The Choir of Trinity College, Cambridge is a mixed choir whose primary function is to sing choral services in the Tudor chapel of Trinity College, Cambridge. In January 2011, Gramophone named the choir the fifth best choir in the world.

The choir has taken various forms since its foundation, and has existed in its present form since 1982 when, shortly after the admission of women to the college, female voices were used for the first time for the choir's top lines. Three regular services are sung per week in full University Term, and the choir sings Latin grace from the minstrels' gallery in the college's Great Hall at a number of feasts.

In addition, the choir undertakes projects outside term-time such as recordings, concerts, radio broadcasts and tours.

The choir is typically made up of 36 members, many of whom are students in Trinity College.

Directors of Music

The director of music is Stephen Layton, who succeeded Richard Marlow in September 2006.

History of the Choir

Trinity College's choral associations date back to the establishment of King's Hall by Edward II in 1317 (Chaucer's "Solar Hall" in The Canterbury Tales). This college, incorporated by Edward III in 1337, was amalgamated with an adjacent early 14th century foundation, Michaelhouse, when Henry VIII created Trinity in 1546. From the time of Edward II, Chapel Royal choristers, on leaving the Court, customarily entered King's Hall to continue their academic studies, alongside other undergraduates training for service in the royal administration.

The constitution of the medieval chapel choir remains obscure, but the choral foundation which Mary Tudor established in 1553 (ten choristers, six lay clerks, four priests, an organist, and a schoolmaster) survived essentially unchanged for over 300 years. Among the musicians associated with the choir during this time were the Tudor composers Thomas Preston, Robert White and John Hilton the elder; Robert Ramsey was organist just before the English Commonwealth; the lutenist and writer Thomas Mace was a lay clerk for around 70 years from 1635; and Thomas Attwood Walmisley was organist in the early 19th century.

At the turn of the 20th century, shortly after Ralph Vaughan Williams had graduated from Trinity and Alan Gray had succeeded Charles Villiers Stanford as Organist, the college choir school was closed down. Thereafter, a choir of boy trebles (holding scholarships at a local grammar school), lay clerks (some of whom shared their duties with the choirs of King's and St John's Colleges) and students continued the regular pattern of choral services until the 1950s. This traditionally-constituted body then gave way to a choir of undergraduate tenors and basses during Raymond Leppard's tenure as Director of Music, to be replaced with a mixed choir by Richard Marlow in 1982.

Tours and Concerts

The choir has toured to destinations such as Australia, Germany, France, Spain, Italy, the United States, Canada, the Canary Islands, India, South Africa, Namibia and Zimbabwe, Peru, and Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong. Particularly notable events include singing mass at the installation of Abbot Martin Werlen, O.S.B. as Abbot of Einsiedeln, Switzerland, and becoming the first western choir to tour India.

The choir also performs concerts in the UK, at home in Cambridge and in London (South Bank Centre, St John's Smith Square, Spitalfields Festival), and around the country. 'Livings tours' allow the choir to visit parishes around the country of which the college is patron and sing services and concerts; these include villages in the Isle of Wight, North Yorkshire, County Durham, Norfolk and the Lake District.

May Week

On the final Sunday of the academic year the Choir performs two outdoor concerts. At midday the choir sings antiphonally from two of the towers in the college's Great Court, with a brass ensemble performing from the third. In the evening the choir inaugurates May Week with the traditional River Concert, in which the madrigals and part-songs are performed upon punts moored at Trinity Backs. The evening's entertainment concludes, as dusk gives way to darkness, with Wilbye's madrigal Draw on, sweet night performed as the choir is punted down the river and out of sight.

Recordings

Under Richard Marlow
 Purcell: Anthems for the Chapel Royal (Conifer)
 Poulenc - Sacred Choral Works (1988; Conifer)
 Walton: Sacred Choral Music (1989; Conifer)
 Carols from Trinity (1990; Conifer)
 Glorious Trinity (1990; Conifer)
 French Sacred Choral Works (1990; Classics)
 Brahms: Complete Motets (1990; Classics)
 Victoria: Tenebrae Responsories/Lamentations (1991; Conifer)
 Schütz: Psalmen Davids (1991; Conifer)
 Monteverdi: Dixit Dominus (1992; Conifer)
 Monteverdi - Motets  (1992; Classics)
 Michael Haydn: Masses and Vespers (1993; Classics)
 Great Is The Lord (1993; Conifer)
 Miserere and Other Popular Choral Works (1993; Classics)
 A Child Is Born (1993; Classics)
 Carols from Trinity (1993; Conifer)
 Voce: An Intimate Expression of Faith Offered By the Human Voice (1994; Brentwood Music, a compilation)
 Weelkes/Tomkins - When David Heard (1994; Conifer)
 Sweelinck: Pseaumes De David (1994; Conifer)
 Bach: The Six Motets (1994; Conifer)
 Lassus - Regina coeli and Seasonal Motets (1994; Conifer)
 Praetorius - In dulci jubilo (1995; Conifer)
 Gibbons - Hosanna to the Son of David (1995; Conifer)
 The Songs of Angels (1996; Conifer)
 Britten - Sacred and Profane (1996)
 Bach Family Motets (1997; Conifer)
 Carols from Trinity (1997; Conifer)
 Choral Moods (1997; Conifer)
 Descants from Trinity (1997; Conifer)
 Sweelinck: Cantiones Sacrae, Vol.2 (1999; Hyperion)
 Sweelinck: Cantiones Sacrae, Vol.1 (1999; Hyperion)
 Hymns and Descants (2000; GMN)
 A Trinity Christmas (2001; GMN)
 Palestrina - Offertoria (2002; GMN)
 Duruflé - Complete Choral Works (2005; Chandos)
 Mendelssohn - Sacred Choral Works (2006; Chandos)
 Byrd - Cantiones sacrae (2007; Chandos)

Under Stephen Layton
 Handel - Dettingen Te Deum (2008; Hyperion)
 Poulenc - Gloria & Motets (2008; Hyperion)
 Lukaszewski - Choral Music (2008; Hyperion)
 Handel - Chandos Anthems vol. 1 (2009; Hyperion)
 Various - Baltic Exchange (2010; Hyperion)
 Briggs - Messe de Notre Dame (2010; Hyperion)
 American a cappella - Beyond all mortal dreams (2011; Hyperion)
 Howells - Requiem & other choral works (2012; Hyperion)
 Britten - A Ceremony of Carols & St Nicolas (2012; Hyperion)
 Handel - Chandos Anthems vol. 2 (2013; Hyperion)
 Bach - Christmas Oratorio (2013; Hyperion)
 Ešenvalds - Northern Lights & other choral works (2015; Hyperion)
 Leighton - Crucifixus & other choral works (2015; Hyperion)
 Various - Yulefest! (2015; Hyperion)
 Howells - Collegium Regale & other choral works (2016; Hyperion)
 Stanford - Choral Music (2017; Hyperion)
 Bach - Mass in B Minor (2018; Hyperion)
 Park - Choral works (2018; Hyperion)
 Finzi - Choral works (2019; Hyperion)
Mäntyjärvi - Choral Music (2020; Hyperion)
McDowall - Sacred choral music (2021; Hyperion)
Antognini - Come to me in the silence of the night & other choral works (2023; Hyperion)
Anthems, Vol.1 (2023; Hyperion)

Directors of Music of the College

George Loosemore (app. by Michaelmas 1660)
Robert Wildbore (app. 11 Sept. 1682)
Charles Quarles (app. 26 Dec 1688)
Charles Quarles/John Bowman (app. 13 Aug 1709; six months alternately)
John Bowman (app. 4 July 1717)
James Kent (app. 25 June 1731)
Edward Salisbury (app. 20 Nov 1738)
William Tireman (app. 27 July 1741)
William Tireman/John Randall (app. 13 Nov 1762)
William Tireman (app. 11 June 1768)
John Randall (app. 1 April 1777)
John Clarke-Whitfeld (app. 1799)
William Beale (app. 1 Nov 1820)
Samuel Matthews (app. 29 Dec 1821)
Thomas Attwood Walmisley (app. 1 Feb 1833)
John Larkin Hopkins (app. 31 Mar 1856)
Charles Villiers Stanford (app. 21 Feb 1874)
Alan Gray (1893-1930)
Hubert Stanley Middleton (b. 1890-d.1959)
Raymond Leppard ( -1968)
Richard Marlow (1968-2006)
Stephen Layton (2006-2023)

Organ Scholars
Harrison Cole (2019–present)
Jonathan Lee (2020–present)
Luke Fitzgerald (2019) (under the title of Associate Organist)
Victor Matthews (2018)
Asher Oliver (2016)
Alexander Hamilton (2015)
Owain Park (2013)
Eleanor Kornas (2012)
Jeremy Cole (2010)
Simon Bland (2009)
Rupert Compston (2007)
Michael Waldron (2006)
Max Pappenheim (2005)
James Sherlock (2003)
Oliver Lallemant (2002)
Douglas Paine (2000)
Benjamin Woodward (1999)
Mark Williams (1997)
Thomas Blunt (1996)
Andrew Lamb (1994)
Christopher Allsop (1993)
Philip Rushforth (1991)
Silas Wollston (1990)
Richard Pearce (1987)
Graham Jackson (1985)
Charles Matthews (1984)
Stephen Johns (1982)
Timothy Lole (1981)
Joseph Cullen (1978)
Alan Woodbridge
Alan Woodbridge (1976)
Stephen Barlow (1972)
Paul Halley (1970)
Nicholas King (1968)
Clive Haden Russell (1966)
Ewart Agnew Boddington (1945)

TCCA

In 2004 the Trinity College Choir Association ("TCCA") was formed by a group of choir alumni. It provides a framework for all current and past members of the choir, organists and clergy to keep in touch, meet up and make new acquaintances, and to keep abreast of the current activities of the choir. It also comprises a body of people to help and support the interests and the future of the choir.

Awards and nominations

References

1982 establishments in England
APRA Award winners
Cambridge choirs
Musical groups established in 1982
Trinity College, Cambridge
Trinity College

Choir of Trinity College, Cambridge


Pulau Ubin (also called Ubin Island) is an island at the northeast of Singapore. The island is now a tourist attraction. Less than 100 people stay on the island. But many people visit in the daytime to enjoy nature.

