Christmas Eve is the day before Christmas Day, the festival commemorating the birth of Jesus. Christmas Day is observed around the world, and Christmas Eve is widely observed as a full or partial holiday in anticipation of Christmas Day. Together, both days are considered one of the most culturally significant celebrations in Christendom and Western society.

Christmas celebrations in the denominations of Western Christianity have long begun on Christmas Eve, due in part to the Christian liturgical day starting at sunset, a practice inherited from Jewish tradition and based on the story of Creation in the Book of Genesis: "And there was evening, and there was morning – the first day." Many churches still ring their church bells and hold prayers in the evening; for example, the Nordic Lutheran churches. Since tradition holds that Jesus was born at night (based in Luke 2:6-8), Midnight Mass is celebrated on Christmas Eve, traditionally at midnight, in commemoration of his birth. The idea of Jesus being born at night is reflected in the fact that Christmas Eve is referred to as Heilige Nacht (Holy Night) in German, Nochebuena (the Good Night) in Spanish and similarly in other expressions of Christmas spirituality, such as the song "Silent Night, Holy Night".

Many other varying cultural traditions and experiences are also associated with Christmas Eve around the world, including the gathering of family and friends, the singing of Christmas carols, the illumination and enjoyment of Christmas lights, trees, and other decorations, the wrapping, exchange and opening of gifts, and general preparation for Christmas Day. Legendary Christmas gift-bearing figures including Santa Claus, Father Christmas, Christkind, and Saint Nicholas are also often said to depart for their annual journey to deliver presents to children around the world on Christmas Eve, although until the Protestant introduction of Christkind in 16th-century Europe, such figures were said to instead deliver presents on the eve of Saint Nicholas' feast day (6 December).

Religious traditions

Western churches

Western churches have traditionally observed Christmas Eve (properly the Vigil of the Nativity) as a liturgical observance distinct from the masses of Christmas Day, with the proper Gospel at the Mass for the Vigil of the Nativity being that of the Annunciation to Joseph in Matthew 1. The Vigil of the Nativity is not so much the first day of Christmas as it is the last day of Advent, and so it traditionally retains the liturgical color of violet. In traditional western liturgical practice, when the Fourth Sunday of Advent and Christmas Eve occur on the same day, the Sunday mass is of Christmas Eve and the Fourth Sunday of Advent is only commemorated.

The festivities of Christmas Day have, however, extended farther and farther back into Christmas Eve. While Roman Catholics, Lutherans, and some Anglicans traditionally celebrate Midnight Mass, the first mass of Christmas, either at or near midnight on Christmas Eve, some churches have in recent decades scheduled their "Midnight" Mass as early as 7 pm in an effort to better accommodate young children, whose choral singing has become a popular feature in some traditions.

Midnight Mass is held in churches throughout the world and celebrates the birth of Christ, which is believed to have occurred at night. Midnight Mass is popular in Poland (pasterka) and Lithuania (piemenėlių mišios). In Spanish-speaking areas, the Midnight Mass is sometimes referred to as Misa de Gallo, or Missa do Galo in Portuguese ("Rooster's Mass"). In the Philippines, the custom has expanded into the nine-day Simbang Gabi, when Filipinos attend dawn Masses (traditionally beginning around 04:00 to 05:00 PST) from 16 December, continuing daily until Christmas Eve. In 2009 Vatican officials scheduled the Midnight Mass to start at 10 pm so that the 82-year-old Pope Benedict XVI would not have too late a night.

A nativity scene may be erected indoors or outdoors, and is composed of figurines depicting the infant Jesus resting in a manger, Mary, and Joseph. Other figures in the scene may include angels, shepherds, and various animals. The figures may be made of any material, and arranged in a stable or grotto. The Magi may also appear, and are sometimes not placed in the scene until the week following Christmas to account for their travel time to Bethlehem.  While most home nativity scenes are packed away at Christmas or shortly thereafter, nativity scenes in churches usually remain on display until the feast of the Baptism of the Lord.

Whilst it does not include any kind of Mass, the Church of Scotland has a service beginning just before midnight, in which carols are sung. The Church of Scotland no longer holds Hogmanay services on New Year's Eve, but the Christmas Eve services are still very popular.
On Christmas Eve, the Christ Candle in the center of the Advent wreath is traditionally lit in many church services. In candlelight services, while singing Silent Night, each member of the congregation receives a candle and passes along their flame which is first received from the Christ Candle.

Lutherans traditionally practice Christmas Eve Eucharistic traditions typical of Germany and Scandinavia. "Krippenspiele" (Nativity plays), special festive music for organ, vocal and brass choirs and candlelight services make Christmas Eve one of the most beloved days in the Lutheran Church calendar. Christmas Vespers is popular in the early evening, and Midnight Masses are also widespread in regions which are predominantly Lutheran. The old Lutheran tradition of a Christmas Vigil in the early morning hours of Christmas Day (Christmette) can still be found in some regions. In eastern and middle Germany, congregations still continue the tradition of "Quempas singing": separate groups dispersed in various parts of the church sing verses of the song "He whom shepherds once came Praising" (Quem pastores laudavere) responsively.

Methodists celebrate the evening in different ways. Some, in the early evening, come to their church to celebrate Holy Communion with their families. The mood is very solemn, and the only visible light is the Advent Wreath, and the candles upon the Lord's Table. Others celebrate the evening with services of light, which include singing the song Silent Night as a variety of candles (including personal candles) are lit. Other churches have late evening services perhaps at 11 pm, so that the church can celebrate Christmas Day together with the ringing of bells at midnight. Others offer Christmas Day services as well.

The annual "Nine Lessons and Carols", broadcast from King's College, Cambridge on Christmas Eve, has established itself a Christmas custom in the United Kingdom. It is broadcast outside the UK via the BBC World Service, and is also bought by broadcasters around the world.

Eastern churches

In the Byzantine Rite, Christmas Eve is referred to as Paramony ("preparation").  It is the concluding day of the Nativity Fast and is observed as a day of strict fasting by those devout Byzantine Christians who are physically capable of doing so. In some traditions, nothing is eaten until the first star appears in the evening sky, in commemoration of the Star of Bethlehem. The liturgical celebration begins earlier in the day with the celebration of the Royal Hours, followed by the Divine Liturgy combined with the celebration of Vespers, during which a large number of passages from the Old Testament are chanted, recounting the history of salvation. After the dismissal at the end of the service, a new candle is brought out into the center of the church and lit, and all gather round and sing the Troparion and Kontakion of the Feast.

In the evening, the All-Night Vigil for the Feast of the Nativity is composed of Great Compline, Matins and the First Hour. The Byzantine services of Christmas Eve are intentionally parallel to those of Good Friday, illustrating the theological point that the purpose of the Incarnation was to make possible the Crucifixion and Resurrection. This is illustrated in Eastern icons of the Nativity, on which the Christ Child is wrapped in swaddling clothes reminiscent of his burial wrappings. The child is also shown lying on a stone, representing the Tomb of Christ, rather than a manger. The Cave of the Nativity is also a reminder of the cave in which Jesus was buried.

The services of Christmas Eve are also similar to those of the Eve of Theophany (Epiphany), and the two Great Feasts are considered one celebration.

In some Orthodox cultures, after the Vesperal Liturgy the family returns home to a festive meal, but one at which Orthodox fasting rules are still observed: no meat or dairy products (milk, cheese, eggs, etc.) are consumed (see below for variations according to nationality). Then they return to the church for the All-Night Vigil.

The next morning, Christmas Day, the Divine Liturgy is celebrated again, but with special features that occur only on Great Feasts of the Lord. After the dismissal of this Liturgy, the faithful customarily greet each other with the kiss of peace and the words: "Christ is Born!", to which the one being greeted responds: "Glorify Him!" (the opening words of the Canon of the Nativity that was chanted the night before during the Vigil). This greeting, together with many of the hymns of the feast, continue to be used until the leave-taking of the feast on 29 December.

The first three days of the feast are particularly solemn. The second day is known as the Synaxis of the Theotokos, and commemorates the role of the Virgin Mary in the Nativity of Jesus. The third day is referred to simply as "the Third Day of the Nativity". The Saturday and Sunday following 25 December have special Epistle and Gospel readings assigned to them. 29 December celebrates the Holy Innocents.

Byzantine Christians observe a festal period of twelve days, during which no one in the Church fasts, even on Wednesdays and Fridays, which are normal fasting days throughout the rest of the year. During this time one feast leads into another: 25–31 December is the afterfeast of the Nativity; 2–5 January is the forefeast of the Epiphany.

