Fiona Albert (born 12 December 1990) is an Australian rower. She competed in the women's eight event at the 2016 Summer Olympics.

Club and state rowing
Raised in Brisbane, Albert was educated at Brisbane Girls Grammar School where she took up rowing. She attended the University of Queensland, studying Arts/Law. She later relocated to Victoria and rowed from the Mercantile Rowing Club.

Albert was first selected to represent Queensland in the women's youth eight in 2009 contesting the Bicentennial Cup at the Interstate Regatta within the Australian Rowing Championships. She rowed again in the Queensland youth eight in 2010.  From 2011 to 2016 she rowed in Queensland's senior women's eights who contested the Queen's Cup at the Interstate Regatta within the Australian Rowing Championships. Those Queensland eights took the silver medal in five of those six years.

International representative rowing
Albert was first selected for Australian representation in a coxless four contesting the 2012 World Rowing U23 Championships in Trakai, Lithuania. That four rowed to a silver medal.

Albert attempted for three years to be selected as a senior athlete. She was the travelling reserve for two years for the women's quad scull. She rowed in a double scull at the 2014 World Rowing Cup I in Sydney with Rhiannon Hughes and as a single sculler at the WRC III that year in Lucerne in her role as travelling reserve.

In 2015 she again contested single sculls at both World Rowing Cups in Europe role as travelling reserve. The formidable Kim Crow was Australia's eminent sculler at that time and the crewed boats were made up by the
Olympia Aldersey, Sally Kehoe, Jessica Hall, Kerry Hore, Madeleine Edmunds
and Jennifer Cleary.

Albert was in the bow seat of the Australian women's eight who missed qualification for the 2016 Rio Olympics but received a late call up following the Russian drug scandal. WADA had discovered Russian state sponsored drug testing violations and the IOC acted to protect clean athletes and set strict entry guidelines for Russian athletes resulting in most of their rowers and nearly all of their crews being withdrawn from the Olympic regatta.

The crew had dispersed two months earlier after their failure to qualify but reconvened, travelled at the last minute to Rio and borrowed a shell. They finished last in their heat, last in the repechage and were eliminated.

Albert was one of nine Australia athletes arrested in Rio as part of the 'ticket-gate' scandal. The athletes were arrested after tampering with their passes to gain access to a basketball semi-final. They were charged with falsifying a document. AOC officials needed to drive interstate to pay the 90,000 real fine ($36,000) before passports would be returned to the athletes so they can leave the country. The fine was paid to prevent imprisonment. Australia officials said it was an innocent mistake however it is common practice for athletes to tamper with accreditation.

References

External links

1990 births
Living people
Australian female rowers
Olympic rowers for Australia
Rowers at the 2016 Summer Olympics
21st-century Australian women
Sportspeople from Brisbane
Sportswomen from Queensland

Fiona Albert


George Alfred Henty (8 December 1832 – 16 November 1902) was an English novelist and war correspondent. He is most well-known for his works of adventure fiction and historical fiction, including The Dragon & The Raven (1886), For The Temple (1888), Under Drake's Flag (1883) and In Freedom's Cause (1885).

Biography

G. A. Henty was born in Trumpington, near Cambridge but spent some of his childhood in Canterbury. He was a sickly child who had to spend long periods in bed. During his frequent illnesses he became an avid reader and developed a wide range of interests which he carried into adulthood. He attended Westminster School, London, as a half-boarder when he was fourteen, and later Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, where he was a keen sportsman.

He left the university early without completing his degree to volunteer for the (Army) Hospital Commissariat of the Purveyors Department when the Crimean War began. He was sent to the Crimea and while there he witnessed the appalling conditions under which the British soldier had to fight. His letters home were filled with vivid descriptions of what he saw. His father was impressed by his letters and sent them to the Morning Advertiser newspaper which printed them. This initial writing success was a factor in Henty's later decision to accept the offer to become a special correspondent, the early name for journalists now better known as war correspondents.

Shortly before resigning from the army as a captain in 1859 he married Elizabeth Finucane. The couple had four children. Elizabeth died in 1865 after a long illness and shortly after her death Henty began writing articles for the Standard newspaper. In 1866 the newspaper sent him as their special correspondent to report on the Austro-Italian War where he met Giuseppe Garibaldi. He went on to cover the 1868 British punitive expedition to Abyssinia, the Franco-Prussian War, the Ashanti War, the Carlist Rebellion in Spain and the Turco-Serbian War. He also witnessed the opening of the Suez Canal and travelled to Palestine, Russia and India.

Henty was a strong supporter of the British Empire all his life; according to literary critic Kathryn Castle: "Henty ... exemplified the ethos of the [British Empire], and glorified in its successes". Henty's ideas about politics were influenced by writers such as Sir Charles Dilke and Thomas Carlyle.

Henty once related in an interview how his storytelling skills grew out of tales told after dinner to his children. He wrote his first children's book, Out on the Pampas in 1868, naming the book's main characters after his children. The book was published by Griffith and Farran in November 1870 with a title page date of 1871. While most of the 122 books he wrote were for children and published by Blackie and Son of London, he also wrote adult novels, non-fiction such as The March to Magdala and Those Other Animals, short stories for the likes of The Boy's Own Paper and edited the Union Jack, a weekly boy's magazine.

Henty was "the most popular Boy's author of his day." Blackie, who published his children's fiction in the UK, and W. G. Blackie estimated in February 1952 that they were producing about 150,000 Henty books a year at the height of his popularity, and stated that their records showed they had produced over three and a half million Henty books. He further estimated that considering the US and other overseas authorised and pirated editions, a total of 25 million was not impossible. Arnold notes this estimate and that there have been further editions since that estimate was made.

His children's novels typically revolved around a boy or young man living in troubled times. These ranged from the Punic War to more recent conflicts such as the Napoleonic Wars or the American Civil War. Henty's heroes – which occasionally included young ladies – are uniformly intelligent, courageous, honest and resourceful with plenty of 'pluck' yet are also modest. These themes have made Henty's novels popular today among many conservative Christians and homeschoolers.

Henty usually researched his novels by ordering several books on the subject he was writing on from libraries, and consulting them before beginning writing. Some of his books were written about events (such as the Crimean War) that he witnessed himself; hence, these books are written with greater detail as Henty drew upon his first-hand experiences of people, places, and events.

On 16 November 1902, Henty died aboard his yacht in Weymouth Harbour, Dorset, leaving unfinished his last novel, By Conduct and Courage, which was completed by his son Captain C.G. Henty.

Henty is buried in Brompton Cemetery, London.

Influence
G. A. Henty's commercial popularity encouraged other writers to try writing juvenile adventure stories in his style; "Herbert Strang", Henry Everett McNeil, Percy F. Westerman and Captain Frederick Sadleir Brereton all wrote novels in "the Henty tradition", often incorporating then-contemporary themes such as aviation and First World War combat. By the 1930s, however, interest in Henty's work was declining in Britain, and hence few children's writers there looked to his work as a model.

Bibliography

Henty wrote 122 works of historical fiction and all first editions had the date printed at the foot of the title page. Several short stories published in book form are included in this total, with the stories taken from previously published full-length novels. The dates given below are those printed at the foot of the title page of the very first editions in the United Kingdom. It is a common misconception that American Henty titles were published before those of the UK. All Henty titles bar one were published in the UK before those of America.

The simple explanation for this error of judgement is that Charles Scribner's Sons of New York dated their Henty first editions for the current year. The first UK editions published by Blackie were always dated for the coming year, to have them looking fresh for Christmas. The only Henty title published in book form in America before the UK book was In the Hands of the Cave-Dwellers dated 1900 and published by Harper of New York. This title was published in book form in the UK in 1903, although the story itself had already been published in England prior to the first American edition, in The Boy's Own Annual.

Misattribution
A book published in 1884 in the "Fireside Henty Series" called  Forest and Frontier  was discovered to be by Thomas M. Newson.

UK and US availability
In the late 1990s, a number of American publishers, such as Polyglot Press (Philadelphia, PA), PrestonSpeed, and the Lost Classics Book Company, began reprinting Henty's books and advocating their usage for conservative homeschoolers. Reprints of all Henty's works are available from modern day British and American publishers. One such publisher and major modern advocate of Henty is the American scientist (biochemist), homeschool curriculum publisher, and Oregon State Senator Arthur B. Robinson, who promotes the use of Henty's books as a supplement to his self-teaching homeschool curriculum.

Controversial views
Henty's views have been contentious; some writers have accused Henty's novels of being aggressively and obstinately nationalist and reactionary in such books as True to the Old Flag (1885) which features a Loyalist protagonist fighting in the American War of Independence, and In the Reign of Terror (1888) and No Surrender! A Tale of the Rising in La Vendée (1900) which are strongly hostile to the French Revolution.

Henty's novel With Lee in Virginia has a protagonist who fights on the side of the Confederacy against the Union.

Henty's popularity amongst homeschoolers is not without controversy. Quoting from the chapter of By Sheer Pluck called "The Negro Character" ("like children"), American television host and political commentator Rachel Maddow called Henty's writings "spectacularly racist". Carpenter and Pritchard note that while "Henty's work is indeed full of racial (and class) stereotypes", he sometimes created sympathetic ethnic minority characters, such as the Indian servant who marries a white woman in With Clive in India, and point out Henty admired the Turkish Empire. Some even accuse Henty of holding blacks in utter contempt, and this is expressed in novels such as By Sheer Pluck: A Tale of the Ashanti War and A Roving Commission, or, Through the Black Insurrection at Hayti. Kathryne S. McDorman states Henty disliked blacks and also, in Henty's fiction, that "Boers and Jews were considered equally ignoble".

