Catherine Howard ( – 13 February 1542), also spelt Katheryn Howard, was Queen of England from 1540 until 1541 as the fifth wife of King Henry VIII. She was the daughter of Lord Edmund Howard and Joyce Culpeper, a cousin to Anne Boleyn (the second wife of Henry VIII), and the niece of Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk. Thomas Howard was a prominent politician at Henry's court, and he secured her a place in the household of Henry's fourth wife, Anne of Cleves, where she caught the King's interest. She married him on 28 July 1540 at Oatlands Palace in Surrey, just 19 days after the annulment of his marriage to Anne. He was 49, and she was between 15 and 21 years old.

Catherine was stripped of her title as queen in November 1541 and beheaded three months later on the grounds of treason for committing adultery with her distant cousin, Thomas Culpeper.

Ancestry

Catherine had an aristocratic ancestry as a granddaughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk (1443 – 1524), but her father, Lord Edmund Howard, was not wealthy, being the third son of his father – under the rules of primogeniture, the eldest son inherited all of the father's estate.

Catherine's mother, Joyce Culpeper, already had five children from her first husband, Ralph Leigh ( – 1509) when she married Lord Edmund Howard, and they had another six together, Catherine being about her mother's tenth child. With little to sustain the family, her father often had to beg for the help of his more affluent relatives.

Her father's sister, Elizabeth Howard, was the mother of Anne Boleyn. Therefore, Catherine Howard was the first cousin of Anne Boleyn, and the first cousin once removed of Lady Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth I), Anne's daughter by Henry VIII. She also was the second cousin of Jane Seymour, as her grandmother Elizabeth Tilney was the sister of Seymour's grandmother, Anne Say.

After Catherine's mother died in 1528, her father married two more times. In 1531, he was appointed Controller of Calais. He was dismissed from his post in 1539, and died in March 1539. Catherine was the third of Henry VIII's wives to have been a member of the English nobility or gentry; Catherine of Aragon and Anne of Cleves were royalty from continental Europe.

Early life

Catherine was born in Lambeth in or about 1523, although the exact date is unknown. An estimated date has been determined from the wills of family members, the known birth order of her and her siblings in various dated records, and the age range of her ladies-in-waiting, being in the same age group and often, same past household of the Dowager Duchess of Norfolk, where Catherine would spend a large portion of her childhood and adolescence.

Unfortunately for Catherine, she did not begin with a good start in life and this was mostly caused by the routinely poor decision making of her father, Edmund Howard. Being the third son of a prominent family, his opportunities were limited to the generosity of his wealthier family members and his own ability to pave his way. Sadly, he was both overly prideful and a spendthrift. His insult to the King and further events would continue to devolve and slowly ensnare him, and by extension, his family. Edmund developed a gambling addiction that would threaten him with debtors prison and on multiple occasions, he would go into hiding. In his desperate 1527 letter to Wolsey he states, "Humbly I beseech your grace to be my good lord, for without your gracious help I am utterly undone. Sir, so it is that I am so far in danger of the King's Laws by reason of the debt that I am in, that I dare not go abroad, nor come in mine own house, and am fain to absent me from my wife and my poor children... Sir there is no help but, through your grace and your good mediation to the King's Grace."

If Cardinal Wolsey did assist the family in response to the letter written in 1527, which there is little evidence of, the funds arrived piecemeal and were probably not enough. The lowest point for the family came between 1524 and 1531, which roughly corresponds with Catherine Howard's birth and early years. The image all of this paints is of a girl likely neglected and potentially unwanted, as her birth meant a future dowry to come up with money for. Generally, her young life was filled with uncertainty and unstable. As such, it is more understandable as to why she has been often described as barely literate and generally unlearned. She clearly was not a high priority for her father, nor was her education or future prospects. In 1531, help came to Catherine indirectly through the intervention of her cousin and soon-to-be queen, Anne Boleyn, whom Edmund approached regarding a position; he was assigned to be the Comptroller at Calais.

Whether due to her mother Joyce's death in about 1528, her family's financial problems, or Catherine nearing the age suitable for wardship, Catherine's family was broken up in 1531, when she was about 8 years of age. Two of her older half-sisters were married off, and both Catherine and her brother Henry were sent to be wards of Agnes Howard, her step-grandmother and the Dowager Duchess of Norfolk. The duchess managed large households at Chesworth House in Horsham, Sussex, and at Norfolk House in Lambeth where dozens of attendants, along with her many wards — usually the children of aristocratic but poor relatives — resided. While sending young children to be educated and trained in aristocratic households was common among European nobles at the time, supervision at both Chesworth House and Lambeth was apparently lax. The Dowager Duchess was often at Court and seems to have had little direct involvement in the upbringing of her wards and young female attendants.

In the Duchess's household at Horsham, in around 1536, Catherine began music lessons with two teachers, one of whom was Henry Mannox, and they began a relationship. Mannox's exact age at the time is unknown. It has recently been stated that he was in his late thirties, perhaps 36, but this is not supported by Catherine's biographers. Evidence exists that Mannox was not yet married, and it would have been highly unusual for someone from his background at the time to not be married by his mid-thirties. He married sometime in the late 1530s, perhaps in 1539, and there is also some evidence that he was the same age as two other men serving in the household, including his cousin Edward Waldegrave, who was in his late teens or early twenties between 1536 and 1538. This evidence indicates that Mannox too was in his early to mid-twenties in 1536.

The details and dates of this relationship are debated between modern historians. The most popular theory, first put forward in 2004 by Retha Warnicke, was that the relationship between them was abusive, with Mannox grooming and preying on Catherine between 1536 and 1538; this is expanded upon in detail by Conor Byrne. Other biographers, like Gareth Russell, believe that Mannox's interactions with Catherine took place over a much shorter time, that Mannox was roughly the same age as her, but that "their relationship was nonetheless inappropriate, on several levels." He believes Catherine was increasingly repulsed by Mannox's pressure to have sex with her and was angered by his gossiping with servants about the details of what had gone on between them.

Mannox and Catherine both confessed during her adultery inquisitions as the wife of King Henry that they had engaged in sexual contact, but not actual coitus. When questioned, Catherine was quoted as saying, "At the flattering and fair persuasions of Mannox, being but a young girl, I suffered him at sundry times to handle and touch the secret parts of my body, which neither became me with honesty to permit nor him to require."

Catherine severed contact with Mannox in 1538, most likely in the spring. It is not true, as is sometimes stated, that this was because she began to spend more time at the Dowager Duchess's mansion in Lambeth, as Lambeth was Mannox's home parish and he also married here, perhaps in 1538 or 1539. He was still living in Lambeth in 1541. Shortly afterward, Catherine was pursued by Francis Dereham, a secretary of the Dowager Duchess. They allegedly became lovers, addressing each other as "husband" and "wife". Dereham also entrusted Catherine with various wifely duties, such as keeping his money when he was away on business. Many of Catherine's roommates among the Dowager Duchess's maids of honour and attendants knew of the relationship, which apparently ended in 1539 when the Dowager Duchess found out. Despite this, Catherine and Dereham may have parted with intentions to marry upon his return from Ireland, agreeing to a precontract of marriage. If indeed they exchanged vows before having sexual intercourse, they would have been considered married in the eyes of the Church.

Arrival at court
Catherine's uncle, the Duke of Norfolk, found her a place at Court in the household of the King's fourth wife, Anne of Cleves. As a young and attractive lady-in-waiting, Catherine quickly caught the eye of multiple men, including the King and Thomas Culpeper. In the early stages of her time at court, and prior to the arrival of Anne of Cleves, the relationship between the King and Catherine has been little remarked upon. He seems to have found her attractive, and whenever they happened to be in each other's company they publicly flirted, but little else appears to have happened. As Anne arrived and the King came to show little interest in her, an opportunity for Catherine slowly began to present itself.

Prior to this point, Catherine and Thomas Culpeper had slowly entered into a quasi-relationship and one that was not sexual – although, from later testimony, Culpeper expected it to soon become so, also telling Catherine that he loved her (likely more lust than actual love). Catherine rejected this, and in response he moved onto another woman within the Queen's household. This deeply upset Catherine, who does appear to have had some level of feelings for him at this time, for on one occasion she broke down in tears in front of her fellow maids of honor. Prior to this instance, it was she who controlled how long her relationships lasted and when they ended. During this time, word reached back to Francis Dereham of the rumored soon-to-be marriage between the pair, and he arrived at court to dispute this with them both. After being, again, told off by Catherine, he returned to the dowager duchess's household, which he requested to leave, being Catherine was no longer there. Believing this desperation was temporary and soon to blow over, Agnes Howard denied this request.

The King had displayed little interest in Anne from the beginning, but Thomas Cromwell failed to find a new match, and Norfolk saw an opportunity. The Howards may have sought to recreate the influence gained during Anne Boleyn's reign as queen consort. According to Nicholas Sander, the religiously conservative Howard family may have seen Catherine as a figurehead for their fight by expressed determination to restore Roman Catholicism to England. Catholic bishop Stephen Gardiner entertained the couple at Winchester Palace with "feastings".

As the King's interest in Catherine grew, so did the house of Norfolk's influence. Her youth, prettiness and vivacity were captivating for the middle-aged sovereign, who claimed he had never known "the like to any woman". Within months of her arrival at court, Henry bestowed gifts of land and expensive cloth upon Catherine. Henry called her his 'very jewel of womanhood' (that he called her his 'rose without a thorn' is likely a myth). The French ambassador, Charles de Marillac, thought her "delightful". Holbein's portrait showed a young auburn-haired girl with a characteristically hooked Howard nose; Catherine was said to have a "gentle, earnest face".

Marriage

King Henry and Catherine were married by Bishop Bonner of London at Oatlands Palace on 28 July 1540, the same day Cromwell was executed. She was a teenager and he was 49. Catherine adopted the French motto "Non autre volonté que la sienne", meaning "No other will but his". The marriage was made public on 8 August, and prayers were said in the Chapel Royal at Hampton Court Palace. Henry "indulged her every whim" thanks to her "caprice".