Meals

Bulgaria

In Bulgaria, the meal consists of an odd number of lenten dishes in compliance with the rules of fasting. They are usually the traditional sarma, bob chorba (bean soup), fortune kravai (pastry with a fortune in it; also called bogovitsa, vechernik, kolednik), stuffed peppers, nuts, dried fruit, boiled wheat. The meal is often accompanied with wine or Bulgaria's traditional alcoholic beverage rakia, in the past olovina (a type of homemade rye beer). The meals used to be put on top of hay, directly on the floor, together with a ploughshare or a coulter.

Czech Republic

In the Czech Republic, fasting on the day of Christmas Eve (or only eating meatless food) is a medieval tradition. The belief is that if one lasted until Christmas dinner, they would see a golden pig, which is a symbol of luck. A typical Christmas breakfast is a sweet braided bread vánočka. Christmas Eve dinner traditionally consists of a carp (baked or fried) and a potato salad.

France

In French-speaking places, Réveillon is a long dinner eaten on Christmas Eve.

Guam and the Northern Marianas
In Guam and the Northern Marianas, dishes include shrimp kelaguen; coconut crab; and kadon octopus (octopus stewed in sweet peppers and coconut milk). Beef is a rarity, but a popular dish is tinaktak, ground beef in coconut milk.

Italy

While other Christian families throughout the world celebrate the Christmas Eve meal with various meats, Italians (especially Sicilians) celebrate the traditional Catholic "Feast of the Seven Fishes" which was historically served after a 24-hour fasting period. Although Christmas fasting is no longer a popular custom, some Italian-Americans still enjoy a meatless Christmas Eve feast and attend the Midnight Mass. In various cultures, a festive dinner is traditionally served for the family and close friends in attendance, when the first star (usually Sirius) appears in the sky.

Latin America

 In Peru, turkey and panettone are the stars of Christmas Eve.

 In Venezuela, hallacas are normally the staple dish for Noche Buena alongside of either ham or pork leg known as "pernil", panettone, rum and "Ponche Crema" (a form of alcoholic eggnog). The night is usually accompanied by traditional Christmas music known as "aguinaldos"; in Venezuela, the traditional music is known as joropo.

Lithuania

Lithuanian Christmas Eve blends pagan and Christian traditions, as initially it was a celebration of the winter solstice. Traditionally, Lithuanians believed that animals could talk on that night, and it was possible to predict the future with charms and various games. Kūčios ("Holy Meal") is the most important event of the year and family reunion. Dead relatives are remembered with an empty plate set at the table. The feast starts after the rise of the evening star. No products made from meat, milk and alcohol are allowed during the Kūčios. In all, 12 dishes are served, all of them rustic, made from grains, fish, dried fruit or mushrooms including kūčiukai. Small biscuits soaked in poppy seed milk are served. After the dinner is over the table is left uncleared overnight for the feast of vėlės (spirits or soul).

Poland

A tradition similar to Italy (Wigilia, or 'Christmas Vigil') exists in Poland. The number of dishes is traditionally 12, but has been an odd number in the past. According to the Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego (Etymological Dictionary of the Polish Language) by Aleksander Brückner, the number of dishes was traditionally related to social class: the peasants' vigil consisted of 5 or 7 dishes, the gentry usually had 9, and the aristocracy, 11 dishes, but the even number 12 is also found today to remember the Twelve Apostles. It is obligatory to try a portion of all of them. Some traditions specify that the number of guests cannot be odd.

In Poland, gifts are unwrapped on Christmas Eve, as opposed to Christmas Day. It comes from fusing the traditions of Saint Nicholas Day (6 December) and Christmas. In the past, gifts were opened on the morning of Saint Nicholas Day.

Russia

Rozhdenstvenskiy sochelnik () was a common Eastern Orthodox tradition in the Russian Empire, but during the era of the Soviet Union it was greatly discouraged as a result of the official atheism of the former regime.

In modern-day Russia, the church has a service on that day, but the celebration itself has not yet regained its popularity among the people. Instead of the Christmas Eve, New Year's Eve is considered to be a traditional family celebration featuring the New Year tree.

Serbia

In accordance with the Christmas traditions of the Serbs, their festive meal has a copious and diverse selection of foods, although it is prepared according to the rules of fasting.

As well as a round, unleavened loaf of bread and salt, which are necessary, this meal may comprise roast fish, cooked beans, sauerkraut, noodles with ground walnuts, honey, and wine.

Families in some Slavic countries leave an empty place at the table for guests (alluding to Mary and Joseph looking for shelter in Bethlehem).

Ukraine

In Ukraine, Sviatyi Vechir (, Holy Evening) is traditionally celebrated with a meatless twelve-dish Christmas Eve supper, or the Holy Supper (, Sviata Vecheria). The main attributes of the Holy Supper in Ukraine are kutia, a poppy seed, honey and wheat dish, and uzvar, a drink made from reconstituted dried fruits. Other typical dishes are borscht, varenyky, and dishes made of fish, phaseolus and cabbage.

The twelve dishes symbolize the Twelve Apostles. Just as in Poland, it is obligatory to try a portion of all of the dishes. The table is spread with a white cloth symbolic of the swaddling clothes the Child Jesus was wrapped in, and a large white candle stands in the center of the table symbolizing Christ the Light of the World. Next to it is a round loaf of bread symbolizing Christ Bread of Life. Hay is often displayed either on the table or as a decoration in the room, reminiscent of the manger in Bethlehem.

Gift giving

During the Reformation in 16th- and 17th-century Europe, many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, and the date of giving gifts changed from 6 December to Christmas Eve. It is the night when Santa Claus makes his rounds delivering gifts to good children. Many trace the custom of giving gifts to the Magi who brought gifts for the Christ child in the manger.

In Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Slovakia, where Saint Nicholas (sv. Mikuláš/szent Mikulás) gives gifts on 6 December, the Christmas gift-giver is the Child Jesus (Ježíšek in Czech, Jézuska in Hungarian, Ježiško in Slovak and Isusek in Croatian).

In Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Sweden and Switzerland, presents are traditionally exchanged on the evening of 24 December. Children are commonly told that presents were brought either by the Christkind (German for Christ child), or by the Weihnachtsmann. Both leave the gifts, but are in most families not seen doing so. In Germany, the gifts are also brought on 6 December by "the Nikolaus" with his helper Knecht Ruprecht.

In Estonia Jõuluvana, Finland Joulupukki, Denmark Julemanden, Norway Julenissen  and Sweden Jultomten, personally meets children and gives presents in the evening of Christmas Eve.

In Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Colombia, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, the Faroe Islands, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Quebec (French Canada), Romania, Uruguay, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, and Switzerland, Christmas presents are opened mostly on the evening of the 24th – following German tradition, this is also the practice among the British Royal Family since it was introduced by Queen Victoria and Albert, Prince Consort – while in Italy, the United States, the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Malta, English Canada, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia, this occurs mostly on the morning of Christmas Day.

In other Latin American countries, people stay awake until midnight, when they open the presents.

In Spain, gifts are traditionally opened on the morning of 6 January, Epiphany day ("Día de Los Tres Reyes Magos"), though in some other countries, like Mexico, Argentina and Uruguay, people receive presents both around Christmas and on the morning of Epiphany day.

In Belgium and the Netherlands Saint Nicholas or Sinterklaas and his companion Zwarte Piet deliver presents to children and adults alike on the evening of 5 December, the eve of his nameday. On 24 December they go to church or watch the late-night Mass on TV, or have a meal.

Christmas Eve around the world

Christmas Eve is celebrated in different ways around the world, varying by country and region. Elements common to many areas of the world include the attendance of special religious observances such as a midnight Mass or Vespers and the giving and receiving of presents. Along with Easter, Christmastime is one of the most important periods on the Christian calendar, and is often closely connected to other holidays at this time of year, such as Advent, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception, St. Nicholas Day, St. Stephen's Day, New Year's, and the Feast of the Epiphany.

Celebrations

Among Christians, as well as non-Christians who celebrate Christmas, the significant amount of vacation travel, and travel back to family homes, that takes place in the lead-up to Christmas means that Christmas Eve is also frequently a time of social events and parties, worldwide.

In Jewish culture
Nittel Nacht is a name given to Christmas Eve by Jewish scholars in the 17th century.

