Aisha Lemu, MON (died 5 January 2019) was a British-born author and religious educator who converted to Islam in 1961 and lived most of her life in Nigeria.

Life
Lemu was born in Poole, Dorset, in 1940, as Bridget Honey. At the age of thirteen, she began to question her faith and began exploring other religions including Hinduism and Chinese Buddhism. She studied at the University of London's School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), pursuing her interest in Chinese history, language and culture. While there, she met Muslims who gave her Islamic literature to read and she converted to Islam at the Islamic Cultural Centre in 1961, during her first year of study. She subsequently helped to found the Islamic Society at SOAS, becoming its first secretary, and also assisted in the formation of the Federation of Student Islamic Societies.

After graduating from SOAS, Lemu studied for a postgraduate qualification to teach English as a foreign language and while doing so, she met her future husband, Sheikh Ahmed Lemu, who had been studying at another college of the University of London and was involved in the Islamic activities around the institution. Having obtained her Postgraduate Certificate in Education, she moved to Kano in Nigeria in August 1966 to teach at the School for Arabic Studies there, where Sheikh Ahmed Lemu worked as headmaster. They married in April 1968, with Aisha becoming his second wife. She subsequently moved to Sokoto to take up the position of principal of the Government Girls College.

Dr. Sheikh Ahmed Lemu was Grand Qadi of the Sharia Court of Appeal of the State of Niger when it was founded in 1976, and Aisha was principal of the Women's Teachers College in Minna from then until 1978. The couple founded the Islamic Education Trust, which now operates in several Nigerian states has offices and a library, includes a publisher, primary and secondary school and adult education centre for women. Lemu was a member of the Islamic Studies Panel, set up by the Nigerian Educational Research Council, which was to revise the national Islamic curriculum for different school levels.

In 1985, Lemu founded the Federation of Muslim Women's Associations of Nigeria (FOMWAN) with other Muslim women and was elected as its first national Amirah for four years. Lemu served as a civil servant after this term of office.

Award and honor
In 2000, Lemu was awarded the Member of the Order of Niger (MON) national honour by the President Olusegun Obasanjo.

She died on 5 January 2019 in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.

Publications
 A student's introduction to Islam . Macmillan Education, London 1971.
 Gabatar da addinin Musulunci ga dalibi . Northern Nigerian Pub. Co., Zaria 1976.
 with Fatima Heeren : Woman in Islam. Papers delivered at the International Islamic Conference, held in London from 3 to 12 April 1976 . Islamic Council of Europe, Leicester, 1976. New edition Islamic Foundation, Markfield 2007. .
 with Fatima armies: Kvinden i islams verden. Scientific Research House, Kuwait and Islamisk Ungdomsforbund, Valby 1978.  .
 Islamic citizenship and moral responsibility . Islamic Education Trust, Minna 1979.
 Students' Islamic Society Branch Organization ( Islamic Education Trust Guidelines series ). Islamic Education Trust, Minna 1979.
 Methodology of primary Islamic studies. A handbook for teachers . Islamic Publications Bureau, Lagos 1980.
 A critical look at the theory of evolution (= IIFSO 46). International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations, Salimiah [Kuwait] 1982.
 A degree above them. Observations on the condition of the northern Nigerian Muslim woman . Islamic Education Trust, Minna and Gaskia Corporation respectively, Zaria 1983.
 The theory of evolution from the Islamic perspective (= International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations, p . 46). Translated by Ayisha Niazi. IIFSO, Salimiah (Kuwait) 1983.
 Tawhid and fiqh. Belief and jurisprudence (= Junior Islamic studies . Book 1). Islamic Education Trust, Minna.
 Lessons on the Qur'an (= Junior Islamic studies, Book 2A). Hudahuda, Zaria and Hodder & Stoughton, London 1986.  .
 Junior Qur'anic Arabic (= Junior Islamic studies . Book 2B). Hudahuda in association with Hodder and Stoughton, Sevenoaks, and Zaria, 1986.  .
 Tahdhib (moral education) and Sirah (= Junior Islamic studies . Book 3). Islamic Education Trust, Minna.
 The Ideal Muslim Husband . Islamic Education Trust (Publications Division), Minna 1987. Reissue at Al-Saadawi Publications, 1992.  .
 Islam, the religion of the future . The Islamic Union of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 1988.
 Islamization of Education. A Primary Level Experiment in Nigeria . In: Muslim Education Quarterly, volume 5 No. 2, 1988.
 The role of Muslim women in the 15th century Hijrah . In: Ramatu Abdullahi, Muslim Sisters Organization of Nigeria (eds.): The Muslim woman. Challenges of the 15th Hijra . Woye & Sons, Ilorin and Islamic Publications, Lagos 1988. *** "
 Gari ya waye (Nazari akan matsayin mata Musulmi an Arewacin Najeriya) . Translated by Shuayb Haruna Gambo Langen. Mosque Foundation, Kaduna 1989.
 Islamic studies for senior secondary schools . Book 1. Islamic Publications Bureau, Lagos 1989.  .
 Islamic studies for senior secondary schools . Book 2. IET, Minna 1990.
 Muslim women and marriage under the Shariah rights and problems faced . In Awa U Kalu and Yemi Osin Bajo (ed.): Women and children under Nigerian law (= Federal Ministry of Justice, Law Review series Vol. 6.). Federal Ministry of Justice, Lagos, 1990.  .
 Laxity, moderation, and extremism in Islam . Islamic Education Trust, Minna, 1991.  .
 The Ideal Muslim Wife . Islamic Education Trust (Publications Division), Minna 1992.  .
 Animals in Islam . Spectrum Books, Ibadan and Islamic Education Trust, Minna 1993.  .
 Laxisme, modération et extrémisme en Islam (= Occasional papers . 5). Translation of Michèle Messaoudi. International Institute of Islamic Thought, Herndon, Virginia, and London, 1995.  .
 Islam and Alcohol. Edited version of a lecture delivered at Advanced Teachers' College Minna on the occasion of Id-al-Maulud, February 1981 . Al-Saadawi Publications, Alexandria (Virginia) 1996.  .
 Islamic 'aqidah and fiqh. A textbook of Islamic beliefs and jurisprudence . IQRA' International Educational Foundation, Chicago 1996.  .
 Sikap ekstrem. Penyakit dakwah Islam . International Institute of Islamic Thought, Petaling Jaya 1996.
 Islamic tahdhib and akhlaq. Theory and practice . IQRA' International Educational Foundation, Chicago, 1997.  .
 with Fatima Grimm : Woman and family life in Islam (= series of writings of the Islamic Center Munich, no. 20); translated by Abdullah Hammam. 3. Edition. Islamic Center Munich, Munich 1999.  .
 A holistic approach to teaching Islam to children. A paper presented at the Conference on Private Islamic Schools, 12–13 August 1994, held in Minna by the Islamic Education Trust on behalf of the Nigerian Da'wah Coordination Council (NDCC) . IET Publications Division, Islamic Education Trust, Minna, 2001.  .
 Child upbringing and moral teaching in Islam. A paper presented at Abuja Muslim Forum Seminar on Child Upbringing, a Divine Obligation, a Complementary Responsibility, December 1977 . Islamic Education Trust, Minna, 2001.  .
 Islam, one God, one humanity. A paper presented at the Annual Convention of the Islamic Society of North America, Chicago, USA 3–6 September 1999 . IET Publications, Minna, 2001.  .
 Revelation and the Scriptures. An Islamic perspective. A paper presented at a seminar organized by the Catholic Biblical Movement of Nigeria, Minna, September, 1992 . IET Publications, Niger State 2001.  .
 Women in Da'wah. A working paper presented at the International Council for Islamic Information, Markfield Da'wah Center, Leicester, UK, July 1996 . IET Publications Division, Islamic Education Trust, Minna, 2001.  .
 Teaching for tolerance in Nigeria . In: Recep Kaymakcan, Oddbjørn Leirvik, Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief (eds.): Teaching for tolerance in Muslim majority societies . Center for Values Education (DEM) Press, Istanbul, 2007.  .