Catherine was young, joyous and carefree. She was too young to take part in administrative matters of State. Nevertheless, every night Sir Thomas Heneage, Groom of the Stool, came to her chamber to report on the King's well-being. No plans were made for a coronation, yet she still travelled downriver in the royal barge into the City of London to a gun salute and some acclamation. She was settled by jointure at Baynard Castle. Little changed at court, other than the arrival of many Howards. Every day she dressed with new clothes in the French fashion bedecked with precious jewels, decorated in gold around her sleeves.

The Queen escaped plague-ridden London in August 1540 when on progress. The royal couple's entourage travelled on honeymoon through Reading and Buckingham. The King embarked on a lavish spending spree to celebrate his marriage, with extensive refurbishments and developments at the Palace of Whitehall. This was followed by more expensive gifts for Christmas at Hampton Court Palace.

That winter the King's bad moods deepened and grew more furious, caused in part by the pain from his ulcerous legs. He accused councillors of being "lying time-servers", and began to regret executing Cromwell. After a dark and depressed March, his mood lifted at Easter.

Preparations were in place for any signs of a royal pregnancy, reported by Marillac on 15 April as "if it be found true, to have her crowned at Whitsuntide."

Downfall

Catherine may have been involved during her marriage to the King with Henry's favourite male courtier, Thomas Culpeper, a young man who "had succeeded [him] in the Queen's affections", according to Dereham's later testimony. She had considered marrying Culpeper during her time as a maid-of-honour to Anne of Cleves.

Culpeper called Catherine "my little, sweet fool" in a love letter. It has been alleged that in spring 1541 the pair were meeting secretly. Their meetings were allegedly arranged by one of Catherine's older ladies-in-waiting, Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford (Lady Rochford), the widow of Catherine's executed cousin, George Boleyn, Anne Boleyn's brother.

People who claimed to have witnessed her earlier sexual behaviour while she lived at Lambeth reportedly contacted her for favours in return for their silence, and some of these blackmailers may have been appointed to her royal household. John Lassels, a supporter of Cromwell, approached the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, telling him that his sister Mary refused to become a part of Queen Catherine's household, stating that she had witnessed the "light" ways of Queen Catherine while they were living together at Lambeth. Cranmer then interrogated Mary Lassels, who alleged that Catherine had had sexual relations while under the Duchess of Norfolk's care, before her relationship with the King.

Cranmer immediately took up the case to topple his rivals, the Roman Catholic Norfolk family. Lady Rochford was interrogated and as she feared that she would be tortured, she agreed to talk. She told how she had watched for Catherine backstairs as Culpeper had made his escapes from the Queen's room.

During the investigation a love letter written in the Queen's distinctive handwriting was found in Culpeper's chambers. This is the only letter of hers that has survived (other than her later "confession").

On All Saints' Day, 1 November 1541, the King arranged to be found praying in the Chapel Royal. There he received a letter describing the allegations against Catherine. On 7 November 1541, Archbishop Cranmer led a delegation of councillors to Winchester Palace in Southwark, to question her. Even the staunch Cranmer found the teenaged Catherine's frantic, incoherent state pitiable, saying, "I found her in such lamentation and heaviness as I never saw no creature, so that it would have pitied any man's heart to have looked upon her." He ordered the guards to remove any objects she might use to commit suicide.

Imprisonment and death

Establishing the existence of a pre-contract between Catherine and Dereham would have had the effect of terminating Catherine's marriage to Henry, but it would also have allowed Henry to annul their marriage and banish her from court to live in poverty and disgrace instead of executing her, although there is no indication that Henry would have chosen that alternative. Catherine steadfastly denied any pre-contract, maintaining that Dereham had raped her.

Catherine was stripped of her title as queen on 23 November 1541 and imprisoned in the new Syon Abbey, Middlesex, formerly a convent, where she remained throughout the winter of 1541. She was obliged by a Privy Councillor to return the ring previously owned by Anne of Cleves, which the King had given her; it was a symbol of removal of her regal and lawful rights. The King would be at Hampton Court, but she would not see him again. Despite these actions, her marriage to Henry was never formally annulled.

Culpeper and Dereham were arraigned at Guildhall on 1 December 1541 for high treason. They were executed at Tyburn on 10 December 1541, Culpeper being beheaded and Dereham being hanged, drawn and quartered. According to custom, their heads were placed on spikes on London Bridge. Many of Catherine's relatives were also detained in the Tower, tried, found guilty of concealing treason and sentenced to life imprisonment and forfeiture of goods. Her uncle, the Duke of Norfolk, distanced himself from the scandal by retreating to Kenninghall to write a letter of apology, laying all the blame on his niece and stepmother. His son Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, a poet, remained a favourite of the King. Meanwhile, the King sank further into morbidity and indulged his appetite for food and women.

Catherine remained in limbo until Parliament introduced on 29 January 1542 a bill of attainder, which was passed on 7 February 1542. The Royal Assent by Commission Act 1541 made it treason, and punishable by death, for a queen consort to fail to disclose her sexual history to the king within 20
days of their marriage, or to incite someone to commit adultery with her. This measure retroactively solved the matter of Catherine's supposed pre-contract and made her unequivocally guilty. No formal trial was held.

When the Lords of the Council came for her, she allegedly panicked and screamed as they manhandled her into the barge that would escort her to the Tower on Friday 10 February 1542, her flotilla passing under London Bridge where the heads of Culpeper and Dereham were impaled (and where they remained until 1546). Entering through the Traitors' Gate, she was led to her prison cell. The next day the bill of attainder received Royal Assent and her execution was scheduled for 7:00 a.m. on Monday 13 February 1542. Arrangements for the execution were supervised by Sir John Gage in his role as Constable of the Tower.

The night before her execution, Catherine is believed to have spent many hours practising how to lay her head upon the block, which had been brought to her at her request. She died with relative composure but looked pale and terrified; she required assistance to climb the scaffold. According to popular folklore her last words were, "I die a Queen, but I would rather have died the wife of Culpeper", but no eyewitness accounts support this, instead reporting that she stuck to traditional final words, asking for forgiveness for her sins and acknowledging that she deserved to die "a thousand deaths" for betraying the king, who had always treated her so graciously. She described her punishment as "worthy and just" and asked for mercy for her family and prayers for her soul. This was typical of the speeches given by people executed during that period, most likely in an effort to protect their families, since the condemned's last words would be relayed to the King. Catherine was then beheaded with the executioner's axe.

Francis I, when told by Sir William Paget how the queen had "wonderfully abused the king", laid his hand on his heart and announced by his faith as a gentleman that "She hath done wonderous naughtly". Upon hearing news of Catherine's execution, King Francis wrote a letter to Henry regretting the "lewd and naughty [evil] behaviour of the Queen" and advising him that "the lightness of women cannot bend the honour of men".

Lady Rochford was executed immediately thereafter on Tower Green. Both bodies were buried in an unmarked grave in the nearby chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula, where the bodies of Catherine's cousins, Anne and George Boleyn, also lay. Other cousins were also in the crowd, including the Earl of Surrey. King Henry did not attend. Catherine's body was not one of those identified during restorations of the chapel during Queen Victoria's reign. She is commemorated on a plaque on the west wall dedicated to all those who died in the Tower.

Historiography

Catherine has been the subject of contention for modern biographies, A Tudor Tragedy by Lacey Baldwin Smith (1967), Katherine Howard: A Tudor Conspiracy by Joanna Denny (2006), Katherine Howard: Henry VIII's Slandered Queen by Conor Byrne (2019), and Young and Damned and Fair by Gareth Russell (2017). Each is more or less sympathetic, though they disagree on various important points involving Catherine's motivations, date of birth and overall character.

Her life has also been described in the five collective studies of Henry's queens that have appeared since the publication of Alison Weir's The Six Wives of Henry VIII (1991)—such as David Starkey's The Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII (2003). Several of these writers have been highly critical of Catherine's conduct, if sympathetic to her eventual fate. Baldwin Smith described Catherine's life as one of hedonism and characterized her as a "juvenile delinquent", as did Francis Hackett in his 1929 biography of Henry. Weir had much the same judgement, describing her as an "empty-headed wanton" Other writers, especially those studying historical trends larger than Catherine's life, have been much more critical towards her. In his book Tudor Queens of England, which profiles 14 consorts and sovereigns, David Loades described Catherine as a "stupid and oversexed adolescent" who "certainly behaved like a whore", and wrote that her denial of a precontract was "a measure of her stupidity"; however, he also said that she died when she was "just 20 years old, a mere child". In her book Elizabeth's Women, profiling the rise of Queen Elizabeth I (Catherine's stepdaughter), Tracy Borman wrote that Catherine was "as much a sexual predator as [Francis] Dereham" and blamed Catherine almost entirely for her own fate.

Loades's and Borman's characterizations are unusually harsh, however. The general trend has been more fair to Catherine, particularly in the works of Antonia Fraser, Karen Lindsey, Joanna Denny, Conor Byrne, Josephine Wilkinson, and Gareth Russell. Lucy Worsley also takes a kinder, modern view of the accusations against Catherine and their relation to the men who took advantage of her in her youth. In her BBC miniseries Six Wives she states that today, instead of the "good-time girl" some historians accuse her of having been, we would call her an "abused child."

Portraits

There is no authenticated contemporary likeness of Catherine Howard, and there is no documentary evidence that she ever had her portrait painted. "[T]here is a good chance that any image of Catherine would have been destroyed" after her execution, or "ignored, until their identity became a subject of debate to later generations." Debate continues about the identity of the sitter(s) for potential portraits.

Miniatures

Two portrait miniatures by Hans Holbein the Younger, one in the Royal Collection and another in the Buccleuch Collection, have been traditionally considered to be contemporary portraits of the ill fated queen. The Royal Collection version at Windsor, if confirmed to be her depiction, would be the only surviving painting from life and roughly dated to the time of her queenship. The historian David Starkey has confirmed a date of roughly 1540, based on the details of her dress and the technique of the miniature. She is wearing a pendant jewel that is similar to that shown in Holbein's portrait of Jane Seymour at the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. It is also identical to that worn in two other portraits of Henry VIII's Queens, one being the Hastings portrait of Queen Catherine Parr and the other being a Workshop of Hans Holbein portrait of Queen Jane Seymour.