In By Sheer Pluck: A Tale of the Ashanti War, Mr. Goodenough, an entomologist remarks to the hero: "They [Negroes] are just like children ... They are always either laughing or quarrelling. They are good-natured and passionate, indolent, but will work hard for a time; clever up to a certain point, densely stupid beyond. The intelligence of an average negro is about equal to that of a European child of ten years old. ... They are fluent talkers, but their ideas are borrowed. They are absolutely without originality, absolutely without inventive power. Living among white men, their imitative faculties enable them to attain a considerable amount of civilization. Left alone to their own devices they retrograde into a state little above their native savagery."

In the Preface to his novel A Roving Commission (1900) Henty claims "the condition of the negroes in Hayti has fallen to the level of that of the savage African tribes" and argues "unless some strong white power should occupy the island and enforce law and order" this situation will not change. In the novel Facing Death: A Tale of the Coal Mines Henty comes down against strikes and has the working class hero of the novel, Jack Simpson, quell a strike among coal miners.

A review by Deirdre H. McMahon in Studies of the Novel in 2010 refers to his novels as jingoist and racist and states that during the previous decade "Numerous reviews in right-wing and conservative Christian journals and websites applaud Henty's texts as model readings and thoughtful presents for children, especially boys. These reviews often ignore Henty's racism by packaging his version of empire as refreshingly heroic and patriotic."

In 1888, on the bookjacket for Captain Bayley's Heir, The Times wrote that Henty's character in With Lee in Virginia, "bravely proving his sympathy with the slaves of brutal masters"  escapes through "the devotion of a black servant and of a runaway slave whom he had assisted". The reviewer recommended the book.

List of titles

Adaptation

There is one known instance of a book title by Henty having been filmed, along with nine audio theater productions by Heirloom Audio in their series "The Extraordinary Adventures of G. A. Henty": Under Drake's Flag, With Lee in Virginia, In the Reign of Terror, The Cat of Bubastes, Beric the Briton, The Dragon and the Raven, Wulf the Saxon, Captain Bayley's Heir and In Freedom's Cause. Heirloom Audio's productions have featured several well-known actors, including Golden Globe winner Joanne Froggatt of Downton Abbey and Billy Boyd of The Lord of the Rings.

Heirloom Audio was founded by Illinois businessman Bill Heid, who said of Henty, "He took you to places that had great historical significance. It's historical fiction, yet there's very little fiction." Heid said of the characters portrayed in Henty's books and Heirloom Audio's productions, "Who's a real hero? Jay Cutler or Aaron Rodgers, or Francis Drake? Who had the guts, the belief in God's sovereignty? I want to tell the stories that young people think, 'I could imagine doing something like that.' I want them to dream big. There was a time in our country we really had big dreams, thought we could do big things. For some reason, we don't talk like that, take risks like that."

Heid added that too often in schools, "history becomes kind of a data dump, dead guys and dates." But with Henty, "History is anything but boring. It's amazing. William Wallace was a real person, had real struggles of his own. He had hopes and dreams and ambitions, struggles like anyone else, doubts and flaws."

Film

A Final Reckoning (1929), American, B&W: Serial/24 reels

Directed by Ray Taylor.
Cast: Frank Clark [Jim Whitney], Newton House, Louise Lorraine, Jay Wilsey, Edmund Cobb.
Universal Pictures Corporation production; distributed by Universal Pictures Corporation.
Scenario by Basil Dickey and George Morgan, from a novel by George Alfred Henty.
Cinematography by Frank Redman.

Twelve episodes (two reels each): [1] "A Treacherous Friend," released 15 April 1929. / Standard 35mm spherical 1.37:1 format. / [?] Website-IMDb lists the release date of the first episode as 15 April 1928.

Audio Theatre Productions
Under Drake's Flag (2013), Heirloom Audio Productions
 In Freedom's Cause (2014), Heirloom Audio Productions
With Lee in Virginia, Heirloom Audio Productions
In the Reign of Terror, Heirloom Audio Productions
The Cat of Bubastes, Heirloom Audio Productions
Beric the Briton, Heirloom Audio Productions
The Dragon and the Raven, Heirloom Audio Productions
Captain Bayley's Heir, Heirloom Audio Productions
Wulf the Saxon, Heirloom Audio Productions

Notes

References

External links

  Website of the Henty Society

 Works by and about G. A. Henty at Michigan Digitization Project
 Works about G. A. Henty at BallantyneTheBrave.com
 Alternative article containing additional information
 G.A. Henty Collection  at the University of South Florida
 Writing style

1832 births
1902 deaths
Royal Army Service Corps officers
British Army personnel of the Crimean War
People of the Abyssinian War
People from Weymouth, Dorset
British war correspondents
People from Trumpington
People educated at Westminster School, London
English historical novelists
Burials at Brompton Cemetery
Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
19th-century English novelists
Victorian novelists
Writers of historical fiction set in antiquity
Writers of historical fiction set in the Middle Ages
Writers of historical fiction set in the early modern period
Writers of historical fiction set in the modern age

G. A. Henty


Oxton is a small rural village in the Scottish Borders area of Scotland, just off the A68. It is  north of Lauder, and  southeast of the centre of Edinburgh, yet in a quiet rural position.

History
The village of Oxton lies in the parish of Channelkirk. This name for the parish appears to have come into general use in the district around the beginning of the eighteenth century but its ancient name was Childer-kirk and later Gingle-kirk. A Roman camp, visible from the air, and recorded on Ordnance survey maps has been identified nearby and may have been connected with the progress of the army of Septimius Severus in AD 209–210. Saint Cuthbert, who became Bishop of Lindisfarne, was born in the vicinity in AD 635, and probably baptised his early converts at the nearby Holy Water Cleuch (spring).

The village Oxton was called Ugston for several hundred years and appears under that name as late as the 1841 census. As with all Scottish parishes its inhabitants were ruled by a combination of the Kirk Session and the Heritors, the latter being local landowners who were jointly responsible for funding all projects in the parish such as repairs or extensions to the church, the manse, the school, the churchyard, the schoolmaster's house, and even the river bridges, all out of their own pockets.

The village now hosts Bird Gardens Scotland CIC, a bird conservation breeding centre and home to over 300 birds from around the world, including Chilean flamingos, Laughing Kookaburra, and Emu, as well as other animals such as Red-Necked Wallaby and Castlemilk Moorit Sheep. The gardens share the site with Oxton Pottery, a working pottery with regular classes and a gift shop.

Notable people

Jack Lowden, actor

Gallery

See also
Addinston
List of places in the Scottish Borders
List of places in East Lothian

References

External links
Official website

CANMORE (RCAHMS): Item SC 357126, Copy of plan of Oxton Roman fort
CANMORE (RCAHMS): ID 54608 Roman coin
Samian ware and one sherd of a mortarium, from the roman fortlet at Oxton, Berwickshire
RCAHMS record: Oxton, General
RCAHMS: 19 results
SCRAN: Willie Riddle, blacksmith, standing outside his smithy, Oxton
Trimontium: Oxton fortlet
Genealogy of William Houliston
Oxton

Berwickshire
Villages in the Scottish Borders
Holy wells in Scotland

Oxton, Scottish Borders


Jules Andre Smith (1880–1959) was a war artist for the United States Army during World War I. He was born in Hong Kong, lived a few years in Hamburg, Germany as a child after his father died, and moved with his mother and family to New York City. He attended schools and college in New York State, getting an undergraduate and graduate degree in architecture from Cornell University. He eventually became a well-renowned artist, known for his etching and printmaking. His time as a war artist developed his skills, and he would continue his artistic lifestyle throughout his life. He eventually retired to Florida, where he established his Research Studio, now the Art and History Museums Maitland, which is now designated as a National Historic Landmark.

Biography

Jules Andre Smith, was born to American parents in Hong Kong in 1880, when the city was under British colonial rule. According to Smith, his father was a shipbuilder who was lost at sea, after which his mother relocated the family first to Hamburg, Germany; then to New York City in 1889; and finally to the small town of Stony Creek, outside New Haven along the Connecticut coast, where they settled. However, passenger lists indicate the family may have immigrated together with Smith's father, John Henry Smith, although there are no records of the family living together in the United States.

Smith attended Columbia Grammar School, where he first showed an aptitude for art. However, in deference to his mother's misgivings regarding a career as an artist, it was architecture that he studied when he entered Cornell University in 1898. He received a degree in architecture in 1902, and earned a Master of Science degree in the subject in 1904. He spent two years studying architecture in Europe on a Traveling Fellowship from Cornell. Upon his return from Europe, Smith worked for an architectural firm in New York City. He pursued etching and drawing in his spare time, soon attracting a critical and commercial following. He developed the ability to work quickly and preferred to finish a piece in one sitting. He gave up his career in architecture for art in 1911, and traveled Europe etching landscapes. These works are a wonderful reflection of the artistic spike pre-World War I, and as his artistic skills developed, his works slowly took a radical, experimental turn. In 1915, Smith was awarded the gold medal in etching at the Panama-Pacific International Exhibition in San Francisco. His freelance career had ended by the time the United States entered into World War I.

In 1917, upon America's entry into the war, Smith enlisted in the Army Reserve, where he was given officer training and became a first lieutenant in the Engineer Reserve Corps. He was soon promoted to captain and called to active duty as an artist assigned to the American Camouflage Corps, 40th Engineers, under the command of Aymar Embury, the celebrated New York architect, who organized a unit of eight professional artists to document the activities of the American Expeditionary Force in France, the same unit in which fellow architect-artist Louis Conrad Rosenberg served. Since he was the only one of the artists with any military training, Smith was designated the senior officer of the group. Over the next year he drew upon his architectural training to produce detailed pictures of buildings and places affected by the war, what he called "disquieting and somber images of the war." (He produced more pieces of art during the war than any of his fellow official artists). Additionally, he designed the Distinguished Service Cross.