Name
Pulau Ubin means "Granite Island" in Malay language.

Transport
Visitors can take a boat from Changi Point Ferry Terminal. It takes 10 minutes to reach Pulau Ubin.
On the island, people can ride bicycles. There are some shops which rent bicycles to visitors.

Geography of Singapore
Islands of Asia
Places in Singapore

Pulau Ubin


In business management, a learning organization is a company that facilitates the learning of its members and continuously transforms itself. The concept was coined through the work and research of Peter Senge and his colleagues.

Learning organizations may develop as a result of the pressures facing modern organizations; this enables them to remain competitive in the business environment.

Characteristics
There are many definitions of a learning organization as well as typologies of kinds of learning organizations.

Peter Senge stated in an interview that a learning organization is a group of people working together collectively to enhance their capacities to create results they really care about. Senge popularized the concept of the learning organization through his book The Fifth Discipline. In the book, he proposed the following five characteristics:

Systems thinking
The idea of the learning organization developed from a body of work called systems thinking. This is a conceptual framework that allows people to study businesses as bounded objects. Learning organizations use this method of thinking when assessing their company and have information systems that measure the performance of the organization as a whole and of its various components. Systems thinking states that all the characteristics of a learning organization must be apparent at once in an organization for it to be a learning organization. If some of these characteristics are missing then the organization will fall short of its goal. However, O'Keeffe believes that the characteristics of a learning organization are factors that are gradually acquired, rather than developed simultaneously.

Personal mastery
The commitment by an individual to the process of learning is known as personal mastery. There is a competitive advantage for an organization whose workforce can learn more quickly than the workforce of other organizations. Learning is considered to be more than just acquiring information; it is expanding the ability to be more productive by learning how to apply our skills to work in the most valuable way. Personal mastery appears also in a spiritual way as, for example, clarification of focus, personal vision and ability to see and interpret reality objectively. Individual learning is acquired through staff training, development and continuous self-improvement; however, learning cannot be forced upon an individual who is not receptive to learning. Research shows that most learning in the workplace is incidental, rather than the product of formal training, therefore it is important to develop a culture where personal mastery is practiced in daily life. A learning organization has been described as the sum of individual learning, but there must be mechanisms for individual learning to be transferred into organizational learning. Personal mastery makes possible many positive outcomes such as individual performance, self-efficacy, self-motivation, sense of responsibility, commitment, patience and focus on relevant matters as well as work-life balance and well-being.

Mental models
Assumptions and generalizations held by individuals and organizations are called mental models. Personal mental models describe what people can or cannot detect. Due to selective observation, mental models might limit peoples' observations. To become a learning organization, these models must be identified and challenged. Individuals tend to espouse theories, which are what they intend to follow, and theories-in-use, which are what they actually do. Similarly, organizations tend to have 'memories' which preserve certain behaviours, norms and values. In creating a learning environment it is important to replace confrontational attitudes with an open culture that promotes inquiry and trust. To achieve this, the learning organization needs mechanisms for locating and assessing organizational theories of action. Unwanted values need to be discarded in a process called 'unlearning'. Wang and Ahmed refer to this as 'triple loop learning'. For organizations, problems arise when mental models evolve beneath the level of awareness. Thus it is important to examine business issues and actively question current business practices and new skills before they become integrated into new practices.

Shared vision
The development of a shared vision is important in motivating the staff to learn, as it creates a common identity that provides focus and energy for learning. The most successful visions build on the individual visions of the employees at all levels of the organization, thus the creation of a shared vision can be hindered by traditional structures where the company vision is imposed from above. Therefore, learning organizations tend to have flat, decentralized organizational structures. The shared vision is often to succeed against a competitor; however, Senge states that these are transitory goals and suggests that there should also be long-term goals that are intrinsic within the company. On the other hand, the lack of clearly defined goals can negatively affect the organisation, as it cannot attain its members trust. Applying the practices of a shared vision creates a suitable environment for the development of trust through communication and collaboration within the organization. As a result, the built shared vision encourages the members to share their own experiences and opinions, thus enhancing effects of organizational learning.

Team learning
The accumulation of individual learning constitutes team learning. The benefit of team or shared learning is that staff learn more quickly and the problem solving capacity of the organization is improved through better access to knowledge and expertise. Learning organizations have structures that facilitate team learning with features such as boundary crossing and openness. In team meetings members can learn better from each other by concentrating on listening, avoiding interruption, being interested and responding. In such a learning environment, people don't have to hide or overlook their disagreements, so they make their collective understanding richer. Three dimensions of team learning, according to Senge, are: "the ability to think insightfully about complex issues", "the ability to take innovative, coordinated action", and "the ability to create a network that will allow other teams to take action as well". In a learning organization, teams learn how to think together. Team learning is process of adapting and developing the team capacity to create the results that its members really want. Team learning requires individuals to engage in dialogue and discussion; therefore team members must develop open communication, shared meaning, and shared understanding. Learning organizations typically have excellent knowledge management structures, allowing creation, acquisition, dissemination, and implementation of this knowledge in the organization. Teams use tools such as an action learning cycle and dialogue. Team learning is only one element of the learning cycle. For the cycle to be complete, it has to include all five characteristics which are mentioned above.

Development
Organizations do not organically develop into learning organizations; there are factors prompting their change. As organizations grow, they lose their capacity to learn as company structures and individual thinking becomes rigid. When problems arise, the proposed solutions often turn out to be only short-term (single-loop learning instead of double-loop learning) and re-emerge in the future. To remain competitive, many organizations have restructured, with fewer people in the company. This means those who remain need to work more effectively. To create a competitive advantage, companies need to learn faster than their competitors and to develop a customer responsive culture. Chris Argyris identified that organizations need to maintain knowledge about new products and processes, understand what is happening in the outside environment and produce creative solutions using the knowledge and skills of all within the organization. This requires co-operation between individuals and groups, free and reliable communication, and a culture of trust.

For  any  learning  to  take  place,  also  in organizations,  there needs to be  diffusion  of knowledge. Diffusion is not always easy to perform, since it depends on the recipient's willingness to accept the new knowledge, their need of the new information and the relationship of their existing knowledge to the new information. The most useful knowledge is rarely something that is formed in one's head and then diffused to others. Useful knowledge generally consists of different pieces of information which are then combined. For the gathering of information, organizations need some sort of a content repository for all the information. These  repositories  are  nowadays  usually  built  with  the  aid  of  information technology. With a repository of information and a knowledge infrastructure, that simplifies  the  creation  of  knowledge  in  a  practical  form,  an organization will  have  all  its knowledge available for everyone in the organization, which will further help the learning in the organization. For example, USAID has a number of technical website platforms focused on development topics including Learning Lab, AgriLinks, DRGLinks, Edulinks and ResilienceLinks.

Benefits
One of the main benefits being a learning organization offers is a competitive advantage. This competitive advantage can be founded on different strategies, which can be acquired by organizational learning. One way of gaining a competitive advantage is strategic flexibility. The continuous inflow of new experience and knowledge keeps the organization dynamic and prepared for change. In an ever-changing institutional environment this can be a key factor for an advantage. Better management of an organizations explorative investments and exploitative acting can be a benefit of a learning organization, too. Next, a competitive advantage of a company can be gained by lower prices and better quality of products. Through organizational learning both cost leadership and differentiation strategies are possible. The ability to reconfigure actions based on needs and environment avoids the tradeoff between the two. Overall the customer performance of learning organizations might be better, which is the direct and measurable channel, that establishes a competitive advantage. Another important aspect is innovation. Innovation and learning are closely related. While encouraging people to learn and develop, a more innovative environment is commonly generated, innovative ideas coming from e.g. communities of practice can result in greater overall organizational learning.

Other benefits of a learning organization are:
 Maintaining levels of innovation and remaining competitive
 Having the knowledge to better link resources to customer needs
 Improving quality of outputs at all levels
 Improving corporate image by becoming more people oriented
 Increasing the pace of change within the organization
 Strengthening sense of community in the organization
 Improving long term decision making
 Improving knowledge sharing

Barriers
Even within or without learning organization, problems can stall the process of learning or cause it to regress. Most of them arise from an organization not fully embracing all the necessary facets. Once these problems can be identified, work can begin on improving them.

Some organizations find it hard to embrace personal mastery because as a concept it is intangible and the benefits cannot be quantified; personal mastery can even be seen as a threat to the organization. This threat can be real, as Senge points out, that 'to empower people in an unaligned organization can be counterproductive'. In other words, if individuals do not engage with a shared vision, personal mastery could be used to advance their own personal visions. In some organizations a lack of a learning culture can be a barrier to learning. An environment must be created where individuals can share learning without it being devalued and ignored, so more people can benefit from their knowledge and the individuals becomes empowered. A learning organization needs to fully accept the removal of traditional hierarchical structures.

Resistance to learning can occur within a learning organization if there is not sufficient buy-in at an individual level. This is often encountered with people who feel threatened by change or believe that they have the most to lose. They are likely to have closed mind sets, and are not willing to engage with mental models. Unless implemented coherently across the organization, learning can be viewed as elitist and restricted to senior levels. In that case, learning will not be viewed as a shared vision. If training and development is compulsory, it can be viewed as a form of control, rather than as personal development. Learning and the pursuit of personal mastery needs to be an individual choice, therefore enforced take-up will not work.

In addition, organizational size may become the barrier to internal knowledge sharing. When the number of employees exceeds 150, internal knowledge sharing dramatically decreases because of higher complexity in the formal organizational structure, weaker inter-employee relationships, lower trust, reduced connective efficacy, and less effective communication. As such, as the size of an organizational unit increases, the effectiveness of internal knowledge flows dramatically diminishes and the degree of intra-organizational knowledge sharing decreases.

Problems with Senge's vision include a failure to fully appreciate and incorporate the imperatives that animate modern organizations; the relative sophistication of the thinking he requires of managers (and whether many in practice are up to it); and questions regarding his treatment of organizational politics. It is certainly difficult to find real-life examples of learning organizations (Kerka 1995). There has also been a lack of critical analysis of the theoretical framework.