If this identification is correct, then the necklace and pendant may have been given to Catherine by Henry VIII on their marriage in 1540. To further bolster that these portraits are of a Tudor Queen, and potentially Katherine Howard, it is also by the fact that, for female sitters, duplicate versions of miniatures do not generally exist, with the exception of royally. Unfortunately, there are no confirmed likenesses of her to compare these portraits with. Both versions have long been documented as of Catherine Howard, since 1736 for the Buccleuch version and 1739 (or at least the 1840s) for the Windsor version.

However, in more recent years, the traditional assumptions about these portraits are being challenged, and with reasonable evidence. The art historian, Franny Moyle, in The King's Painter: The Life and Times of Hans Holbein (2021), argues that the Royal Collection miniature is not a likeness of Catherine Howard. Instead, she argues that it is a depiction of Queen Anne of Cleves, who also married the king in 1540 (making the dating by David Starkey still accurate and confirmed with a potential re-identification). Instead, Moyle was "struck by the sitter's uncanny likeness" to Holbein's 1539 miniature of Anne, now in the Victoria & Albert Museum. She also makes note of the fact that Holbein, who is known for using symbolism in subtle ways, chose to mount the miniature on a Four of Diamonds playing card and by doing so, it is speculated, was referring to the miniature as being Anne of Cleves, the Fourth Wife of Henry VIII. Finally, Moyle notes that, royal jewelry of the Queens of England, then and now, is property of the crown and current titleholder. As such, individual pieces would have been passed down and worn by multiple of Henry's queens.

Other portraits

A Holbein drawing (below) is also traditionally identified as being of Catherine Howard, but this also appears to be without foundation.

A contemporary portrait of a lady in black, by Hans Holbein the Younger, was identified by art historian, Sir Lionel Cust, in 1909, as Catherine Howard. The portrait (below), dated circa 1535–1540, is exhibited at the Toledo Museum of Art as Portrait of a Lady, probably a Member of the Cromwell Family. Two copies are extant: a 16th-century version at Hever Castle is exhibited as Portrait of a Lady, thought to be Catherine Howard; the National Portrait Gallery exhibits a similar painting, Unknown woman, formerly known as Catherine Howard, dating from the late 17th century. Inscribed ETATIS SVÆ 21, indicating that the lady was depicted at the age of twenty-one, the portrait has long been associated with Henry VIII's young queen, but she is now thought to be a member of the Cromwell family.

In 1967 art historian Sir Roy Strong noted that both the Toledo portrait and the National Portrait Gallery version appear in the context of a series of portraits of members of the family of the Protector's uncle, Sir Oliver Cromwell (–1655), and have provenances linking them with the Cromwell family. He argued that the portrait in the Toledo Museum of Art, "should by rights depict a lady of the Cromwell family aged 21 c.1535–40" and suggested that the lady might be Elizabeth Seymour, wife of Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell, son of Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex. He stated that a "dated parallel for costume, notably the distinctive cut of the sleeves, is Holbein's Christina of Denmark of 1538." John Rowlands agreed that "the portrait could certainly belong to the period c. 1535-40, but the headdress suggests a date towards its end." Herbert Norris claimed that the sitter is wearing a sleeve that follows a style set by Anne of Cleves, which would date the portrait to after 6 January 1540, when Anne's marriage to Henry VIII took place. The original Holbein is dated to 1535–1540, but the National Portrait Gallery dates their copy to the late 1600s. This would seem to indicate a sitter who was still a connection to be commemorated over a century later (unlike Catherine).

Historians Antonia Fraser, Diarmaid MacCulloch and Derek Wilson believe that the portrait is likely to depict Elizabeth Seymour. Antonia Fraser has argued that the sitter is Jane Seymour's sister, Elizabeth, the widow of Sir Anthony Ughtred, on the grounds that the lady bears a resemblance to Jane, especially around the nose and chin, and wears widow's black. The lady's sumptuous black clothing, an indication of wealth and status, did not necessarily signify mourning; her jewellery suggests otherwise. Derek Wilson observed that "In August 1537 Cromwell succeeded in marrying his son, Gregory, to Elizabeth Seymour", the queen's younger sister. He was therefore related by marriage to the king, "an event worth recording for posterity, by a portrait of his [Cromwell's] daughter-in-law." The painting was in the possession of the Cromwell family for centuries. According to Hans Holbein's most recent biographer, Franny Moyle, "One of the most striking portraits of a woman Holbein ever delivered was of Cromwell's daughter-in-law, painted probably in 1539 as she turned twenty-one."

Most recently Susan James, Jamie Franco, and Conor Byrne have identified a Portrait of a Young Woman, attributed to the workshop of Hans Holbein, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, as a portrait of the queen. Brett Dolman has noted that the hypothesis is "seductive but inconclusive." However, it more closely matches general assumptions of Katherine's appearance, then the other non-confirmed and discredited options. This portrait is in the right timeframe and depicts a fairly young women of wealth and high status within the social hierarchy of the Tudor era. It is also known that Katherine preferred French hoods, as depicted, and also had a love of fashion. This depiction is unique from many other portraits, in that it has no other similar likenesses, that would clearly depict the same woman. Meaning that, it's less likely to be another copy of a known person and instead, potentially someone who has not been previously identified. All of these factors make it a reasonable potential to be Katherine, based on all the evidence.

The portrait of an Unknown Lady (circa 1535), has also been considered as a potential miniature of Katherine. However, upon further analysis by British Art Studies, a peer-reviewed art scholarship publisher, Polly Saltmarsh asserts that this is a depiction of the future Queen Mary I, who matches the miniature in several ways. The likeness has an upturned nose and blue-grey eyes, which are known features of Mary's and normally in her confirmed depictions. The miniature, by being one, is also a confirmed likeness of a royal family member, being that miniatures did not exist outside of the royal family during this time period. Finally, by being dated to roughly 1535, is identification is also accurate for Mary, because the lettering translates from the latin "XVIII" to 18. Commonly, roman numerals in Tudor miniatures and portraits would equate to either the year or the sitter's age. Mary I was turning 18 in 1534. Overall, all of these facts point toward this conclusion. It's unlikely for Katherine Howard to have been painted in 1535, being an 11 year-old girl and the daughter of an impoverished younger son of a prominent family, the Howards. To make things more plausible, it would mean changing the dating from the circa 1535 timeframe up 5 years, to roughly 1540. When comparing the two options, again, Mary I is the best fit for identification.

Footnotes

References

Works cited

Further reading

External links

 Letter from Catherine Howard to Thomas Culpeper
 PBS Six Wives of Henry VIII, which describes Catherine's death
 Teri Fitzgerald, All that Glitters: Hans Holbein's Lady of the Cromwell Family
 Teri Fitzgerald, Catherine Howard and the Cromwells

 Original images of the Act concerning the Attainder of the late Queen Katharine and her Complices

1520s births
1542 deaths
16th-century English women
Burials at the Church of St Peter ad Vincula
Culpeper family
English Anglicans
English Roman Catholics
Executed English women
Executed royalty
People convicted under a bill of attainder
Executions at the Tower of London
Catherine Howard
Ladies of the Privy Chamber
People executed by Tudor England by decapitation
People executed under Henry VIII
People executed under the Tudors for treason against England
People from the London Borough of Lambeth
Executed people from London
Prisoners in the Tower of London
Wives of Henry VIII
16th-century Roman Catholics
16th-century Anglicans
Child sexual abuse in England
Converts to Anglicanism from Roman Catholicism
Household of Anne of Cleves

Catherine Howard


Lee David Harris (born 20 July 1962) is an English drummer and musician. Harris attended The Deanes School with Paul Webb, and they became good friends. They played in the reggae band Eskalator before being recruited to form Talk Talk in 1981. Harris played drums for Talk Talk until 1991. In the early 1990s, he and Webb formed .O.rang. He played drums on the Beth Gibbons and Webb album Out of Season (2002), Midnight Choir's Waiting for the Bricks to Fall (2003) and Bark Psychosis' Codename: Dustsucker (2004). He was also part of Ian Tregoning's Magnetik North project.

References

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Living people
1962 births
British male drummers
English rock drummers

Lee Harris (drummer)


Pridopidine (also known as PL-101) is an orally administrated small molecule investigational drug. Pridopidine is a selective and potent Sigma-1 Receptor agonist. It is being developed by Prilenia Therapeutics and is currently in late-stage clinical development for Huntington's disease (HD) and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS).

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Initially, the primary target of pridopidine was postulated to be the dopamine D2/D3 receptors. However, in-vitro binding assays show that pridopidine has high affinity for the S1R and low affinity for other targets including the dopamine D2/D3 receptors, adrenergic a2C receptor and the Sigma-2 receptor. Furthermore, selective and robust occupancy of the S1R, with no or negligible occupancy of the D2/D3 receptors was demonstrated by in-vivo positron emission tomography (PET) imaging studies in rats and human.

Pridopidine for Huntington's disease (HD)
HD is a progressive fatal neurodegenerative disease caused by a mutation in the Huntingtin gene (expanded CAG repeat >35). The disease is characterized by progressive motor abnormalities, cognitive decline, and psychiatric and behavioral symptoms. Adult-onset HD usually begins between 35 and 45 years of age. Following onset, motor, cognitive and functional outcomes steadily decline over 15 to 20 years, ultimately leading to a state of profound incapacity and death. The disease is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner, and thus each child of a parent with HD has a 50% chance of inheriting the mutated HD gene.

For patients and their families, maintaining functional capacity is vital as it translates to a patient's ability to maintain their occupation, continue to manage their daily lives, and live independently.

In the phase 2, dose finding PRIDE-HD trial, pridopidine 45 mg bid showed a beneficial effect maintaining functional capacity at one year, as measured by the Unified Huntington's Disease Rating Scale (UHDRS) Total Functional Capacity (TFC). The TFC scale assesses the patient's ability to perform daily activities. It is a widely validated and regulatory accepted scale to measure clinical disease stage and progression. Pridopidine's effect on TFC is potentially durable for up to 5 years.

Human PET imaging studies show that pridopidine dose of 45 mg bid (the clinically relevant dose) has selective and robust target engagement of the S1R in the human brain. Extensive safety data indicate this dose has a favorable safety and tolerability profile.

PROOF-HD (Pridopidine's Outcome On Function in HD) is a global, multicenter, randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled Phase 3 trial evaluating  the effect of pridopidine 45 mg taken twice daily on TFC in patients with early-stage HD (PROOF-HD trial, NCT04556656). This study is ongoing. 499 early HD patients have been enrolled across 59 sites in North America and Europe. Topline data for the PROOF-HD trial are expected by the end of Q1 2023.