In contemporary American-Jewish culture

With Christmas Day a work holiday throughout the United States, there is a space of unfilled free time during which much of American commerce and society is not functioning, and which can give rise to a sense of loneliness or alienation for American Jews.

Jews also typically do not engage in the family gathering and religious worship activities that are central to Christmas Eve for Christians.

Typical contemporary activities have usually been limited to "Chinese and a movie"—consuming a meal at a Chinese restaurant, which tend to be open for business on the Christmas holiday, and watching a movie at the theater or at home, stereotypically a rerun of the 1946 film It's a Wonderful Life.

Since the 1980s a variety of social events for young Jews have sprung up, and become popular, on Christmas Eve. These include the Matzo Ball, The Ball, and a number of local events organized by Jewish communities and local Jewish Federations in North America.

In Chinese culture
In Mandarin, Christmas Eve is called  (, "peaceful night", etymologically from the Chinese title of the Christmas carol Silent Night). People exchange apples, because the word for "apple" (果) is a rhyming wordplay with "peace" (安).

In Inuit culture
In Inuit territories, Christmas Eve is called Quviasukvik. The Inuit celebrate it as their new year.

Latin America

For Latin American cultures, Christmas Eve is often the biggest feast for the Christmas season. Typically a dinner is served with the family, sometimes after attending the late Mass known as Misa de Gallo. Some regions include a fasting before midnight dinner. In much of Latin America the evening consists of a traditional family dinner for the adults. In some areas Christmas Eve marks the final evening of the Posadas celebrations.

Cuba
In Cuba, roasted pig (lechón) is often the center of Christmas Eve (Nochebuena). It is believed that the tradition dates back to the 15th century when Caribbean colonists hunted down pigs and roasted them with a powerful flame.

In Cuban and Cuban-American tradition, the pig is sometimes cooked in a Caja China, a large box where an entire pig is placed below hot coals. The dinner features many side dishes and desserts, and often games of dominoes are played. The tradition is continued by Cuban families in Florida and the United States.
The dinner on the 24th, Christmas Eve itself, is the center of the celebration. That day — it may also be 31 — for many it is important to wear a new piece of clothing, be it a jacket or underwear.

The Cuban family does not have a fixed time for dinner. It is necessary, yes, in most of the Island, to have it as a family, and it is expected to be all at the table to start tasting the frijoles negros dormidos [sleeping black beans] and the arroz blanco desgranado y reluciente [shredded white rice], the yuca con mojo [Cuban side dish made by marinating yuca root (also known as cassava) in garlic, sour orange, and olive oil], the roasted pork or the stuffed or unfilled guanajo that, along with homemade desserts, such as Christmas fritters, and a wide range of sweets in syrup and Spanish nougat.
The visit to the archipelago of Pope John Paul II, in 1998, promoted the Cuban State, in a gesture of goodwill, to declare December 25 again as a holiday, which had stopped happening for several decades.

New Mexico
In New Mexico and areas of San Diego, California, Christmas Eve (nochebuena) is celebrated by lighting luminarias and farolitos.

Philippines

In the Philippines, the traditional dinner is served at midnight after the family attends the late evening Mass known as Misa de Gallo (sometimes referred to as Misa de Aguinaldo, "Gift Mass"). Conventional dishes served for the main course include: lechón, pancit, sweet-tasting spaghetti, fried chicken, jamón, queso de bola, arróz caldo, lumpia, turkey, relyenong bangús (stuffed milkfish), adobo, steamed rice, and various breads such as pan de sal. Desserts include úbe halayá, bibingka, membrilyo, fruit salad, various rice- and flour-based pastries, ice cream, and fruits, while popular beverages are tsokolate as well as coffee, soda, wine, beer, alcoholic drinks, and fruit juices.

Historical events

A number of historical events have been influenced by the occurrence of Christmas Eve.

Christmas truce

During World War I in 1914 and 1915 there was an unofficial Christmas truce, particularly between British and German troops. The truce began on Christmas Eve, 24 December 1914, when German troops began decorating the area around their trenches in the region of Ypres, Belgium, for Christmas. They began by placing candles on trees, then continued the celebration by singing Christmas carols, most notably Stille Nacht ("Silent Night"). The British troops in the trenches across from them responded by singing English carols. The two sides shouted Christmas greetings to each other. Soon there were calls for visits across the "No man's land" when small gifts were exchanged. The truce also allowed a breathing space during which recently killed soldiers could be brought back behind their lines by burial parties. Funerals took place as soldiers from both sides mourned the dead together and paid their respects. At one funeral in No Man's Land, soldiers from both sides gathered and read a passage from Psalm 23. The truce occurred in spite of opposition at higher levels of the military command. Earlier in the autumn, a call by Pope Benedict XV for an official truce between the warring governments had been ignored.

Apollo 8 reading from Genesis

On 24 December 1968, in what was the most watched television broadcast to that date, the astronauts Bill Anders, Jim Lovell and Frank Borman of Apollo 8 surprised the world with a reading of the Creation from the Book of Genesis as they orbited the Moon. Madalyn Murray O'Hair, an atheist activist, filed a lawsuit under the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. The trial court dismissed the lawsuit, which was upheld on appeal.

In 1969, the United States Postal Service issued a stamp (Scott# 1371) commemorating the Apollo 8 flight around the Moon. The stamp featured a detail of the famous photograph, Earthrise, of the Earth "rising" over the Moon (NASA image AS8-14-2383HR), taken by Anders on Christmas Eve, and the words, "In the beginning God...".

See also

 Christmas Day
 Nativity of Jesus
 Santa Claus
 Winter holiday season
 Réveillon

References

External links

Nativity of Jesus in worship and liturgy
Christmas events and celebrations
December observances
Holidays
Public holidays in Bulgaria
Public holidays in the Czech Republic
Public holidays in Denmark
Public holidays in El Salvador
Public holidays in Estonia
Public holidays in Finland
Public holidays in Iceland
Public holidays in Lithuania
Public holidays in Slovakia
Public holidays in Sweden
Public holidays in Venezuela

Christmas Eve


Helen Lemme (February 25, 1904 – December 15, 1968) was an African-American civil rights advocate who lived most of her life in Iowa City, Iowa.

Life and career
Helen Lemme was born Frances Helen Renfrow to Eva Craig and Lee Augustus Renfrow in Grinnell, Iowa, on February 25, 1904. She was the oldest of six children and worked as a housekeeper to help her family financially. As a student she once won an essay contest but was not given the gold medal prize because of her race.

Lemme graduated from Grinnell High School, receiving a $5 gold coin scholarship. She began her university studies in 1923 at Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee, but in 1925 moved to the University of Iowa, a state university, in Iowa City, where she studied science and biology and served as the president of the Delta Sigma Theta sorority.

Her first position after graduation was as a teacher at Lander University in Greenwood, South Carolina.  After one year she returned to Iowa City and on August 26, 1929, she married Allyn Lemme. She then accepted a teaching position at Alabama State Teachers College located in Montgomery, Alabama, which later became Alabama State College for Negroes, and is now Alabama State University.

Lemme then returned to Iowa City with the intention of obtaining a master's degree but she was diverted and had a son, Lawrence, on July 31, 1931. She later had another son, Paul, in 1935.

The Lemmes used their Iowa City home at 603 S. Capitol Street to provide room and board to African-American students at University of Iowa, who were not allowed to live in dormitories until 1946. Duke Ellington once played at one of her all-night house parties.

Lemme devoted her life to the rights of African Americans and women, and she was an active member of the Democratic Party. She served as a precinct committeewoman, a delegate at state and county conventions, and member of the Democratic Party Black Caucus. She also advocated for greater representation of Black voters at the 1944 Democratic National Convention in Chicago. Locally, Lemme was involved in the Human Rights Commission and the Iowa City Area Council of Churches. She was elected President of the Iowa City League of Women Voters in 1946 and Iowa City Woman of the Year in 1955. A few years later, she was the first Black woman in Iowa City to be awarded the Best Citizen of the Year.

Along the way, Lemme began work as a laboratory research technician in the Department of Internal Medicine.

Lemme died on December 15, 1968, from smoke inhalation in a fire in her home.

Legacy
In 1970, a new elementary school in Iowa City was named Helen Lemme Elementary School in her honor. In 1984, University of Iowa African-American graduate students founded the Helen Lemme Reading club, to serve as both a forum for African Americans to discuss literature by or about African Americans and a support group for African-American students living in a predominantly white community.