Based on their study of attempts to reform the Swiss Postal Service, Matthias Finger and Silvia Bűrgin Brand (1999) provide a useful listing of more important shortcomings of the learning organization concept. They conclude that it is not possible to transform a bureaucratic organization by learning initiatives alone. They believe that by referring to the notion of the learning organization it was possible to make change less threatening and more acceptable to participants. 'However, individual and collective learning, which has undoubtedly taken place, has not really been connected to organizational change and transformation'. Part of the issue, they suggest, has to do with the concept of the learning organization itself. They argue that the concept of the learning organization:
Focuses mainly on the cultural dimension and does not adequately take into account the other dimensions of an organization. To transform an organization, it is necessary to attend to structures and the organization of work as well as the culture and processes. 'Focussing exclusively on training activities in order to foster learning... favours this purely cultural bias'.
Favours individual and collective learning processes at all levels of the organization, but does not connect them properly to the organization's strategic objectives. Popular models of organizational learning (such as Dixon 1994) assume such a link. It is, therefore, imperative 'that the link between individual and collective learning and the organization's strategic objectives is made'. This shortcoming, Finger and Brand argue, makes a case for some form of measurement of organizational learning – so that it is possible to assess the extent to which such learning contributes or not towards strategic objectives.

Challenges in the transformation to a learning organization
The book The Dance of Change states there are many reasons why an organization may have trouble in transforming itself into a learning organization. The first is that an organization does not have enough time. Employees and management may have other issues that take priority over trying to change the culture of their organization. The team may not be able to commit the time if an institution does not have the appropriate help or training. For an organization to be able to change, it needs to know the steps necessary to solve the problems it faces. As a solution, a mentor or coach who is well versed in the learning organization concept may be necessary.

Also, the change may not be relevant to the organization's needs. Time should be spent on the actual issues of the organization and its daily issues. To combat this challenge, a strategy must be built. The organization should determine what its problems are before entering into the transformation. Training should remain linked to business results so that it is easier for employees to connect the training with everyday issues.

A usual challenge with many organizations is the lack of concentration on personal development while focusing mainly on professional development which is more likely to have a direct contribution to organization's performance whereas personal development's positive results appear more in the long run and less visibly.

As for the leader, it may be challenging not to consider one's own personal vision as the organization's shared vision.

Problems organizational learning addresses
Some of the issues that learning organizations were designed to address within institutions is fragmentation, competition and reactiveness. Fragmentation is described as breaking a problem into pieces. For example, each organization has an accounting department, finance, operations, IT and marketing. Competition occurs when employees are trying to do better or 'beat' others in an assignment instead of collaborating. Reactiveness occurs when an organization changes only in reaction to outside forces, rather than proactively initiating change.

Inappropriate habits while organizing team meetings can effect negatively. Meetings should be prepared in time, agenda drawn up and enough time dedicated to focus on the subjects. Because best results in team learning form through discipline, it is essential to have an agenda, make atmosphere open and respect others: avoid interruption, be interested and respond.

See also
Community of practice
Knowledge capture
Knowledge management
Knowledge organization
Lean startup
Learning agenda
Organizational learning
Professional learning community
Reflective practice

References

Further reading

 Örtenblad, Anders R. (2020). The Oxford Handbook of the Learning Organization. New York: Oxford University Press.
 Cummings, Thomas G. (ed.) (2008). Handbook of Organization Development. Los Angeles: Sage.
 Papa, M. J., Daniels, T. D., & Spiker, B. K. (2008). Organizational Communication: Perspectives and Trends. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
 Garvin, David A. (2000). Learning in Action: A Guide to Putting the Learning Organization to Work. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
 Flood, Robert L. (1999). Rethinking the Fifth Discipline: Learning Within the Unknowable. London; New York: Routledge.
 Aubrey, Robert; Cohen, Paul M. (1995). Working Wisdom: Timeless Skills and Vanguard Strategies for Learning Organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
 Chawla, Sarita; Renesch, John (eds.) (1995). Learning Organizations: Developing Cultures for Tomorrow's Workplace. Portland, OR: Productivity Press.
 Senge, Peter M.; Kleiner, Art; Roberts, Charlotte; Ross Richard B.; Smith, Bryan J. (eds.) (1994). The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook New York: Currency Doubleday.
 Watkins, Karen E.; Marsick, Victoria J. (1993). Sculpting the Learning Organization: Lessons in the Art and Science of Systemic Change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
 Senge, Peter M. (1990/2006). The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization (Revised edition). New York: Currency/Doubleday.

Systems thinking
Social information processing
Communication

Learning organization


The
Madhe Sahaba Agitation was a civil disobedience movement launched by Deobandi Muslims of Lucknow in the first half of the twentieth century to counter the commemoration of the tragedy of Karbala during Muharram. It resulted in a widespread Shia-Sunni conflict between the years 1906 – 1909 and turned violent in 1936 – 1939. The conflict spread to other parts of British India.

Background

In Medieval India, Shiites and Sunnis commemorated Muharram together. Pelsaert gives an account of commemoration of Muharram in Jahangir's reign as follows:

"In commemoration of this tragedy, they wail all night for a period of ten days. The women recite lamentations and display grief. The men carry two decorated coffins on the main roads of the city with many lamps. Large crowds attend these ceremonies, with great cries of mourning and noise. The chief event is on the last night, when it seems as if a Pharoah had killed all the infants in one night. The outcry lasts till the first quarter of the day".

Until the end of the sixteenth century AD, only two anti-Shia books were written in India: Minhaj al-Din by Makhdoom-ul Mulk Mullah Abdullah Sultanpuri and Radd-e Rawafiz by Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. Sirhindi approvingly quoted a group of transoxianan ulema:
"Since the Shia permit cursing Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and one of the chaste wives (of the Prophet), which in itself constitutes infedality, it is incumbent upon the Muslim ruler, nay upon all people, in compliance with the command of the Omniscient King (Allah), to kill them and to oppress them in order to elevate the true religion. It is permissible to destroy their buildings and to seize their property and belongings."
He has expressed his hate towards Shias in his letters too. According to him, the worst distorters of faith "are those who bear malice against the companions of Prophet Muhammad. God has called them Kafirs in the Quran". In a letter to Sheikh Farid, he said that showing respect to the distortors of faith (ahl-e-Bidʻah) amounted to destruction of Islam. However, there is evidence that Sirhindi later changed his views regarding shias.

As far as armed violence is concerned, the medieval period has only few examples of Shias being killed for their beliefs, most notable incidents are the killing of Abdullah Shah Ghazi in 769 AD, the destruction of Multan in 1005 AD, the persecution of Shias at the hands of Sultan Feroz Shah (1351–1388 AD),  and the target killing of Mullah Ahmad Thathavi in 1589 AD. However, the killer of Mulla Ahmad Thathavi was served justice by Emperor Akbar. The death of Syed Nurullah Shushtari seems to be politically motivated. The region of Srinagar in Kashmir is an exception in Middle Ages with ten bloody Taraaj-e-Shia campaigns.

Troubles between Lucknow's Shias and Sunnis were initiated by Syed Ahmad Barelvi, when he visited towns on Awdh, Bihar and Bengal from 1818 to 1820 to preach his radical ideas. Syed Ahmad repeatedly destroyed ta'ziyas, an act that resulted in subsequent riots and chaos. Barbara Metcalf offers the following explanation to his anti-shi'ism:

A second group of Abuses Syed Ahmad held were those that originated from Shi'i influence. He particularly urged Muslims to give up the keeping of ta'ziyahs. The replicas of the tombs of the martyrs of Karbala taken in procession during the mourning ceremony of Muharram. Muhammad Isma'il wrote,

"a true believer should regard the breaking a tazia by force to be as virtuous an action as destroying idols. If he cannot break them himself, let him order others to do so. If this even be out of his power, let him at least detest and abhor them with his whole heart and soul."

"Sayyid Ahmad himself is said, no doubt with considerable exaggeration, to have torn down thousands of imambaras, the building that house the ta'ziyahs".

This legacy was carried out by his followers, who later split into two new sects, namely the Deobandis and the Ahle Hadith. However till the end of nineteenth century, the anti-Shia sentiment was marginal and the followers of Syed Ahmad Barelvi were small in numbers. Mushirul Hasan says:

"Shia-Sunni relations were not structured around sectarian lines. Some people nursed sectarian prejudices, but most consciously resisted attempts to create fissures in the broadly unified and consensual model of social and cultural living. Regardless of the polemics of the Ulama and the itinerant preachers, bonds of friendship and understanding remained intact because Shias and Sunnis of all classes shared a language, literature and a cultural heritage. That is probably why Sharar observed, though in an exaggerated vein, that no one in Lucknow ever noticed who was a Sunni and who a Shia".

However as modern printing technology, political reforms and fast travel brought social changes, religious identities became politically relevant and religious leaders started to segregate people in order to strengthen their economic and political support base. Lucknow saw clashes between Shias and Sunnis in the 1880s and 1890s.

1908 Riots and Piggot Committee
By the start of the 1900s, the majority of Sunnis still observed Muharram. Modern lifestyle resulted in Muharram becoming a feast as well as a battleground. As the government gazette noted:

"Shops and booths came to be set up and there were amusements such as swings and merry go rounds. It appears further that women of the town had begun not only to frequent the route of the tazias but to set up tents on the fair ground where they received visitors"

A Deobandi cleric Abdul Shakoor Lakhnavi started to replace the mourning with celebration of moral victory of Imam Hussain over Yazid. He asked Sunnis to wear red or yellow dress instead of black, and carry a decorated charyari flag instead of the traditional black flag. Instead of honouring the Sahaba on their birthdays, he started to arrange public meetings under the banner of Madhe Sahaba (praise of the Companions) in Muharram. He would discuss the lives of the companions that Shias didn't rever and attack Shia beliefs.