References

External links
 Adieu Aisha Lemu  on Daily Trust

1940 births
2019 deaths
People from Poole
Nigerian Muslims
Converts to Islam
Alumni of SOAS University of London
British emigrants to Nigeria
British religious writers
British women writers
Women scholars of Islam

Aisha Lemu


A powerbomb is a professional wrestling throw in which an opponent is lifted (usually so that they are sitting on the wrestler's shoulders) and then slammed back-first down to the mat. The standard powerbomb sees an opponent first placed in a standing headscissors position (bent forward with their head placed between the attacking wrestler's thighs). The opponent is then lifted on the wrestler's shoulders and slammed down back-first to the mat. A prawn hold is commonly used for a pinning powerbomb.

Powerbombs are sometimes used in mixed martial arts competitions, when a fighter attempts to slam another fighter who has him trapped in a triangle choke. In professional wrestling, it is also sometimes used by a bigger wrestler as a counter to an attempted hurricanrana by a smaller wrestler. While it was associated with super-heavyweight wrestlers, the move was invented by Lou Thesz.

Variations

Argentine powerbomb
The wrestler first places their opponent face-up across their shoulders, as in an Argentine backbreaker rack, hooks the head with one hand and a leg with the other, and the wrestler will then spin the opponent's head away from them, dropping the opponent down to the mat. Often the wrestler drops to a seated position while spinning the opponent. Innovated by Lioness Asuka, who called it the Towerhacker Bomb and popularized by AJ Styles as the Rack Bomb.

Crucifix powerbomb

The wrestler places the opponent's head in between their legs, then grabs the opponent's stomach, lifts the opponent over their shoulder, and holds both their arms in a cross position over their head. The wrestler finally runs or falls to their knees and throws the opponent onto the mat back and neck first. Sheamus employs the running variation, dubbing it the Celtic Cross. The falling variation is often associated with Razor Ramon, who popularized the move; calling it the Razor's Edge (also known as the Outsider's Edge or Diamond's Edge during his time in WCW as Scott Hall/Diamond Studd respectively). Hall also (though rarely) used a version of this move with the opponent positioned on the second rope away from him. Damian Priest uses the move to pay tribute to Hall. The throwing variation is used by both Bad Luck Fale and Hernandez.

Sitout crucifix powerbomb
Also known as a Niagara Driver, Splash Mountain Bomb, or Black Tiger Bomb, this powerbomb is similar to the crucifix powerbomb, but instead of the wrestler falling forward to drop the opponent, the attacking wrestler falls to a seated position for a pinfall attempt instead of releasing the opponent. Innovated by Kyoko Inoue and popularized by Black Tiger. A top rope version was used by Konnan as well. It is used by Roman Reigns as a signature move.

Dangan bomb
This move, invented by Masato Tanaka, is performed when the wrestler will put the opponent in to the position for a belly to back suplex, lift them up and then catch them in mid air as if going for a spinebuster but instead put the opponents legs on their shoulders then drives the opponent to the mat like a falling powerbomb.

Multiple powerbomb
Due to convenience of wording, this name can refer to a maneuver either performed by two persons on one, or one person on two; generally both opponents will be far smaller than the wrestler attempting the move. One opponent is placed on the attackers shoulders as per a standard powerbomb, then the other will be placed on the first opponents shoulders, facing in the same direction. This is normally performed by putting the first opponent's head between the seconds legs while they are sitting on the second or top turnbuckle. Finally, both opponents will be slammed to the mat.
A variation this move is called triple powerbomb, and it is performed by three wrestlers. Two wrestlers lift an opponent with a belly-to-back hold and place the opponent's legs on the third partner's shoulders, who executes the powerbomb while the other two push the opponent from the carrying partner's shoulders. There is also an avalanche variation of this move performed from the middle rope. This was popularized by The Shield in WWE.

Double underhook powerbomb
Also known as a Tiger driver or Tiger bomb. The wrestler faces a bent over opponent, and hooks each of the opponent's arms behind the opponent's back. The wrestler then lifts the opponent in the air and flips them over, throwing them back down and driving the back and shoulders of the opponent to the ground. The wrestler may also fall to their knees as they slam the opponent down. A sitout version is commonly known as a Tiger Driver and was invented by Mitsuharu Misawa. Ahmed Johnson used the sitout version as well, calling it the Pearl River Plunge. Tyler Bate uses the move as his finishing maneuver, calling it the Tyler Driver '97 and Toni Storm calling it Storm Zero.

Kneeling double underhook powerbomb
Another variation credited to Misawa. In this version, the wrestler keeps the arm hooks applied during the entire move, causing their opponent to land on their head, neck, and shoulders. The title refers to the January 29, 1991 match in which Misawa debuted the maneuver against Akira Taue. Mitsuharu Misawa popularized the move as Tiger Driver 91. Kota Ibushi uses this move as finishing move. Masahiro Chono used it as finishing move on rare occasions, most famously used to win the first ever G1 Climax. It is rarely attempted due to the dangerous nature and risk factor of the move.

Elevated powerbomb
This move is similar to a standard powerbomb. Instead of slamming the opponent directly on the mat from the shoulders, the attacking wrestler first lifts the opponent even higher by holding onto the opponent and extending their arms up, lifting the opponent up off the shoulders of the attacking wrestler just moments before slamming them down to the mat. This move was used prominently by The Undertaker, who named it the Last Ride. A sitout version is used by Kota Ibushi, who calls it the Golden Star Bomb, and a pop up variation is used by Keith Lee, who calls it the Spirit Bomb as a homage to Dragon Ball Z.

Falling powerbomb
This move starts by lifting an opponent like a normal powerbomb, but when the opponent is on the wrestler's shoulders the wrestler falls forward, slamming the opponent onto the ground. This move was popularized by Kane.

Fireman's carry powerbomb
The wrestler lifts the opponent onto their shoulders, into the fireman's carry position. The wrestler grabs hold of the opponent's near leg with one hand, and their head with the other, then pushes the opponent's upper body up and simultaneously spins them, causing them to end up in front of the wrestler face up. The wrestler then either sits down or stays standing. They may also wrap their hands around the opponent's upper legs.

Folding powerbomb
The move sees the wrestler lifts the opponent and drops them on the mat, while sliding forward and lifts his legs off the mat, putting his full body weight on top of the wrestler and thus pinning their shoulders more firmly against the mat. Popularized by Genichiro Tenryu, Toshiaki Kawada and recently WALTER. Samoa Joe used this to transition into a number of submission holds.

Ganso bomb
Translated literally from Japanese as Originator Bomb (元祖 ganso), but in English more commonly referred to as the original powerbomb, this move sees the attacking wrestler make an opponent bend over and grab them in a belly to back waistlock before then lifting the opponent until they are vertical. The attacking wrestler then drives the opponent down on their neck and shoulder while either remaining in a standing position, sitting position or dropping down to their knees. The move is considered one of the most dangerous moves in professional wrestling as the person taking the move is in freefall, dropped onto their own head or neck without protection. It was invented by Lou Thesz and popularized by Toshiaki Kawada as the Kawada Driver. AJ Styles used during his tenure with New Japan Pro-Wrestling as the Hollow Point. Brock Lesnar inadvertently used the move on Hardcore Holly in 2002 which injured his neck. This was actually due to Holly sandbagging the move thus making it difficult for Lesnar to perform the move correctly.

Gutwrench powerbomb
This move involves a wrestler standing over a bent over opponent, locking their arms around the opponent's waist and lifting them up, flipping them over, and slamming them down to the mat back first. The difference compared to a regular powerbomb is that the opponent's head does not go between the wrestler's thighs, instead they remain slightly in front or to the side of the wrestler. The falling variation was used by Jack Swagger as the Swagger Bomb. "Dr. Death" Steve Williams popularized the sitout variation, naming it the Doctor Bomb. Kenny Omega also uses the sitout variation as the Dr. Willy Bomb.

Inverted powerbomb
Also known as an Inverted front powerslam, this move sees the attacking wrestler faces a bent-over opponent and apply a gutwrench waistlock before lifting the opponent up so they are lying across the wrestler's shoulder, facing upward, with the wrestler maintaining the waistlock to hold them in position, known as an overhead gutwrench backbreaker rack. The wrestler then falls forward, standing or into a sitout position while flipping the opponent forward, driving the opponent horizontally belly-down into the ground. A double underhook version of this move also exists. Ron Simmons made the standing variation famous, calling it the Dominator, Bobby Lashley utilized a kneeling version as a finisher, while Yujiro Takahashi popularized the sitout version, calling it Tokyo Pimps.