Post-war career

Upon his demobilization following The Armistice, Smith returned to the United States. His wartime experiences served as the basis of In France with the American Expeditionary Forces, a collection of 100 of his field sketches and drawings. The book was published by Arthur H. Halo & Company in 1919, and showed, in Smith's words, ". . . War, the business man, instead of War, the warrior". In it he depicted both the routine of military logistics, as in a study of the harbor at Nantes (#4), and places of " . . . depressing solitude and desolation", as in the view of the ruined town of Bellicourt (#80). His drawings, much like Matthew Brady's panoramas of the American Civil War, strip war of its martial glory and savage allure, and show instead the awful, ordinary banality of war. This was the first of the three books Smith would author, and its sombre tone and disillusioned sensibility prefigures many of the changes and attitudes that characterized his later work.

Smith remained in New York practicing architecture and continuing to make fine art drawings and prints until 1924, when he returned to his Stony Creek, Connecticut home. This may have been due to the amputation of Smith's right leg that year, which had been injured on barbed wire while he was in Plattsburg for officer training. The wound never completely healed, leading to a life of constant pain and disability that affected his activities for the rest of his life. He became involved with a local theater group, designing sets, murals, and stage layouts. This would lead to the publication of his second book "The Scenewright: the making of stage models and settings", published by The Macmillan Company in 1926, which went through multiple editions in the 1920s and 1930s, and which for many years served as a primary reference for the craft of set design. His printmaking continued to attract critical attention, and he coupled his continued success as a fine artist with a series of articles that appeared in periodicals and journals. It was during this period that the expositional Beaux Arts treatment that characterized his pre-war prints gradually became more stylized and expressive.

In 1930, owing to health concerns and the severity of the New England winters, Smith and his studio assistant Attilio J. Banca traveled to Florida in search of a site for a winter studio. The two men drove down the Eastern Seaboard intending to acquire property in South Florida on which they would build a residential studio. Along the way they passed through the small town of Lake Maitland, and paused there long enough to be favorably impressed by its surroundings and nearby lake. This trip, however, proved fruitless, as they did not find a suitable location for their project. In 1931, the two men returned to Florida, once again in search of a winter studio. This time they stopped in Winter Park, Florida, where they rented a house for the season. Through a series of fortuitous meetings and introductions Smith met Mrs. Mary Louise Curtis Bok, a Philadelphia plilanthropist, and it was she who provided the financing to buy six acres of land in Lake Maitland, as well as begin the first stages of construction that would result in The Research Center, Smith's visionary artist colony. This project, begun in 1937, today known as the Maitland Art Center and part of the Art & History Museums - Maitland (A&H). In 2014, the site was distinguished as a National Historic Landmark.

By 1935 Smith's eyesight deteriorated to the point where he was unable to continue the close, detailed work necessary for etching. In 1936, he published the third of his three books Art of the Subconscious. This book, which consists of text, 37 drawings, and related poems depicts a disorderly world of exaggerated conflict, contrast, and surrealist juxtapositions, and owes much to the wordless novels of Frans Masereel (1889-1972) and Lynd Ward (1905-1985), whose work Smith may well have seen, and whose disillusioned view of militarized, industrial society he certainly shared.

In retirement in Florida, Smith established the Maitland Research Studio in 1937 in the town of that name, which he designed the building for. He used the center for an art colony, giving classes and holding exhibits there. It has been adapted by the city as the public Maitland Art Center. One of the few examples of "Mayan Revival" or fantasy architecture in the Southeast, it is a National Historic Landmark and recognized by the state of Florida as a historic site.

Jules Andre Smith died at his studio at the Research Studio in 1959, and was buried in his family's plot at The Branford Center Cemetery near his Connecticut home. Inexplicably, Smith's work is held by few museums. Despite the success he enjoyed as a printmaker both before and after World War I, he didn't fully exploit it. His print editions were small, and he had no long-term dealer relationships, and hence a small collector base. He frequently gave his art away to friends as gifts. Today, the largest and most significant archive of his personal papers, correspondence, and estate artwork is held by the Art & History Museums - Maitland.

Legacy and honors
His Mayan revival-style Maitland Studio has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places and adapted as a community art center. In 2014, it was designated a National Historic Landmark.

References

http://www.loc.gov/search/?fa=contributor%3Asmith%2C+jules+andr
http://blogs.archives.gov/unwritten-record/2014/06/13/world-war-i-art-and-artists/
http://artandhistory.org/about-ah/history/
https://myfloridahistory.org/frontiers/article/16
http://vpub.boyd-printing.com/article/Jules_Andre_Smith_...Pioneer_Of_The_Arts/1500433/174598/article.html
http://etd.fcla.edu/CF/CFE0000831/Seibert_Ginny_C_2005_MA.pdf
https://books.google.com/books?id=A-4UAAAAYAAJ&dq=j.+andre+smith&pg=PA115
http://www.loc.gov/pictures/search/?q=smith%2C%20andre
American Prints in the Library of Congress, A Catalogue of the Collection, Beall, Karen E., Alan Wofsy Fine Arts, San Francisco: 1991, pp. 458–459

1880 births
1959 deaths
United States Army artists
Cornell University alumni
World War I artists
People from Maitland, Florida
American expatriates in British Hong Kong
American expatriates in Germany

J. Andre Smith


Andrea Meyer (born March 27, 1968) is an American journalist, screenwriter, and author of the chick lit novel, Room For Love.

Early life and education
Meyer grew up in Los Angeles, California. She went to college at University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) and spent her junior year studying at the Sorbonne in Paris. She graduated from UCSB in 1990 with a BA in English with honor.

Career
Meyer traveled for six months in Europe, eventually getting a job bartending in a wine bar in London. She then moved to Paris, where she spent two years teaching English and doing translations. Meyer returned to the United States in 1993 to get her Master's degree in English at New York University. Upon graduation, she had a series of jobs, assisting playwright, composer and theater director Elizabeth Swados and a theater and film literary agent at ICM, and then in film production, on such projects as a French-language feature, Tempéte dans un vers d'eau, the Discovery Channel documentary Nazis: The Occult Conspiracy and the HBO documentary Daughter of Suicide. She also produced and helped program the Avignon/New York Film Festival in 1998, as well as being a juror at numerous film festivals.

After leaving her job at ICM in 1995, Andrea shared a cab home from the airport with the editor-in-chief of Hamptons magazine, who offered her a job writing for the magazine. She wrote her first article about Todd Solondz's film Welcome to the Dollhouse. Andrea subsequently got assignments covering film for such publications as independent film website indieWIRE and eventually became a regular theater critic for The Resident, a New York weekly. Eventually, she became a regular contributor to such publications as Time Out New York and the New York Post. In 2000, Meyer became the Managing Editor of the IFC's print publication IFC Rant, which was published by indieWIRE. She worked there for two years before leaving to pursue a freelance writing career.

In the spring of 2003, after getting evicted from her apartment and moving into an apartment she bought in the East Village, Andrea wrote a story for the New York Post, in which she pretended to look for a roommate as a ploy to meet men. She decided to adapt the article into a novel (about a New York film journalist named Jacquie Stuart who writes an article for which she pretends to look for a roommate as a ploy to meet men). She began writing the book at the home of her friend and writing partner Kerry Eielson in Southwest France, with whom she was completing a screenplay called The Alpha Girls.

Back in New York, Meyer worked on her novel while covering film, entertainment and social trends for such publications as Time Out New York, Variety, Interview, The Village Voice, the New York Post, the Daily News and Fitness magazine and writing celebrity and women's interest stories for Glamour.  A regular job emerged writing movie reviews, interviews and a sex and the movies column called Hot & Bothered for IFC.com; and, from December through February, she reported on the Sundance Film Festival for The Sundance Daily Insider.

Andrea completed the first draft of her novel Room for Love days after she married cinematographer Harlan Bosmajian in 2005. The book was published by St. Martin's Press in 2007. In September 2006, Meyer and her husband moved to Los Angeles, where her history professor father and psychiatric social worker mother still live. Her younger sister, Katya, a commercial producer, moved into Meyer's apartment in the East Village. Meyer is working on her follow-up novel and writing a psychological thriller for MGM.

References
Interview by Judyth Piazza on The American Perspective
Interview by The Harvard Westlake School
Galleycat Siting in NYC
"Room For Romance", Andrea Meyer, New York Post, May 15, 2003
"Would You Dare", Glamour

External links

 , Room For Love

Image, at Book Soup Reading in Los Angeles, California

1968 births
21st-century American novelists
American women novelists
Novelists from Los Angeles
Living people
21st-century American women writers
Writers from the East Village, Manhattan
University of California, Santa Barbara alumni
New York University alumni

Andrea Meyer


Dominique Mbonyumutwa (January 1921 – 26 July 1986) was a Rwandan politician who served on an interim basis as the first President of Rwanda, from 1 January to 1960 to 26 October 1961, following the abolition of the Rwandan monarchy. He took over by overthrowing the monarchy under King Kigali V Ndahindurwa and declaring Rwanda a republic, resulting in the 1961 referendum.

Mbonyumutwa was of Hutu ethnicity and was respected by the population both before and after his presidency. On 1 November 1959, while serving as a sous-chef (equivalent to a district mayor today), he was assaulted by a group of Tutsi youth in Byimana in Southern Province. This incident triggered the "social revolution" of November 1959, which eventually brought down the monarchy while driving hundreds of thousands of Rwandan Tutsi into decades-long exile.

Mbonyumutwa was succeeded as president by Grégoire Kayibanda a few months before Rwanda's independence. After his presidency, he maintained a position in Rwandan politics by serving as the  Vice President of Rwandan and holds an honorary position as Chancellor of National Orders in service of later president Juvenal Habyarimana.  He died in July 1986 in Belgium and was buried in Gitarama Stadium, the site where the Republic was proclaimed in 1961, as a recognition to the country. In 2010 his remains were exhumed and reburied in a public cemetery due to the plans to redevelop the stadium.