Shias submitted a complaint to the office of Lucknow District Magistrate to take notice of the situation ban anything which went against the character of Muharram. Lucknow District administration accepted their demands and stringent rules were put into place for the Ashura procession of 1906. The Sunnis objected to the new rules and therefore, the district administration granted a separate site for Sunnis to bury their taziyah at Nishat Ganj, that came to be known as Karbala Phool Katora. The Sunnis however carried on with the new style of celebrating the Sahaba in the midst of Muharram. Charyari Poems and couplets were recited in the Sunni processions, some of which 'were positively objectionable in that they contained abuse of Shias and of their beliefs', and this provoked Shia resentment. They retaliated by reciting Tabarra. Serious riots broke out in 1907 and 1908, after which a four-member committee under the chairmanship of Justice T. C. Piggot, an ICS officer and a judge of High Court, was formed to look into the matter. The conclusion of committee was that "the attempt to transform the tazia processions in honour of first four Caliphs was an innovation". The Committee recommended that there should be general prohibition against the organized recitation of Madhe-Sahaba verses on three days, viz., ashura (the tenth day of Muharram), Chehlum (the fortieth day of ashura), and the twenty-first day of Ramzan. The Government accepted the report of the committee and implemented its recommendations.

Madhe Sahaba Agitation of 1930s
After the deflation of the Khilafat movement in the 1920s, the clerics had lost their support in public and Muslims started to follow modern minds like Muhammad Ali Jinnah. To keep themselves relevant, the Deobandi clergy that was politically ambitious established a militant Deobandi organization, Majlis-i-Ahrar-i-Islam, in 1931. This organization can be considered as predecessor of Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP). They first agitated against the Ahmedis in Kashmir and then they were looking for an opportunity. It was provided by Molana Abdul shakoor Lakhnavi who now had established a seminary in Lucknow in 1931 right on the route of the yearly Shia procession, called Dar-ul-Mubalaghin. Molana Abdul Shakoor wrote many books and pamphlets and had debates with Shia clerics. As paper had become available in plenty, these writings spread all over subcontinent and caused incidents of violence, though negligible compared to what was happening in UP. Dhulipala says:

"The problem broke out with renewed vigour in 1936 on Ashura day when two Sunnis disobeyed orders and publicly recited Charyari in the city centre of Lucknow. They were arrested and prosecuted, but then on Chhelum day more Sunnis took part in reciting Charyari and fourteen were arrested. This led to a new agitation by the Lucknow Sunnis in favour of reciting these verses publicly, which came to be known as Madhe Sahaba".

The government appointed the Allsop committee which endorsed the decision of the Piggott committee. The Allsop committee report was published in March 1938 and was rejected by the Deobandi ulema. Mushirul Hasan says:

"It turned violent in May–June 1937, when frenzied mobs in Lucknow and Ghazipur went on a rampage. Trouble in Ghazipur was instigated by a party of Sunnis from Jaunpur. Enraged mobs burnt and looted property. They killed at will. The summer of discontent rumbled on as sectarian strife, hitherto dormant, turned into a common occurrence in the daily lives of Lucknawis. There was more trouble during the next two years, fuelled by a government-appointed committee's ruling against Madh-e Sahaba in Lucknow. All hell broke loose. Husain Ahmad Madani (1879–1957), principal of the renowned seminary at Deoband along with other Jam'iyat al-'Ulama' leaders, jumped into the fray. He advocated civil disobedience. Thousands paid heed to his call and courted arrest. Though a fervent advocate of secular nationalism and a principled critic of the «two-nation theory», he stirred sectarian passions unabashedly. He spoke at a public meeting in Lucknow on 17 March 1938 sharing the platform with the firebrand head of the Dar al-Muballighin, Maulvi 'Abdul Shakoor, and Maulana Zafarul Mulk, chief exponent of Madh-e Sahaba in Lucknow".

In April 1938, when the Chehlum procession passed in front of the newly built Madrassah Darul Mubalaghin, bricks were thrown on it from rooftop, as a result ten Shias got killed and dozens were injured. Because of modern press and faster communication, the conflict soon spread to other cities. Already in 1940, a bomb was thrown on a procession in Delhi. J. N. Hollister reports on the security situation during Muharram in 1940:

"Conflicts between Sunnis and Shias at Muharram are not infrequent. Processions in the cities are accompanied by police along fixed lines of March. The following quotations from a single newspaper are not usual. They indicate what might happen if government did not keep the situation under control:

'adequate measures avert incidents', 'Muharram passed off peacefully', 'All shops remained closed in... in order to avoid incidents', 'Several women offered satyagraha in front of the final procession... about twenty miles from Allahabad. They object to the passing of the procession through their fields', 'the police took great precautions to prevent a breach of the peace', 'as a sequel to the cane charge by the police on a Mehndi procession the Moslems... did not celebrate the Muharram today. No ta'zia processions were taken out... Business was transacted as usual in the Hindu localities', 'Bomb thrown on procession'.

Not all of these disturbances spring from sectarian differences, but those differences actuate many fracases. Birdwood says that, in Bombay, where the first four days of Muharram are likely to be devoted to visiting each other's tabut khanas, women and children as well as men are admitted, and members of other communities – only the Sunnies are denied 'simply as a police precaution'".

Justice Munir writes in his report:

"How they attempted to defeat the Muslim League with Islam as their weapon will be apparent from some utterances of Maulana Mazhar Ali Azhar, the Ahrar leader, to whom is ascribed the couplet in which the Quaid-i-Azam was called kafir-i-azam. This gentleman is a Shia, but madh-i-sahaba with him is dearer than life, and during the days of Shia-Sunni riots in Lucknow both he and his son adopted this slogan which rouses the fire of every Shia and went from Lahore to Lucknow to fan the Shia-Sunni fire. Speaking outside Bhati Gate at a public meeting of the Ahrar, he said that he had, for the preceding two or three months, been asking the Muslim League whether the names of sahaba-i-karam would be revered in Pakistan, but had received no reply. He alleged that in the Congress-governed Provinces where Government was still with the British and the League had no power, the Leaguers were not permitting the sahaba to be named with reverence and asked whether, if power passed to the League; the state of affairs would be the same as in Lucknow and other Provinces where Muslims were in a majority and madh-i- sahaba would be an offence. Proceeding, he inquired if words of praise for Hazrat Abu Bakr, Hazrat Umar and Hazrat Usman could not be uttered in Lucknow and Mahmudabad, what would be the condition in League's Pakistan and what interest the Musalmans could have in such Pakistan (vide 'Shahbaz' of 20th November 1945)? In its issue of 2nd November 1945, the 'Nawa-i-Waqt' published a letter written by this very gentleman to another Ahrar leader. As the genuineness of this letter was questioned, we examined Maulana Mazhar Ali Azhar about it. He says that he does not definitely remember having written it but since this letter was published in one of the prominent papers of Lahore and was not contradicted by him, we have no hesitation in holding that the Maulana did write this letter. It is impossible that the Maulana, a renowned leader as he was in those days, should not have been aware of the publication of this letter, and, if he failed to contradict it, the only inference can be that the 'Nawa-i-Waqt' was in possession of the original letter, the authorship of which, in case the matter came to proof, could have conclusively been proved. The subject-matter of this letter is again madh-i- sahaba and we may repeat that the Maulana himself is a Shia. In this letter the Maulana says that the weapon of madh-i-sahaba could effectively be used against the League and that both the League and the Government will have to surrender over this issue whatever might, be the result of the elections. This conduct of the Maulana shows quite clearly how the Ahrar and other parties can conveniently exploit religion for their political ends. In this connection we may also mention a similar effort made by the Muslim League itself in 1946 to have pirs and masha'ikh, who command considerable followings, on its side in the struggle for the establishment of Pakistan."

The Legacy of Madhe Sahaba Agitation

On 3 September 1939, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain declared the commencement of war with Germany. Shortly thereafter, Viceroy Lord Linlithgow followed suit and announced that India too was at war with Germany. In 1939, the Congress leaders resigned from all British India government positions to which they had elected. In the 1940s, Jinnah emerged as a leader of the Indian Muslims and was popularly known as Quaid-e-Azam ('Great Leader'). These developments and the debates about status of Muslims in future India created an environment that forced Muslims to bury their disputes and focus on more important issues. In 1944 the Deobandi clerics established a separate organization under the name of Tanzim-i-Ahle Sunnat for the purpose of attacking Shia beliefs and practices, while keeping the mainstream Deobandi leadership absolved of the blame of communalism so that they could present themselves as secular nationalists. After 1947, many students of Molana Abdul Shakoor Lakhnavi and Molana Hussain Ahmad Madani migrated to Pakistan and either set up seminaries there or became part of the Tanzim-e-Ahle Sunnat or Jamiat Ulema-i-Islam (JUI). They travelled through the length and breadth of the country and called for attacks on Shia processions and wrote books and tracts against it. Among them were: Molana Noorul Hasan Bukhari, Molana Dost Muhammad Qureshi, Molana Abdus Sattar Taunsavi, Molana Mufti Mahmood, Molana Abdul Haq Haqqani and Molana Sarfaraz Gakharvi.

Already in 1949, Muharam procession was attacked in Narowal. In the 1951 Punjab Assembly elections, voting Shia candidates was declared prohibited and they were called infidels. In 1955, mourning processions were attacked at 25 places in Punjab. In the same year, a Balti imambargah in Karachi was attacked by a Deobandi mob and twelve people were severely injured. In 1957, three mourners died when a Muharram procession was attacked in Sitpur village of Muzaffargarh district. In the same year, one person was killed and three others were seriously injured when bricks and stones were thrown at a mourning procession in Ahmadpur Sharqi. In June 1958, Agha Mohsin, a Shia orator, was assassinated in Bhakkar.

The Therhi Massacre occurred on 3 June 1963, Shias of Therhi village attempted to carry a Taziya. When this news reached the nearby Deobandi seminary of Khairpur, students of Madrassa went to Therhi and burned both Taziya and Imambargah. 120 people were butchered with meat cleavers and machetes. On the same day a mourning procession was attacked at Bhati Gate, Lahore, with stones and knives, killing two mourners and injuring about a hundred. Mourners were also attacked in Narowal, Chiniot and Quetta.

See also
Anti-Shi'ism
Genocide of Kashmiri Shias
Therhi Massacre
Persecution of Hazara people
Persecution of Shias by ISIL
Syed Ahmad Barelvi
Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan

References

1906 establishments in India
1939 disestablishments in India
20th-century Islam

Shia Islam in India
Sectarian violence
Shia–Sunni sectarian violence
Shia Muslims
Shi'a
Persecution of Muslims
Islam-related controversies
History of Lucknow
Deobandi movement
Civil disobedience

Madhe Sahaba Agitation


Uschod (;  ,  'East') is a Minsk Metro station. It was opened on December 30, 1986.