Kneeling powerbomb
This variation of a powerbomb is similar to an ordinary powerbomb, however, instead of the wrestler remaining standing, the wrestler falls into a kneeling position while driving the opponent back-first into the mat.

Repeated powerbomb
As the name implies, the wrestler performing the move will do so multiple times. To start, they will lift the opponent into powerbomb position and perform the move. Without letting go of the opponent's waist, the wrestler raises them up again and drops them. Depending on the wrestler, they may continue to repeat the process and may pin the opponent after the last one. Although neither wrestler does this anymore, Chris Jericho and Brock Lesnar used the multiple powerbomb as a signature maneuver when they debuted in WWE; Jericho's version was a double and Lesnar's a triple.

AEW wrestler Wardlow uses a unique take on this sequence. Instead, he simply powerbombs the opponent, picks them up from the mat, and powerbombs them again for each separate time as needed to defeat them. He refers to this as the Powerbomb Symphony.

Pop-up powerbomb
As the name implies, this move begins with the opponent rushing towards the attacker who then flings the opponent vertically up into the air. The move is finished by catching the opponent and performing a powerbomb. This move was popularized by Kevin Owens and Scott Steiner.

Release powerbomb
A variation of the powerbomb where the opponent is lifted into the air and then dropped without being forced into a pin.

Kevin Nash, Big Van Vader, Bubba Ray Dudley, Chris Benoit, Sycho Sid, Lita, Sara Del Rey, John Bradshaw Layfield and Sable use this move. Raquel Rodriguez uses a one-arm version of the move itself, calling it the Chingona/Texana Bomb.

Corner sit-out powerbomb
The opponent begins sitting in the corner of the ring and facing outwards, while holding on to the ring ropes. The wrestler takes hold of the opponent by the legs and pulls them upwards and backwards with a twist, falling into a sitting position as they do so. The move ends with the opponent's back on the ground and their legs over the shoulders of the wrestler, placing the opponent in a pinning predicament.

Running powerbomb
In this variation of the powerbomb, the wrestler runs before they releases the opponent. A wrestler may also sit down for a pinfall attempt.

Scoop lift powerbomb
In this variation of a powerbomb an opponent is first scooped so they are horizontal across an attacking wrestler's chest. The wrestler then pushes the opponent up and turns them, so that they are sitting on the shoulders of the wrestler, before then slamming them down in a powerbomb motion. A seated version is also possible. This maneuver was occasionally performed by "The Alpha Male" Monty Brown and was referred to as the Alpha Bomb. Raquel Rodriguez uses a one arm version of the powerbomb known initially as the Chingona Bomb, now dubbed the Texana Bomb.

Sit-out powerbomb
In this variation of a powerbomb, the attacking wrestler falls to a seated position as they slam the opponent down. Some wrestlers remain in seated position to pin the opponent, while others choose not to. The move can either be performed as a standard powerbomb or as a gutwrench powerbomb. The move was popularized by Jushin Liger, who used it as a finisher, known as the Liger Bomb, and was also famously used by Batista as the Batista Bomb, and an elevated variant is currently used by Keith Lee as the Spirit Bomb.

Slingshot powerbomb
From a position in which the opponent is sitting across the wrestlers shoulder, the attacker bounces the opponent's back across the top rope. The attacker then spins around, using the momentum to powerbomb the opponent. This move is used by Dax Harwood and The Miz.

Spinning powerbomb

Also called a spiral bomb. The wrestler lifts the opponent up onto their shoulders and spins around several rotations before sitting down and slamming the opponent down to the mat, as in a sitout powerbomb. A release variation sees the wrestler remain standing or kneeling and just throwing the opponent away from them onto their back to the mat. A gutwrench variation is also possible, with the wrestler dropping the opponent as in a normal gutwrench powerbomb. This maneuver was used by Diamond Dallas Page, but the sitout variation was popularized by Michael Elgin, who adopted it as his finisher as the Elgin Bomb.

Spin-out powerbomb
Also known as a Blue Thunder Driver or a Blue Thunder Bomb, this is a belly-to-back powerbomb, usually beginning in the back suplex position in which the wrestler stands behind their opponent and puts their head under the arm of the opponent. They then lift the opponent up using one arm around the waist of the opponent and another under their legs. The wrestler then spins the opponent around 180°, dropping them to the mat back first as they drop to a sitting position. Invented by Jun Akiyama, it is used by Sami Zayn as a signature move, as well as Konosuke Takeshita. Apollo Crews uses a toss variation of the move. John Cena uses a kneeling variation of the move, dubbing it the Protoplex.

Straight jacket powerbomb
Also known as a pyramid driver, this move can be executed when a wrestler lifts the opponent on the shoulders between the legs, but crossing the both arms during his bent-over position before, and drops on the mat with a seated position to setup a pin. It was used by Super Crazy with the name called Crazy Bomb and by Claudio Castagnoli in a sit-out variation called the Ricola Bomb.

Sunset flip powerbomb

This move sees the wrestler bend over and place their opponent in a standing head scissors. However, the wrestler moves forward slightly so the opponent's midsection is between the wrestler's thighs instead of their head. The wrestler wraps their arms around the opponent's midsection in a waistlock, then jumps and rolls forward, under the opponent's legs, and into a seated position, forcing the opponent to fall back to the mat. The resulting position can lead to a sitout pin. This is often called a Yoshi Tonic in Japan or Code Red in America, the latter name coined by Amazing Red. The top rope version is also used sometimes, as seen in the picture above. The move is also very dangerous, because when the wrestler flips over the opponent's back, if they put too much downward force on their legs, it could result in a leg injury. Seth Rollins was injured while attempting to perform a sunset flip powerbomb by applying too much downward force on his leg, thus injuring it. An avalanche leg trap variation is used by Hirooki Goto on rare occasions as Kaiten.

Superbomb
The attacking wrestler forces the opponent to ascend to the top rope, standing usually on the top ropes with their legs spread. The wrestler then bends the opponent, placing their head between the wrestler's thighs. The wrestler then wraps their hands around the opponent's waist. The wrestler then lifts the opponent up, flipping them over, while jumping forward. The opponent falls down to the mat back first, and the wrestler usually falls to their knees or to a sitting position. This variation was popularized by Chris Candido as the Blonde Bombshell, while Bubba Ray Dudley used a sit-out version.

Another variation sees the opponent sitting on the top rope. The wrestler climbs up to the top rope and stands facing the opponent. The wrestler then bends the opponent over and takes hold of opponent around the waist. The wrestler then flips the opponent up and over so they are sitting on the shoulders of the wrestler. At the same time, the wrestler spins around 180° and leaps forward, falling to the ground in a standing or sitting position and driving the opponent's back and shoulders to the mat or can jump backwards away from the turnbuckle to drop into a seated position.

Another variant of the Superbomb was popularized by B. J. Whitmer, who used the move to toss himself and fellow wrestler Jimmy Jacobs into a crowd at a Ring of Honor show in June 2006.
Tilt-A-Whirl Powerbomb
The attacking wrestler stands facing the opponent, who is often charging at the attacker, before bending the opponent down so they are bent in front of the attacking wrestler as he/she stands over them then the wrestler reaches around the opponent's body and lifts them up, spinning the opponent in front of the wrestler's body. As the wrestler brings the opponent back down to the mat, the wrestler kneels, slamming the opponent onto the mat.

Thunder fire powerbomb

The wrestler faces a bent opponent and places them in the standing headscissors position (bent forward with their head placed between the wrestler's thighs). The wrestler then grabs hold around the opponent's upper torso or waist, and lifts them on top of one of the wrestler's shoulders on their back. The wrestler then bends forward and slams the opponent down to the mat on their back or shoulders. It is also known as an Over-the-shoulder powerbomb or a One shoulder powerbomb. Innovated by the Great Nita (Atsushi Onita). The late Mike Awesome used the standing, a running, and kneeling versions of this move as finishers. Sid Vicious also used the kneeling version of this move as a finisher early in his career and would often drop his opponents off to his side instead of forwards.