Pridopidine for ALS
ALS is a devastating progressive fatal neurodegenerative disease characterized by upper and lower motor neuron degeneration. Over time this progressive loss of motor function leads to the booklosing the ability to speak, eat, move and eventually breathe.

In 2019, pridopidine was selected by the Sean M. Healey & AMG Center for ALS at the Massachusetts General Hospital as one of the first potential new innovative treatments to be evaluated in the first Platform Trial in ALS −, aimed to  accelerate clinical trials in ALS. The first patient in the pridopidine regimen was enrolled in December 2020 (NCT04615923). The study will enroll 160 patients in each regimen with a 3:1 randomization (120 patients to be treated with pridopidine and 40 patients treated with placebo, daily for 24 weeks).

References

Benzosulfones
D2 antagonists
Huntington's disease
4-Phenylpiperidines
Sigma agonists

Pridopidine


Gongzhufen () is a major traffic and public transportation hub in the Haidian District of  western Beijing, China. The name literally means "Tomb of the Princess".

Gongzhufen lies at the intersection of the 3rd Ring Road and Fuxing Road. Prior to the mid-1990s, there was a traffic circle at the intersection. Today, traffic is handled by a three-level cloverleaf interchange.

The area has several shopping centers, a bus terminal from which buses 32, 33, 64, 94, 370, 437, and 451 start, and the Gongzhufen Subway Station, which is served by Lines 1 and 10 of the Beijing Subway. Nearby landmarks include the CCTV Tower to the north, the China Military Museum to the east, and the Beijing West railway station in the southeast.

External links
Satellite photo of the interchange at Gongzhufen

Road transport in Beijing
Haidian District
Neighbourhoods of Beijing

Gongzhufen


Henrik (Henry) August Flindt (24 April 1822 – 19 January 1901) was a Danish gardener and landscape architect. His specialty was manor house gardens, of which he designed around 200 in Denmark and abroad. He also designed the current University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden as well as Ørstedsparken and Østre Anlæg in Copenhagen's Fortification Ring, the former grounds of the city's old fortification ring which was abandoned in 1990

Biography
Henrik August Flindt was born on 22 March 1822 in Aarhus to Brigadier General C.L.H. Flindt. He received his training as a gardener at Fredensborg Palace and Rosenborg Castle between 1839 and 1844 and was then employed as an assistant gardener at Bregentved Manor. In 1846 he embarked on a journey to Hamburg, Scotland and England. On his return to Denmark in 1851, he set up a private practice and over the following decades designed a vast number of parks and gardens, especially at manor houses around the country.

In 1877, he assumed a position as inspector at the royal gardens. From 1872 to 1889, he was active in the Royal Danish Horticultural Society and designed its new garden when it was moved to the former nursery and vegetable garden of Frederiksberg Palace in 1884. He is buried in Solbjerg Park Cemetery.

Works
He designed the current University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden as well as Ørstedsparken and Østre Anlæg in Copenhagen's Fortification Ring, the former grounds of the city's old fortification ring which was abandoned in 1980.  In 1884, he sat on a commission to make a 20-year plan for Jægersborg Dyrehave and Charlottenlund Palace gardens.

His specialty was the design of parks at manor houses, often redesigning their old Baroque gardens into English landscape gardens. Over the course of his career, he was responsible for about 200 park designs at manor houses in Denmark and abroad.

The manor houses he worked at include:
 Rosenfeld, Vordingborg
 Klintholm Manor, Møn
 Egeskov Castle, Funen
 Glorup Manor, Funen
 Ravnholt Manor, Funen
 Juelsberg Manor, Funen
 Valdemar Castle, Tåsinge
 Næsbyholm, Sweden
 Häckeberga, Sweden
 Bellingaryd, Sweden
 Ronneby Brøndanstalt, Sweden
  Haseldorf, Holstain

See also
 Parks and open spaces in Copenhagen

References

Danish landscape architects
People from Aarhus
1822 births
1901 deaths
Danish gardeners

Henrik August Flindt


Paul Bogle (1822 – 24 October 1865) was a Jamaican Baptist deacon and activist. He is a National Hero of Jamaica because he was a leader of the 1865 Morant Bay protesters, who marched for justice and fair treatment for all the people in Jamaica. After leading the Morant Bay Rebellion, Bogle was captured by government troops, tried by British authorities under martial law, and hanged on 24 October 1865 in the Morant Bay Court House.

Bogle had become the friend of wealthy landowner and fellow Baptist George William Gordon, a biracial man who served in the Assembly as one of two representatives from St. Thomas-in-the-East parish.

Bogle led a group of small farmers 45 miles to the then capital, Spanish Town, hoping to meet with Governor Eyre to discuss their issues, but they were denied an audience. The people of Stony Gut lost confidence and trust in the Government, and Bogle's supporters grew in number in the parish.

Legacy
In 1969 Paul Bogle was named a National Hero along with George William Gordon, Marcus Garvey, Sir Alexander Bustamante, Norman Washington Manley and Nanny.

Bogle is on the heads side of the Jamaican 10 cent coin. His face was also on the Jamaican two-dollar bill, from 1969 until 1989, when the two-dollar bill was cut out.

The Paul Bogle High School in the parish of his birth is named after him.

He is referred to together with Toussaint L'Ouverture, leader of the Haitian Revolution, in the name of the London-based publishing company Bogle-L'Ouverture.

References

Jamaican people

Paul Bogle


Samuel Gompers (; January 27, 1850December 13, 1924) was a British-born American cigar maker, labor union leader and a key figure in American labor history. Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and served as the organization's president from 1886 to 1894, and from 1895 until his death in 1924. He promoted harmony among the different craft unions that comprised the AFL, trying to minimize jurisdictional battles. He promoted thorough organization and collective bargaining in order to secure shorter hours and higher wages, which he considered the essential first steps to emancipating labor.

He encouraged AFL member unions to take political action to "elect their friends" and "defeat their enemies". In politics he mostly supported Democrats, and occasionally local Republicans. He led the opposition to immigration from China. During World War I, Gompers and the AFL energetically supported the war effort, attempting to avert strikes and boost morale while raising wage rates and expanding membership. He strongly opposed the antiwar labor groups, especially the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW).

Early life
Gompers was born Samuel Gumpertz on January 27, 1850, in Spitalfields, a working-class area in the East End of London into a Jewish family that originally hailed from Amsterdam. He was the son of Sarah (Root) and Solomon Gumpertz, a cigar maker. At age six, Samuel was sent to the Jewish Free School to receive a basic education. His education there was brief, however, and a mere three months after his tenth birthday Gompers was sent to work as an apprentice cigar maker and earn money for his impoverished family.

Gompers continued his studies in night school, learning Hebrew and studying the Talmud—a process that he later likened to studying law. While he appreciated Hebrew in his youth, he held Yiddish in low regard.

Young worker at the bench

Owing to dire financial straits, the Gompers family immigrated to the United States in 1863, settling in the Lower East Side of Manhattan in New York City. Gompers's father manufactured cigars at home, assisted for the first year and half by Samuel. In his free time, the young teenager formed a debate club with his friends, gaining practical experience in public speaking and parliamentary procedure. The club drew Gompers into contact with other upwardly mobile young men of the city, including young Irish-American Peter J. McGuire, who would later play a large role in the AFL.

In 1864, at age 14, Gompers joined the Cigar Makers Local Union No. 15, the English-speaking union of cigar makers in New York City.  Gompers later recounted his days as a cigar maker at the bench in detail, emphasizing the place of craftsmanship in the production process:

The day after his seventeenth birthday he married his co-worker, sixteen-year-old Sophia Julian. Together they had many children, but only six survived infancy.

In 1873, Gompers moved to the cigar maker David Hirsch & Company, a "high-class shop where only the most skilled workmen were employed". Gompers later called this change of employers "one of the most important changes in my life", for at Hirsch's—a union shop operated by an émigré German socialist—Gompers came into contact with an array of German-speaking cigar makers—"men of keener mentality and wider thought than any I had met before", he recalled. Gompers learned German and absorbed many of the ideas of his shop mates, developing a particular admiration for the ideas of the former secretary of the International Workingmen's Association, Karl Laurrell. Laurrell took Gompers under his wing, challenging his more simplistic ideas and urging Gompers to put his faith in the organized economic movement of trade unionism rather than the socialist political movement.

Gompers later recalled:

Gompers complained that the socialist movement had been captured by Lassallean advocates of "political party action" rather than the "militant economic program of Marx". He warned delegates to the 1900 annual convention that when men became enthusiastic about socialism, "they usually lost interest in their union".

Cigar Makers' International Union career

Gompers was elected president of Cigar Makers' International Union Local 144 in 1875.

As was the case with other unions of the day, the Cigar Maker's Union nearly collapsed in the financial crisis of 1873–77, in which unemployment skyrocketed and ready availability of desperate workers willing to labor for subsistence wages put pressure upon the gains in wages and the shortening of hours achieved in union shops. Gompers and his friend Adolph Strasser used Local 144 as a base to rebuild the Cigar Makers' Union, introducing a high dues structure and implementing programs to pay out-of-work benefits, sick benefits, and death benefits for union members in good standing.

Gompers told the workers they needed to organize because wage reductions were almost a daily occurrence. He believed that the capitalists were only interested in profits, "and the time has come when we must assert our rights as workingmen. Every one present has the sad experience, that we are powerless in an isolated condition, while the capitalists are united; therefore, it is the duty of every Cigar Maker to join the organization". "One of the main objects of the organization", he concluded, "is the elevation of the lowest paid worker to the standard of the highest, and in time we may secure for every person in the trade an existence worthy of human beings."

He was elected second vice president of the Cigar Makers' International Union in 1886 when he was 36 and first vice president in 1896. Despite the commitment of time and energy entailed by his place as head of the American Federation of Labor, Gompers remained first vice president of the Cigar Makers until his death in December 1924.

Leading the AFL

Gompers helped found the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions in 1881 as a coalition of like-minded unions. In 1886 it reorganized into the American Federation of Labor, with Gompers as president. With the exception of the year 1895, he would remain president of the organization until his death. In 1894 he became editor of the Federation's publication, The American Federationist.