The station's name not only implies its geographical location, as it was the easternmost station of Minsk metro for more than 20 years, but also its connotation with the Vostok space programme that ultimately led to the first crewed spaceflight. The station's architectural ensemble (Ye.Leonovich, V.Matelsky) is based on the latter and consists of a single vault shape with a suspended canopy that forms a single element. The canopy simultaneously acts as a blind from the lamps, and also contains the lighting elements which are focused on the apex of the white vault. This "petal" layout is reminiscent of the interior of a spaceship with illuminator windows: contrasting with that is the dark red and grey granite on the walls and the floor.

The station is located near the National Library of Belarus and the residential microrayon Uschod-1 and -2. Its two underground vestibules are interlinked with subways that are located on both sides of the Independence Avenue. From 1986-2007 the station was the terminus of the line and it received quite a lot of passenger traffic from commuters that traveled from the northeast. However, this ended when in 2007 the extension to Barysawski Trakt and Uruchcha was finished.

Gallery

References

External links
 Minsk State Committee - Station description
 Minskoye Metro - Station description
Google maps - Satellite shot centred on the station

Minsk Metro stations
Railway stations opened in 1986

Uschod


La señora de Cárdenas is a Venezuelan telenovela written by José Ignacio Cabrujas and produced by RCTV in 1977. The telenovela became the first in a series of telenovelas referred to as the cultural telenovela because they reflected the reality of Venezuelans in areas such as marriage and intimate family life.

Doris Wells and Miguel Ángel Landa starred as the main protagonists.

Plot
Pilar is a young and beautiful woman who has been happily married for 9 years and works hard to create a happy family. She is completely confident in the fidelity of Alberto, her husband and the father of her daughter. On the day of her wedding anniversary, Pilar discovers a note in her husband's shirt saying I love you, Fanny. For the first time, Pilar begins feeling insecure, jealous, filled with doubt, and finally, surprise and the disappointment of finding out that Alberto has another woman. Torn, Pilar confesses her feelings to her friend Liana while Alberto promises Fanny he will get a divorce but deep down he knows he still loves Pilar, but he is still confused since with Fanny he gets to experience passion and the freshness of a new life while with Pilar the stability of a home and daily routine.

Liana tries to convince Fanny to stay away from Alberto until she discovers she is expecting his child. But Fanny later on lies about the father of her child claiming that its Alfredo's, Alberto's best friend and the husband of Angelica, Pilar's sister. Alfredo is the owner of the newspaper where Fanny and Alberto work, and he has so far been unable to have a child. Pilar eventually discovers the truth and decides to leave Alberto and file for divorce. This complicates things further as Alberto begins to seek the companionship of women near him, and he forms a friendship with Liana which later turns them into lovers. Pilar is disgusted when she finds out about this betrayal, and she ends her friendship with Liana.

Pilar then decides to rebuild her life, and she begins working for the handsome Damián Galvés who offers his support. Pilar is no longer Mrs. Cárdenas but simply a woman who decided to rebuild her life and to have met a wonderful man like Damián whom she later marries. Some time later, Pilar is in the park with her son and bumps into Alberto who already has another girlfriend whom he introduces to her. They both part ways as good friends as Pilar remains happily with her son.

Cast
Doris Wells as Pilar Rodríguez De Cárdenas
Miguel Ángel Landa as Alberto Cárdenas
Marisela Berti as Fanny Muñoz
María Teresa Acosta as Estela De Rodríguez
Rafael Cabrera as Alfredo Montalvo
Chony Fuentes as Angélica Rodríguez De Montalvo
Cecilia Villarreal as Liana
Hugo Pimentel as Pedro Rodríguez
Mauricio González as Andrés Rodríguez
Mahuampi Acosta as Elvira De Cárdenas
Susanita Henríquez as María Elena Cárdenas Rodríguez
Tomás Henríquez as Dr. Enrique Perdomo
Gioia Lombardini as Eva Muñoz
Héctor Mayerston as Damian Gálvez
Aurora Mendoza as Doña Ana
Rolando Barral as Jhonny
Francis Rueda
Loly Sánchez as Perla
Freddy Galavis as Fonsequita
Yolanda Muñoz as Rosario De Perdomo
Marina Baura as Silvia Rivas

References

External links

Opening Credits

1977 telenovelas
RCTV telenovelas
1977 Venezuelan television series debuts
1997 Venezuelan television series endings
Spanish-language telenovelas
Television shows set in Venezuela

La señora de Cárdenas


Hugh II () (c. 1035 – 1116) was the Count of Empúries from 1078 until his death. He was the eldest son of Ponç I and Adelaida de Besalú, and succeeded his father in Empúries while his brother, Berenguer, was given the Viscounty of Peralada.

In politics he was on good terms with the other Catalan princes. In 1085, he made an alliance of mutual self-defence with his neighbour, Giselbert II of Roussillon. In 1113–15, he and Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, took part in an expedition against the Balearics. He was described by the anonymous author of the Liber maiolichinus as Catalanicus heros (a Catalan hero).

Hugh was involved in several disputes with the diocese of Girona, first with its canons and then with its bishop, Berenguer Guifré, over the tithes collected by the parish church of Santa Maria de Castelló. He made donations to the monastery of Sant Pere de Rodes and made pilgrimages to Santiago de Compostela and the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem.

Hugh was married to Sancha, daughter of Ermengol IV of Urgell, which whom he had one child, the heir Ponç II.

References
Latin text of the Liber maiolichinus with Spanish introduction

Counts of Empúries
Christians of the 1113–1115 Balearic Islands expedition
1116 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
11th-century Visigothic people
11th-century Catalan people
12th-century Visigothic people
12th-century Catalan people

Hugh II, Count of Empúries


Monoculture is growing a single crop in a large area.  Farmers decide what is the best crop, and grow only that. This is very common in modern agriculture, as it simplifies the farm and allows relatively few people to harvest large amounts.  Often the crop of a large area is not merely a single species, but a single variety.  Monocultures have problems, however: Pests and diseases that attack only one kind of plant can spread more easily when they only find that kind.

Each kind of plant also needs particular nutrients from the soil.  Fertilizers are used to supply that nutrient.  Crop rotation is used in some areas.

Related pages
Plantation

Agriculture

Monoculture


Neoboletus is a genus of fungi in the family Boletaceae, native to holarctic regions. It was  circumscribed in 2014 by Italian mycologists Matteo Gelardi, Giampaolo Simonini and Alfredo Vizzini, and further by Chinese mycologists Gang Wu and Zhu L. Yang in 2015. Closely related to the genus Sutorius, members of this genus differ by staining blue when bruised. They have brown pores and lack a reticulated pattern on their stipes. The erection of Neoboletus follows recent molecular studies that outlined a new phylogenetic framework for the Boletaceae. The type species is Neoboletus luridiformis. Five species were added to the genus by Gelardi and Vizzini in 2014.

Species

References

Boletales genera

Neoboletus


Wolchulsan (월출산) is a mountain located in South Jeolla province, South Korea; and spans both Gangjin and Yeongam counties.  At its peak, Cheonhwangbong, it rises to 808.7 meters, making it the highest point in Gangjin County.

It lies in a national park of the same name.  Wolchulsan National Park is the smallest national park of South Korea, with an area of .  A notable feature of the mountain is the "Cloud Bridge" (구름다리) a small suspension bridge that spans two peaks.

External links
 Wolchulsan National Park

References
http://english.knps.or.kr/Knp/Wolchulsan/Intro/Introduction.aspx

Mountains of South Korea
Mountains of South Jeolla Province
Gangjin County
Yeongam County

Wolchulsan


The Canadian Global Almanac is a Canadian reference book containing a large collection of facts and statistics.  It grew out of the American World Almanac and Book of Facts when in 1986 an all-Canadian version was published, edited by John Filion and published by Susan Yates.  John Robert Columbo later became its editor.  While it was being published, a new edition was released each year in November. The almanac has not been published since 2005.

Almanacs
Canadian non-fiction books

Canadian Global Almanac


Ryan Rottman (born March 17, 1984) is an American actor. He is known for his role as Joey Colvin on the TeenNick series Gigantic.

Rottman graduated from Lufkin High School and later attended Texas Tech University. Rottman started his career in 2008 as an extra in the comedy film The House Bunny. Before that he starred in plays at Texas Tech University. In 2009, he appeared in films Stuntmen and The Open Road. Rottman's other television credits include Greek, Victorious, 90210, and the web series Valley Peaks. He played Jordan Lyle in the second season of the ABC Family series The Lying Game in 2013.

Filmography

References

External links

1984 births
21st-century American male actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
Living people
Male actors from Louisiana

Ryan Rottman


Teflon redirects here, other uses are at Teflon (disambiguation)

In chemistry, Polytetrafluoroethylene (often shortened to PTFE) is a polymer of tetrafluoroethylene. It is a fluoropolymer, because the polymerization is based on strong covalent bonds of fluorine and carbon. Polytetrafluoroethylene is not very reactive. It also repels oil and water. E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company developed it in 1938.

It is better known by its trade-names, Teflon and Gore-Tex. Teflon is a coating for frying pans, among others. Gore-Tex is stretched PTFE, used as a membrane in clothing.

Problems
Perfluorooctanoic acid was formerly used to produce Polytetrafluoroethylene. It is very toxic for people and may cause cancer. In the 2010s it was replaced with other chemicals.

The precursors for many chemical weapons are highly corrosive, so their containers are often treated with Polytetrafluoroethylene. For this reason, the export of Polytetrafluoroethylene from the European Union may need a special permit.

Polymers

Polytetrafluoroethylene


Aksu Hanttu (born ) is a musician, record producer and sound engineer from Lahti, Finland. He plays the drums in the metal band Entwine and vocals and drums in the group Tuoni. Hanttu is also involved with Finnvox Studios in Helsinki, which has worked with artists such as Nightwish, Reflexion, Soulrelic and the Belarusian 2009 Eurovision Song Contest entry Petr Elfimov. He mixed the album, Fuel for the Fire by Finnish Idols winner, Ari Koivunen. He was a co-writer on Julma Satu, the debut album of Villieläin and also provided backing vocals on most of the tracks, as well as helping to produce it at Wave Sound Studios in Aatolike.