Turnbuckle powerbomb
Also known as the buckle bomb. This move sees the wrestler faces a standing opponent, bends them forwards, takes a hold around their waist and then flips the opponent up and over so the opponent is sitting on the wrestler's shoulders. The wrestler then faces a corner of the ring and throws the opponent into the corner, driving the back and neck of the opponent to the turnbuckle. The move was famously used by Kenta Kobashi and Seth Rollins. The move is considered to be dangerous if done wrong, which led to Sting temporarily retiring from wrestling (he has since returned to the ring since 2020 with AEW) and Finn Bálor injuring his shoulder in 2016. WWE banned it in 2020 after Nia Jax botched the move on Kairi Sane. However, in recent years, Seth Rollins has continued to use the move semi-regularly, with Balór also using it against Rollins at Summerslam 2023, suggesting that WWE may have lifted the ban.

Snap powerbomb
This variation sees a wrestler catching an opponent mid-air or lifting them up in a standard powerbomb, before slamming him to the mat as quickly as possible.
It was used as a finisher by Chris Benoit under the name Wild Bomb'''.

Suplex powerbomb
The wrestler lifts the opponent upside down as in a vertical suplex and then pushes their upper body forward while sitting down, ending the move in the same position as the sitout powerbomb. A fall-forward and standing versions are also possible. The move was invented by Kenta Kobashi who called it Orange Crush. El Generico used the move with a double pumphandle cradle before delivering the Orange Crush.'' Jon Moxley and Roderick Strong used the standing version.

References

Professional wrestling moves

Powerbomb


Beijing Beida Jade Bird Universal Sci-Tech Co., Ltd. known as Jade Bird Universal is a Chinese listed company. It manufactured electronic fire equipment, as well involved in tourism industry and other equity investments. The largest shareholder of Jade Bird Universal is the non-wholly-owned subsidiaries of Peking University.

Jade Bird Universal was a former constituent of Hang Seng China Enterprises Index from 10 August 2000 to 3 October 2001.

Name
Beida Jade Bird Universal Sci-Tech, known as Jade Bird Universal () once had an intermediate parent company "Beijing Beida Yuhuan Microelectronic System Engineering" (). Yuhuan () and Huanyu () literally a word play of the Chinese word Universal (). Like other sister companies, they all bear the brand "Beida Jade Bird", "Jade Bird", "PKU Jade Bird" or "Peking University Jade Bird"

History
Beijing Beida Jade Bird Universal Sci-Tech Co., Ltd. was incorporated on 29 March 2000. In the same year the company was registered in Hong Kong as a foreign company. Before initial public offering, the share capital (70 million number of shares of  each) were owned by a subsidiary of Heng Huat Investments (employee ownership of Jade Bird Software) for 31.43% shares, Jade Bird Software subsidiaries (Beijing Jade Bird, Jade Bird Software System, Beida Yuhuan Microelectronic System Engineering) for 33.57% shares, Beijing Tianqiao Beida Beida Jade Bird Sci-Tech (), an associate company of Jade Bird Software for 10.71%, Mongolia Energy Corporation (formerly known as New World Cyberbase) for 10.00%, a private equity fund AR Asia Special Strategies Fund for 7.14%, as well as private investors Dragon Air Investments (NOT related to Dragonair) and Hinet (NOT related to Chunghwa Telecom) for 4.29% and 2.86% respectively. The IPO issued at first 24 million H shares for HK$11 each.

As at 31 December 2015 the H shares had expanded to 484.8 million with  each in par value.

Subsidiaries

 Beida Jade Bird Universal Sci-Tech (Cayman) Development (100%)
 Beida Jade Bird Universal Fire Alarm Device (51%)
 Beijing Jade Bird Universal Fire System Software Service (51%)
 Chuanqi Tourism Investment (60%)
 Hengsheng Investment Management (55%)
 Si Chuan Jiu Yuan Intelligent Surveillance (38%)
 PWC Winery (75%)

Shareholders
Peking University via various subsidiaries, owned 24.05% shares in total as the largest shareholder as at 31 December 2015: 9.71% shares were held by Beijing Beida Jade Bird directly; Beijing Beida Jade Bird itself was 46% owned by ; Jade Bird Software itself was 48% owned by Peking University. An additional 7.17% shares were held by Shenzhen Beida Jade Bird Sei-Tech, a subsidiary (90%) of Beijing Beida Jade Bird; an additional 7.17% shares were held by another indirect subsidiary (46%) of Jade Bird Software: Haikou Jade Bird Yuanwang Sci-Tech Development; the shares held by "Jade Bird Shenzhen" would be transferred to "Jade Bird Haikou".

The second largest shareholder was Heng Huat Investments for 17.34% shares (a company for employee-ownership); it was followed by "Grand East (H.K.)" () for 9.28%, Mongolia Energy Corporation for 7.14% and AR Asia Special Strategies Fund (via subsidiary Asian Technology Investment) for 4.22%.

References

External links

Companies listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange
Manufacturing companies of China
Software companies of China
Tourism in China
Peking University
Employee-owned companies of China
Government-owned companies of China
Chinese companies established in 2000
Conglomerate companies of China
Privatization in China
H shares
Companies formerly in the Hang Seng China Enterprises Index

Beida Jade Bird Universal Sci-Tech


The Hierarchical Music Specification Language (HMSL) is a music programming language written in the 1980s by Larry Polansky, Phil Burk, and David Rosenboom at Mills College.  Written on top of Forth, it allowed for the creation of real-time interactive music performance systems, algorithmic composition software, and any other kind of program that requires a high degree of musical informatics.  It was distributed by Frog Peak Music, and runs with a very light memory footprint (~1 megabyte) on Macintosh and Amiga systems.

Unlike CSound and other languages for audio synthesis, HMSL is primarily a language for making music.  As such, it interfaces with sound-making devices through built-in MIDI classes.  However, it has a high degree of built-in understanding of music  performance practice, tuning systems, and score reading.  Its main interface for the manipulation of musical parameters is through the metaphor of shapes, which can be created, altered, and combined to create a musical texture, either by themselves or in response to real-time or scheduled events in a score.

HMSL has been widely used by composers working in algorithmic composition for over twenty years.  In addition to the authors (who are also composers), HMSL has been used in pieces by Nick Didkovsky, The Hub, James Tenney, Tom Erbe, and Pauline Oliveros.

A Java port of HMSL was developed by Nick Didkovsky under the name JMSL, and is designed to interface to the JSyn API.

Audio programming languages


Amédée Guillemin (born 5 July 1826 in Pierre-de-Bresse, died 2 January 1893 in Pierre-de-Bresse, France) was a French science writer and a journalist.

Guillemin started his studies at Beaune college before taking his final degree in Paris. From 1850 to 1860  he taught mathematics in a private school while writing articles for the Liberal press criticizing the Second French Empire. In 1860, he moved to Chambéry where he became a junior deputy editor of the weekly political magazine La Savoie. After the annexation of Savoy by the French empire, he returned to Paris where he became the science editor  of l'Avenir national (The Nation's Future).

Guillemin presently started writing books of physics and astronomy which became very popular. He wrote "The Sky" which was translated into many languages. His major work, "The Physical World",  consisted of five large volumes. His  publisher, Hachette, encouraged him to write a series of  booklets about astronomy and physics under the title "Small popular encyclopaedia", a scientifically sound but accessible collection about sciences and their applications. French astronomer Jacques Crovisier from the Observatoire de Paris suggests he may have been a source of inspiration for Jules Verne's 1865 novel, From the Earth to the Moon.