Under Gompers's tutelage, the AFL coalition gradually gained strength, undermining the position previously held by the Knights of Labor, which as a result, had almost vanished by 1900. He was nearly jailed in 1911 for publishing, with John Mitchell, a boycott list, but in 1914 the Supreme Court overturned the sentence in Gompers v. Buck's Stove and Range Co..

Immigration and foreign affairs
Gompers, who had ties with the Cuban cigar workers in the U.S., called for American intervention in Cuba; he supported the resulting war with Spain in 1898. After the war, however, he joined the Anti-Imperialist League to oppose President William McKinley's plan to annex the Philippines. Mandel (1963) argues that his anti-imperialism was based on opportunistic fears of threats to labor's status from low-paid offshore workers and was founded on a sense of racial superiority to the peoples of the Philippines.

By the 1890s, Gompers was planning an international federation of labor, starting with the expansion of AFL affiliates in Canada, especially Ontario. He helped the Canadian Trades and Labour Congress with money and organizers, and by 1902, the AFL dominated the Canadian union movement.

Gompers, like most labor leaders, opposed unrestricted immigration from Europe because of the fear that it might lower wages of domestic union workers. He strongly opposed all immigration from Asia because it lowered wages and, in his judgement, represented an alien culture that could not be assimilated easily into that of the U.S. Gompers bragged that  the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions (FOTLU), later renamed the American Federation of Labor (AFL), "was the first national organization which demanded the exclusion of coolies from the United States".  He and the AFL strongly supported the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 that banned the immigration of Chinese, and published a pamphlet entitled "Some reasons for Chinese exclusion. Meat vs. Rice. American Manhood against Asiatic Coolieism. Which shall survive?" in 1901. The AFL was instrumental in passing immigration restriction laws from the 1890s to the 1920s, such as the 1921 Emergency Quota Act and the Immigration Act of 1924 signed into law by President Calvin Coolidge. At least one study concludes that the link between the AFL and the Democratic Party rested in large part on immigration issues, as the owners of large corporations wanted more immigration for cheaper labor and thus supported the Republican Party. Other scholars have seriously questioned this conclusion, arguing it oversimplifies the politics and unity of labor leaders and the major parties. As one reviewer argued in The Journal of American History, major Republican leaders, such as President William McKinley and Senator Mark Hanna, made pro-labor statements, many unions supported their own independent labor parties (or the Socialist Party), and unity within the AFL was never so extensive as claimed.

During World War I Gompers was a strong supporter of the war effort. He was appointed by President Wilson to the Council of National Defense, where he chaired the Labor Advisory Board. He was also elected president of the American Alliance for Labor and Democracy, which was organized to suppress anti-war propaganda among workers. He attended the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 as an official advisor on labor issues. He was appointed chairman of the Commission on International Labour Legislation, whose recommendations for a workers' rights charter were incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles.

Post-war leadership
In addition to his work with the Commission on International Labour Legislation, Gompers was chairman of the US labor delegates at the International Federation of Trade Unions initial conference in Amsterdam, in July, 1919.

Despite his support for the war, he later supported amnesty for political prisoners who were convicted under Wartime Emergency Acts. He worked with Lucy Robins Lang, who became the executive secretary of the amnesty committee. Lang and Gompers also became friends.

Philosophy

During a severe period of national economic recession in the early 1890s, labor unrest was at its height. A volatile situation in Chicago in August 1893 caused the city's then mayor, Carter Henry Harrison, to warn that the preponderance of the unemployed would lead to riots that would "shake the country", unless Congress interceded. In late August 1893, Gompers addressed 25,000 unemployed workers who had massed on the shore of Lake Michigan. As reported in the Chicago Tribune on August 31, Gompers inveighed against the controllers of capital and the titans of industry and finance. "Why should the wealth of the country be stored in banks and elevators while the idle workman wanders homeless about the streets and the idle loafers who hoard the gold only to spend it on riotous living are rolling about in fine carriages from which they look out on peaceful meetings and call them riots?" Workers were also consumers, he asserted, and cuts to their wages would hurt not only their personal well-being but the economy as a whole. "When workers' wages are reduced, they necessarily use less, consume less, because of their reduced purchasing power", he wrote. "Only those who ignorantly or grabbingly believe in their avarice that business can prosper with wage reductions have yet to learn the lesson of industrial life and progress."

Gompers began his labor career familiar with, and sympathetic to, Georgism and the precepts of socialism, but gradually adopted a more conservative approach to labor relations. Labor Historian Melvyn Dubofsky has written, "By 1896 Gompers and the AFL were moving to make their peace with Capitalism and the American system ... Although the AFL had once preached the inevitability of class conflict and the need to abolish 'wage slavery', it slowly and almost imperceptibly began to proclaim the virtues of class harmony and the possibilities of a more benevolent Capitalism." For example, Alex Heron attributes the following quote to Gompers: "The greatest crime an employer can perpetrate on his employees is to fail to operate at a profit". Gompers began to take a neutral stance in politics after the failure of the efforts to elect Henry George as mayor of New York, but Gompers remained a Single Tax Georgist later in life.

Gompers' philosophy of labor unions centered on economic ends for workers, such as higher wages, shorter hours, and safe working conditions so that they could enjoy an "American" standard of living—a decent home, decent food and clothing, and money enough to educate their children. He thought economic organization was the most direct way to achieve these improvements, but he did encourage union members to participate in politics and to vote with their economic interests in mind.

Gompers' trade union philosophy and his devotion to collective bargaining with business proved to be too conservative for more radical leaders, such as Ed Boyce, president of the Western Federation of Miners (WFM), and, later, WFM secretary-treasurer Bill Haywood. In 1905, Haywood and the WFM helped to establish the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), whose members were known as Wobblies, with the goal of organizing the entire working class. The IWW's long-term goal was to supplant capitalism with a workers' commonwealth. Nonetheless, when government abuses against the leaders of the WFM seemed too egregious, Gompers relented and offered assistance.

Gompers and his AFL unions vigorously fought the IWW in the U.S. and in Latin America, viewing them as a disruptive dual union that tried harder to destroy capitalism than to help workers. He cooperated with widespread government arrests of union leaders for the IWW's militant opposition to the World War. He said, "the IWW's ... are exactly what the Bolsheviki are in Russia, and we have seen what the IWW Bolsheviki in Russia have done for the working people."

Gompers led the anti-Socialist faction inside the AFL, losing to Socialists only once, in 1894. He argued that socialists believed workers and unions could never co-exist with business interests and wanted to use the labor unions to advance their more radical political causes. By 1920 Gompers had largely marginalized Socialist influence to a few unions, notably coal miners and the needle trades.

Freemason

Gompers was a leading Freemason, reaching the 32º in the Scottish Rite Valley of Washington D.C. in 1906. In 1920 he wrote, "In my Masonic life, I have visited lodges in many lands, and I have learned that Freemasonry in many countries, particularly in Latin countries, is the principal means whereby freedom of conscience, of thought, and expression is preserved."

Death and legacy

Gompers's health went into serious decline starting in February 1923, when a serious bout of influenza sent him to the hospital, sidelining him from work for six weeks. No sooner had he recovered from the influenza, than he was stricken by a case of bronchitis that laid him low again. By June 1924 Gompers, who suffered from diabetes, could no longer walk without assistance, and he was hospitalized again, this time suffering from congestive heart failure and uremia.

He collapsed in Mexico City on Saturday, December 6, 1924, while attending a meeting of the Pan-American Federation of Labor. It was recognized that his condition was critical and that he might not survive for long. Gompers expressed the desire to die on American soil and he was placed aboard a special train that sped toward the border. He died in San Antonio, Texas. Gompers was buried at the Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Sleepy Hollow, New York. Gompers is buried only a few yards away from industrialist Andrew Carnegie, another important figure of industry in the Gilded Age.

Gompers inspired later generations of labor leaders, such as George Meany, who paid tribute to Gompers as a European immigrant who pioneered a distinctly American brand of unionism. Reuben Soderstrom, president of the Illinois State Federation of Labor and the Illinois AFL-CIO from 1930 to 1970, cited his 1923 encounter with Gompers as particularly formative. Gompers chided Soderstrom after the latter expressed frustration with the slow pace of progress being made in a local strike, telling him "Young man, you know you can climb the highest mountain if you've got the patience to do it one step at a time." Reuben never forgot those words, stating decades later "that philosophy had a lot to do with guiding the activities I've been engaged in."

His belief led to the development of procedures for collective bargaining and contracts between labor and management that remain in use today. In practice, AFL unions were important in industrial cities, where they formed a central labor office to coordinate the actions of different AFL unions. Issues of wages and hours were the usual causes of strikes, but many strikes were assertions of jurisdiction, so that the plumbers, for example, used strikes to ensure that all major construction projects in the city used union plumbers. In this goal they were ideally supported by all the other construction unions in the AFL fold.

Gompers is the subject of statuary in several major American cities. A bronze monument honoring Gompers by the sculptor Robert Aitken is in Gompers Square on Massachusetts Avenue in Washington, D.C. On September 3, 2007, a life-size statue of Gompers was unveiled at Gompers Park, named after the labor leader in 1929, on the northwest side of Chicago. This is the first statue of a labor leader in Chicago. Local unions throughout Chicago donated their time and money to build the monument. A U.S. Navy destroyer tender was named for Gompers. The Samuel Gompers Houses, a public housing development on the Lower East Side of New York, is named in his honor. There are schools named for Gompers in Philadelphia, Madison, Wisconsin, San Diego, Phoenix, Arizona and The Bronx, New York, a school in Chicago renamed to Jesse Owens Community Elementary, and a school in Detroit.

On 27 January 1950, the centennial of Gompers's birth, the U. S. Post Office Department issued a 3¢ commemorative postage stamp in the Famous Americans series with his picture. Gompers enjoyed listening to the services of the Episcopal National Cathedral which memorialized him on a stained glass window.

Works
 Seventy Years of Life and Labor: An Autobiography. In two volumes. New York: E.P. Dutton and Co., 1925. vol 2 online; vol. 1–2 online
 Samuel Gompers Papers. Stuart Bruce Kaufman, Peter J. Albert, and Grace Palladino (eds.) In twelve volumes. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989–2010.

