productions and re-instated slavery in French colonies.

Cast

Production
In June 2020, it was reported that Searchlight Pictures had bought a feature pitch from Atlantas Stefani Robinson for Chevalier de Saint-Georges, a biopic about the musician of the same name, with Stephen Williams attached to direct. In March 2021, it was reported that Kelvin Harrison Jr. was cast in the lead role of Saint-Georges. In July 2021, Samara Weaving joined the cast as the female lead. The following month, Lucy Boynton and Minnie Driver were added to the main cast, with Alex Fitzalan cast in a supporting role and the film's title shortened to Chevalier.

Principal photography began on September 7, 2021, in Prague, and ended in November 2021.

Music

The film was scored by Kris Bowers and the soundtrack was released alongside the film.

Release
Chevalier had its world premiere at the 47th Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 2022. Originally set to be released by Searchlight Pictures in theaters on April 7, 2023, the date was pushed back to April 21, 2023, and its on-demand release came on June 16, 2023.

Reception

Box office
Chevalier grossed $3.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $439,826 in the United Kingdom, for a total worldwide of $4 million.

In the United States and Canada, the film was released alongside The Covenant, Evil Dead Rise, and the wide expansion of Beau Is Afraid, and was projected to gross $1–3 million from 1,275 theaters in its opening weekend. It ended up debuting to $1.5 million, finishing 11th at the box office.

Critical response

Notes and references
Notes

References

External links

2022 biographical drama films
American biographical drama films
American films based on actual events
Biographical films about musicians
Films about classical music and musicians
Drama films based on actual events
Cultural depictions of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Films about Marie Antoinette
Films about marriage
Films about society
Films about race and ethnicity
Films scored by Kris Bowers
Films set in France
Films set in the 18th century
Films shot in Prague
Searchlight Pictures films
2020s American films
2020s English-language films
English-language biographical drama films

Chevalier (2022 film)


Al-Mansur Salah ad-Din Muhammad ibn Hajji ibn Muhammad ibn Qalawun (1347/48–1398), better known as al-Mansur Muhammad, was the Mamluk sultan in 1361–1363. He ruled in name only, with power held by the Mamluk magnates, particularly Yalbugha al-Umari, al-Mansur Muhammad's regent. The latter had al-Manur Muhammad's predecessor and uncle an-Nasir Hasan killed and al-Mansur Muhammad installed to replace him.

Biography
Al-Mansur Muhammad was the son of Sultan al-Muzaffar Hajji (r. 1346–1347). Following the murder of his uncle, Sultan an-Nasir Hasan (r. 1354–1361), by Emir Yalbugha al-Umari in 1361, the latter and the other senior emirs or magnates selected al-Mansur Muhammad, then an adolescent, as an-Nasir Hasan's successor. His kingmakers consisted of eight emirs, chief among whom were emirs Yalbugha and Taybugha al-Tawil. Their decision to appoint al-Mansur Muhammad, a grandson Sultan an-Nasir Muhammad (r. 1310–1341), ended the tradition of installing sons of an-Nasir Muhammad as sultans. They chose al-Mansur Muhammad instead of an-Nasir Muhammad's last surviving son, al-Amjad Husayn, because they believed al-Mansur Muhammad would be easier to control. In the new order, Yalbugha was the most powerful of the senior emirs, although he ruled mostly in concert with Taybugha.

In early 1363, Yalbugha and Taybugha had al-Mansur Muhammad deposed based on allegations of the sultan's illicit behavior. They chose his cousin, al-Ashraf Sha'ban, the ten-year-old son of al-Amjad Husayn, as al-Mansur Muhammad's successor, in the belief that he would be easier to dominate. Al-Mansur Muhammad died in 1398 and was buried in the mausoleum of his paternal grandmother (wife of al-Muzaffar Hajji) in Rawda Island. He had ten children.

References

Bibliography

1347 births
1398 deaths
14th-century Mamluk sultans
Bahri sultans
Medieval child monarchs
Monarchs deposed as children

Al-Mansur Muhammad, Sultan of Egypt


Adolphe Gagnon (May 20, 1810 – August 28, 1885) was a merchant and political figure in Quebec. He represented Charlevoix in the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada from 1861 to 1866 and in the Legislative Assembly of Quebec from 1871 to 1875 as a Liberal member.

He was born in Baie-Saint-Paul, Quebec, the son of Louis-Joseph Gagnon and Marguerite Durette,(a.k.a. Marguerite Durette dit Rochefort).  Gagnon was a justice of the peace and a lieutenant in the militia for Charlevoix County. He served as mayor of the parish of Saint-Pierre-et-Saint-Paul from 1845 to 1857 and as county warden. Gagnon was married twice: to Ursule Garneau in 1833 and to Adelphine Huot in 1855. He was an unsuccessful candidate for a seat in the Legislative Council in 1856 and 1857. In 1867, he ran unsuccessfully for a seat in the Canadian House of Commons. Gagnon died in the parish of Saint-Pierre-et-Saint-Paul at the age of 75.

His daughter Justine married Henry Simard who later served in the House of Commons.

References

1810 births
1885 deaths
Mayors of places in Quebec
People from Baie-Saint-Paul
Quebec Liberal Party MNAs
Canadian justices of the peace
Members of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada from Canada East
French Quebecers

Adolphe Gagnon


Kirrily White is an Australian actress.

Early life
Born and raised in Sydney, White was involved in school plays and concerts at a young age, while also studying ballet, piano and drama. White aspired to have an acting career and, when she was 14, along with 70 other teenagers, she wrote and performed a play called Winds of the Solstice at the Sydney Opera House. After completing high school, White began an arts degree at Sydney University, studying English, Linguistics, Philosophy and Australian Literature, but focusing on drama. In 1994, White moved to Perth to focus on her acting career.

Acting career

Television
White began her television acting career with a guest role on Murder Call in 1997 and had another small role in Children's Hospital in the same year. She also had a one episode role in Murder Call. In 1998 she joined the cast of Australian hospital drama All Saints playing nurse Stephanie Markham. After 106 episodes she left the series in 2000. White had a one episode role in White Collar Blue. In 2003, White had a guest role in the third season of The Secret Life of Us in the episode, "Playing With Fire".

Theatre
In 1997, White appeared in a Sydney Theatre Company of Mongrels. She also appeared in another STC production in the same year, Private Lives. White appeared in the theatre production A Moment on the Lips in 2003 that played at the Old Fitzroy Hotel Theatre.

In 2005 she appeared in The Department Store.

Filmography

Behavioural therapy
White formerly worked as a behavioural therapist for The L.E.A.R.N. Foundation, an organisation that works with children with autism.

References

Australian television actresses
Living people
1973 births

Kirrily White