Bibliography
La Lune (the moon)
Le Soleil (the sun)
La Lumière et les Couleurs (light and colours)
Le Son (sound)
Les Etoiles, notions d'astronomie sidérale (the stars, notions of sidereal astronomy)
Les Nébuleuses (nebulae)
Le Feu souterrain. Volcans et tremblements de terre (underground fire. Volcanoes and earthquakes) containing 55 illustrations
La Télégraphie et le téléphone (telegraphy and the telephone) with 101 illustrations
Le Monde Physique (the physical world) 5 volumes with 31 coloured plates, 80 black and white plates and 2012 illustrations
Éléments de cosmographie (elements of cosmography)
La Terre et le ciel (the earth and the sky) 1888
La Vapeur (steam) Bibliothèque des merveilles collection
Les Chemins de fer (railways) Bibliothèque des merveilles collection

Guillemin also wrote L'Instruction républicaine (Republican Instruction), published by Lechevalier. He collaborated to a number of literary, scientific and political papers and magazines, notably La Nature,  la République Française and la Revue Philosophique et Religieuse. Additionally he wrote Electricity and Magnetism  in which he presented a theory of magnetism. It was Guillemin who drafted the entry on astronomy in the second edition of Dorbigny's Dictionary of natural history.

Guillemin was also involved in politics and remained faithful to his liberal convictions to the end.

See Also
Amédée Henri Guillemin (1860-1941), his son

Footnotes
La Nature, N°1024 14 January 1893
Angelo De Gubernatis, Dictionnaire international des écrivains du jour, 1891.

References

External links

1826 births
1893 deaths
French science writers
19th-century French journalists
French male journalists
French male writers
19th-century French male writers

Amédée Guillemin


A dental school (school of dental medicine, school of dentistry, dental college) is a tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches dental medicine to prospective dentists and potentially other dental auxiliaries. Dental school graduates receive a degree in Dentistry, Dental Surgery, or Dental Medicine, which, depending upon the jurisdiction, might be a bachelor's degree, master's degree, a professional degree, or a doctorate. Schools can also offer postgraduate training in general dentistry, and/or training in endodontics, oral and maxillofacial surgery, oral pathology, oral and maxillofacial radiology, orthodontics, pedodontics, periodontics, prosthodontics, dental public health, restorative dentistry, as well as postgraduate training for dental hygienists and dental technicians.

Other oral health professionals including dental hygienists, dental technicians and denturists, dental therapists and oral health therapists, Dental assistants or dental nurses, and other members of the dental auxiliary including orthodontic auxiliaries may be trained at dental schools, or at universities of applied science or polytechnics.

Sometimes dental education is done within medical schools, as in Pakistan; the separation between medical and dental educations is also blurred within certain sub-specialties, such as oral and maxillofacial surgery.

List of dental schools

List of dental colleges in India
List of dental schools in Australia
List of dental schools in Bangladesh
List of dental schools in Israel
List of dental schools in Pakistan
List of dental schools in the United Kingdom
List of dental schools in the United States
List of dental colleges in South Korea

See also

 Dentistry throughout the world
 Dental degree
 American Student Dental Association

References

Types of university or college

Dental school


The IRT Broadway - Seventh Avenue Line is one of the lines of the New York City Subway. There are three services on the line, colored tomato red and numbered 1, 2 and 3.

Services
  1: This is a local service from 242nd Street to South Ferry.
 2: This is an express service from 241st Street to Flatbush Avenue (limited to New Lots Avenue during rush hours).
  3: This is an express service from 148th Street to New Lots Avenue (limited to 42nd Street / Times Square during late nights).

IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line


Nychthemeron , occasionally nycthemeron or nuchthemeron, is a period of 24 consecutive hours. It is sometimes used, especially in technical literature, to avoid the ambiguity inherent in the term day.

It is the period of time that a calendar normally labels with a date, although a nychthemeron simply designates a time-span that can start at any time, not just midnight.

Etymology
It is a loanword from Ancient Greek  (), which appears in the New Testament. This is a noun use of the neuter singular form of , from  (, "night") +  (, "day").

In other languages
Some languages have a word for 24 hours, or more loosely a day plus a night in no particular order. Unlike a calendar date, only the length is defined, with no particular start or end. Furthermore, these words are considered basic and native to these languages, so unlike nychthemeron they are not associated with jargon.

Words for 24 hours are listed in the middle column. For comparison, the word for day, in the meaning of daytime, the sunlit state, the opposite of night, is also listed in the rightmost column:

The word , as in the Nordic languages, is etymologically the same as day in English.

References

Units of time
Calendars

Nychthemeron


The 12th Parliament of Kenya is the meeting of the legislative branch of the national government of Kenya, which began on 31 August 2017. The National Assembly is made up of 350 members comprising 290 members elected from constituencies, 47 women representatives, 12 nominated members. and the Speaker of the National Assembly of Kenya.

The senate is made up of 67 members, comprising 47 members elected from the counties, and 20 nominated members.

The members took office following the 2017 Kenyan general election.

See also

 List of members of the National Assembly of Kenya, 2017–2022

References

External links

Politics of Kenya
Kenyan parliaments
2017 in Kenya
2018 in Kenya
2019 in Kenya

12th Parliament of Kenya


The chin is the bottom part of the face. It is under the mouth and is the forward part of the jaw.

The chin is unique to present-day humans, our species. It is not present in the anthropoid apes, nor in any other hominin. Neanderthals did not have a human-type chin. In medical anatomy, the chin is called the "mental eminence".

Its absence in Homo floresiensis is grounds for thinking that small hominin was not of our species.

It is thought that our chin may have become shaped like this to improve the muscle attachments of the lips and tongue. Chins can be larger or smaller, depending on the person. Even though chin sizes vary a lot, it is usually further forward than the rest of the face in normal humans.

References

Basic English 850 words
Face

Chin


The Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople (, ), also known as Armenian Patriarch of Istanbul, is today head of the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople (), one of the smallest Patriarchates of the Oriental Orthodox Churches but one that has exerted a very significant political role and today still exercises a spiritual authority.

The Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople recognizes the primacy of the Catholicos of All Armenians, in the spiritual and administrative headquarters of the Armenian Church, the Etchmiadzin, Armenia, in matters that pertain to the worldwide Armenian Apostolic Church. In local matters, the Patriarchal See is autonomous.

The seat of the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople is the Surp Asdvadzadzin Patriarchal Church (Holy Mother of God Patriarchal Church) in the Kumkapı neighborhood of Istanbul.

The first Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople was Hovakim I, who was at the time the Metropolitan of Bursa. In 1461, he was brought to Constantinople by Sultan Mehmed II and established as the Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople. Hovakim I was recognized as the religious and secular leader of all Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, and carried the title of milletbaşı or ethnarch as well as patriarch.

There have been 85 individual Patriarchs since the establishment of the Patriarchate:
75 patriarchs during the Ottoman period (1461-1908)
4 patriarchs in the Young Turks period (1908–1922)
6 patriarchs in the current secular Republic of Turkey (1923–present)

During the Ottoman Period (1461-1908), the Armenian Patriarchate served the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire with a line of Patriarchs in Constantinople. However, like the Greek Patriarchate, the Armenians suffered severely from intervention by the state in their internal affairs. Although there have been 115 pontificates since 1461, there have only been 84 individual Patriarchs.

In 1896 Patriarch Madteos III (Izmirlian) was deposed and exiled to Jerusalem by Sultan Abdülhamid II for boldly denouncing the 1896 massacre. The constitution governing the Armenians was suspended by the Sultan.

During the reign of the Young Turks (1908–1922), and after Sultan Abdulhamid II was deposed by the Young Turks, Patriarch Madteos III (Izmirlian) was permitted to return to Istanbul in 1908.
The new Turkish administration also restored the constitution. In the initial period of the reign of the Young Turks, the Armenians enjoyed a brief period of restoration of civil liberties between 1908 and 1915. However starting in 1915, the Armenians suffered great hardship under the Young Turk administration and the Armenian community of Turkey was decimated by mass deportations of its Armenian population and the Armenian genocide. In this critical period, the post of the Patriarch remained vacant from 1915 to 1919 to be restored for a brief period from 1919 to 1922 with Patriarch Zaven I Der Yeghiayan residing. Four Armenian Patriarchs served under the rule of the Young Turks.

After the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, and despite a huge diminution in the number of its faithful during the Armenian genocide, the patriarchate remains the spiritual head of the largest Christian community presently living in Turkey. Today, the Armenian Patriarchs are recognized as the head of the Armenian Apostolic Church in Turkey and he is invited to state ceremonies. Five Armenian Patriarchs have served after the establishment of the Republic of Turkey.