Other books and pamphlets
 Address of Samuel Gompers, Before the Arbitration Conference, Held at Chicago, Ill. Dec. 17, 1900, Under the Auspices of the National Civic Federation. Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, 1901.

 Organized Labor: Its Struggles, Its Enemies and Fool Friends.  Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, n.d. [1904].
 Essence of Labor's Contention on the Injunction Abuse. Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, 1908.
 Speech Delivered October 13, 1908, at Dayton, Ohio. Denver: Carson-Harper, n.d. [1908].
 Justice Wright's Denial of Free Speech and Free Press. Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, 1909.
 Labor in Europe and America: Personal Observations from an American Viewpoint of Life and Conditions of Working Men in Great Britain, France, Holland, Germany, Italy, ... [etc.]. New York: Harper Brothers, 1910.
 The McNamara Case; Also, an Appeal for Funds to Secure a Fair and Impartial Trial. n.c. [Washington, D.C.]: McNamara Ways and Means Committee, n.d. [1911].
 Investigation of Taylor System of Shop Management: Hearings before... Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1911.
 The American Labor Movement: Its Makeup, Achievements and Aspirations. Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, n.d. [1914].
 The Attitude of the American Federation of Labor toward Industrial Education. New York: C.S. Nathan, n.d. [1914].
 The Essence of the Clayton Law. Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, n.d. [1914].
 The Double Edge of Labor's Sword: Discussion and Testimony on socialism and Trade-Unionism before the Commission on Industrial Relations. With Morris Hillquit and Max S. Hayes. Chicago: Socialist Party National Office, 1914.
 Labor and Antitrust Legislation: The Facts, Theory and Argument: A Brief and Appeal. Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, 1914.
 The Workers and the Eight-Hour Workday; And, the Shorter Workday: Its Philosophy. Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, n.d. [1915].
 Preparedness for National Defense: An Address Delivered before the Sixteenth Annual Meeting of the National Civic Federation on January 18, 1916, at Washington... Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1916.
 America's Fight for the Preservation of Democracy: An Address Delivered by Samuel Gompers at Minneapolis, Minn.: And the Declaration of Principles. n.c. [Washington, D.C.]: American Alliance for Labor and Democracy, 1917.
 Address by Samuel Gompers, President of the American Federation of Labor: Under the Auspices of the National Security League at Chicago, September 14, 1917. New York: National Security League, 1917.
 Should a Political Labor Party be Formed? An address by Samuel Gompers... to a labor conference held at New York city, December 9, 1918. Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, 1918.
 Labour and the War: Speeches Delivered in the Canadian House of Commons, April 26, 1918, and Before the Canadian Club, Ottawa, April 27, 1918. Ottawa: [government publication], 1918.
 American Labor and the War. New York: G. H. Doran, 1919.
 Labor and the Common Welfare. New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1919.
 Labor and the Employer. New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1920.
 Collective Bargaining: Labor's Proposal to Insure Greater Industrial Peace: With Questions and Answers Explaining the Principle. Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, 1920.
 Debate between Samuel Gompers and Henry J. Allen at Carnegie Hall, New York, May 28, 1920. With Harry Justin Allen. New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1920.
 [Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, The Eight-Hour Workday: Its Inauguration, Enforcement, and Influences]. Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, n.d. [1920].
 Labor's Protest against a Rampant Tragedy. Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, 1920.
 Samuel Gompers on the Kansas Court of Industrial Relations Law: "Laws to make strikes unlawful will not prevent them." Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, 1920.
 Letters to a Bishop: Correspondence between Samuel Gompers, President of the American Federation of Labor, and Bishop William A. Quayle, of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, 1920.
 The Union Shop and Its Antithesis. Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, 1920.
 The Truth about Soviet Russia and Bolshevism. Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, n.d. [1920].
 Out of Their Own Mouths: A Revelation and an Indictment of Sovietism. With William English Walling. New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1921.
 The Fundamental Issues: Present Industrial Controversies an Expression of Vital Conflict between Industry and Finance. New York: New York Times, 1922.
 Correspondence between Mr. Newton D. Baker, President of the Cleveland Chamber of Commerce and Mr. Samuel Gompers, President of the American Federation of Labor. With Newton D. Baker. Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, 1923.
 Address of Samuel Gompers, President of the American Federation of Labor: Before the Convention of the United Hatters of North America, New York City, April 16, 1923. Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Labor, n.d. [1923].

Articles
 "The Limitations of Conciliation and Arbitration", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 20 (July 1902), pp. 29–34. in JSTOR
 "Organized Labor's Attitude toward Child Labor", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 27 (March 1906), pp. 79–83. in JSTOR
 "Attitude of Labor towards Government Regulation of Industry", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 32 (July 1908), pp. 75–81. in JSTOR
 "Free Speech and the Injunction Order", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 36, no. 2 (September 1910), pp. 1–10. in JSTOR
 "European War Influences upon American Industry and Labor", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 61, (September 1915), pp. 4–10. in JSTOR
 "Labor Standards after the War", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 81 (January 1919), pp. 182–186. in JSTOR
 "The Development and Accessibility of Production Records Essential to Intelligent and Just Determination of Wage-Rates", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 100 (March 1922), pp. 54–55. in JSTOR

Footnotes

Further reading
 Babcock, Robert H., Gompers in Canada: A Study in American Continentalism before the First World War. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974.
 Bernstein, Irving, The Lean Years: A History of the American Worker, 1920–1933. 1960.
 Bernstein, Irving, "Samuel Gompers and Free Silver, 1896". Mississippi Valley Historical Review, vol, 29, no. 3 (December 1942).
 Buhle, Paul, Taking Care of Business:  Samuel Gompers, George Meany, Lane Kirkland, and the Tragedy of American Labor. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1999. online
 Currarino, Rosanne, "The Politics of 'More': The Labor Question and the Idea of Economic Liberty in Industrial America". Journal of American History. 93:1 (June 2006). [Please remove this after checking. Changed the publication year 2003->2006 Link: http://archive.oah.org/issues/issues/931/index.html the first article. IK].
 Foner, Philip S. History of the Labor Movement in the United States. In 10 volumes. New York: International Publishers, 1947–1991.
 Greene, Julie. Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881–1917. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
 Grubbs, Jr. Frank L. The Struggle for Labor Loyalty: Gompers, the A. F. of L., and the Pacifists, 1917–1920. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1968.
 Livesay, Harold C. Samuel Gompers and Organized Labor in America. Boston: Addison-Wesley , 1987. online; short scholarly summary
 Laslett, John H.M. "Samuel Gompers and the Rise of American Business Unionism." in Labor Leaders in America (1987): 62–88. online
 Mandel, Bernard, "Gompers and Business Unionism, 1873–1890". Business History Review. 28:3 (September 1954).
 Mandel, Bernard, "Samuel Gompers and the Negro Workers, 1886–1914". Journal of Negro History. vol. 40, no. 1 (January 1955).
 Mink, Gwendolyn, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875–1920. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1986.
 Montgomery, David, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism, 1865–1925. New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1987.
 Reed, Louis, The Labor Philosophy of Samuel Gompers. Columbia University Press, 1930.
 Taft, Philip, The A.F. of L. in the Time of Gompers. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1957. online
 Van Tine, Warren R., The Making of the Labor Bureaucrat: Union Leadership in the United States, 1870–1920. 1973.
 Whittaker, William George,  "Samuel Gompers, Anti-Imperialist". Pacific Historical Review. vol. 38, no. 4 (November 1969).

Primary sources
 Gompers, Samuel. Seventy Years of Life and Labor (1925, 1985 reprint); online
 Gompers, Samuel. The Samuel Gompers Papers edited by Stuart B. Kaufman, Peter J. Albert, and Grace Palladino. (University of Illinois Press, 1986–2013). The  definitive edition of all important letters to and from Gompers. Published in 12 volumes; index in vol 13. partly online. Also note The index is online

External links

 The Samuel Gompers Papers Project website , University of Maryland, College Park.—Includes index to published volumes of Gompers's papers.
 Samuel Gompers, Eight Hours, 1925
 Samuel Gompers, "Labor's Service to Freedom". 1918 audio recording, Library of Congress, American Memory Project.
 Samuel Gompers Papers Project collection, at the University of Maryland libraries.

1850 births
1924 deaths
People educated at JFS (school)
Presidents of the American Federation of Labor
American Sephardic Jews
American trade union leaders
American people of Dutch-Jewish descent
Burials at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery
Cigar makers
British emigrants to the United States
English Jews
English people of Dutch-Jewish descent
Georgists
19th-century American people
Activists from New York City
Trade unionists from New York (state)
People from the Lower East Side
People from Dupont Circle
Jewish American trade unionists
American anti-communists
20th-century American people
Council of National Defense
Cigar Makers' International Union people

Samuel Gompers


A liquid is a form of matter. It is settled between solid and gas. Liquid has an almost-fixed volume, but no set shape.

Every small force makes a liquid change its shape by flowing. Because of that, gravity makes liquids always take the shape of the container. The molecules that make up the liquid can freely move among themselves.

Fluids that flow slowly have a high viscosity. Some fluids like tar have such a high viscosity that they may seem solid.

It is difficult to compress a liquid. If a liquid is cooled down until it is colder than a certain temperature, it will become a solid.  This temperature is called the melting point or freezing point and is different for every different type of liquid.  If a liquid is heated up it becomes a gas.  The temperature this happens at is called the boiling point.

Examples of liquid are water, oils and blood.

In a liquid, the liquid on the top presses down on the liquid underneath, so at the bottom the pressure, p, is bigger than at the top. The equation for working this out is:

p = ρgz

where z is the depth of the point below the surface and g is how strong gravity is pulling on the liquid. ρ is a number that tells us how heavy a set amount of the liquid is. We call this the density and it is different for all liquids.

References

Other websites

Basic English 850 words
States of matter

Liquid


Alfred Edmund Hudd  (1846 – 7 October 1920) was a native of Clifton, Bristol, England. An accountant as a young man, his means were such that he was able to pursue his interests as a naturalist and antiquarian. He was a member of a number of societies, often assuming leadership positions. Hudd is perhaps best known for his roles as author of Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of the Bristol District, editor of the Proceedings of the Clifton Antiquarian Club, supervisor of the excavations undertaken by the Caerwent Exploration Fund, and author of "Richard Ameryk and the name America."