References

Presidents of Rwanda
1921 births
1986 deaths

Dominique Mbonyumutwa


Trygve Owren (7 October 1912 – 3 March 1987) was a Norwegian politician for the Conservative Party.

He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament from Oppland in 1965, but was not re-elected in 1969.  He had previously served in the position of deputy representative during the terms 1958–1961 and 1961–1965.  During his second term as a deputy, in September 1963, he replaced the deceased Guttorm Granum.

Owren was born in Fåberg and was involved in local politics in Fåberg and its successor municipality Lillehammer between 1954 and 1967.

References

1912 births
1987 deaths
Conservative Party (Norway) politicians
Members of the Storting
20th-century Norwegian politicians

Trygve Owren


The Finnish Landrace, also called the Finngoat (Finnish: Suomenvuohi), is a landrace-derived breed of goat originating in western Finland. The breed can come in a variety of colors but is usually grey, pied, or white, and both horned and polled individuals occur. Finnish Landrace goats are typically used for milking, as there is not a strong tradition of goat meat in Finnish cuisine, unlike in southern Europe. Finngoats are the only breed of goat native to Finland, and originate from native goats crossed with other European imports, especially from Switzerland.

See also

 List of goat breeds
 Finnsheep

References

Goat breeds
Dairy goat breeds
Animal breeds originating in Finland

Finnish Landrace goat


A fish ladder, also known as a fishway, fish pass, fish steps, or fish cannon is a structure on or around artificial and natural barriers (such as dams, locks and waterfalls) to facilitate diadromous fishes' natural migration as well as movements of potamodromous species. Most fishways enable fish to pass around the barriers by swimming and leaping up a series of relatively low steps (hence the term ladder) into the waters on the other side. The velocity of water falling over the steps has to be great enough to attract the fish to the ladder, but it cannot be so great that it washes fish back downstream or exhausts them to the point of inability to continue their journey upriver.

History

Written reports of rough fishways date to 17th-century France, where bundles of branches were used to make steps in steep channels to bypass obstructions.

A 1714 construction of an old channel bypassing a dam, "originally cut for the passage of fish up and down the river", is mentioned in the 1823 U.S. Circuit Court Case Tyler v. Wilkinson. This example predates the 1880 fish ladder at Pawtuxet Falls. The 1714 channel "wholly failed for this purpose" and, in 1730, a mill was built in its place. The channel and its mill usage became an important legal case in U.S. water law.

A pool and weir salmon ladder was built around 1830 by James Smith, a Scottish engineer on the River Teith, near Deanston, Perthshire in Scotland. Both the weir and salmon ladder are there today and many subsequent salmon ladders built in Scotland were inspired by it.

A version was patented in 1837 by Richard McFarlan of Bathurst, New Brunswick, Canada, who designed a fishway to bypass a dam at his water-powered lumber mill. In 1852–1854, the Ballisodare Fish Pass was built in County Sligo in Ireland to draw salmon into a river that had not supported a fishery. In 1880, the first fish ladder was built in Rhode Island, United States, on the Pawtuxet Falls Dam. The ladder was removed in 1924, when the City of Providence replaced the wood dam with a concrete one.

As the Industrial Age advanced, dams and other river obstructions became larger and more common, leading to the need for effective fish by-passes.

Types

Pool and weir One of the oldest styles of fish ladders. It uses a series of small dams and pools of regular length to make a long, sloping channel for fish to travel around the obstruction. The channel acts as a fixed lock to gradually step down the water level; to head upstream, fish must jump over from box to box in the ladder.
Baffle fishway Uses a series of symmetrical close-spaced baffles in a channel to redirect the flow of water, allowing fish to swim around the barrier. Baffle fishways need not have resting areas, although pools can be included to provide a resting area or to reduce the velocity of the flow. Such fishways can be built with switchbacks to minimize the space needed for their construction. Baffles come in variety of designs. The most common design is the Larinier pass, named after the French engineer who designed them. They are suitable for coarse fish as well as salmonids, and can be built large enough to be used by canoes. The original design for a Denil fishway was developed in 1909 by a Belgian scientist, G. Denil; it has since been adjusted and adapted in many ways. The Alaskan Steeppass, for example, is a modular prefabricated Denil-fishway variant originally designed for remote areas of Alaska. Baffles have been installed by Project Maitai in several waterways in Nelson, New Zealand, to improve fish passage as part of general environmental restoration.
Fish elevator (or fish lift) Breaks with the ladder design by providing a sort of elevator to carry fish over a barrier. It is well suited to tall barriers. With a fish elevator, fish swim into a collection area at the base of the obstruction. When enough fish accumulate in the collection area, they are nudged into a hopper that carries them into a flume that empties into the river above the barrier. On the Connecticut River, for example, two fish elevators lift up to 500 fish at a time, 52 feet (15.85 m), to clear the Holyoke Dam. In 2013, the elevator carried over 400,000 fish.
Rock-ramp fishway Uses large rocks and timbers to make pools and small falls that mimic natural structures. Because of the length of the channel needed for the ladder, such structures are most appropriate for relatively short barriers. They have a significant advantage in that they can provide fish spawning habitat.
Vertical-slot fish passage Similar to a pool-and-weir system, except that each "dam" has a narrow slot in it near the channel wall. This allows fish to swim upstream without leaping over an obstacle. Vertical-slot fish passages also tend to handle reasonably well the seasonal fluctuation in water levels on each side of the barrier. Recent studies suggest that navigation locks have a potential to be operated as vertical slot fishways to provide increased access for a range of biota, including poor swimmers.
Fish siphon Allows the pass to be installed parallel to a water course and can be used to link two watercourses. The pass utilises a syphon effect to regulate its flow. This style is particularly favoured to aid flood defence.
Fish cannon A wet, flexible pneumatic tube uses air pressure to suck in salmon one at a time and gently shoot them out into the destination water. The system was originally designed by Bellevue, Washington company Whooshh to safely move apples.
Borland Fish Lift This is similar to a canal lock. At the downstream end of the obstruction, fish are attracted to a collecting pool by an outflow of water through a sluice gate. At fixed intervals, the gate is closed, and water from the upper level fills the collecting pool and an inclined shaft, lifting the fish up to the upstream level. Once the shaft is full, a sluice at the top level opens, to allow fish to continue their journey upstream. The top sluice then closes, and the shaft empties for the process to begin again. A number of Borland fish lifts have been built in Scotland, associated with hydro-electric dams, including one at Aigas Dam on the River Beauly.

Effectiveness

Fish ladders have a mixed record of effectiveness. They vary in effectiveness for different types of species, with one study showing that only three percent of American Shad make it through all the fish ladders on the way to their spawning ground. Effectiveness depends on the fish species' swimming ability, and how the fish moves up and downstream. A fish passage that is designed to allow fish to pass upstream may not allow passage downstream, for instance. Fish passages do not always work.
In practice a challenge is matching swimming performance data to hydrodynamic measurements. Swim tests rarely use the same protocol and the output is either a single-point measurement or a bulk velocity. In contrast, physical and numerical modelling of fluid flow (i.e. hydrodynamics) deliver a detailed flow map, with a fine spatial and temporal resolution. Regulatory agencies face a difficult task to match hydrodynamic measurements and swimming performance data.

Culverts

During the last three decades, the ecological impact of culverts on natural streams and rivers has been recognised. While the culvert discharge capacity derives from hydrological and hydraulic engineering considerations, this results often in large velocities in the barrel, which may prevent fish from passing through.

Baffles may be installed along the barrel invert to provide some fish-friendly alternative. For low discharges, the baffles decrease the flow velocity and increase the water depth to facilitate fish passage. At larger discharges, baffles induce lower local velocities and generate recirculation regions. However, baffles can reduce drastically the culvert discharge capacity for a given afflux, thus increasing substantially the total cost of the culvert structure to achieve the same design discharge and afflux. It is believed that fish-turbulence interplay may facilitate upstream migration, albeit an optimum design must be based upon a careful characterisation of both hydrodynamics and fish kinematics. Finally the practical engineering design implications cannot be ignored, while a solid understanding of turbulence typology is a basic requirement to any successful boundary treatment conducive of upstream fish passage.

See also
 Culvert
 Elver pass
 First "Denil" style dam in Illinois
 Fish doorbell
 Fish migration
 Fish screen
 Pitlochry fish ladder
 Salmon run

Citations

General and cited references
 To Save the Salmon (1997) US Army Corps of Engineers.
 Fish-friendly waterways and culverts - Integration of hydrodynamics and fish turbulence interplay (2017) The University of Queensland.

External links

 A study of the hydraulics of flow over fishways
 Construction of a vertical slot fish passage and eel ladder for the St. Ours Dam (Richelieu River, Québec)
 Fish Passage Center
 Fish passes. Design, dimensions and monitoring, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/Deutscher Verband für Wasserwirtschaft und Kulturbau (DVWK), Rome, 2002   (Zip download from FTP area of the FAO's European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (EIFAC))
 U.S. Orders Modification of Klamath River – Dams Removal May Prove More Cost-Effective for allowing the passage of Salmon—The Washington Post, January 31, 2007
 Fish Ladders and Elevators not working.
 Upstream fish passage in box culverts: how do fish and turbulence interplay? by Dr Hang Wang and Professor Hubert Chanson, School of Civil Engineering, University of Queensland

Aquatic ecology
Dams
Ecological connectivity
Fish migrations

Fish ladder


The Greater Blue Mountains Area is a World Heritage Site in the Blue Mountains of New South Wales, Australia. It was added to the World Heritage List at meeting of the World Heritage Committee, held in Cairns in November 2000.

Description

This area is one of rugged tablelands, cliffs, deep valleys and rivers and lakes. There are many rare and different plants and animals which tell the story of Australia's great age. It shows the story of the evolution of Australia's unique eucalypt trees and the other plants and animals which live among them.