The last patriarch Mesrob II (Mutafyan) (Մեսրոպ Բ. Մութաֆեան) was retired by the synod on October 26, 2016, because of his illness which continued more than 7 years. A new patriarch was due to be elected. On 11 December 2019, Sahak II Mashalian was elected new patriarch.

See also
List of Armenian Patriarchs of Constantinople
Armenians in the Ottoman Empire
Armenian Apostolic Church
Armenians in Istanbul

Notes

References

External links

Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople
Gandzasar Monastery, Nagorno Karabakh

Christianity in the Ottoman Empire

Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople


A generalist species is able to thrive in a wide variety of environmental conditions and can make use of a variety of different resources (for example, a heterotroph with a varied diet). A specialist species can thrive only in a narrow range of environmental conditions or has a limited diet. Most organisms do not all fit neatly into either group, however. Some species are highly specialized (the most extreme case being monophagous, eating one specific type of food), others less so, and some can tolerate many different environments. In other words, there is a continuum from highly specialized to broadly generalist species.

Description

Omnivores are usually generalists. Herbivores are often specialists, but those that eat a variety of plants may be considered generalists. A well-known example of a specialist animal is the monophagous koala, which subsists almost entirely on eucalyptus leaves. The raccoon is a generalist, because it has a natural range that includes most of North and Central America, and it is omnivorous, eating berries, insects such as butterflies, eggs, and various small animals.

The distinction between generalists and specialists is not limited to animals. For example, some plants require a narrow range of temperatures, soil conditions and precipitation to survive while others can tolerate a broader range of conditions. A cactus could be considered a specialist species. It will die during winters at high latitudes or if it receives too much water.

When body weight is controlled for, specialist feeders such as insectivores and frugivores have larger home ranges than generalists like some folivores (leaf-eaters), whose food-source is less abundant; they need a bigger area for foraging. An example comes from the research of Tim Clutton-Brock, who found that the black-and-white colobus, a folivore generalist, needs a home range of only 15 ha. On the other hand, the more specialized red colobus monkey has a home range of 70 ha, which it requires to find patchy shoots, flowers and fruit.

When environmental conditions change, generalists are able to adapt, but specialists tend to fall victim to extinction much more easily. For example, if a species of fish were to go extinct, any specialist parasites would also face extinction. On the other hand, a species with a highly specialized ecological niche is more effective at competing with other organisms. For example, a fish and its parasites are in an evolutionary arms race, a form of coevolution, in which the fish constantly develops defenses against the parasite, while the parasite in turn evolves adaptations to cope with the specific defenses of its host. This tends to drive the speciation of more specialized species provided conditions remain relatively stable. This involves niche partitioning as new species are formed, and biodiversity is increased.

A benefit of a specialist species is that because the species has a more clearly defined niche, this reduces competition from other species. On the other hand, generalist species, by their nature, cannot realize as much resources from one niche, but instead find resources from many. Because other species can also be generalists, there is more competition between species, reducing the amount of resources for all generalists in an ecosystem. Specialist herbivores can have morphological differences as compared to generalists that allow them to be more efficient at hunting a certain prey item, or able to eat a plant that generalists would be less tolerant of.

See also

 Cosmopolitan distribution
 Endemism
 Fitness landscape
 List of feeding behaviours

References

https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/range556/appl_behave/projects/different_strokes.html

Ecology

Generalist and specialist species


Eugen Munder (9 October 1899 – 20 November 1952) was an early member of the Nazi Party and Gauleiter of Gau Württemberg-Hohenzollern.

Life
Munder was born in Stuttgart, Württemberg, Germany in 1899. After attending elementary school, he attended military school in Jena and then became an apprentice in the civil service. He was conscripted in 1917, assigned to Field Artillery Regiment 13 in Ulm and participated in World War I. He saw action on the front lines in Field Artillery Regiment No. 116 and in Sturmbataillon 16.  Following Germany's defeat, Munder was demobilized in January 1919 and became an activist in the Deutschvölkischer Schutz und Trutzbund, the largest, most active, and most influential anti-Semitic federation in Germany after the war. He resumed his career in the civil service, working as an actuary and passing written and oral examinations in 1921.

By 1921 Munder was already active on behalf of the Nazi Party in Stuttgart. On 15 April 1925 he joined the Party (Membership No. 1835) when the ban on it was lifted. He was a very effective organizer and re-founded the party's Gau headquarters, becoming the local branch leader (Ortsgruppenleiter) in Stuttgart. Adolf Hitler appointed him Gauleiter of Württemberg after a rally in Stuttgart on 8 July 1925. From 1925 to 1928 Munder served as the editor and publisher of a local Nazi newspaper, The Southwest German Observer. In 1927 Munder expressed criticism of Hitler's lifestyle. He also was involved in a major row over the candidate list for upcoming elections to the Württemberg Landtag. When Hitler supported his rival Christian Mergenthaler to head the list over him, Munder resigned as Gauleiter on 9 January 1928. His successor was Wilhelm Murr. Munder then was expelled from the NSDAP on 18 January 1928 and thereafter played no active part in politics.

He resumed his career as a civil servant, working largely in the field of health insurance. After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, Munder reapplied for party membership but was rejected on two occasions. In 1935 he became the head of the General Health Insurance Office in Stuttgart. Finally, he was readmitted to the Party effective 1 August 1935. He also joined the Sturmabteilung (SA) around this time. In October 1944 he was recruited as a platoon leader in the Württemberg Volkssturm, rising to battalion leader in January 1945.

After the end of World War II he was arrested, and in April 1948 sentenced to four and a half years in a labor camp by a de-Nazification court. After suffering epileptic seizures, Munder was released from custody in July 1948 on medical grounds and placed on parole. He was found to have a slow growing brain tumor and he died on 20 November 1952.

References

Literature
Karl Höffkes: Hitlers Politische Generale. Die Gauleiter des 3. Reiches; ein biographisches Nachschlagewerk. Grabert-Verlag, Tübingen 1997, .
Michael D. Miller & Andreas Schulz: Gauleiter: The Regional Leaders of the Nazi Party and Their Deputies, 1925-1945, Volume II (Georg Joel - Dr. Bernhard Rust), R. James Bender Publishing, 2017, .
Michael Matthiesen: Munder, Eugen Paul; in: Württembergische Biographien, Band III, Stuttgart 2017, .

1899 births
1952 deaths
Deaths from brain tumor
German Army personnel of World War I
German newspaper editors
Gauleiters
People from the Kingdom of Württemberg
People from Stuttgart
20th-century German newspaper publishers (people)
Volkssturm personnel
Sturmabteilung personnel
Prisoners and detainees of Germany
Nazis convicted of crimes

Eugen Munder


The 1930 Memorial Cup final was the 12th junior ice hockey championship of the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association. The George Richardson Memorial Trophy champions West Toronto Nationals of the Ontario Hockey Association in Eastern Canada competed against the Abbott Cup champions Regina Pats of the South Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League in Western Canada. In a best-of-three series, held at Shea's Amphitheatre in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Regina won their 2nd Memorial Cup, defeating West Toronto 2 games to none.

Scores
Game 1: Regina 3-1 West Toronto
Game 2: Regina 3-2 West Toronto

Winning roster
Yates Acaster, Frank Boll, Art Dowie, Joe Dutkowski, Ken Campbell, Dave Gilhooley, Lon McPherson, Ken Moore, Gordon Pettinger, Len Rae, Ralph Redding, Eddie Wiseman.  Coach: Al Ritchie

References

External links
 Memorial Cup
 Canadian Hockey League

Mem
1930 Memorial Cup
Ice hockey in Winnipeg

1930 Memorial Cup


The president of Pakistan (), is the head of state of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The president is the nominal head of the executive and the supreme commander of the Pakistan Armed Forces. Arif Alvi is the 13th and current president, in office since 9 September 2018.