Background

Alfred Edmund Hudd, son of leather merchant Samuel Hudd and his wife Mary Ann, was born in the second quarter of 1846 in Clifton. An accountant, he married Catharine Bowles Edmonds in the first quarter of 1872, their marriage recorded in the registration district of Faringdon, Berkshire. In 1881, Alfred and his wife resided at Clinton House on Pembroke Road in Clifton.

Naturalist

By 1870, Hudd was a member of the Bristol Naturalists' Society, which had been founded in 1862. He was first appointed to the Council of the society on 6 May 1875, and remained a member of the Council for years, until about 1892. After a hiatus as a Council member for several years, Hudd was reappointed to the Council in 1899, where he remained until at least 1901. He specialised in entomology. His Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of the Bristol District was published in six parts in the Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists' Society:

 Parts I and 2 appeared in Volume 2 of the Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists' Society, published in 1879.
 Parts 3, 4, and 5 appeared in Volume 3 of the Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists' Society, published in 1882.
 Part 6 appeared in Volume 4 of the Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists' Society, published in 1885.

Hudd was also a Fellow of the Entomological Society of London, founded in 1833, and now known as the Royal Entomological Society of London. In 1912, he presented his collection of 1300 coleoptera (beetle) specimens to the Bristol Museum and Library, now the Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery, to supplement the Stephen Barton (d. 1898) collection. His collection of lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) specimens was added to the George C. Griffiths (1852–1924) collection at the Bristol Museum. Hudd also contributed a short chapter on "The Insects of the Bristol District" to the Handbook to Bristol and the neighbourhood.

Antiquarian

Hudd was elected secretary of the Clifton Antiquarian Club at its first meeting on 23 January 1884 at the Bristol Museum and Library. He retained that position during all twenty-eight years of the original society. Not only a founding member of the club, Alfred Edmund Hudd had the distinction of being the only member of the Clifton Antiquarian Club to remain with the original organisation from its inception in 1884 to its end in 1912. He served as editor of the society's seven volumes of Proceedings, also contributing 21 papers. His service to the organisation was acknowledged on 5 January 1898 when the club presented him with a silver bowl and a set of four silver candlesticks. In 1911, the membership of the club again paid tribute to his efforts, with an inscribed, inlaid grandfather clock.

Alfred Hudd was a member of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society, and served on its Council. On 9 August 1904, he was elected to membership of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland at a meeting of that organisation held at Tuam, County Galway. In addition, he was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London.

Caerwent Exploration Fund

Alfred Hudd was closely involved with the Caerwent Exploration Fund. At a meeting of the Society of Antiquaries of London in February 1899, Alfred Trice Martin, also a founding member of the Clifton Antiquarian Club and a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London, suggested that a systematic excavation of Caerwent, a Roman town in south Wales, be undertaken. The Caerwent Exploration Fund was established by the Clifton Antiquarian Club soon thereafter. In September 1899, at Caerwent, Godfrey Morgan, Lord Tredegar, was elected President of the Caerwent Exploration Fund and Alfred Hudd was elected Treasurer. Hudd and Thomas Ashby, Junior, both members of the Executive Committee of the Fund, supervised the excavations at Caerwent. During the period between 1899 and 1913, two-thirds of the Roman town in south Wales was revealed. The archive of Caerwent, which was discovered during the excavations by the Fund, is in the archaeology collection of Newport Museum. The reports on the excavations at Caerwent were published in Archaeologia, the journal of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Much of the success of the Caerwent Exploration Fund has been attributed to Alfred Hudd.

The naming of America

The traditional theory of the naming of America is that it was named in honour of Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian navigator. At the turn of the sixteenth century, Vespucci undertook a series of voyages (the number of which remains unresolved) in search of a western passage to the Indies. After the voyage of 1501–1502, he proposed that the areas that he and, separately, Christopher Columbus had explored were not part of Asia, but rather a New World. America first received its name in the Cosmographiae Introductio, published by cartographer Martin Waldseemüller in 1507. Vespucci's published letters (the authenticity of which is contested) were the inspiration for that work, which was authored by a group of scholars in Saint-Dié, Lorraine, France. They revised Ptolemy's Geography to include the New World and reasoned that, as the three previously known continents, Europe, Asia, and Africa, had feminine names, so should the New World. Accordingly, the feminised version of the Latin form of the baptismal name of the "discoverer" of the New World, Vespucci, was utilised. The appendix of the book included Waldseemüller's map of the world in which the New World was labelled "America." The map, rediscovered in a German castle in 1901, was the first to use the name America and the first to depict a Western Hemisphere. The Library of Congress purchased the 1507 Waldseemüller map in 2003. On 30 April 2007, German Chancellor Angela Merkel transferred the map, also known as America's "birth certificate," to the people of the United States in a ceremony at the Library of Congress.

There are several alternate theories of the naming of America. Alfred Hudd proposed his theory in a paper which was read at 21 May 1908 meeting of the Clifton Antiquarian Club, and which appeared in Volume 7 of the club's Proceedings. In "Richard Ameryk and the name America," Hudd discussed the 1497 discovery of North America by John Cabot, an Italian who had sailed on behalf of England. Upon his return to England after his first (1497) and second (1498–1499) voyages, Cabot received two pension payments from King Henry VII. Of the two customs officials at the Port of Bristol who were responsible for handing over the money to Cabot, the more senior was Richard Ameryk (High Sheriff of Bristol in 1503). Hudd postulated that Cabot named the land that he had discovered after Ameryk, from whom he received the pension conferred by the king. He stated that Cabot had a reputation for being free with gifts to his friends, such that his expression of gratitude to the official would not be unexpected. Further, Hudd quoted a late 15th-century manuscript (a calendar of Bristol events), the original of which had been lost in an 1860 Bristol fire, that indicated the name America was already known in Bristol in 1497.  Hudd reasoned that the scholars of the 1507 Cosmographiae Introductio, unfamiliar with Richard Ameryk, assumed that the name America, which he claimed had been in use for ten years, was based on Amerigo Vespucci and, therefore, mistakenly transferred the honour from Ameryk to Vespucci. While Hudd's speculation has found support from more than one 21st century author, there is no hard proof to substantiate his theory that Cabot named America after Richard Ameryk.

Later life

Hudd's first wife Kate died on 4 April 1889 and was buried in the Old Protestant Cemetery in Naples, Italy. Hudd married Adeline Sophia Tyzack in the fourth quarter of 1891 in the registration district of Kensington, London. In 1901, he resided at 94 Pembroke Road in Clifton with his second wife Adeline and two daughters. Alfred Edmund Hudd of 108 Pembroke Road in Clifton died on 7 October 1920, his death registered in Bristol in the fourth quarter of the year. His estate of almost £16,000 went to probate on 17 December 1920. His wife survived him.

Archives

An archaeological notebook kept by Alfred Edmund Hudd is held at Bristol Archives (Ref. 13847/79).

References

External links
 Clifton Antiquarian Club
 Archaeological notebook of Alfred Edmund Hudd

1846 births
1920 deaths
People from Clifton, Bristol
English naturalists
English entomologists
English antiquarians
Fellows of the Royal Entomological Society
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
Scientists from Bristol

Alfred Hudd


Candy Raisins are a soft jujube candy popular in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States. The candy was produced from the 1930s until 2008, discontinued, then revived in 2014.

Description
Though named "raisin", the name is for the appearance of their wrinkled tops, while the flavor has been compared to: "honey, ginger, lilac, perfume, soap".

History
The candy dates back to the 1930s, when two Milwaukee companies and one San Francisco company were producing them. In 1939, Stark Candy of Milwaukee acquired one of the companies, patented the recipe in 1976, and produced the candy until 2008. Stark was purchased by Necco in 1988, and continued to produce the candy at the Wisconsin plant until its closing in 2008.

In 2014, Delafield entrepreneur John Barker re-introduced Candy Raisins, having invested over $1,000,000 into his Lake Country Candies company and acquiring the rights to the name and recipe from Necco.

See also
 List of candies

References

Further reading

Gummi candies
Cuisine of Wisconsin
Companies based in Milwaukee

Candy Raisins


Jenő Szemák (4 February 1887 – 30 July 1971) was a Hungarian jurist, who served as President of the Curia Regia from 1944 to 1945.

He finished his legal studies in Kolozsvár (today: Cluj-Napoca, Romania). He taught at the Calvinist Law Academy of Máramarossziget (today: Sighetu Marmației, Romania) until the Treaty of Trianon (1920) when he was banned from Transylvania. He moved to Budapest.

He was elected President of the Criminal Court in 1939. He led the trials in the cases of many Communist persons including Zoltán Szántó and Mátyás Rákosi. Szemák sympathized with the far-right movements. After the fascist Arrow Cross Party's coup, he was appointed President of the Curia Regia in 1944. He escaped from Hungary after the Second World War. He was sentenced to death in absentia. He settled down in the United States where he died in 1971.

Sources
 Hungarian Biographical Lexicon

Further reading

1887 births
1971 deaths
People from Sibiu
Hungarian fascists
Hungarian jurists
Hungarian collaborators with Nazi Germany
Hungarian emigrants to the United States
Nazis sentenced to death in absentia

Jenő Szemák


A walking simulator, shortened walking sim, is an adventure game that consists primarily of movement, environmental interaction. Generally without combat mechanics, or traditional win/lose scenarios, and sometimes involving puzzles elements. While these video game elements originated in the 1980s, people online began pejoratively referring to new games as walking simulators in the late 2000s. The term was eventually used less pejoratively and adopted by gamers, while still negatively perceived by some game developers and negative gameplay connotation remains. Other descriptors have been commonly used for games of such style, including empathy, narrative and exploration game. Such games are often a hallmark of art games, but some mainstream games have been described as having walking simulator elements.

The walking simulator elements are controversial due to purported lack of challenge, discontent of such games became viral in the mid-to-late 2010s among "hardcore" gamers. In other criticism, artistic aspects and emphasis on decision-making and morality are recognizable in them, and walking simulator elements remain popular.