The Greater Blue Mountains Area covers about 10,300 square kilometres. It is mainly forest on a sandstone plateau 60 to 180 kilometres inland from central Sydney. The area includes large areas of wilderness and is about one third the size of Belgium, or twice the size of Brunei.

The Blue Mountains are a blue color. This is because rising air temperature makes the oil of Eucalypts evaporate into the air. This makes the mountains seem bluish.

The World Heritage Site includes eight protected areas. These are in two main blocks separated by land set aside for transport and housing. These areas are the:
 Jenolan Caves Karst Conservation Reserve
 Blue Mountains National Park
 Wollemi National Park
 Yengo National Park
 Nattai National Park
 Kanangra-Boyd National Park
 Gardens of Stone National Park
 Thirlmere Lakes National Park.

The Blue Mountains are not really mountains, but a sandstone plateau rising from less than 100 metres above sea level to 1300 metres at the highest point. The plateau is cut through with deep valleys. There are basalt outcrops on the higher ridges. There are many different plants and animals which probably survived because they found shelter from climatic changes during recent geological history.

Vegetation

The area is famous for its many different eucalypt habitats, from wet and dry sclerophyll grasslands, mallee heathlands, as well as swamps and wetlands. There are 91 species of eucalypts,  13% of all eucalypts, in the Greater Blue Mountains Area. Of these, 12 only grow here.

The area has been described as a natural laboratory for studying the evolution of the eucalypts. This is because there are so many of the different types growing in the Greater Blue Mountains Area. The area shows examples of how the eucalypts have changed to grow in the different Australian environments. These vary from tall forests at the margins or rainforest in the deep valleys, through open forests and woodlands, to shrublands of stunted mallees on the exposed tablelands.

As well as the eucalypts, the Greater Blue Mountains Area also contains ancient, relict species of world wide importance. The most famous of these is the recently discovered Wollemi pine. This tree is a "living fossil" dating back to the age of the dinosaurs. Thought to have been extinct for millions of years, the few surviving trees of this ancient species are known only from three small groups located in remote valleys within the area. The Wollemi pine is one of the world's rarest species.

Vegetation types
Sclerophyll: Very tough leaves and stem; packed with poisons and/or indigestible stuff. Not good food for herbivores, a type of defence against herbivory. In Australia, often dry savannahs, dominated by grasses with an overstorey of Eucalypts and Acacias.
Mallee: A type of plant habit. Groups of small trees coming up from an underground lignotuber, a starchy enlarged root (or stem) which stores water. Gives rise to clumps of smallish eucalypts.

Fauna

More than 400 different kinds of animals live within the valleys and tablelands of the Greater Blue Mountains Area. These include threatened or rare species such as the tiger quoll, the koala, the yellow-bellied glider and the long-nosed potoroo. There are also rare reptiles and amphibians including the green and golden bell frog and the Blue Mountain water skink.

The largest predator of the area is the dingo. These wild dogs hunt for grey kangaroos and other prey.

The Greater Blue Mountains Area has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA). It has many of the world's rockwarblers, as well as flame robins, diamond firetails and pilotbirds.  The endangered regent honeyeater is seen there regularly. It is also a migration bottleneck for yellow-faced honeyeaters.

UNESCO listing
The Greater Blue Mountains Area was listed as a World Heritage Area by UNESCO on 29 November 2000. It was the fourth area in New South Wales to be listed.

The reason why this site was chosen to be included on the World Heritage list is quoted below:

Related pages
List of World Heritage Sites in Australia

References

Other websites

Blue Mountains virtual video tour.
Gundungurra Blue Mountains Aboriginal traditional owners.
Nomination of the Greater Blue Mountains Area for inscription on the World Heritage List by the Government of Australia 1998
Greater Blue Mountains Area at UNESCO World Heritage Centre
The Greater Blue Mountains Area, New South Wales, Australia  at United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre
Blue Mountains World Heritage Institute
Blue Mountains, NSW, Australia  Aerial video of the Jamison Valley below Katoomba.

Geography of New South Wales
World Heritage Sites in Australia
Australian National Heritage List

Greater Blue Mountains Area


The Hillsborough Stadium Disaster Inquiry report is the report of an inquiry which was overseen by Lord Justice Taylor, into the causes of the Hillsborough disaster in Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England, on 15 April 1989, as a result of which, at the time of the report, 95 Liverpool F.C. fans had died (a 96th fan died in 1993, and 97th in 2021). An interim report was published in August 1989, and the final report was published in January 1990.

The Taylor Report found that the main reason for the disaster was the failure of police control. It recommended that all major stadiums convert to an all-seater model, and that all ticketed spectators should have seats, as opposed to some or all being obliged to stand. The Football League in England and the Scottish Football League introduced regulations that required clubs in the highest divisions (top two divisions in the English system) to comply with this recommendation by August 1994.

The report stated that standing accommodation was not intrinsically unsafe, but the government, nonetheless, decided that no standing accommodation should be allowed.

Other recommendations of the Taylor Report included points on items such as the sale of alcohol within stadiums, crush barriers, fences (as many Liverpool fans had been crushed to death against the perimeter fencing at Hillsborough), turnstiles, ticket prices and other stadium items.

Inquiry
After the Hillsborough disaster, Lord Justice Taylor was appointed to conduct an inquiry into the events. The Taylor Inquiry sat for a total of 31 days and published two reports: an interim report which laid out the events of the day and immediate conclusions, and the final report which outlined general recommendations on football ground safety. This became known as the Taylor Report.

Findings
Taylor concluded that "policing on 15 April broke down" and "although there were other causes, the main reason for the disaster was the failure of police control." Attention was focused on the decision to open the secondary gates; moreover, the kick-off should have been delayed, as had been done at other venues and matches.

Sheffield Wednesday were criticised for the inadequate number of turnstiles at the Leppings Lane end and the poor quality of the crush barriers on the terraces, "respects in which failure by the Club contributed to this disaster."

Police control
Taylor found there was "no provision" for controlling the entry of spectators into the turnstile area. Questioned why more action had not been taken to screen individuals and improve the flow of supporters approaching the stadium from the west "where the turnstile area was so small and awkwardly laid out", senior police officers responded that policy and practice had been no different from in the past, and they had no reason to anticipate problems as earlier events had proceeded without major incident. In fact, Taylor noted only two occasions when the entry at Leppings Lane had been the sole access to the north and west sides of the ground, at the 1987 and 1988 semi-finals, with evidence of congestion at both, but owing to good fortune and circumstance police policy "was not put to the same test and strain as a year later".

The senior police officers said it had never happened before so there was no reason to foresee it. In fact, the only two previous occasions when the Leppings Lane terraces had been used to fill the whole of the north and west sides of the ground were at the two semi-finals, in 1987 and 1988. In 1987, the match was on a Sunday scheduled for 12 noon, and kick-off was postponed for a quarter of an hour because of late arrivals.

The need to open gate C was due to dangerous congestion at the turnstiles. That occurred because, as both Club and police should have realised, the turnstile area could not easily cope with the large numbers demanded of it unless they arrived steadily over a lengthy period. The Operational Order and police tactics on the day failed to provide for controlling a concentrated arrival of large numbers should that occur in a short period. That it might so occur was foreseeable and it did.

As a result of the inadequate number of turnstiles, it has been calculated that it would have taken until 3:40 pm to get all ticket holders into the Leppings Lane end had an exit gate not been opened. Gate C was opened to let fans in, but the number of fans entering the terrace was not thought to have been more than the capacity of the entire standing area. Once inside the stadium, most fans entering the terraces headed for the central pens 3 and 4, as directed by a large sign above the access tunnel.

Since pens 3 and 4 were full by 2.50 pm, the tunnel should have been closed off whether gate C was to be opened or not. ... [I]t should have been clear in the control room where there was a view of the pens and of the crowd at the turnstiles that the tunnel had to be closed. If orders had been given to that effect when gate C was opened, the fans could have been directed to the empty areas of the wings and this disaster could still have been avoided. Failure to give that order was a blunder of the first magnitude.

Standard procedure for league fixtures was to estimate the size of the visiting fan base, determine how many enclosures need to be opened, then fill each standing area one at a time. For all-ticket games that had sold out, such as semi-final matches, a different approach was adopted whereby supporters were allowed to enter any enclosure they wished upon arrival. There was no mechanical or electronic means for calculating when individual enclosures had reached capacity. A police officer made a visual assessment before guiding fans to other pens.

Whilst in theory the police would intervene if a pen became "full", in practice they permitted the test of fullness to be what the fans would tolerate. By 2.52 pm when gate C was opened, pens 3 and 4 were over-full even by this test. Many were uncomfortable. To allow any more into those pens was likely to cause injuries; to allow in a large stream was courting disaster.

The official combined capacity of the central pens was 2,200, but the Health and Safety Executive found this should have been reduced to 1,693 as crush barriers and perimeter gates did not conform to the Green Guide. It is estimated that more than 3,000 people were in the pens shortly after kick off at 3:00 pm. Overcrowding caused the fatal crush.

When spectators first appeared on the track, the immediate assumption in the control room was that a pitch invasion was threatened. This was unlikely at the beginning of a match. It became still less likely when those on the track made no move towards the pitch. ... [T]here was no effective leadership either from control or on the pitch to harness and organise rescue efforts. No orders were given for officers to enter the tunnel and relieve pressure.

The anxiety to protect the sanctity of the pitch has caused insufficient attention to be paid to the risk of a crush due to overcrowding. Certain it was, that once the crush occurred on 15 April gates 3 and 4 were wholly inadequate for rescue purposes.

Lord Taylor regarded spectator allocation irrelevant to the disaster. "I do not consider choice of ends was causative of the disaster. Had it been reversed, the disaster could well have occurred in a similar manner but to Nottingham supporters."