References

External links and other sources
A collection of photos of Helen Lemme's life, created by students at Helen Lemme Elementary School https://helenlemme.omeka.net/exhibits/show/helen-lemme-life

1904 births
1968 deaths
African-American activists
Burials in Iowa
American civil rights activists
Women civil rights activists
Iowa Democrats
People from Iowa City, Iowa
Lander University faculty
20th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American people
20th-century American people
American women academics
People from Grinnell, Iowa

Helen Lemme


Hard Spell is a United Kingdom televised spelling bee programme for children between the ages of eleven and fourteen, presented by Eamonn Holmes, with Nina Hossain reading the words. It was first broadcast on BBC One in late 2004. Heats were held in different parts of the country leading to the grand final, at the end of which Gayathri Kumar was crowned Britain's best young speller.

Notable spellers apart from Gayathri included Jade Bullock, Nisha Abraham-Thomas from Wolverhampton, Mark Jackson from Cambridge, Dominic Harvey from Bath, Sarah Williams from Penzance, Jack Jarvis from Chesterfield and Anthony Collins from Barnes.

All of the televised runners-up in 2004 received a signed photograph of Eamonn Holmes and other Hard Spell memorabilia.

Soon after, the BBC produced a one-off episode of Star Spell, which followed the same format but had celebrities taking part rather than children. This was again presented by Eamonn Holmes, with Nina Hossain reading the words. The one-off episode was won by Richard Whiteley. In late 2005, the BBC broadcast a full series of Star Spell, again presented by Eamonn Holmes but Mishal Husain took over from Nina as word pronouncer.

As the show was such a success, Hard Spell returned to television screens at Christmas 2005 with a different age group (11-13) but the same presenters, Eamonn Holmes and Mishal Husain. In the final, the winner was Niall O'Neill from Northern Ireland who won £10,000 worth of holiday vouchers and media equipment for his school. In 2005 the memorabilia contained a Hard Spell T-shirt, mug, pencil case, pen and a dictionary signed by the presenter.

References

External links

BBC television game shows
2004 British television series debuts
2004 British television series endings

Hard Spell


Norwood is the third most populous city in Hamilton County, Ohio, United States, and an enclave of the larger city of Cincinnati.  The population was 19,043 at the 2020 census.  Originally settled as an early suburb of Cincinnati in the wooded countryside north of the city, the area is characterized by older homes and tree-lined streets.

History

Early history

The earliest humans in the area now known as Norwood are believed to have been Pre-Columbian era people of the Adena culture. Norwood Mound, a prehistoric earthwork mound built by the Adena, is located in Norwood and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Adena constructed the mound at the location of Norwood's present-day Water Tower Park, which is the highest land elevation in the city. Archaeologists believe the mound was built at this site due to the high elevation and was used by the Adena for religious ceremonies and smoke signaling.

Native American mounds are not uncommon in Ohio and several were located in Downtown Cincinnati at the time of arrival of the first white settlers. However, by 1895, the Norwood Mound was the only remaining mound in the vicinity of Cincinnati." The mound has never been excavated, but it is reported that many artifacts found in the area by early Norwood settlers in the 1800s made up the original nucleus of the Native American Art Collection of the Cincinnati Art Museum. In the early-20th century, Norwood High School named their sports team mascot the Indians in honor of this local Native American heritage.

Sharpsburg settlement
In 1787, the United States Congress established the Northwest Territory, and John Cleves Symmes, Congressman from New Jersey, purchased  of the territory (the Symmes Purchase), within which the future Norwood is located. One year later, the first permanent settlement on the banks of the Ohio River in what would later become Cincinnati was established. In 1793, General "Mad Anthony" Wayne led several companies of troops from Fort Washington in Cincinnati to advance against a hostile tribe of Native Americans encamped on the banks of the nearby Millcreek in what is now St. Bernard. Historians believe that a company of troops under the direction of General Wayne made their way through Norwood during this campaign and widened an old Native American trail, which followed the path of present-day Smith Road, Montgomery Road, and Carthage Avenue.

In 1794, a pioneer named Peter Smith settled on Duck Creek in or near the current location of Norwood. It is believed he is one of the earliest Norwood settlers, if not the first. Soon after, a road was built connecting the early settlement of Columbia on the Ohio River near the Little Miami River with the settlement of Carthage, just north of Cincinnati. This road cut through Norwood along the old Indian Path widened by General Wayne's troops. Anthony Wayne's victory over the Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers the same year signaled the end of the Northwest Indian War which enabled pioneers to begin settling former hostile lands such as the future Norwood. In 1795, another road was built along the present-day path of Montgomery Road, connecting Cincinnati with Montgomery, Ohio and beyond. Montgomery Road was known as the "State Road" and Smith Road/Carthage Avenue was known as the "County Road."

In 1809, a settler named Samuel D. Bowman purchased land near the crossing of the State Road and the County Road, where he established a tavern and coach stop for travelers. He was soon joined by John Sharp, who built a cabin and country store at the opposite side of the intersection. The community of half a dozen houses soon became known as "Sharpsburg", after Sharp. For the next half century, the coach stop along the road between Cincinnati and Columbus remained small.

Sharpsburg becomes Norwood
In 1866, the first tracks of the Marietta and Cincinnati Railroad were completed, connecting Loveland with Cincinnati. The tracks ran from east to west through Sharpsburg and still exist in the same location today, parallel to the Norwood Lateral Expressway and passing under the Montgomery Road overpass. The village did not initially have a train station when the railway opened, but the possibility of passenger rail access to Cincinnati generated interest in developing a residential subdivision nearby. In 1868, two early developments were platted in the area north of the railroad. The first train station was established that same year.

In 1869, Sylvester H. Parvin, Col. Philander P. Lane and Lemuel Bolles purchased the William Ferguson farm north of the Marietta and Cincinnati Railroad tracks and platted an eighty-one-acre subdivision they called Norwood Heights. This was the first recorded use of the name Norwood in the area.  It is commonly believed that the person who came up with the name was Sarah Bolles, wife of Lemuel Bolles. In the 1894 book, Norwood, Her Homes and Her People, it was stated that the name "Sharpsburg" was "not considered pretty enough for such a spot, and the suggestion of the Bolles' to call it Norwood (an abbreviation of Northwood) met with endorsement, and so it was that the suburb was christened anew."

However, the origin of the name Norwood is commonly disputed. It is also stated that Mrs. Bolles's name for the 1869 Norwood Heights subdivision was inspired by Henry Ward Beecher's popular 1869 novel Norwood: or, Village Life in New England. Others have claimed Mrs. Bolles arrived at the name by combining "North Woods", in reference to Norwood being a wooded area north of Cincinnati.  In any case, the new name Norwood was popular enough that the Cincinnati Enquirer reported in 1870 that "the old town of Sharpsburg has been changed to Norwood" and the Sharpsburg post office was officially renamed Norwood the same year. By 1873, a second subdivision using the Norwood name, "The Heart of Norwood", was platted on 50-acres west of Montgomery Road at Maple and Elm Avenues. It would later be referred to as "Old Norwood" after newer subdivisions using the name Norwood were built.

Railroads and subdivisions
Despite the initial interest in Norwood generated by the arrival of the Marietta and Cincinnati Railroad, the new subdivisions were premature and failed to immediately take off. Only one home, located on the hill east of Norwood Mound, was constructed in the Norwood Heights subdivision. Norwood still remained largely farmland and orchards throughout the 1870s. Although the Marietta and Cincinnati railroad provided transportation to Cincinnati, it was via an inconvenient circuitous route which followed the Millcreek several miles out of the way to the west.

In 1875, several prominent local property owners in Norwood approached the Lebanon Narrow-gauge Railway Company (later known as the Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern Railway) to discuss building a passenger railroad between Norwood and downtown Cincinnati. The property owners offered their land to the railroad for use as free right-of-way. The railroad agreed and began to lay tracks from the northeast to southwest through Norwood and Avondale in the late-1870s.

Around the same time, construction was started on another railroad, the Cincinnati and Eastern Railway, which was built west to east along the present-day border of Norwood and Evanston. The tracks continued along Wasson Road in Hyde Park, connecting Norwood with Cincinnati's eastern suburbs and ultimately Portsmouth, Ohio. This line merged with the Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern line southwest of Norwood at Idlewild, which was the name for the area near the present day campus of Xavier University.

In 1881, the northern section of the Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern opened, connecting Norwood with Lebanon. In 1882, the southern section opened, providing service from Norwood directly to the central downtown station. Later in the year, the Cincinnati and Eastern Railway opened, providing passenger service from Norwood to Hyde Park and beyond.