The office of president was created upon the proclamation of Islamic Republic on 23 March 1956. The then serving governor-general, Major-General Iskander Mirza, assumed office as the first president. Following the 1958 coup d'etat, the office of prime minister was abolished, leaving the Presidency as the most powerful office in the country. This position was further strengthened when the 1962 Constitution was adopted. It turned Pakistan into a Presidential Republic, giving all executive powers to the president. In 1973, the new Constitution established Parliamentary democracy and reduced the president's role to a ceremonial one. Nevertheless, the military takeover in 1977 reversed the changes. The 8th Amendment turned Pakistan into a semi-presidential republic and in the period between 1985 and 2010, the executive power was shared by the president and prime minister. The 18th Amendment in 2010 restored Parliamentary Democracy in the country, and reduced the presidency to a ceremonial position.

The constitution prohibits the president from directly running the government. Instead, the executive power is exercised on his behalf by the prime minister who keeps him informed on all matters of internal and foreign policy, as well as all legislative proposals. The Constitution however, vests the president with the powers of granting pardons, reprieves, and the control over military; however, all appointments at higher commands of the military must be made by the President on a "required and necessary" basis, upon consultation and approval from the prime minister.

The president is indirectly elected by the Electoral College for a five-year term. The Constitution requires the president to be a "Muslim of not less than forty five (45) years of age". The president resides in an estate in Islamabad known as Aiwan-e-Sadar (President's House). In his absence, the chairman of Senate exercises the responsibilities of the post, until the actual president resumes office, or the next office holder is elected.

There have been a total of 13 presidents. The first president was Iskander Ali Mirza who entered office on 23 March 1956. The current office holder is Dr Arif Alvi, who took charge on 9 September 2018, following his victory in the 2018 elections.

Powers and authority

Role of the president

The official residence and principal workplace of the president is Aiwan-e-Sadr— the presidential palace located in northeastern Islamabad. The presidency forms the vital institutional organ of state and is part of the bicameral Parliament.

Powers to exercise the authority are limited to the ceremonial figurehead, and required to address the Parliament to give a direction for national policies before being informed of its key decisions.

In addition, the president is also a civil commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Armed Forces, with chairman joint chiefs being its chief military adviser to maintain the civilian control of the Pakistani military. After a thorough confirmation comes from the prime minister, the president confirms the judicial appointments in the national court system. In addition, the Constitution allows the president to grant pardons, reprieves, and clemency in cases recommended to him by the executive and the judiciary. The president himself has absolute constitutional immunity from criminal and civil proceedings, and no proceedings can be initiated or continued against him during the term of his office.

From 2000 until 2009, the president was the chairman of the National Security Council who had authority and control over the nuclear and strategic arsenals; however, the chairmanship and the powers transferred back to the prime minister. Furthermore, the presidential powers have significantly declined with Pakistan's government reversed to a parliamentary democratic republic.

Eligibility and selection process

The Constitution of Pakistan sets the principle qualifications that the candidate must meet to be eligible to the office of the president. A president has to be:
 A citizen of Pakistan
 A Muslim
 At least 45 years of age
 Qualified to be elected as member of the National Assembly

Whenever the Aiwan-e-Sadr becomes vacant, the selection of president is done by the electoral college, which consists of both houses of Parliament (the Senate and National Assembly) and the four provincial assemblies. The chief election commissioner has to conduct elections to the office of the president in a special session. Voting takes place in secrecy.

Each elector casts a different number of votes. The general principle is that the total number of votes cast by members of Parliament equals the total number of votes cast by provincial legislators. Each of the provincial legislatures has an equal number of votes to each other, based on the number of members of the smallest legislature, which is the Balochistan Assembly (65 seats).

The constitution further states that election to the office of president will not be held earlier than sixty days and not later than thirty days before the expiration of the term of the president in office.

Election and oath

The president is elected indirectly for a term of five years. The incumbent president is eligible for re-election to that office, but cannot hold that office for more than two consecutive terms. The president is required to make and subscribe in the presence of the chief justice—, an oath or affirmation that the president shall protect, preserve and defend the Constitution as follows:

{{Quotation|I, (The name of the President-elect), do solemnly swear that I am a Muslim and believe in the Unity, and Oneness of Almighty Allah, the Books of Allah, the Holy Qur'an being the last of them, the Prophethood of Muhammad (peace be upon him) as the last of the Prophets and that there can be no Prophet after him, the Day of Judgment, and all the requirements and teachings of the Holy Quran and Sunnah:

That I will bear true faith and allegiance to Pakistan:

That, as President of Pakistan, I will discharge my duties, and perform my functions, honestly, to the best of my ability, faithfully in accordance with the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the law, and always in the interest of the sovereignty, integrity, solidarity, well- being and prosperity of Pakistan:

That I will not allow my personal interest to influence my official conduct or my official decisions:

That I will preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan:

That, in all circumstances, I will do right to all manner of people, according to law, without fear or favour, affection or ill- will:

And that I will not directly or indirectly communicate or reveal to any person any matter which shall be brought under my consideration or shall become known to me as President of Pakistan, except as may be required for the due discharge of my duties as President.
May Allah Almighty help and guide me (Ameen).

Line of succession and removal

The Constitution discusses the possibility of an acting president. Certain office-holders, however, are permitted to stand as presidential candidates in case of vacancy as the constitution does not include a position of vice president:
 The chairman of the Senate of Pakistan
 The speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan.
The president may be removed before the expiry of the term through impeachment. The president can be removed for violation of the Constitution of Pakistan.

The impeachment process may start in either of the two houses of the Parliament. The house initiates the process by leveling the charges against the president. The charges are contained in a notice that has to be signed by either the chairman or the speaker of the National Assembly through a two-thirds majority. The notice is sent up to the president, and 14 days later it is taken up for consideration.

A resolution to impeach the president has to be passed by the two-thirds majority. The speaker of the National Assembly then summons the joint session not earlier than seven days. The president has the right to defend oneself.

If the resolution is passed by the two-thirds majority at the joint session declaring that the president is unfit to hold the office due to incapacity or is guilty of violating the Constitution or of gross misconduct, then the president shall cease to hold office immediately on the passing of the resolution.

No president has been impeached. However, the proceedings have been used in 2008 in an attempt to impeach former president Pervez Musharraf who tendered the resignation after the proceedings above were used.

List of presidents

Political background

Early origins

From 1947 until 1956, the governor-general of Pakistan acted for the head of state: King George VI (until 1952) and Queen Elizabeth II (from 1952). With the promulgation of the first constitution, Pakistan became an Islamic republic in 1956, and the governor-general was replaced with the presidency. The incumbent governor-general, Iskander Mirza, became Pakistan's first president. He reportedly suspended the first constitution in 1958, and appointed Army commander-in-chief General Ayub Khan as the first chief martial law administrator. Khan subsequently dismissed Mirza in order to become the president.

The second constitution introduced by President Ayub Khan turned the country into a presidential republic without direct elections. Succumbing to internal and international pressure, however, Khan held a nationwide presidential election in 1965. Khan successfully campaigned against his opponent, Fatima Jinnah, for a second term, but some have alleged that elections were rigged in favour of Ayub Khan.

Controversy regarding the U-2 incident (1960), privatization (1963), and war with India (1965), fueled a fierce left-wing opposition movement led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of the PPP and Bengali nationalist Sheikh Mujibur Rahman who, with the support of demonstrators, aimed to further weaken the presidency. Suffering from paralysis and declining health, Ayub Khan handed over the presidency to army chief General Yahya Khan, who imposed martial law and announced that national elections would be held in 1970. Eventually, general elections were held in 1970 which saw the PPP gaining a majority of seats in West Pakistan (current-day Pakistan) and the Awami League gaining a majority in East Pakistan (current-day Bangladesh).

After he was unable to reach a compromise between the PPP and the Awami League, President Yahya Khan invited Nurul Amin of the Pakistan Muslim League to become the prime minister, and also appointed him as the first vice president. The growing instigated violence against Pakistanis in East Pakistan forced President Yahya Khan to use force in order to maintain order there, which further escalated Bengali resistance (1970). Preemptive strikes against India led to another war in 1971, which freed East Pakistan and created Bangladesh.

Taking personal responsibility for the political isolation and devastation of Pakistan after the fall of East Pakistan, President Yahya Khan stepped down and ceded power to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. President Bhutto created the current Constitution of Pakistan in 1973, transforming Pakistan into a parliamentary democracy, and reducing presidential powers to that of a ceremonial figurehead.