Aggravating factors
There were accusations that the behaviour of Liverpool fans contributed to the disaster centred around consumption of alcohol before the game and attempts to enter the ground without a ticket. Although Lord Taylor acknowledged that these aggravated the situation, they were secondary factors. Witness estimates of the number of fans who were drunk varied from a minority to a large proportion of the crowd. Although it was clear many fans had been drinking, Lord Taylor unequivocally stated that most of them were: "not drunk, nor even the worse for drink". He concluded that they formed an exacerbating factor and that police, seeking to rationalise their loss of control, overestimated the element of drunkenness in the crowd.

The Hillsborough Independent Panel later noted that, despite being dismissed by the Taylor Report, the idea that alcohol contributed to the disaster proved remarkably durable. Documents later disclosed confirm that repeated attempts were made to find supporting evidence for alcohol being a factor, and that available evidence was significantly misinterpreted. It noted "The weight placed on alcohol in the face of objective evidence of a pattern of consumption modest for a leisure event was inappropriate. It has since fuelled persistent and unsustainable assertions about drunken fan behaviour."

The possibility of fans attempting to gain entry without tickets or with forged tickets was suggested as a contributing factor. South Yorkshire Police suggested the late arrival of fans amounted to a conspiracy to gain entry without tickets. However, analysis of the electronic monitoring system, Health and Safety Executive analysis, and eyewitness accounts showed that the total number of people who entered the Leppings Lane end was below the official capacity of the stand. Eyewitness reports suggested that tickets were available on the day and tickets for the Leppings Lane end were on sale from Anfield until the day before. The report dismissed the conspiracy theory.

Police evasion
Taylor concluded his criticism of South Yorkshire Police by describing senior officers in command as "defensive and evasive witnesses" who refused to accept any responsibility for error.

In all some 65 police officers gave oral evidence at the Inquiry. Sadly I must report that for the most part the quality of their evidence was in inverse proportion to their rank.

It is a matter of regret that at the hearing, and in their submissions, the South Yorkshire Police were not prepared to concede they were in any respect at fault in what occurred. ... [T]he police case was to blame the fans for being late and drunk, and to blame the Club for failing to monitor the pens. ... Such an unrealistic approach gives cause for anxiety as to whether lessons have been learnt. It would have been more seemly and encouraging for the future if responsibility had been faced.

Effect on stadiums in Britain

The Taylor Report had a deep impact on safety standards for stadiums in the UK. Perimeter and lateral fencing was removed, and many top stadiums were converted to all-seated purpose-built stadiums for Premier League, and most Football League teams since the report are all-seater. Chester City F.C.'s Deva Stadium was the first English football stadium to fulfil the safety recommendations of the Taylor Report, with Millwall F.C.'s The Den being the first new stadium to be built that fulfilled the recommendations.

Lord Taylor noted that the evidence he received was overwhelmingly in favour of more seating accommodation, and that most was in favour of reversing the two-thirds to one-third standing-seating ratio. His final report made 76 recommendations, including a reduction in standing in line with this evidence but that, after a given timescale, all stadiums designated under the Safety of Sports Ground Act 1975 should admit spectators to seated accommodation only. A number of his recommendations were not implemented, including all-seating for sports other than football.
The Football Spectators Act 1989 contained a regulation requiring football grounds to become all-seated as directed by the Secretary of State. This was to be overseen by the Football Licensing Authority (now the Sports Grounds Safety Authority).

In July 1992, the government announced a relaxation of the regulation for the lower two English leagues (known now as League One and League Two). The Football Spectators Act does not cover Scotland, but the Scottish Premier League chose to make all-seater stadiums a requirement of league membership. However, the regulations were applied to Berwick Rangers, a team located in England and playing in Scotland's national leagues. In England and Wales, all-seating is a requirement of the Premier League and of the Football League for clubs who have been present in the Championship for more than three seasons.

Several campaigns have been active in attempting to get the government to relax the regulation, and allow standing areas to return to Premiership and Championship grounds.

Consequences

As a result of the Taylor Report, most clubs refurbished or rebuilt stadiums (partly, and in some cases completely), while others built new stadiums at different locations. This was the case with clubs who were frequently playing in the upper two divisions of the English league during the first half of the 1990s, as well as clubs from the third tier who were on the verge of making the breakthrough to the league's top two divisions.

These changes resulted in a number of terraces being replaced by all-seater stands, two of the early examples being Manchester United's Stretford End and Arsenal's North Bank, which were both demolished in the summer of 1992. Two years later, Aston Villa's Holte End and Liverpool's Spion Kop were both demolished.

The 1990s saw the closure of some of the oldest football stadiums in England, including Middlesbrough's Ayresome Park and Sunderland's Roker Park, in favour of new sites which were more suitable for all-seater capacities that would have been practically impossible on the site of the existing grounds. Although a number of clubs from the lower divisions had relocated during the intervening years, Middlesbrough's relocation in 1995 was the first permanent relocation of any top division club for more than 70 years.

The clubs who remained at their existing homes inevitably saw a significantly reduced capacity, with attendances at matches being lower still while the conversion work was taking place, although the clubs who took part in the new FA Premier League from the 1992–93 season had money from the disbursement of the sale of television rights to help fund redevelopment work. Clubs that had progressed through the football league pyramid from lower levels in a short space of time during the 1990s, were allowed to keep standing accommodation in the top two divisions after the end of the 1993–94 campaign. The most recent Premier League club to have standing accommodation were Fulham in 2001–02, as they had been in the fourth tier of English football six seasons previously and reached the second tier in 1999. Clubs to have had standing accommodation in the second tier of English football since the mid 1990s include Reading, Stoke City, Oxford United, Gillingham and more recently Colchester United and Brentford. With the exception of Gillingham, this was due to the club planning relocation to a new all-seater stadium.

Bolton Wanderers had standing accommodation at Burnden Park right up to its closure at the end of the 1996–97 season, after which they relocated to the all-seater Reebok Stadium. Bolton had first announced their intention to leave Burden Park in favour of a new all-seater stadium just before winning promotion from the league's third tier in 1993.

This included a season in the Premier League, and a total of three seasons in Division One. Sunderland, who left Roker Park for the Stadium of Light at the same time, also had standing accommodation in the Premier League during their old stadium's final season in use. However, the club had been seeking a move to a new stadium for at least five years before relocation was completed, which was delayed when the original plan for a new stadium next to the local Nissan factory collapsed.

Southampton had converted The Dell into an all-seater stadium in the early 1990s as a short-term measure to comply with the Taylor Report, reducing capacity to just over 15,000, while a site for a new larger stadium was identified. It closed in 2001 on the completion of St Mary's Stadium.

Leicester City had briefly considered relocation at the beginning of the 1990s but then decided to redevelop Filbert Street, building a new 9,500-seat stand there in 1993 and filling in the remaining standing areas, although by 1998 relocation was again being considered, with attendances rising and Leicester doing well on the pitch, and finally happened when the Walkers Stadium was completed in 2002.

Arsenal had converted Highbury into an all-seater stadium with a capacity of nearly 39,000 (down from more than 60,000 in the late 1980s) in 1993, with further expansion of Highbury considered. However, further expansion of Highbury was complicated by the fact that two of the stands were listed structures. Local residents objected to any further expansion at Highbury and the local council was not sympathetic. After a failed bid to take over Wembley Stadium in 1998, the Arsenal board announced in November 1999 that an industrial site at Ashburton Grove had been selected as the site for a new 60,000-seat stadium. The new stadium was originally planned to be completed in 2003, but a long battle for planning permission meant that the new Emirates Stadium finally opened in time for the 2006–07 season.

Manchester City had originally taken the option of redeveloping their existing stadium, Maine Road, which became all-seater in 1995 following a redevelopment which included two stands being rebuilt, which gave it a capacity of 35,000. There were plans for further redevelopment which would have taken the capacity beyond 40,000, but these were postponed following relegation from the Premier League in 1996, and by the end of the decade, plans for further expansion at Maine Road were abandoned after the club agreed to become tenants at the new Eastlands site, where a new sports stadium was being built for the 2002 Commonwealth Games. Manchester City moved to Eastlands (now called the Etihad Stadium for sponsorship reasons) at the start of the 2003–04 season.

Wimbledon moved out of the dilapidated Plough Lane stadium in 1991, to become tenants at Crystal Palace's Selhurst Park, which was redeveloped as an all-seater stadium. This was expected to be a short term measure for a few seasons until Wimbledon found a site for a new stadium of their own, but ended up lasting 12 years and ended in controversial circumstances. Plans for a new 20,000-seat stadium in the London Borough of Merton had been unveiled in 1988, with the intention of relocation being completed in the early 1990s, but never materialised and the site was later developed for other uses. Various plans for a new stadium were reported throughout the 1990s, even a move to Dublin, before in 2003 the club relocated to Milton Keynes where they played at the National Hockey Stadium (adopting the name Milton Keynes Dons in 2004) before moving into a new permanent home – Stadium MK – in 2007. To maintain a presence in the London Borough of Merton, a group of Wimbledon fans set up a new club (AFC Wimbledon) after the move to Milton Keynes was given the go-ahead in May 2002, and the club played at Kingstonian's Kingsmeadow Stadium, later taking over ownership of the stadium, although a move to a new stadium in the London Borough of Merton was always the club's long-term aim. In November 2020, AFC Wimbledon finally moved into a new stadium at Plough Lane, almost 30 years after the departure of the original Wimbledon club from the area.

Some clubs had started upgrading their stadiums before this rule was introduced. For example, St Johnstone in Scotland arranged for the construction of McDiarmid Park in the mid 1980s. The stadium opened in time for the 1989–90 season and was already nearing completion when the Hillsborough disaster occurred.

Coventry City had made their Highfield Road stadium all-seater during the early 1980s, but within a few years, it had reintroduced standing accommodation after the all-seater format proved unpopular with fans; the club later reverted to an all-seater capacity in the early 1990s following the Taylor Report, and left Highfield Road for the larger Ricoh Arena in 2005.