The arrival of the passenger railroad proved to be the catalyst for rapid population growth in Norwood, as Cincinnatians could now work downtown and commute to their homes in the suburbs. Travel time between Norwood and downtown was less than 20 minutes.

Within a few years after the opening of the Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern, five train stations were constructed in Norwood along the route. These were Idlewild, Ivanhoe, Hopkins, Norwood Park, and East Norwood.

Village of Norwood
The 1880s in Norwood were marked by the development of several new subdivisions and municipal improvements throughout the village. The Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern railroad influenced to the construction of the subdivisions.

The first Norwood Town Hall was constructed in 1882. The hall was constructed at the demand of local residents who wanted a village center for community functions. The Norwood Town Hall Association was instrumental in leading the effort to incorporate Norwood as a village in later years.

A small Central School schoolhouse was erected in 1887 to meet the education demands of the growing village. A one-room school house for Columbia Township had existed at this location possibly as early as 1828. Just one year after construction, the 1887 school house was expanded, as the number of students enrolled had already doubled.

Norwood's first fire brigade was organized in South Norwood in January 1888.

As the village continued to grow, the leaders of the Town Hall Association knew the only way to sustain continued civic improvements was to incorporate as a village. One of the main incentives for incorporation was to provide public street lighting. The leaders started proceedings in early-1888 and on May 14, 1888, the Village of Norwood was formally incorporated by approval of the County Commissioners of Hamilton County. The signers of the petition were almost the entire male adult population of a total census of 1,000. Three months later, the first municipal elections were held and Dr. John C. Weyer was elected the village's first mayor.

Norwood continued to expand the boundaries of the village in 1889 by annexing land bordering the original subdivisions. The same year, work was started on a new subdivision called Elsmere. In 1891, Norwood Council annexed Elsmere as part of the village. These two annexations were the first of thirteen conducted by Norwood between 1889 and 1981.

Streetcars and Water Works
Around the time of Norwood's incorporation, local leaders began pushing for an electric streetcar route on Montgomery Road to connect Norwood with downtown. Until this time, Montgomery Road (known as "The Pike") was a privately owned turnpike, requiring users pay a toll to use the road. This private ownership became a sore spot for local residents who desired public streetcar transportation. With the help of the County Commissioners of Hamilton County and the State of Ohio, Norwood was able to purchase the road for public use and construction was started on an electric railway.

In mid-1891, the Norwood Electric Railway streetcar line was completed between Norwood and Walnut Hills, with the route extending to a turnaround at the Mount Adams Incline.

Increasing school enrollment resulted in the construction of two new school buildings in 1891. Williams School (later Williams Avenue Elementary) was opened in on Williams Avenue and Marion School (later North Norwood School) was opened on Marion Avenue. Both buildings were later replaced with newer structures.

Clean drinking water was one of the most important issues facing Norwood in its early days. Residents had to rely on private wells, cisterns or streams for their water. In 1892, the citizens of Norwood voted for a public "water works" system to be built. In 1894, the Norwood Water Works was completed, which supplied Norwood with clean water for 65 years.

In March 1894, Norwood's first newspaper, the Norwood Enterprise, began publication. It would stay in print until 1989.

Norwood's first high school was constructed alongside a nearly identical new elementary school building, with both opening in 1897.

Early industry
In 1898, the Bullock Electric Manufacturing Company relocated to Norwood, becoming one of the village's first industrial plants, following McFarlan Lumber Company and the Cincinnati Brick Company. The plant was eventually acquired by German company, Siemens. In 1900, the Globe Wernicke Company constructed a new factory in Norwood for the manufacture of wooden bookcases. In 1901, the United States Playing Card Company moved to new facilities in Norwood.

City of Norwood
In 1902, the City of Cincinnati made the first of several attempts to annex Norwood. The citizens of Norwood rejected the merger by a margin of 55 votes. Later that year, Norwood citizens voted to incorporate the village as a city, since their population of 6,480 made them eligible for incorporation. This issue was decided by the same margin of 55 votes. Norwood's first city election took place in 1903. The newly elected officials repurposed the old Village Hall as the first City Hall of the City of Norwood.

1905 was a significant year for public services in Norwood. On July 1, the city established both its fire and police departments. Later that year, the Andrew Carnegie Foundation provided funds to begin construction of Norwood's first public library, which opened in 1907. It was the second Carnegie Library to open in the Cincinnati area. The City of Norwood transferred the property to the Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton County and it became a branch of that organization.

In 1908, Greek immigrants, Thomas and Nicholas Aglamesis, opened an ice cream parlor on Montgomery Road in Norwood. Five years later, they added a second store in neighboring Oakley. The Norwood store eventually closed, but their Oakley location, known as Aglamesis Bro's, remains a popular Cincinnati institution to this day.

The same year, the United States Playing Card Company opened a new factory in Norwood. The factory would eventually grow to over 600,000 square feet of operations and become the largest manufacturer of playing cards in the world.

In 1909, Norwood officials began openly discussing the possibility of annexing neighboring Kennedy Heights. However, negotiations with Kennedy Heights officials eventually fell through and Kennedy Heights was later annexed by the City of Cincinnati.

In 1912, the Sears, Roebuck & Company purchased the Standard Mill Company and changed the name to the Norwood Sash & Door Company. This factory became the primary manufacturer of Sears' prefabricated Catalog Homes. The factory was operated by Sears in Norwood until 1945.

New high school and city hall
Enrollment at Norwood High School continued to grow at a rapid pace and the student population eventually outgrew the first high school. In 1914, a new high school was constructed. The original high school on Allison Street was converted into an elementary school.

Norwood's current city hall, the Norwood Municipal Building, was designed by John Scudder Adkins, who was also the architect for the Norwood Public Library building. It opened in 1916, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.

The old Allison High School building to burnt down in 1917. The building was later rebuilt. The same year, a new school was also constructed to replace the original 1892 Williams Avenue school.

More than 3,000 fans attended the season opener of the 1916 World Champion Norwood baseball team at Norwood Park. Norwood Park was also used during this era for other community entertainment events.

Industrial and infrastructure growth
According to a survey of historical records by the WPA, there were 47 factories in operation in Norwood by 1919.

In 1920, construction started on the Cincinnati Subway in downtown Cincinnati. The original plan was for a 16-mile loop to connect downtown with Norwood. Several subway tunnels were completed in Norwood. As subway construction continued into the late-1920s, the city experienced economic hardships and eventually abandoned the project in 1928, leaving the partially finished subway abandoned.

During the early-20th century, Norwood generated its own electricity at a municipal electric facility. In 1920, Norwood sold the facility and electrical distribution system to Cincinnati Gas & Electric Company, allowing CG&E to provide electrical services to the city.

In 1922, General Motors purchased  of land to construct the  Norwood Assembly automobile plant. This property was previously a large community park known as Norwood Park. The Norwood Assembly Plant produced General Motors cars between 1923 and 1987. The GM plant became the dominant employer in Norwood, with nearly 9,000 workers during its peak in the 1970s. It also contributed approximately 35% of the City of Norwood's tax base.

To promote the popularity of the card game, bridge, the United States Playing Card Company established a radio station in 1922 at their factory with the call letters WSAI. Bridge experts played the game on the air and provided instruction to listeners. In 1926, the company built a bell tower atop the main factory building. The sounds of the bells were frequently broadcast on the station. The company operated WSAI in Norwood until it was sold to Crosley Broadcasting Corporation in 1928.

In an effort to improve Duck Creek Road, Norwood encased the Duck Creek waterway in a concrete aqueduct in 1923. The creek bed was filled in and all bridges spanning the waterway were removed. Most of Duck Creek road was later eliminated with the construction of Interstate 71 in the late-1960s.

Construction of the massive $1,000,000 Mt. Saint Mary's Seminary was completed in 1923. The seminary would later educate dozens of future priests, bishops, and archbishops for the Catholic Church until it closed in 1980. The seminary was purchased in 1993 and renovated over the course of years and reopened as Our Lady of the Holy Spirit Center and as a Marian Spiritual center in consonance with the Roman Catholic Church.

In 1930, the City of Norwood rezoned the city council from four to six wards, reflecting the increase in the city's population. The six wards would later be rezoned back to four after the population declined in the 2000s.

Decline of the railway
In 1933, Norwood's last new passenger train station was constructed. This station was opened to complement the new Cincinnati Union Terminal station downtown. The station was later closed and the renovated building is now used as a social hall.