He is influenced by Rammstein, Mokoma and Kiss and uses the following equipment in his drum set: Yamaha drums, Zildjain cymbals and Pro-mark drumsticks. He has been playing the drums since 1991, but did not gain fame until 1995.

References

1979 births
Finnish male musicians
Living people
People from Lahti

Aksu Hanttu


Early Music Network is an international early music society. Its stated mission is: "To support and promote early music and historical performance by providing information and services which would benefit and help early music organizations, ensembles and solo musicians (such as free web hosting, instrument exchange, help with organization of concerts, to provide info about education, master classes, etc.). To help the growth of early music community on the web and in every community around the world."

Early Music Network was founded in 1998 by Predrag Gosta, and it is based in Atlanta, United States.

External links
Early Music Network

Early music groups
Musical groups established in 1998

Early Music Network


Bush Pilot: Reflections on a Canadian Myth is a 22-minute Canadian documentary film, made in 1980 by the National Film Board of Canada (NFB) and directed by Norma Bailey and Robert Lower. Shot in northern Manitoba, the film explores the myth of the bush pilot as a heroic and iconic figure in the Canada's north.

Synopsis

From the 1920s, the bush pilot had been instrumental in pushing back the frontiers of Canada, both westward and northward. In order to traverse the great stretches of northern bush and lake country, bush planes became the preferred means, supplanting the canoe and dog sled. Originally introduced in 1935, the Noorduyn Norseman was one of the first purpose-built aircraft to work in Canada's remote and unsettled regions. Remaining in production for almost 25 years with over 900 produced, a number of examples of Noorduyn Norseman aircraft remain in commercial and private use to this day.

In 1974, Northway Aviation pilot Jim Beauchamp left his job as a bank executive, to follow his dream of becoming a bush pilot, flying the Noorduyn Norseman. Even though he is aware of the romantic notion that many might attach to his job, most times it is just a job, with long hours and back-breaking work in an isolated and often hostile environment. His boss, Jim Johnson simply describes flying in the north as pilots acting as either a bus or taxi driver.

For over 25 years, Northway from its floatplane base at the Icelandic River in Riverton, Manitoba, maintained a lifeline to the small towns cradling Lake Winnipeg. While fresh produce and groceries, building materials and equipment were flown north, some communities hauled out fish, fur and wild rice harvested on the lakes. With the development of larger, more modern communities such as Thompson, Manitoba, northern isolation was coming to an end, and the myth of the bush pilot as a heroic figure was also fading.

Production
Directors Norma Bailey and Robert Lower began pre-production in 1978, originally intending to make a film as an homage to the Noorduyn Norseman bush plane. Both directors grew up in rural Manitoba and had flown extensively on bush planes, with Lower having his own private pilot's licence.

As they gathered footage at the Northway Aviation Ltd. and Lambair Ltd. airlines that flew the Norseman, as well as accessing archival footage shot by the bush pilots of the 1920s and 1930s, the story changed to one of the bush pilots rather than the aircraft they flew. Principal photography ended in 1980.

Reception
Bush Pilot: Reflections on a Canadian Myth was well received as a documentary and had its initial release in Manitoba with public showings in Riverton, Manitoba and Winnipeg on January 21, 1981. In a recent review, pilot and author Mike Singer called the film, "a tribute to the bush pilot". "The short 23 minute film features a Mk IV Noorduyn Norseman operated by Northway Aviation of Manitoba, and includes archival footage, as well as interviews with pilots. It's well worth watching if you have any interest in bush flying, or in the history of Canadian Aviation."

Bush Pilot played on several television stations of the CBC Northern service in November 1981. Some CBC and CTV affiliates in Saskatchewan, as well as CITY TV in Toronto over the next few years, broadcast the film. A television sale was also made to the public service television network of Spain (RTV Television Espanola). The film was subsequently released in 16 mm in the non-theatrical market for use in schools in Canada, distributed by the National Film Board of Canada.

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

 Molson, Ken M. and Harold A. Taylor. Canadian Aircraft Since 1909. Stittsville, Ontario, Canada: Canada's Wings, Inc., 1982. .

External links

 Watch Bush Pilot: Reflections on a Canadian Myth at NFB.ca (requires Adobe Flash)

1981 films
Canadian aviation films
Canadian short documentary films
Aviation in Manitoba
Documentary films about aviation
National Film Board of Canada documentaries
1981 documentary films
Films directed by Norma Bailey
Bush pilots
Canadian folklore
Quebec films
National Film Board of Canada short films
1980s English-language films
1980s Canadian films


Texas Genco was  a  power generation company that came about as part of the  deregulated Texas electricity market and owned numerous power plants in the Houston area that serve area power needs.   The Company was created in 2001 as part of the Texas electricity market deregulation.  Incumbent utilities were required to separate their business functions into a retail electric provider (REP), a transmission and distribution service  provider (TDSP), and a wholesale generator.

In 2000, Reliant Energy announced that it was splitting its business into separate regulated and unregulated businesses.
This split formed Reliant Resources, an unregulated electricity and energy company, and Centerpoint Energy, the remaining mostly regulated energy delivery company. Reliant Energy's power plants became a wholly owned subsidiary of Centerpoint Energy. The new company was known as Texas Genco.

When the state of Texas deregulated the electricity market, the former Houston Lighting & Power (HL&P) was split into several companies. In 2003 HL&P was split into Reliant Energy, Texas Genco, and CenterPoint Energy.

Seeking opportunities arising out of the deregulation of the electricity industry in Texas, in late 2004 four private equity firms—the Texas Pacific Group, the Blackstone Group, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts, and Hellman & Friedman of San Francisco—combined forces to purchase Texas Genco from the transmission & distribution provider utility Centerpoint Energy for Houston.

This coalition of firms acquired Texas Genco—which was the second largest operator of power generation facilities in the state—for a price of approximately $1.9 billion and using just $900 million in cash.

In late 2005, these private equity firms announced the sale of Texas Genco to NRG Energy of Princeton, N.J., for a price of roughly $5.9 billion. The investors achieved a gain of almost $5 billion over the space of an investment holding period of less than 18 months, a return that will mark one of the most lucrative private equity investments in recent years.

See also

Genco

External links
Deregulation of the Texas electricity market
"The Deal That Even Awed Them in Houston," by Simon Romero, The New York Times

References

NRG Energy
Companies based in Houston
Companies established in 2001
Energy in Texas
Corporate subsidiaries

Texas Genco


The Cellophane paradox (also the Cellophane trap or Cellophane fallacy or gingerbread paradox) describes a type of incorrect reasoning used in market regulation methods.

The paradox arises when a firm sells a product with few substitutes, which in turn allows the firm to increase the price of that product. The original reason was that as the price increases, the product will reach a point where it begins to attract more and more substitutes. In technical economic terms, such a product has very low cross-price elasticity of demand. The situation is linked to a United States Supreme Court case and a subsequent response in economic literature.

Cellophane was a DuPont company that made flexible wrapping material. It had its U.S. production restricted to du Pont by numerous patents in the early 1950s. Du Pont was sued under the Sherman Act for monopolization of the cellophane market by the U.S. Justice Department, and the case (U.S. v. E. I. du Pont) was decided by the Supreme Court in 1956. The Court agreed with du Pont that when evaluated at the monopolistic price observed in the early 1950s, there were many substitutes for cellophane and, therefore, du Pont had only a small share of the market for wrapping materials (i.e., it possessed little or no market power).

This reasoning was challenged by a 1955 article in the American Economic Review. In research on the du Pont company arising from his PhD dissertation, Willard F. Mueller and co-author George W. Stocking, Sr. pointed out the error of mistaking a monopolist's inability to exercise market power by raising price above the current price for an inability to have already exercised market power by raising price significantly above the competitive price. Courts that use a monopolized product's elevated market price will typically misconstrue a completed anti-competitive act as a lack of market power. Had the Supreme Court considered the substitutability of other wrappings at cellophane's competitive price, the sales of other wrappings would have been much lower; du Pont might very well have been found guilty of monopolizing the market for flexible wrappings.

As Richard Posner wrote,
"Reasonable interchangeability at the current price but not at a competitive price level, far from demonstrating the absence of monopoly power, might well be a symptom of that power; this elementary point was completely overlooked by the court"

The problem continues to bedevil efforts by antitrust agencies to define markets.  Defining markets by cross-elasticity of demand requires a reference price:  If I raise my price by 5% from some base level, will people switch to a competing good?  The problem is that a firm that actually does have a monopoly power still faces constraints on its ability to charge whatever price it wants; those constraints are set by consumers' willingness to pay.  If a monopolist already charges the profit-maximizing price, an increase above that price will cause consumers to stop buying the product; that's why the lower price was already profit-maximizing.  So we can't just use the price a company already charges as the base level, or we will conclude that even monopolists lack market power.

Antitrust can solve this problem by using some measure of average cost, not the actual market price, as the baseline for the question whether a merger would allow the merged firm to increase price.   But that means that the relevant question is not whether consumers would pay more for a can of Coke or a Harry Potter novel than they currently do; it is whether they would pay 5% more for the can of Coke than it cost to make, deliver, and sell it.

References

External links
 The Cellophane Case and the New Competition; The American Economic Review, Vol. 45, No. 1 (Mar., 1955), pp. 29-63  The original article by George W. Stocking and Willard F. Mueller

Market structure
Competition law

Cellophane paradox


The Green Bag was a popular legal magazine published in Boston between 1889 and 1914—the Progressive Era—containing news of legal events, biographies, and essays, generally in a lighthearted tone. The magazine was initially captioned "A Useless, but Entertaining Magazine For Lawyers"; later "An Entertaining Magazine for Lawyers". The name of the magazine was purported to reflect the use of green bags by barristers, although this assertion was disputed.