A number of clubs seriously considered relocation in response to the Taylor Report – and did so in the years ahead – but ultimately decided to remain at their original location. These include Newcastle United in the mid 1990s, and Liverpool, who in the early 2000s had plans to leave Anfield in favour of a new stadium in nearby Stanley Park, which at one stage they were considering sharing with local rivals Everton, but these plans collapsed after a decade in favour of expansion work at Anfield. Everton, on the other hand, have since decided to relocate from Goodison Park to a new stadium which is due to be completed in 2024, nearly 30 years after relocation was first planned by the club's then owners.

See also

 Development of stadiums in English football

References

Hillsborough disaster
History of football in England
1989–90 in English football
Corporate governance in the United Kingdom
Reports on finance and business
Documents of the United Kingdom

he:אסון הילסבורו#החקירה

Taylor Report


Commodity fetishism is an important concept in Marx's philosophy. In his writings, he thinks that people in capitalist systems are too focused on the end product people buy (a commodity) and forget to think about the processes that helped the commodity come about.

For example, a ballpoint pen must go through material sourcing, designing, prototyping and manufacturing before it can be shipped and delivered to customers. Many people, including workers, took part in the production of the pen, and Marx believes that capitalist thinking takes people away from those processes and relationships which result in a commodity.
Marxism

Commodity fetishism


John David Jenkins (30 January 1828 – 9 November 1876) was a Welsh clergyman and historian. He spent six years ministering in Pietermaritzburg; after his return to England, he became known as the "Rail men's Apostle" for his work with railway workers in Oxford. He was Vice-President, and then President, of the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants. He also wrote a book on the history of the church.

Life
Jenkins was born in Merthyr Tydfil, Glamorgan on 30 January 1828. His father, William David Jenkins, could allegedly trace his ancestry back to Iestyn ap Gwrgant, the last Prince of Morgannwg. After attending Taliesin Williams's school in Merthyr Tydfil and Cowbridge Grammar School, Jenkins studied at Oxford University, matriculating at Jesus College in 1846 with the benefit of the Sir Leoline Jenkins scholarship. He studied Literae Humaniores, obtaining a third-class BA degree in 1850. He subsequently obtained further degrees: M.A. in 1852, BD in 1859 and DD in 1871. He became a good classical and oriental scholar whilst at Oxford, developing a fluency in modern languages in later life. Whilst an undergraduate, he tried and failed on several occasions for the Pusey and Ellerton Hebrew Scholarship; after his final failure, Dr Pusey presented him with some books to acknowledge his abilities in Hebrew.

Jenkin's rich personal library was presented to Llandaff Cathedral, where it remained in the Prebendal House for over a century until the recent dispersal of the cathedral library to provide funds for a refurbished organ.

He was appointed as a Fellow of Jesus College in 1851/2, retaining this position until his death. The fellowship was a King James II Missionary Fellowship, under the terms of which Jenkins was required to become ordained and "proceed to such one of Her Majesty's plantations as the Bishop of London, for the time being, might appoint." He was ordained deacon in 1851 by Samuel Wilberforce, Bishop of Oxford, and appointed curate to the Reverend Alfred Hackman at St Paul's Church, Oxford. St Paul's was a noted Tractarian church. Whilst Jenkins was at St Paul's, Thomas Combe commissioned Holman Hunt to paint Jenkins's portrait.

In accordance with the terms of the fellowship, Jenkins went to the Cape of Good Hope, arriving in November 1852. Bishop Robert Gray, the bishop of Cape Town, sent him to Pietermaritzburg under the direction of the rector, the Reverend James Green. Jenkins remained in Pietermaritzburg for six years, working particularly with the armed forces as Chaplain to the 45th Regiment and Battery of Field Artillery. He soon became involved in controversy when Green, Jenkins and others opposed Bishop John Colenso, the first Bishop of Natal, who had questioned the literal accuracy of some biblical passages based on his own mathematical calculations, and had also condemned ritualistic practices (particularly the wearing of "gorgeous coloured vestments") favoured by the Tractarians. Bishop Gray attempted to relieve Bishop Colenso of his position at a court hearing in which he sat in judgment.  Colenso, however, refused to attend at the hearing and subsequently succeeded in his application to the Privy Council for an order that the Bishop Gray's judgment had been illegal.  Following the Privy Council judgment Colenso returned to Natal.

Bishop Colenso made Jenkins a canon of Pietermaritzburg in 1856. Ill-health (the early stages of liver cancer) caused Jenkins to leave South Africa in 1858 and return to Oxford. He became Dean of Jesus College in 1865, and Junior Bursar in 1866. Jenkins then wrote a book on the history of the Christian Church. The Age of the Martyrs, the first volume of the work, was published in 1869 and was dedicated by Jenkins to Green. It was translated into Welsh in 1890. The rest of the book was not published.  In March 1870, Jenkins was appointed vicar of Aberdare, Glamorgan, by the Marquess of Bute. He died of liver cancer in Aberdare on 9 November 1876.

Ministry
Jenkins's "abiding compassion for the less fortunate", as it has been termed, was first demonstrated with his work with the army in South Africa, where one of his contemporaries said that "his influence for good was boundless". After his return to Oxford, he became involved with the Society of the Holy Cross, an Anglo-Catholic clerical organisation founded by Pusey and others. Its principles included missionary work amongst the poor. Jenkins spent considerable amounts of time in the 1860s ministering to sick and poor railway workers and their families. He was a clerical superior in the "Railway Guild of the Holy Cross", which promoted Christian faith amongst railway employees. His commitment to the task of ministering to railway families led to him becoming known as the "Rail men's Apostle".

After his appointment to Aberdare, a town where Dissenters were strong, Jenkins organised choral services with psalms being sung to Anglican chants and the canticles to Gregorian chants. He worked with Nonconformists to promote local friendly societies and was sufficiently well-regarded to be presented in 1874 with a testimonial noting "his genial and affectionate regard for the hardworking and humbler classes of society" and his involvement with the South Wales Choral Union, which had won a national competition at The Crystal Palace in 1872. He also represented the views of miners during strikes, sometimes clashing with employers as a result.

His involvement with railway matters did not cease on his appointment to Aberdare. When the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants was established in 1872, he was appointed Vice-President.  He helped form an Aberdare branch, and addressed meetings at local and national level, stressing the need for unity amongst the workers and the importance of providing for sickness and old-age whilst in good health. In 1873, Jenkins was unanimously elected President and held the position until his death in 1876. The ASRS paid for a memorial window at St Elven's Church, Aberdare, in his honour. At his funeral, conducted by his college friend Griffith Arthur Jones, the union's general secretary, Fred Evans, said:

Jenkins also played a conciliatory role in the mining disputes which became increasingly prevalent in the Aberdare Valley during the 1870s. At a meeting in early 1872, addressed by miners' leaders Alexander Macdonald and Thomas Halliday, he was called to the platform by the chairman of the meeting, Henry Thomas, to great cheering.

Portrait
The portrait of Jenkins by Holman Hunt from 1852 commissioned by Thomas Combe, entitled New College Cloisters, now hangs in the Senior Common Room at Jesus College.  The robes worn by Jenkins are those of a High Church priest, including black silk worn over the surplice (a revival of a pre-Reformation tradition). The setting, the cloisters of New College, Oxford, has been said to give "monastic undertones" to the picture, with the overall effect that "suggested a Gothic feel wholly in keeping with contemporary Tractarian philosophy" – Hunt and Jenkins both being supporters of the Oxford Movement.

References

1828 births
1876 deaths
19th-century Welsh Anglican priests
19th-century Welsh historians
Alumni of Jesus College, Oxford
Fellows of Jesus College, Oxford
People from Merthyr Tydfil
People from Pietermaritzburg
Welsh Anglo-Catholics
Anglo-Catholic clergy

John David Jenkins


James Trevor Ralph (born 9 October 1975) is an English cricketer who played one first-class match for Worcestershire and later played minor counties cricket for Shropshire. He was born in Kidderminster, Worcestershire.

As well as playing club cricket for Kidderminster,
Ralph played many times for Worcestershire's Second XI between 1994 and 1996, and a run of good scores in the latter year earned him what turned out to be his only first-class appearance, against South Africa A in August. He failed to grasp the opportunity, however, being dismissed for a pair, and his brief first-class career ended almost as soon as it had begun.

In 1998 Ralph returned to representative cricket with Shropshire in the Minor Counties Championship, and made a number of List A appearances for them in the NatWest Trophy and its successor the C&G Trophy. Perhaps his best performance came against Somerset at Telford in 2000: although Shropshire lost the game by 27 runs, Ralph's unbeaten 102 gained him the man-of-the-match award. He took his only two List A wickets against Buckinghamshire in 2002.

In club cricket, after playing for some years for Shropshire clubs, and most recently for Shifnal, he returned to Kidderminster Victoria for the 2009 season.

In 2012 Ralph moved to Bridgnorth CC in Division three of the Birmingham League, where he was consistently one of the best batsman in the Division. He helped them to a double promotion to Division One but has since left returning to a Shropshire League side.

Ralph ended his minor counties career in 2017 having represented Shropshire in over 100 championship games he is one of 12 players ever to do so.

Notes

External links

1975 births
Living people
English cricketers
Worcestershire cricketers
Sportspeople from Kidderminster
Shropshire cricketers
Herefordshire cricketers

James Ralph (cricketer)


Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila (PLM), or the University of the City of Manila, is a university in the city of Manila, Philippines. It is funded by the government of the city and it does not have any tuition fees.  It is in the district of Intramuros in Manila, the Philippines. It was established on June 19, 1965 and opened on July 17, 1967 to 556 scholars, all coming from the top ten percent of graduates of Manila's public high schools. and opened on July 17, 1967.