The same year, the Cincinnati, Lebanon & Northern Railroad stopped providing passenger service. Rail travel in America was on the decline at this point due to the growing popularity of the automobile.

Albers Supermarket, the first supermarket in Ohio and the first grocery store in the world to call itself a supermarket, was opened in 1933 by William H. Albers on Montgomery Road in Norwood at the site of today's Surrey Square shopping center. Albers, the former president of the Kroger Company, went on to revolutionize the grocery industry by embracing many innovations such as shopping carts, fluorescent lighting, and individual pricing on all items. The Albers chain was a success and was later acquired by Colonial Stores in 1955. The Norwood location was destroyed by a fire in 1968.

When the Ohio River flood of 1937 halted the operation of the Cincinnati Water Works, Norwood came to the aid of Cincinnati by offering drinking water from its artesian wells. Street flushing trucks were brought in from Cleveland to haul the water from Norwood to downtown.

In 1940, residents Carl H. Lindner Sr. and his children Carl Lindner Jr., Robert, Richard, and Dorothy opened the first United Dairy Farmers store in Norwood. Until this point, most people paid a premium to have milk delivered directly to their homes. United Dairy Farmers cut out the delivery middleman and sold milk at their store for nearly half the price of delivered milk. The UDF chain of stores eventually grew and helped make Carl Lindner Jr. one of the world's richest people.

In 1948, Norwood opened a municipal parking lot at the site of the future Surrey Square shopping center. This was one of the first significant steps in the transformation of Norwood's downtown business district, known as "The Pike," from pedestrian-friendly storefronts to the Surrey Square automobile-centric strip mall.

The following year, streetcar lines in Norwood were eliminated and replaced by trolley buses, using the same overhead double electric lines.

A new Williams Avenue elementary school and administration building were constructed in 1952 next to the existing 1917 school.

Around 1959, the water table of Norwood's artesian wells dropped to a level that became too expensive to maintain and Norwood began buying water from Cincinnati.

Ohio State Route 562, also known as the Norwood Lateral Expressway, was first completed between Interstate 75 and Reading Road in 1962. It was nicknamed the Norwood Lateral due to its close approach to Norwood, which at the time was Hamilton County's 2nd largest municipality. For nearly two decades, the "Lateral" terminated at Reading Road inside Cincinnati city limits. In 1969, work began on the extension of the "Lateral" into Norwood proper and connection to the proposed Interstate 71. The route of I-71 would pass through Norwood's east side. To accommodate the extension, nearly 200 homes in the old East Norwood neighborhood were razed, resulting in a loss of population and property tax revenue. Norwood was also required to share 5% of the cost of the expressway project. The full Norwood Lateral extension was completed in 1977.

At about the same time as the Norwood Lateral completion, the Globe-Wernicke Company moved operations out of Norwood to Tennessee. The factory was closed and demolished two years later.

The overhead wires used to power the trolley buses and the street cars were removed from Norwood streets in 1965. The trolley buses, which had replaced street cars in 1949, were replaced by gasoline and diesel powered buses.

Surrey Square and decline of "The Pike"
Around 1967, Norwood's first strip mall, Norwood Plaza, opened. Business owners were concerned the strip mall would impact Norwood's central business district.

After the Albers Supermarket was destroyed by fire in 1968, Norwood purchased the property and demolished the building as part of an urban renewal plan. This plan was centered around the construction of a new shopping center, which eventually became Surrey Square. In 1972, other businesses were demolished as an additional phase of the urban renewal plan.

To accommodate growing enrollment, Norwood constructed a new high school in 1972, adjacent to the old 1914 high school. The old high school became the middle school. The new  high school included a planetarium (now known as Drake Planetarium and Science Center).

In 1975, Surrey Square Shopping Center opened  in the heart of the original shopping district. Ironically, the inside of Surrey Square Mall was designed to look like a traditional small town main street, complete with fake storefronts reminiscent of the ones which were destroyed by the construction of the mall.

The Norwood Historical Society was chartered on May 2, 1978.

In 1985, Norwood natives Carl Lindner Jr. and his brother Robert Lindner donated $150,000 to the City of Norwood so it could purchase the 14-acre McCullough Estate. The Ohio Department of Natural Resources also awarded a matching grant so the estate could be converted into a nature preserve and park. The estate was part of the original 100-acre McCullough Seed Company property the McCullough Family settled in 1850 and operated on this land until 1960. Although the park is located in Cincinnati, it is owned and operated as a City of Norwood park. Norwood now totaled 30-acres of recreation land among 9 city parks.

GM closure
On November 6, 1986, General Motors announced that it would close the Norwood Assembly automobile plant as part of a $10 billion plan to reorganize the company. Many Norwood employees expected Norwood's sister plant, Van Nuys Assembly, to close instead. However, GM stated that the aging  Norwood plant would be difficult to modernize and the campus was "landlocked" with no room for expansion. The company also cited high absenteeism, low productivity and low quality control as additional factors in its decision.

The closure of the plant in 1987 nearly dealt a death blow to Norwood's economy. GM was by far the largest employer in Norwood and its income and property taxes accounted for one-third of the city's operating budget and one-fifth of the money for its schools. Approximately 1,000 of the factory's 4,300 workers were Norwood residents.

As a result of the closure, Norwood City Council dramatically slashed the city's budget. Norwood's parks, roads, buildings, water lines began to deteriorate. The City of Cincinnati even considered annexing Norwood to help with financial problems, but the plan was rebuffed by Cincinnati Mayor Charles Luken, who said he had no intention of "taking advantage of Norwood's misfortune." Norwood's mayor, Joseph E. Sanker, publicly speculated that Cincinnati was not interested in Norwood without the GM plant.

Norwood's economic issues continued to worsen in 1988 when another long-time manufacturing business, R. K. LeBlond Machine Tool Company, closed its Norwood factory.

In 1989, Norwood's last remaining newspaper, The Norwood Enterprise, ceased publication. Other Norwood community newspapers have occasionally started in the years since the Enterprise ceased publication, but none have lasted more than a few years. The Norwood Star currently operates as a monthly newspaper.

Economic revitalization
Despite the dire financial situation in Norwood, it did not take long for the city to realize the closing of General Motors was an opportunity to transition its image from a blue-collar industrial city to a business and retail destination. In 1989, city signed a deal with the Belvedere Corporation to develop both the former GM site. The same year, the city also made plans to build a retail and restaurant complex called Rookwood Pavilion on the site of the old LeBlond plant. In 1990, the first of these new projects, a shopping plaza called Grand Central Station, opened at the site of the old GM plant.

In July 1990, a cleaning solvent leak at the BASF chemical plant on the border of Norwood and Evanston resulted in a explosion, killing two and injuring 90 people. The blast heavily damaged Norwood businesses and affected Norwood homes as far as a mile away.

In 1993, the Belvedere Corporation opened a second new development called Central Parke. The project consisted of mixed-use office buildings.

In 1993, developers opened the Rookwood Pavilion shopping center on the grounds of the old Lablond factory site. Rookwood Pavilion was successful and prompted developers to begin purchasing additional land in the area for future developments. In 2000, Rookwood Commons shopping center opened immediately behind Rookwood Pavilion.

Despite sporadic efforts to save what was remaining of "The Pike," the city allowed the demolition of several historic storefronts and buildings in 2002.

In 2004, Norwood was forced by the State of Ohio to reduce the number of city council wards from 6 to 4, to reflect a decline in population.

Norwood also lost a significant amount of public transportation in 2004 when the Southwest Ohio Regional Transit Authority eliminated all but two bus routes in the city. Some of the eliminated routes had serviced the city by either bus or streetcar for over 100 years.

In fall of 2004, another new development called Cornerstone At Norwood was constructed.

Eminent domain
After the success of the two Rookwood shopping centers, the developer, Jeffrey Anderson, approached the City of Norwood regarding a third project called Rookwood Exchange that he wanted to build across the street. He proposed bulldozing a residential neighborhood and replacing them with a new mixed-use residential, office, and retail development.

The city approved the plan and Anderson began purchasing the neighborhood properties in 2005 through voluntary sales. All of the property owners eventually agreed to sell except for three which refused to leave. In an effort to clear the remaining properties, Anderson paid for a study declaring the neighborhood a "deteriorating area" so the City of Norwood could use eminent domain to force the remaining property owners to sell.