Charles Carroll Soule, owner of the Boston Book Company and publisher of The Green Bag, hired Horace Williams Fuller to be the first editor. A contemporary publication reviewed the initial efforts of The Green Bag as follows: "Although primarily intended for the amusement of lawyers, this magazine should be a welcome guest at any library table. It is certainly one of the brightest, sprightliest and most entertaining of all the non-scientific journals that come to The Microscopes book-table. Well edited, beautifully printed, finely illustrated, it should meet with a cordial reception from any intelligent reader."

In 1893, A. Oakey Hall began writing "reflective and authoritative essays on legal matters and some biographical sketches of famous people" for The Green Bag, including biographies of Samuel J. Tilden, William McKinley, William Jennings Bryan, and Alexander Hamilton. The success of The Green Bag prompted an imitator, The Canadian Green Bag, launched in January 1895 and edited by Francis Longueville Snow.

Fuller served as editor of The Green Bag until the end of 1900, some months before his death in 1901. Following Fuller's retirement, Thomas Tileston Baldwin became editor, and was evaluated by one reviewer as "a worthy successor to Mr. Fuller judging from his initial number." Baldwin served as editor from 1901 to 1904, giving up editorship in January 1905. During this time, the magazine's offerings included a series of articles contributed by David Werner Amram, which formed the substance of his 1905 book, Leading Cases in the Bible. In these, Amram approached the Bible in a spirit of free scientific inquiry and illuminated the legal problems involved even indirectly in the biblical narrative. The striking originality and charming style of the book was of interest to students of both the law and the Bible.

Editorship passed to Sydney Russell Wrightington from 1905 to 1909, then to Arthur Weightman Spencer from 1909 to 1915. At the beginning of 1915, The Green Bag was acquired by the Central Law Journal Company, which discontinued The Green Bag while fulfilling its subscription list with its own weekly Central Law Journal. Spencer, then-editor of The Green Bag, became assistant editor of The Central Law Journal.

In 1997, three former classmates at the University of Chicago Law School began publication of The Green Bag: An Entertaining Journal of Law as a quarterly legal journal dedicated to publishing good writing about the law. In calling itself an "entertaining" journal, it is not strictly a journal of humor and unserious work.

Footnotes

External links

 The Green Bag (1889–1914) archive at HathiTrust

Legal magazines
Magazines disestablished in 1914
Magazines established in 1889
Magazines published in Boston
Defunct magazines published in the United States
1889 establishments in Massachusetts
1914 disestablishments in Massachusetts

The Green Bag (1889–1914)


Bail is money given to the court to guarantee that someone will go to their trial. If the person does not show up for their trial, the government gets to keep the money.

If the arrested person cannot afford the full bail amount, they can use a bail bond. This is a system where part of the bail amount is paid to a company, and they do the bail paperwork. Unlike placing the full bail to the court, the bail bond payment is not returned.

If someone uses a bail bond company, and they do not show up for their court appearance (these people are known as "bail jumpers") a bounty hunter can be hired to track them down and bring them back.

Criminal justice
Money
Imprisonment and detention

Bail


Thomas Callan Hodson (1871–1953) was the first William Wyse Professor of Social Anthropology at the University of Cambridge, where he was a Fellow of St Catharine's College, notable for his writings on Indian anthropology and for coining the term sociolinguistics.

1931 Census of India
In Analysis of the 1931 Census of India (Government of India Press, 1937) Hodson analysed the physical types in India, in great detail, adopting the models dominant in his day. This analysis was independent of the castes, and Brahmins and Dalits were classified in the same "racial groups". For example, Telugu Brahmins and Chamars were classified as "Racial Element A". In total, he distinguished seven "racial elements", from A to G.

Hodson used the classical "brachycephalic" and "dolichocephalic" terminology in force in racial discourses of the day. This was a typology constructed from the so-called "cephalic index" (the ratio of the maximum width of the head to its maximum length) and to classify human populations according to this purported scientific measure. Invented by the anatomist Anders Retzius (1796–1860), the cephalic index classification was disputed by Franz Boas's anthropological works, and Boas's criticisms are widely accepted today. Hodson also typically associates racial categories with supposed stages of economic and linguistic development, implying a hierarchy of racially defined cultures, a view characteristic of scientific racism.

Hodson believed that the earliest occupants of India were probably of the "Negrito race", followed by the "proto-Australoids". Later, an early stock probably of the Mediterranean race, came to India and mingled with the proto-Australoids. He believed that these people spoke an agglutinative language from which the present Austroasiatic languages are derived. They had a rudimentary knowledge of agriculture, building stone monuments, and primitive navigation. This migration was followed by an immigration of more civilised Mediterraneans from the Persian Gulf (ultimately from eastern Europe). These people had the knowledge of the metals, but not of iron. They were followed by later waves of immigrants who developed the Indus valley civilization. All these immigrants were of the dolichocephalic type, but the Indus valley people had a mixed brachycephalic element coming from the Anatolian plateau, in the form of the Armenoid branch of the Alpine race. These people probably spoke the Dravidian languages. Later, a brachycephalic race speaking perhaps an Indo-European language of the "Pisacha or Dardic family", migrated to India from the Iranian plateau and the Pamirs. During about 1500 B.C., the Indo-Aryans migrated into Northern India.

Publications
Thado Grammar, Eastern Bengal and Assam Secretariat Printing Office, 1905
The Meitheis D. Nutt, 1908, reprinted by the Obscure Press 2006
The Naga Tribes of Manipur, Macmillan 1911
 The primitive culture of India lectures delivered in 1922 at the School of Oriental Studies (University of London)
India Delhi, Manager of Publications, 1937
India Census Ethnography 1901-1931, 1937

References

 Obituary by J.H.Hutton in Nature 171, 328-329 (21 February 1953)

External links

1871 births
1953 deaths
Fellows of St Catharine's College, Cambridge
English anthropologists
William Wyse Professors of Social Anthropology

Thomas Callan Hodson


The volcanoes of South America are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Most of them are along the backbone of the Andes.

The Andes, together with the volcanoes, has been produced by the movement of the Americas towards the west. This has been happening for a long time, certainly 60 million years or more. This continental drift leads to subduction of oceanic plates beneath the continental plates of the land mass. In turn, this produced the mountain ranges (orogeny) and the volcanic activity. A rather different cause is at work on the Galápagos Islands. There, a hotspot under the plate caused the islands and their volcanoes to rise up from the sea floor.

Andes

Bolivia

The country of Bolivia hosts numerous active and extinct volcanoes across its territory. The active volcanoes are located in western Bolivia where they make up the western limit of the Altiplano plateau. Many of the active volcanoes are international mountains shared with Chile. Apart from Andean volcanoes, Bolivia has the remnants of ancient volcanoes around the Precambrian Guaporé Shield in the eastern part of the country.

Chile

Earthquake activity in Chile is related to subduction of the Nazca Plate to the east. Chile notably holds the record for the largest earthquake ever recorded, the 1960 Valdivia earthquake. Villarrica, one of Chile's most active volcanoes, rises above Villarrica Lake and the town of Villarrica. It is the westernmost of three large stratovolcanoes that trend perpendicular to the Andean chain. A 6-km wide caldera formed during the late Pleistocene, >0.9 million years ago.

The Llaima Volcano is one of the largest and most active volcanoes in Chile. It is situated 82 km northeast of Temuco and 663 km southeast of Santiago, within the borders of Conguillío National Park. Llaima's activity has been documented since the 17th century, and consists of several separate episodes of moderate explosive eruptions with occasional lava flows. The last major eruption occurred in 1994.

Chile has experienced numerous volcanic eruptions from 60 volcanoes, including Llaima Volcano and the Chaitén Volcano.

Lascar Volcano is a stratovolcano, the most active volcano of the northern Chilean Andes. The largest eruption of Lascar took place about 26,500 years ago. Frequent small-to-moderate explosive eruptions have been recorded from Lascar in historical times since the mid-19th century.

Villarrica, is one of only five volcanoes worldwide known to have an active lava lake inside its crater. The volcano usually generates strombolian eruptions, with ejection of fiery pyroclasts and lava flows. Melting of snow and glacier ice as well as rainfalls often cause massive lahars (mud and debris flows), such as during the eruptions of 1964 and 1971.

Ecuador

Cotopaxi is a stratovolcano in the Andes Mountains, about  south of Quito, Ecuador, South America. It is the second highest summit in the country, reaching a height of . Some consider it the world's highest active volcano. Others give this status to the much higher Llullaillaco, which most recently erupted in 1877 and is one of Ecuador's most active volcanoes. Since 1738, Cotopaxi has erupted more than 50 times, resulting in the creation of numerous valleys formed by lahars (mudflows) around the volcano.

In October 1999, Pichincha Volcano erupted in Quito and covered the city with several inches of ash. Before that, the last major eruptions were in 1553  and in 1660, when about 30 cm of ash fell on the city.

At 5230 meters, Sangay Volcano  is an active [stratovolcano] in central Ecuador. It is one of the highest active volcanoes in the world and one of Ecuador's most active ones, erupting three times in recorded history. It shows mostly Strombolian  activity. The most recent eruption, which started in 1934, is still ongoing. Geologically, Sangay marks the southern bound of the Northern Volcanic Zone, and its position straddling two major pieces of crust accounts for its high level of activity. Sangay's approximately 500,000 year old history is one of instability. Two previous versions of the mountain were destroyed in massive flank collapses, evidence of which still litters its surroundings today. Sangay is one of two active volcanoes located in the namesake Sangay National Park, the other being Tungurahua to the north. The Park has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1983.

Reventador is an active stratovolcano which lies in the eastern Andes of Ecuador. Since 1541 it has erupted over 25 times with most recent eruption in 2009, but the largest historical eruption occurred in 2002. During that eruption the plume from the volcano reached a height of 17 km and pyroclastic flows went up to 7 km from the cone. On March 30, 2007, the mountain spewed ash again. The ash reached a height of about two miles (3 km, 11,000 ft). No injuries or damages have been reported.

Galápagos Islands

The Galápagos Islands are an isolated set of volcanoes, consisting of shield volcanoes and lava plateaus,  west of Ecuador. They are driven by the Galápagos hotspot, and are between 4.2 million and 700,000 years of age. The largest island, Isabela Island, consists of six coalesced shield volcanoes, each delineated by a large summit caldera. Española, the oldest island, and Fernandina, the youngest, are also shield volcanoes, as are most of the other islands in the chain. The Galápagos Islands are perched on a large lava plateau known as the Galápagos Platform. This platform creates a shallow water depth of  at the base of the islands, which stretch over a -long diameter.