Past Interventions
The general elections held in 1977 resulted in an atmosphere of civil unrest instigated by the right-wing alliance, the Pakistan National Alliance. The events leading to it resulted in military intervention by chief of army staff General Zia-ul-Haq and Chairman Joint Chiefs Admiral Mohammad Shariff. Suspending the Constitution in 1977, General Zia-ul-Haq took over the presidency in 1978. Zia's presidency oversaw the modern growth of far-right ideas in the country. Succumbing to domestic pressure to restore the Constitution, President Zia-ul-Haq held a referendum (1984) and called for general elections in 1985. President Zia-ul-Haq appointed Mohammad Junejo as prime minister and assumed more powers through the constitutional amendment. After dismissing Prime Minister Junejo, President Zia-ul-Haq announced that new general elections would be held, but President Zia died in a plane crash in 1988.

The general elections held in 1988 witnessed the victory of PPP in 1988 and appointed Senate chairman Ghulam Ishaq Khan to the presidency. The conflict between Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto and President Ghulam Ishaq Khan arose in two areas regarding the issues of appointments. President Ghulam Ishaq Khan repeatedly intervened in government matters and leveled charges against Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto; thus dismissing Prime Minister Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto in 1990. After holding general elections in 1990, Nawaz Sharif brought up an ideologically conservative government and President Ghulam Ishaq Khan unsuccessfully tried to dismiss Sharif. After a successful intervention by Supreme Court and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs General Shamim Allam, President Ghulam Ishaq Khan and Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif tendered resignations in 1993.

Following the new elections held in 1993, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto established a strong government after appointing loyalist Farooq Leghari to the presidency. However, the corruption charges and the controversial death of Murtaza Bhutto in 1996 resulted in President Farooq Leghari dismissing Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto. In 1997, President Farooq Leghari could not overcome the heavy mandate bestowed on Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif by the public in 1997. President Leghari unsuccessfully supported Chief Justice Sajjad Ali Shah— both of them resigned, ending the conflict between the Judiciary, the Executive, and the Parliament. After appointing Rafiq Tarar, the Parliament successfully passed constitutional amendment to decisively limit the presidency. After staging a controversial self coup in 1999, General Pervez Musharraf dismissed Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and President Rafiq Tarar in 2001 while assuming more powers to the presidency. In January 2004, the Electoral College elected Musharraf, and as a result he was, according to the Constitution, "deemed to be elected".

President Musharraf's repeated unconstitutional intervention resulted in a standoff with the Judiciary, and declared a state of emergency in 2007, after dismissing the senior justices of the Supreme Court. Although Musharraf was elected in 2007, the constitutional legality of Musharraf's rule was found dubious. A populist constitutional movement eventually resulted in Musharraf's departure. On 22 August 2008, the electoral commission called for presidential nominations to be delivered by 26 August 2008 and for elections to be held on 6 September 2008.

Figurehead overview

After the presidential election held in 2008, Asif Ali Zardari lobbied for constitutional amendment to restore the Constitution as it was in 1973. In 2010, the Parliament unanimously and with a large majority, passed the eighteenth amendment of the constitution. It revoked the presidential powers and changed Pakistan from a semi-presidential system of government to a parliamentary republic, with great hopes of governmental stability in the future.

See also
Principal Secretary to the President of Pakistan
 Air transports of heads of state and government
 Official state car
 Prime Minister of Pakistan
 Chief Justice of Pakistan
 Chief Justice of the Federal Shariat Court
 Chief of Army Staff of the Pakistan Army
 Constitution of Pakistan
 Foreign Minister of Pakistan
 Finance Minister of Pakistan
 Interior Minister of Pakistan
 Minister of Defence (Pakistan)
 Vice President of Pakistan

References

External links
 President of Pakistan: official website

Parliament of Pakistan
Pakistan
1956 establishments in Pakistan

President of Pakistan


A dissenting opinion (or dissent) is an opinion in a legal case. It is written by one or more judges expressing disagreement with the majority opinion of the court. In some cases, they simply declare a disagreement with the majority opinion. In other cases they may be used to instruct, prod, or otherwise try to convince other justices of the point of view expressed by the minority.

When not necessarily referring to a legal decision, this can also be referred to as a minority report.

Dissenting opinions are normally written at the same time as the majority opinion and any concurring opinions. They are also delivered and published at the same time.  A dissenting opinion does not create binding precedent nor does it become a part of case law. However, they can sometimes be cited as a form of persuasive authority in subsequent cases when arguing that the court's holding should be limited or overturned. In some cases, a previous dissent is used to spur a change in the law. A later case may result in a majority opinion adopting a particular rule of law formerly advocated in dissent.  As with concurring opinions, the difference in opinion between dissents and majority opinions can often highlight the precise holding of the majority opinion. Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes stated in 1936: "A dissent in a Court of last resort is an appeal".

The dissent may disagree with the majority for any number of reasons: a different interpretation of the existing case law, the application of different principles, or a different interpretation of the facts.

References

Legal terms

Dissenting opinion


Ömer Nasuhi Bilmen (1883–1971)  was a Muslim scholar of fiqh and tafsir, and the fifth president of the Directorate of Religious Affairs of the Republic of Turkey. He is known for his expansive work on a concise manual on Islamic faith, worship and ethics called The Big Book of Islamic Catechism (Büyük İslâm İlmihali).

Early life and education

Bilmen was born in Erzurum, Ottoman Empire in 1883 (Rabi ul-Awwal 1300 Hijri, 1299 Rumi). His father was Haji Ahmed Efendi and his mother was Muhîbe Hanim. Upon his father's death when he was a child, he was raised under the patronage of his uncle Abdürrezzak İlmî Efendi at the Erzurum Ahmediyye Madrasa. He studied under his uncle and the mufti of Erzurum, Narmanlı Hüseyin Efendi. When his two teachers died at close intervals, he moved to Istanbul in 1908 and in 1909 started attending the classes of Tokatlı Şâkir Efendi, one of the Fatih Mosque lecturers. In addition, he passed the exam of Attorney General in 1912 and graduated from the School of Judges (Medreset ul-Kudât) he was attending in 1913.

Ömer Nasuhi Bilmen knew Arabic and Persian, and together with Turkish wrote poetry in three languages. He also had a curiosity for French and learned enough to translate it.

Major works
Bilmen's major works are the following:
 Hukūk-ı İslâmiyye ve Istılâhât-ı Fıkhiyye Kāmûsu
 Büyük İslâm İlmihali
 Kur'ân-ı Kerîm'in Türkçe Meâl-i Âlîsi ve Tefsiri (I-VIII, Istanbul 1963-1966)
 Büyük Tefsir Tarihi (I-II, Ankara 1955-1961)
 Kur'ân-ı Kerîm'den Dersler ve Öğütler (Istanbul 1947)
 Sûre-i Fethin Türkçe Tefsiri İ'tilâ-yı İslâm ile İstanbul Tarihçesi (Istanbul 1953, 1972)
 Hikmet Goncaları. 500 hadisin tercüme ve izahını ihtiva etmektedir (Istanbul 1963)
 Muvazzah İlm-i Kelâm (Istanbul 1955)
 Mülehhas İlm-i Tevhid Akaid-i İslâmiye (Istanbul 1962, 1973)
 Yüksek İslâm Ahlâkı (Istanbul 1949, 1964)
 Dinî Bilgiler (Ankara 1959)

Bilmen had his essays published in Beyânülhak, Sırât-ı Müstakîm ve Sebîlürreşâd magazines, published a poetry book titled Nüzhetü'l Ervâh (Istanbul 1968) which he wrote in Persian and translated to Turkish, and published a novel, İki Şükûfe-i Taaşşuk (1904).

References

1883 births
1971 deaths
20th-century Muslim scholars of Islam
Hanafis
Maturidis
20th-century essayists
20th-century Turkish poets
Turkish essayists
People from Erzurum
Turkish male poets
Turkish translators
20th-century novelists
Turkish novelists
20th-century translators
Islamic scholars from the Ottoman Empire

Ömer Nasuhi Bilmen