The three property owners fought Norwood's use of eminent domain, and the dispute eventually made national headlines in 2006 when it was brought before the Ohio Supreme Court in Norwood, Ohio v. Horney. The court ruled unanimously for the property owners, forcing the city and developers to return ownership of the three properties. After the verdict, the property owners held out for several more years before eventually selling. The second to last property was sold to the developer in 2007 for $650,000.

In September 2008, the final property owner agreed to sell his rental home to the developer for 1.25 million.

In 2014, after many years of legal battles and construction delays, Rookwood Exchange opened.

Continued development
In 2006, developers broke ground on Linden Pointe on the Lateral, a large office park complex on the old former American Laundry Machine Company and Globe Wernicke properties. Because the property was Brownfield land, it had to be decontaminated prior to construction.

After more than 100 years in Norwood, the US Playing Card Company closed their Norwood factory and moved operations to Boone County, Kentucky in 2008.

Xavier University acquired the old Norwood Plaza shopping center and demolished many of the structures to make way for campus expansion. In a joint effort with Norwood and Cincinnati, Xavier University opened University Station.

Geography
Norwood is located at  (39.160060, −84.455074).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all land.

Demographics

2020 census
As of the census of 2020, there were 19,043 people living in the city, for a population density of 6,058.86 people per square mile (2,339.33/km2). There were 9,644 housing units. The racial makeup of the city was 77.5% White, 11.8% Black or African American, 0.3% Native American, 1.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.1% from some other race, and 6.1% from two or more races. 5.8% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 8,543 households, out of which 18.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 27.3% were married couples living together, 30.4% had a male householder with no spouse present, and 32.0% had a female householder with no spouse present. 41.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.8% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19, and the average family size was 3.09.

16.7% of the city's population were under the age of 18, 71.6% were 18 to 64, and 11.7% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32.5. For every 100 females, there were 107.6 males.

According to the U.S. Census American Community Survey, for the period 2016-2020 the estimated median annual income for a household in the city was $48,703, and the median income for a family was $71,066. About 21.6% of the population were living below the poverty line, including 28.5% of those under age 18 and 13.5% of those age 65 or over. About 67.5% of the population were employed, and 31.3% had a bachelor's degree or higher.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 19,207 people, 8,320 households, and 4,190 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 9,515 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 86.6% White, 7.6% African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.8% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.0% from other races, and 2.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.1% of the population.

There were 8,320 households, of which 25.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.1% were married couples living together, 14.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 49.6% were non-families. 37.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 3.03.

The median age in the city was 33.4 years. 20.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 14.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 30.3% were from 25 to 44; 24.2% were from 45 to 64; and 11.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.9% male and 50.1% female.

As of the 2010 United States Census, The median value of owner-occupied housing units between 2005–2009 was $120,900. The home ownership rate from 2005–2009 was 57.8%. The median household income 2005–2009 was $39,224. The per capita money income in past 12 months (2009 dollars) 2005–2009 was $21,367. People of all ages in poverty from 2005–2009 was 20.6%.

2000 census
During the 2000 United States Census there were 21,675 people, 9,270 households, and 5,154 families residing in the Norwood. The population density was . There were 10,044 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 94.25% White, 2.35% African American, 0.36% Native American, 0.77% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.88% from other races, and 1.37% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.85% of the population. There were 9,270 households, out of which 26.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.8% were married couples living together, 13.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.4% were non-families. 36.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 3.04. In the city the age distribution of the population shows 23.4% under the age of 18, 11.9% from 18 to 24, 32.4% from 25 to 44, 19.7% from 45 to 64, and 12.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $32,223, and the median income for a family was $39,951. Males had a median income of $31,530 versus $25,852 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,108. About 8.6% of families and 12.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.3% of those under age 18 and 7.5% of those age 65 or over.

Government
The elected members of Norwood City government are: the mayor, president of council, auditor, treasurer, law director, clerk of council, four ward-specific city council members and three at-large city council members.  Norwood City School Board members are also elected.  The City of Norwood has its own police, fire, and public works departments.  The current mayor of Norwood is Victor Schneider, the police chief is Dwayne Sumner, the fire chief is Thomas McCabe, and the public works superintendent is Clint Zimmerman.

Economy
Norwood has a strong history of industry and manufacturing dating back to the historic Norwood Brick plant of the late 19th century, which provided clay brick for the construction of many of Cincinnati's historic buildings. As the city is ideally situated between several major railways, state roads and interstate highways, it has traditionally been an attractive location for businesses and corporations in the area. Norwood was once described as the "Chicago of Hamilton County", for in 1909 it had 49 manufacturing enterprises.

Prominent Norwood industrial and manufacturing companies included: General Motors Norwood Assembly, United Dairy Farmers, Allis-Chalmers, Siemens, Bullock Electric Manufacturing Company, United States Playing Card Company, Globe Wernicke, American Laundry Machine Company, Norwood Sash & Door Company (Sears Catalog Homes), United States Printing & Lithographing Company, U.S. Shoe Corp, Mead Container Corporation, J.H. Day Corporation, and Zumbiel Packaging.

Between 1923 and 1987, the General Motors automobile assembly plant was by far the city's largest employer in terms of production, payroll and employees. When GM closed the factory in 1987, it nearly dealt a death blow to Norwood's economy. This event became the catalyst for Norwood's transition from an industrial economy to a diversified office and retail economy. In the years following the GM closure, Norwood worked with developers to build many mixed-use office parks and retail centers in the city, including: Grande Central Station (1990), Central Parke (1993), Rookwood Pavilion (1995), Rookwood Commons (2000), Cornerstone at Norwood (2004), Linden Pointe on the Lateral (2007), Surrey Square (2008), Rookwood Exchange (2014), Norwood State Station (2014).

Education
The Norwood City School District consists of Norwood High School, Norwood Middle School, Sharpsburg Elementary, Norwood View Elementary, Williams Avenue Elementary, and Norwood Preschool. The current high school opened as a state-of-the-art facility in 1972, with a planetarium, greenhouse, swimming pool, and television studio. Drake Planetarium, named after astronomer and astrophysicist Frank Drake, is associated with NASA. Norwood High School's mascot is the Indian. Norwood Middle School is located next to the high school in the previous high school building, which opened in 1914. In 1988, the Norwood Middle School field house and offices were used to film prison scenes in the 1989 Tom Selleck movie An Innocent Man. Norwood is also home to Immaculate Conception Academy parochial grade school and high school, located in the former Gressle School on Floral Avenue.

Sports and recreation

Norwood Recreation Commission
The Norwood Recreation Commission was established in 1943, by ordinance of the City Council.  The commission is unique in that it is a non-political joint effort between the city and Board of Education.  The commission consists of five policy makers; two selected by the Board of Education and three appointed by the mayor.

The Norwood Recreation Commission operates and supervises four playgrounds and three swimming pools during the summer months.  Permits for ball diamonds, tennis courts and picnic areas are also issued through the Recreation office. The Recreation Commission conducts leagues for 30 softball teams for men and women in addition to assisting and cooperating with the Norwood Knothole Association and Norwood Soccer Association in providing facilities for all their teams.  In the past the Norwood Recreation Commission has moved into the schools with its Fall, Winter, and Spring programs.

Swimming pools:
 Burwood Pool (closed)
 Fenwick Pool (closed)
 Millcrest Pool (closed)
 Northwoods Pool (closed)
 Norwood High School Pool
 Norwood Middle School Pool (closed)
 Victory Pool (closed)
 Waterworks J.B. Wirth Pool

Parks:
 Burwood Park
 Dorl Park
 Fenwick Park
 Hunter Park
 Lindner Park Nature Preserve
 Marsh Park
 Millcrest Park
 Lower Millcrest Park
 Northwoods Park
 Tower Park
 Victory Park
 Waterworks Park

Nicknames
Norwood is known as the "Gem of the Highlands".