Since Charles Darwin's famous visit to the islands in 1835, there have been over 60 recorded eruptions in the islands, from six different shield volcanoes. Of the 21 emergent volcanoes, 13 are considered active.

Blue Hill  is a shield volcano on the south western part of Isabela Island in the Galápagos Islands and is one of the most active in the Galapagos, with the last eruption between May and June 2008. The Galápagos islands are geologically young for such a big chain, and the pattern of their rift zones follows one of two trends, one north-northwest, and one east-west. The composition of the lavas of the Galápagos shields are strikingly similar to those of the Hawaiian volcanoes.

How exactly the islands were formed remains a geological mystery, although several theories have been fronted. Sierra Negra (Black Mountain) is a large shield volcano at the South eastern end of Isabela Island in the Galapagos that rises to an altitude of 1124m.  It coalesces with the volcanoes Cerro Azul to the west and Alcedo to the north. The volcano is one of the most active in the Galapagos, with the last eruption starting on 22 October 2005 and lasting until 30 October 2005.

Alcedo Volcano is one of the six coalescing shield volcanoes that make up Isabela Island in the Galapagos. The remote location of the volcano has meant that even the most recent eruption in 1993 was not recorded until two years later.

Fernandina Island (formerly known in English as Narborough Island, after John Narborough) is the third largest, and youngest, island of the Galápagos Islands. Like the others, the island was formed by the Galápagos hotspot. The island is an active shield volcano that has been erupting since April 11, 2009.

Peru
Volcanoes in Peru are monitored by the Peruvian Geophysical Institute.

Sabancaya is an active  stratovolcano in the Andes of southern Peru, about  northwest of Arequipa. It is the most active volcano in Peru with an ongoing eruption that started in August 2014 and is continuing.

Ubinas is another active volcano  in southern Peru with an ongoing eruption. Until 2006, this stratovolcano had not erupted for about 40 years. On April 23, 2006, Peru declared a state of emergency in towns near the volcano. On April 28, 2014, Despite a recent decline in earthquakes, Ubinas Volcano erupted an ash plume on April 28, 2014.

References

Volcanoes of South America


Moral emotions are a variety of social emotions that are involved in forming and communicating moral judgments and decisions, and in motivating behavioral responses to one's own and others' moral behavior. As defined by Jonathan Haidt, moral emotions "are linked to the interests or welfare either of a society as a whole or at least of persons other than the judge or agent". A person may not always have clear words to articulate, yet simultaneously, that same person knows it to be true deep down inside.

Some different moral emotions include disgust, shame, pride, anger, guilt, compassion, and gratitude, and help to provide people with the power and energy to do good and avoid doing bad. Moral emotions are linked to a person's conscience - these are the emotions that make up a conscience and promote learning the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, virtuous and evil.

When it comes to moral emotions, there are a lot of things that have changed in recent years. This is largely due to the fact that part of moral emotions is based on society's interpretation of things. While it is true that many of these emotions are based on the absolute truths of morality, this is only but a part of what moral emotions are about. The full spectrum of what moral emotions entail also includes emotions based on the narratives of what people teach. Much of this leads people to make their own choices in life, through a process formally known as "moral decision-making". This is something that influences people every day, without most people ever even realizing it.

Background
Moral reasoning has been the focus of most study of morality dating all the way back to Plato and Aristotle. The emotive side of morality, worked by Adam Smith's The Theory of Moral Sentiments, has been looked upon with disdain, as subservient to the higher, rational, moral reasoning, with scholars like Immanuel Kant, Piaget and Kohlberg touting moral reasoning as the key forefront of morality. However, in the last 30–40 years, there has been a rise in a new front of research: moral emotions as the basis for moral behavior. This development began with a focus on empathy and guilt, but has since moved on to encompass new emotional scholarship on emotions such as anger, shame, disgust, awe, and elevation. With the new research, theorists have begun to question whether moral emotions might hold a larger role in determining morality, one that might even surpass that of moral reasoning.

Definitions
There have generally been two approaches taken by philosophers to define moral emotion, with the first approach being "to specify the formal conditions that make a moral statement (e.g., that is prescriptive, that it is universal, such as expedience)". This first approach is more tied to language and the definitions given to moral emotions. The second approach "is to specify the material conditions of a moral issue, for example, that moral rules and judgments 'must bear on the interest or welfare either of society as a whole or at least of persons other than the judge or agent. This definition seems to be more action-based. It focuses on the outcome of a moral emotion. The second definition is more preferred because it is not tied to language and therefore can be applied to prelinguistic children and animals. Moral emotions are "emotions that are linked to the interests or welfare either of society as a whole or at least of persons other than the judge or agent."

Types of moral emotion
Moral emotions, like any emotion, fall under categories of positive and negative. With moral emotions, however, there are two types of negative: inner-directed negative emotions (which motivate people to act ethically) and outer-directed negative emotions (which aim to discipline or punish).Moral Emotions Within the positive and negative categories, there are specific emotions. Examples of positive moral emotions are gratitude, elevation, and pride in one's beneficial successes. Examples of negative moral emotions include shame, guilt, and embarrassment.Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior

There is a debate whether there is a set of basic emotions or if there are "scripts or set of components that can be mixed and matched, allowing for a very large number of possible emotions". Even those arguing for a basic set acknowledge that there are variants of each emotion (psychologist Paul Ekman calls these variants "families"). According to Jonathan Haidt:

Haidt would suggest that the higher the emotionality of a moral agent, the more likely the agent is to act morally. He uses the term "disinterested elicitor" to describe an event or situation that provokes emotions in us, even when these emotions do not have anything to do with our own personal welfare. It is these elicitors that cause people to participate in what he calls "prosocial action tendencies" (actions that benefit society). Haidt explains moral emotions as "emotion families", in which each family contains emotions that may be similar although not exactly the same. These moral emotions are provoked by eliciting events that often lead to prosocial action tendencies. Each person's likelihood of prosocial action is determined by his or her degree of emotionality.

Moral emotions and behavior

Empathy also plays a large role in altruism. The empathy-altruism hypothesis states that feelings of empathy for another lead to an altruistic motivation to help that person. In contrast, there may also be an egoistic motivation to help someone in need. This is the Hullian tension-reduction model in which personal distress caused by another in need leads the person to help in order to alleviate their own discomfort. The Altruism Born of Suffering Literature states that individuals who have undergone difficult times and grown from this trauma identify with seeing others in need and respond altruistically by protecting or caring for others. In the context of climate change, it is recognised that for individuals to act altruistically towards their society and environment, they need to learn to increase their capacity to process their emotional experiences as well as increased reflective functioning.

Batson, Klein, Highberger, and Shaw conducted experiments where they manipulated people through the use of empathy-induced altruism to make decisions that required them to show partiality to one individual over another. The first experiment involved a participant from each group choosing someone to experience a positive or negative task. These groups included a non-communication, communication/low-empathy, and communication/high-empathy. They were asked to make their decisions based on these standards resulting in the communication/high-empathy group showing more partiality in the experiment than the other groups due to being successfully manipulated emotionally. Those individuals who they successfully manipulated reported that despite feeling compelled in the moment to show partiality, they still felt they had made the more "immoral" decision since they followed an empathy-based emotion rather than adhering to a justice perspective of morality.

Batson, Klein, Highberger, and Shaw conducted two experiments on empathy-induced altruism, proposing that this can lead to actions that violate the justice principle. The second experiment operated similarly to the first, using low-empathy and high-empathy groups. Participants were faced with the decision to move an ostensibly ill child to an "immediate help" group versus leaving her on a waiting list after listening to her emotionally-driven interview describing her condition and the life it has left her to lead. Those who were in the high-empathy group were more likely than those in the low-empathy group to move the child higher up the list to receive treatment earlier. When these participants were asked what the more moral choice was, they agreed that the more moral choice would have been to not move this child ahead of the list at the expense of the other children. In this case, it is evident that when empathy-induced altruism is at odds with what is seen as moral, oftentimes empathy-induced altruism has the ability to win out over morality.

Recently neuroscientist Jean Decety, drawing on empirical research in evolutionary theory, developmental psychology, social neuroscience, and psychopathy, argued that empathy and morality are neither systematically opposed to one another, nor inevitably complementary.

Emmons (2009) defines gratitude as a natural emotional reaction and a universal tendency to respond positively to another's benevolence. Gratitude is motivating and leads to what Emmons' describes as "upstream reciprocity". This is the passing on of benefits to third parties instead of returning benefits to one's benefactors.

In the context of social networking behavior, research from Brady, Wills, Jost, Tucker, and Van Bavel (2017) shows that the expression of moral emotion amplifies the extent to which moral and political ideals are disseminated in social media platforms. Analyzing a large sample of Twitter communications on polarizing issues, such as gun control, same-sex marriage, and climate change, results indicated that the presence of moral-emotional language in messages increased their transmission by approximately 20% per word, compared to purely-moral and purely-emotional language.

See also

 Conscience
 Emotion
 Love
 Kama muta
 Kindness priming (psychology)
 Moral psychology
 Mudita (sympathetic or vicarious joy)
 Pity
 Rage
 Remorse
 Resentment
 Righteous indignation
 Schadenfreude
 Self-conscious emotions
 Social intuitionism
 Somatic marker hypothesis
 Sympathy

References

Moral psychology
Emotion

Moral emotions


Jourdan des Ursins (1500–1564), or originally Giordano degli Orsini, was a Corsican general of the French army who participated with Sampiero Corso in the Invasion of Corsica (1553). After the invasion, parts of the island, especially Calvi and Bastia, were reclaimed by the Genoese, but many areas remained under French control. In 1555, Jourdan des Ursins replaced de Thermes, and was named "Gouverneur et lieutenant général du roi dans l'île de Corse". He was in command of the French-controlled areas of the island until the 1559 Peace of Cateau Cambrésis when France formally returned Corsica to Genoa.

Notes

People from Corsica
1500 births
1564 deaths

Jourdan des Ursins