PLM holds the distinction of being the first in several ways— the first institution of higher learning in the country and perhaps in Asia to offer tuition-free tertiary education; the first university funded solely by a city government; and the first institution of higher learning in the country to have its official name in Filipino.

From its first enrollment record of 556 freshman scholars coming from the top ten percent of the graduating classes of Manila's twenty-nine public high schools, total semestral enrollment has grown to an average of 11,000. The lone college in its earliest beginning has sprung to 12 colleges, five graduate, two professional schools, and a score of research and specialized centers, including a teaching hospital, an enterpreneurial center, and an integrated learning center for toddlers. In addition, it maintains a comprehensive distance education and open university program for thousands of community health workers and public administrators in various regions nationwide with affiliations and recognition from various national and international organizations and institutions.

To date, there are 53 single-degree baccalaureate programs and 49 masters, doctoral, and graduate diploma offerings that lead to degrees in accountancy, economics, architecture, business administration, computer studies, education, engineering, law, mass communication, mathematics, medicine, nursing, physical education, physical therapy, psychology, sciences, social work, tourism, management, and public governance.

According to the Philippines' Commission on Higher Education (CHED), it is a model university for all public institutions across the country, one of the centers of excellence in the City of Manila, and the fifth among all universities nationwide based on the number of examinees passing the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) test.

Academics and administration

As a university with its own charter, PLM enjoys certain level of autonomy. It is governed by the Board of Regents and administered by a President. The Board of Regents has the authority to grant diplomas, certificates and titles to students who have completed their academic programs and validate graduation of students. The six-member Board is composed of the President of the PLM, a representative of the PLM faculty, a distinguished alumnus, a respected educator, and one other respected professional, and the Superintendent of the Division of City Schools-Manila. Each member serves a six-year tenure of office. The President oversees the implementation of the university policies. Immediately under the President are the offices of four Vice-Presidents - Executive Vice President, Vice President for Academic Affairs, Vice President for Administration, and Vice President for Finance and Planning.

The University is organized into twelve undergraduate colleges, two professional schools, seven graduate schools, and an open university and distance learning program, which are all being supervised by the Executive Vice President. These academic units collectively provide 53 single-degree undergraduate and 49 masters, doctoral and graduate diploma programs.

The twelve undergraduate colleges are the College of Accountancy & Economics, College of Architecture & Urban Planning, College of Engineering & Technology, College of Human Development, College of Liberal Arts, College of Management & Entrepreneurship, College of Mass Communication, College of Nursing, College of Physical Education, Recreation & Sports, College of Physical Therapy, College of Science, and College of Tourism, Hotel & Travel Industry Management. The two professional schools are the College of Law and the College of Medicine. The seven graduate schools include Graduate School of Arts, Sciences & Education, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Graduate School of Engineering, Graduate School of Law, Graduate School of Management, Graduate School of Urban & Settlements Planning, and the President Ramon Magsaysay School of Public Governance. The university's open university and distance learning program is served through the Emeritus College, Open University, and the District Colleges.

PLM is the tenth largest university in Metro Manila with a total student enrollment of 13,711 (as of January 20, 2006). For the undergraduate class of 2011, PLM received 40,000 college applications, and accepted three percent of them.

PLM's endowment in 2008 was valued at PhP 500 million, excluding the funding allotted for its teaching hospital, Ospital ng Maynila Medical Center, of about PhP 250 million. The University spends about four to fives times the national average for education.

PLM utilizes a semester-based modular system for conducting courses, adopts features of the American system (credits), and employs the General Weighted Average (GWA) system and a 1.00 to 5.00 grading scale, with 1.00 being the highest possible grade for a particular undergraduate course.

The semestral calendar being used by PLM consists of two regular semesters of about 15 to 16 weeks each, and semestral breaks of about three to four weeks each. The university requires a minimum of twelve units to be considered a full-time student, with the maximum being twenty units.

Reputation

The late President, Diosdado Macapagal, who himself visited the University, said that PLM is "a unique university because it is the first community-oriented and socially conscious university in the country." He added that, "it gives poor but deserving public high school graduates of the community the means to acquire higher education." Moreover, he recognized PLM's emerging status as "one of the top universities in the country." Her daughter, President, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo cited PLM for having a "culture of excellence," and commended the university for what she had believed as its "impressive" accomplishments in various fields.

The country's leading newspaper, The Philippine Daily Inquirer, described PLM as a local university with a national character and reputation. US Ambassador Kristie Kenney, in her speech during the 40th  Commencement Exercises at the PLM Grandstand, praised PLM for building a "culture of commitment to public service in its students, faculty and alumni." In an article in the Business Mirror , PLM was considered as the "highest symbol of Manila's public educational system which radiates another form of power and influence." Websites such as Manila Board regarded that PLM is one of leading and prime public universities in the country today.

On August 13, 2008, Adel A. Tamano, in his column at the Manila Times wrote that PLM is "a unique learning institution" and is "essentially an honors school where only the students from lower income families with excellent scholastic records are admitted."

PLM is not a perfect institution, and the university had been criticized in the past for the 'reconsideration' cases, wherein some students who failed to meet the university's standards for retention were readmitted because of the so-called 'backers'. In order to resolve this issue, the city government has insulated the University from political pressure so as not to compromise its status as one of the country's leading educational institutions.[1] [2]

History

Geographical History

The site of the PLM campus at Intramuros used to be occupied by the Colegio de Manila (also known as Colegio Seminario de San Ignacio), which was founded in 1590 by Fr. Antonio  Sedeño, S.J.  The Colegio de Manila formally opened in 1595, and was the first school in the Philippines.

Aside from Colegio de Manila, there were other structures that were built in the site. Iglesia de Santa Ana, the first stone church in the Philippines, was built in 1590 and opened in 1596. However, an earthquake destroyed it, and another church was built in honor of St. Ignatius of Loyola in 1626.

In 1601, the Colegio de San José was set up as an annex of Colegio Seminario de San Ignacio. Twenty years later, Pope Gregory XV, through the Archbishop of Manila, authorized the Colegio Seminario de San Ignacio to confer degrees in theology and arts and elevated it into a university.  In 1623, Philip IV of Spain confirmed the authorization, making the school both a pontifical and a royal university, and the very first university in the Philippines and in Asia.  In 1722, the Colegio de San José was granted royal patronage.

In 1768, the Jesuits surrendered the Universidad Maximo de San Ignacio to the Spanish authorities after their suppression and expulsion from Spain and its territories.  Later, the Universidad Maximo de San Ignacio was placed under secular administration and converted into a seminary and a liberal arts college. In 1773, Pope Clement XIV formally declared the dissolution of the Society of Jesus. In 1895, the Universidad Maximo de San Ignacio merged with the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of the University of Santo Tomas. The Colegio de San José is now the San José Major Seminary at the Ateneo de Manila University.

The buildings of what was the Universidad Maximo de San Ignacio were transformed into military headquarters called Cuartel del Rey, which eventually became known as Cuartel de España. José Rizal was placed on trial for sedition here on December 26, 1896.

During the American occupation, part of the barracks was razed, and a gymnasium was built on it. In early 1930s, one of first games of the NCAA was played in the 31st Infantry Quonset Gym.  The buildings and the whole premises served as military headquarters for the 31st Infantry of the United States Army until 1941. During World War II, General Douglas McArthur held command post here, but the entire area was later destroyed by the ongoing military conflict.

In early 1960s, the site was rehabilitated by the city government and a building was constructed at General Luna Street to house the students of Manila High School. However, on April 24, 1965, the late President Diosdado Macapagal issued Proclamation 392-A, giving to the proposed city university the three-hectare lot being occupied by Manila High School. On February 26, 1967, the new complex along Victoria Street was inaugurated, and the students of Manila High School was transferred there. On July 17, 1967, the first group of PLM scholars began studying on the site where the modern educational system in the Philippines started.

Founding

The call to open a university run by the city government of Manila began during the term of Mayor Arsenio H. Lacson when Ordinance No. 4202 was approved by the City councilors on January 13, 1960. The said ordinance allotted a total of PhP 1,000,000 for the construction of the university. However, Mayor Lacson did not however live to see the realization of this project as he died suddenly of heart attack. Vice Mayor Antonio Villegas took over and continued Lacson's plan. He later issued Executive Order No. 7, s-1963 that created the committee that would draw up the plan of founding a university. But some difficulty prevented the university's formal creation. As a result, he sought the help of Congressman Justo R. Albert, representative of the City's fourth congressional district. Congressman Albert then sponsored House Bill No. 8349 at the Philippines' House of Representatives. The Senate version of the bill was authored by Senators Gil Puyat and Camilo Osias.

The two bills were eventually combined into one, and it was discussed during the Fourth Session of the Fifth Congress of the Philippines on January 25, 1965. The final bill was later passed by the joint Congress and signed by Senate President Ferdinand E. Marcos and House Speaker Cornelio T. Villareal with Mr. Regino S. Eustaquio, Secretary of the Senate, and Mr. Inocencio B. Pareja, Secretary of the House of Representatives.

On June 19, 1965, the final bill with the title - "An Act Authorizing the City of Manila to Establish and Operate the University of the City of Manila and for Other Purposes" - was signed into law by President Diosdado P. Macapacal in a signing ceremony at Malacañang Palace. The signing was witnessed by Atty. Primitivo de Leon, Mayor Villegas, Congressman Ramon Mitra Jr., and its main sponsor in the House of Representatives, Congressman Albert. The law was captioned as Republic Act No. 4196, which now serves as the University Charter.

Early years
With an enrollment of 556 students—both men and women—PLM opened for classes on July 17, 1967. All of them are housed under the University College, which offered liberal arts courses. After a year, a Graduate Institute for Teachers was founded, and it was followed by the Institute of Extramural Studies. At the turn of the decade, the school had expanded its offerings to include degree programs leading to specializations in communication, engineering, education, business administration, nursing.

Footnotes

University of the City of Manila