Characteristics

Gameplay
Walking sims are centered around exploration, with the player being thrown into an unfamiliar environment that ranges from mundane to fantastical. The player uncovers aspects of that environment, gaining an understanding of who inhabits it and whether or not it is hostile. Most walking sims lack aspects such as combat, strategy, or economic systems. Most are also created by indie developers, although major titles such as Death Stranding have been referred to as walking sims.

The term is sometimes combined with horror game elements, giving the exploration more aspects of tension. Though most survival horror games do include combat and other actions the player can use to survive, some games like Outlast and Paratopic remove combat abilities, which leaves the player without any means to otherwise react to events. These games can be seen as walking simulators as they help to create an emotional response in their narrative by removing player agency to react to frightening events, combined with the ability to insert visual and audio cues designed to frighten the player.

Naming
The name "walking simulator" has negative connotations, implying the gameplay is tedious and mundane. Critics of walking simulators contend that games must contain some kind of challenge, and walking sims would not qualify as "games" under this definition. Early walking sims, often developed by female leads and featured LGBT themes, were attacked by Internet trolls tied to misogyny and homophobia, such as in the case of Gone Home. These attacks created further negative perception around walking sims.

Developers including Dan Pinchbeck, who co-created Dear Esther, reject this narrow definition in favor of a more expansive and inclusive one. The 'walking sim' term was later embraced by fans, going so far as to be used as a description tag on the Steam digital distribution service. It is sometimes used in an ironic manner.

Whether to use the term or something else continues to be debated by developers and fans, with those in support pointing out the positive health and mental benefits of walking as a sign it does not have to be derogatory. Detractors characterize it as dismissive and condescending, relating it to other insults like "social justice warrior", although even its critics expressed a feeling of inevitability that it would continue to be used for the foreseeable future.

History

The first known walking simulator was an indie game, The Forest, developed in 1978 as an orienteering simulation by Graham Relf for the ZX Spectrum in his spare time. Intended to be based around map-making and navigational skills, it allowed the player to navigate a vast virtual forest. It eventually received a commercial release, and was praised for its originality. A 1980s science fiction successor, Explorer, took place on a forested Earth-like planet and featured 40 billion procedurally generated individual locations, randomly combining graphical components. It also had a rudimentary combat system that allowed the player to shoot arrows at ghost-like creatures, as well as a form of fast travel via teleportation. However, the game was poorly reviewed by most outlets due to its slow pace, calling it more of a tech demo than a fully-fledged video game. Both Explorer and its predecessor were therefore considered commercial failures.

In 2003, [domestic], an art game developed by Mary Flanagan, reused first-person shooter environments to reconstruct a childhood memory of a fire. In 2012, Dear Esther, a walking sim about exploring an unnamed island, was a breakout hit that popularized the modern incarnation of the walking simulator, receiving a large amount of positive critical acclaim. Despite receiving backlash, it was seen as a radical concept. It was directly followed by Gone Home in 2013, The Vanishing of Ethan Carter in 2014, and, later, Firewatch in 2016. Walking sims started to be recognized by critics, with three of the 2016 BAFTA Games Award winners being walking simulators. In contrast to the metaphorical meaning of the term, the upcoming Baby Steps by Bennett Foddy has been described as a literal walking simulator in which the player must directly control the character's legs.

Walking simulations remain primarily a product of indie game developers. AAA studios have mostly refrained from creating walking sims, although there is a possibility that environments created for standard games could be reused without combat, as in the educational "Discovery Mode" of Assassin's Creed Origins and Odyssey.

Reception
In 2017, Nicole Clark of Salon.com called walking sims "the most artful and innovative genre within video gaming", saying that it was "here to stay". In 2019, Rachel Watts of PC Gamer stated that walking sims "have challenged the way in how video games are played, experienced and defined", and that some of the criticism over their mechanics has begun to shift.

References

Video game genres
Adventure games
First-person adventure games

Walking simulator


George Young Blair (10 March 1824 Drumrauch near Dundee – Drumrauch Hall 22 September 1894) was a Scottish marine engineer, who specialised in the building of triple expansion engines at his factory Blair & Co., Ltd. in Stockton-on-Tees.

Business life
In 1855 George Blair was appointed manager of Fossick & Hackworth, becoming a partner in 1865. The firm was renamed Fossick, Blair & Co. on Hackworth's retirement, and when Fossick died in 1866 it became Blair & Co.

Blair's management led to the firm's specialising in marine engines. The 700 employees grew to 2 000, and the works covered seven and a half acres. Blair produced the first compound steam engine built on the Tees in January 1869 and fitted it to the Glenmore  built by Backhouse & Dixon. This was followed in 1884 by its first triple-expansion engine, fitted to the Burgos which had been built by Richardson, Duck and Company.

In 1887 Blair constructed massive sheerlegs next to the Tees. These were capable of lifting 100 tons of marine engine into new ships. By 1914 the yard had turned out some 1 400 marine engines, followed by 75 during World War I. After the War the firm was taken over by Gould Steamships and Industrials in 1919.

Personal life
George Young Blair was born at Drumrauch Farm, Pittenweem, Fife, Scotland, and married Margaret Borrie (1836–1888), daughter of Peter Borrie and Jean Simson, on 4 September 1862 at St. Hilda's Church, Middlesbrough, Yorkshire, North Riding, England.

He constructed the family home, Drumrauch Hall, and bought Linden Grove, also at Hutton Rudby in Yorkshire. In 1862 his residence was at 149 High Street, Stockton-on-Tees. He acted as Justice of the Peace for County Durham.
The children of George Young Blair and Margaret Borrie were:

 Peter Borrie Blair 1866-1891 Stockton (typhoid)
 Mary Young Blair 1867-1935 x Percy Sadler, eldest son of industrialist Sir Samuel Sadler
 Florence Jean Blair c 1869-1917 (never married)
 Margaret Amy Blair 1870-1907 x 1899 Smollett Clerk Thomson, a Scottish bank agent

External links
A reference archive of ships built on the River Tees 1850 - 1990

References

1824 births
1894 deaths
People from Pittenweem
British steam engine engineers
British marine engineers
Scottish engineers

George Young Blair


Mount Pleasant is a town situated in the Barossa Council, just north of the Adelaide Hills region of South Australia, 55 kilometres east-north-east of the state capital, Adelaide (). It is located in the Barossa Council and Mid Murray Council local government areas, and is at an altitude of 440 metres above sea level. Rainfall in the area averages 687 mm per annum.

History

Origin of the name

Today's Mount Pleasant comprises three townships, Totness, Talunga and Hendryton.
Mount Pleasant township was developed by Henry Glover, and surveyed in 1856. It comprised the land from Railway Terrace to Saleyard Road. The name was taken from that used by James Phillis, who had come from an area near Eastry in Kent. The land had reminded him of his homeland. His sister was named Pleasant, who may also have inspired the name.

Totness was surveyed in 1858, with Henry Giles Sr. as the developer; this was the section from Saleyard Road to Pentelows Road. It was named after the birthplace of Henry's wife, Mary Ann. Henry also developed North Totness, which is the land from Pentelows Road to the Walkers Flat Road, surveyed in 1869.
John Hendry, a blacksmith living in Totness, developed the land to the west of Mount Pleasant, comprising that from the Cricks Mill Road (to Williamstown) to Railway Terrace, and this was surveyed in 1865.

European settlement

The first European explorers through the Mount Pleasant district were Dr George Imlay and John Hill in January 1838. Settlers moved into the area in the late 1830s with flocks of sheep and with bags of grain. One of the early settlers, James Phillis, had arrived in Adelaide in 1839 and literally rode a horse into the Adelaide Hills looking for suitable land to farm. He settled at Mount Pleasant in 1843, planted wheat, harvested the crop, and then had to take it to Adelaide to sell. From the profits he sailed to England where he bought a flock of Romney Marsh sheep which he shipped back to the area. Over the years he became one of the district's most prosperous and successful farmers. This is an extract from an article written by Nancy Mavis Pike (née Phillis). Several of Mt Pleasant's pioneer families were to lose sons in the Great War, like William Polden who is now buried in The Lone Pine Cemetery, Gallipoli.

A small quantity of gold was found in the district in the 1860s, but not enough to attract significant mining activity. The town remained a small service centre for the region. The original police station, from the 1860s, has been largely replaced by a newer building. The main street, Melrose Street, is lined with plane trees.

Mount Pleasant was the centre of its own municipality, the District Council of Mount Pleasant, from 1935 until 1997 when it was divided between the larger Barossa Council and Mid Murray Council. Mount Pleasant township is now part of the Barossa Council.

Heritage listings

Mount Pleasant has a number of significant heritage-listed sites, including:

 'Kent Farm' – 3184 Eden Valley Road: Historic Cottage and Barn (Circa 1840s).
 27 Melrose Street: Mount Pleasant Police Station and Cells
 Walker Flat-Mount Pleasant Road: Rosebank Shearing Shed

Geography

Mount Pleasant is located 10 km north-east of Birdwood heading towards Springton, Eden Valley and Angaston.

At the ABS 2001 census, Mount Pleasant had a population of 529 people living in 240 dwellings.

Facilities
Mount Pleasant has a primary school, kindergarten, a district hospital, post office, CFS (country fire service) station, butcher, golf club, bowling club, tennis club, pharmacy, two bakeries, two pubs, two hairdressers, Wilksch`s garage, crash repair, showgrounds featuring the annual Mount Pleasant show, a weekly Saturday Farmer's market, caravan park, RSL and a football club.

Transport
A coach is operated from Tea Tree Plaza Interchange to Gumeracha and Mount Pleasant by Affordable Coachlines. A private coach service also goes from Birdwood to the Barossa Valley via Mount Pleasant.

Mount Pleasant was once the terminus of the Mount Pleasant railway line which branched from the Adelaide to Murray Bridge line at Balhannah. The line opened on 16 September 1918 and was closed on 4 March 1963, following improved road conditions via the Adelaide-Mannum Road. The former rail corridor can still be seen from a few roads, and is gradually being converted, from Balhannah towards Mount Pleasant, into a cycling, walking and horseback riding trail known as the Amy Gillett Bikeway. As of 2015, this conversion had reached Mount Torrens.

See also
Wiljani Conservation Park

References

Further reading

 Butler, Reg The Quiet Waters By: The Mount Pleasant District 1843–1993.

Towns in South Australia
Adelaide Hills
Barossa Valley

Mount Pleasant, South Australia