Notable people
The people listed below were all born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Norwood, Ohio

Arts and entertainment
 George Chakiris, actor and dancer
 Paul Delph, keyboardist for band Zoo Drive
 Henry Farny, French-born painter and illustrator
 Tim Lucas, novelist and film critic
 Mr. Dibbs, hip hop producer
 Jack Mullaney, actor
 Over The Rhine, Ohio folk music band
 Jody Payne, musician
 Diane Pfister, artist and art lecturer
 Louis Rebisso, Italian sculptor
 Janice Rule, actress
 Amanda Tepe, actress
 Vera-Ellen, actress and dancer
 John Ellsworth Weis, painter

Business
 Samuel Frisch, opened Frisch's Stag Lunch in Norwood in 1910, first location of Frisch's Big Boy restaurant chain
 Carl Lindner Jr., banker and financier

Science and medicine
 John Uri Lloyd, pharmacist, scientist, and twice president of American Pharmaceutical Association
 Frank Bradway Rogers, medical doctor and librarian

Law and politics
 Joseph B. Foraker, 37th Governor of Ohio and United States Senator
 Joseph Ralston, former Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Supreme Allied Commander for NATO

Sports
 Bob Barton, baseball player
 Carl Bouldin, baseball pitcher
 Marc Edwards, football player
 Roy Golden, baseball player
 Ed Jucker, basketball coach
 Dorothy Kamenshek, baseball player
 Ed "Specs" Klieman, baseball player
 Maxwell Holt, volleyball player
 Brad Loesing, basketball player
 George Miller, baseball player
 Larry Pape, baseball player
 Heinie Peitz, baseball player
 Arthur Pickens, jockey
 Brian Pillman, football player
 Thomas Scott, archer
 Dominique Steele, mixed martial artist
 Bob Wellman, baseball player and manager

Religion
 Ralph W. Beiting, founder of the Christian Appalachian Project
 Joseph R. Binzer, auxiliary bishop
 Robert Daniel Conlon, bishop
 Paul Vincent Donovan, bishop
 James Henry Garland, bishop
 Henry Joseph Grimmelsmann, bishop
 Clarence George Issenmann, bishop
 Paul Francis Leibold, archbishop
 Edward A. McCarthy, archbishop
 Carl K. Moeddel, bishop
 Henry K. Moeller, archbishop
 Anthony John King Mussio, bishop
 Leo Aloysius Pursley, bishop
 George John Rehring, bishop
 Michael William Warfel, bishop

Crime
 Robert Bales, United States Army soldier and perpetrator of the 2012 Kandahar massacre
 Robert Anthony Buell, convicted of the murder of 11-year-old Krista Harrison

References

External links

 City website
 Norwood Recreation Commission
 Norwood Star Newspaper

Cities in Ohio
Cities in Hamilton County, Ohio
Enclaves in the United States
1809 establishments in Ohio

Norwood, Ohio


was a Japanese samurai who lived during the Azuchi–Momoyama and early Edo periods. He was the daimyō of Fukui Domain in Echizen.

Early life
Hideyasu was born as  in 1574, the second son of Tokugawa Ieyasu, by Lady Oman (also known as Lady Kogō), a handmaiden to his wife, Lady Tsukiyama. When Oman became pregnant, Ieyasu feared his wife's wrath, so he sheltered the girl in the home of his retainer Honda Shigetsugu, in Ofumi Village near Hamamatsu Castle, and it was there that Ogimaru and his brother were born.

Oman is said to have given birth to twins, and that Ogimaru's brother succeeded Oman's father as priest of Chiryū Shrine in Mikawa Province.

The young Ogimaru was, for some reason, disliked by his father Ieyasu. It was not until age three that he met Ieyasu, and even that meeting, cold as it was, was not arranged by the father, but instead by Ogimaru's elder half-brother, Matsudaira Nobuyasu. After Oda Nobunaga demanded that Ieyasu order Nobuyasu's seppuku, Ogimaru would have been the next in line to inherit the Tokugawa headship by birth; however, as part of the peace negotiations following the Battle of Komaki-Nagakute, he was given in adoption (in reality as a hostage) to the childless Hashiba Hideyoshi in 1584. Coming of age while living with Hideyoshi, Ogimaru was given the name Hashiba Hideyasu, which combined the names of his adoptive father and biological father. He was also granted courtesy title of Mikawa-no-kami, and his Court rank was Senior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade, raised to Ukonoue-gon-shōshō and Senior Fourth Rank, Lower Grade in 1585

Mature years
Hideyasu took part in his first campaign during the Kyūshū Campaign of 1587, leading the assault on Buzen-Iwaishi Castle. He also received honors for his distinction in the pacification of Hyūga Province. Hideyasu also took part in the Siege of Odawara (1590) and the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98). His successes in these campaigns earned him respect as an able field commander, despite his youth.

However, in 1589, a natural son was born to Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Hideyoshi had adopted several promising candidates as heir over the years, and began to give these men in adoption to other great houses to avoid a potential conflict over the succession. Hideyasu was given in adoption in 1590 to Yūki Harutomo of Shimōsa Province, and married Harutomo's niece, becoming Yūki Hideyasu and succeeded to the Yūki headship and its 101,000 koku holding.

Later years
During the Battle of Sekigahara, Yūki Hideyasu was ordered by Ieyasu to remain in his holdings in Shimōsa, possibly because of his pro-Toyotomi sympathies, and possibility because his emergence as a strong military leader might threaten the prestige and position of his younger half-brother, Tokugawa Hidetada. Following the Battle of Sekigahara and the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate, he was given all of Echizen Province (670,000 koku) as his fief.  In 1604, he was allowed to take the surname Matsudaira.  In 1605, his court rank was elevated to Senior Third Rank, and his courtesy title to Gon-Chūnagon.

Hideyasu died, possibly from syphilis in 1607, at the age of 34, seven years after the Battle of Sekigahara, eight years before Tokugawa Ieyasu completed the destruction of the Toyotomi clan at the Siege of Osaka. He left a will to his heir urging support for Toyotomi Hideyori even if the Tokugawa decided to attack. His son and heir, Matsudaira Tadanao ignored his father's will and thus the Echizen-Matsudaira clan survived to the Meiji restoration of 1868.

Family
 Father: Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543-1616)
 Mother: Lady Oman (1548–1620) later Chōshō-in
 Wife, concubines, children:
 Wife: Tsuruhime, daughter of Yūki Harutomo
 Concubine: Nakagawa no Tsubone later Seiryō-in
 Matsudaira Tadanao (1595-1650)
 Matsudaira Tadamasa (1598-1645)
 Concubine: ???
 Kisahime (1598–1655) married Mōri Hidenari
 Concubine: Gesshoōin
 Matsudaira Naomasa (1601–1666) inherited Matsue Domain
 Concubine: Shinryō-in
 Matsudaira Naomoto (1604–1648) inherited Himeji Domain
 Concubine: Nao no Tsubone later Nagaju-in
 Matsudaira Naoyoshi (1605–1678) inherited Ōno Domain

References

External links

Fukui City Museum (in Japanese)
 "Fukui" at Edo 300
  越前松平氏 (Echizen Matsudaira) at ReichsArchiv.jp

|-

|-

1574 births
1607 deaths
Echizen-Matsudaira clan
People from Hamamatsu
Shinpan daimyo
Tokugawa clan
Toyotomi clan
Yūki clan

Yūki Hideyasu


Peter Rodgers Melnick (born July 24, 1958) is an American author and composer for film, television and musical theatre.

Career
Some of Melnick's earlier film score credits include L.A. Story, The Only Thrill, Convicts, and Farce of the Penguins. His television credits include the PBS's, Cinema's Exiles: From Hitler to Hollywood, Indictment: The McMartin Trial, Grand Avenue, and Lily Dale by Horton Foote.

His first produced musical was Adrift in Macao, featuring script and lyrics by Christopher Durang. Melnick then collaborated with Bill Russell on The Last Smoker in America, a musical comedy about a dysfunctional family struggling with a new law forbidding smoking. It opened in Columbus, Ohio in late 2010.

Melnick and Russell have also worked together on two musical one-acts, Patter for the Floating Lady, based on the eponymous Steve Martin, and A Bad Spell, adapted from a Virginia Moriconi short story Simple Arithmetic.

Personal life
Melnick is the son of Daniel Melnick and Linda Rodgers, and grandson of Richard Rodgers and grew up in New York City. He graduated from The Choate School (which later merged with Rosemary Hall to become Choate Rosemary Hall) and attended Harvard College, Berklee College of Music, and the Guildhall School of Music and Drama. He also studied jazz with the Jaki Byard.

Melnick lives in Montecito, California, with wife, Talia Van-Son.

Works

Musical theatre scores
 Adrift in Macao (2007)
 The Last Smoker in America (2012)

Film scores
 Vampire Knights (1987)
 Homesick, film short (1988)
 Get Smart, Again! (1989); TV movie
 Out of Sight, Out of Mind (1990)
 Bad Attitudes (1991); TV movie
 L.A. Story (1991)
 Convicts (1991)
 Only You (1992)
 In the Name of the Father, film short (1992)
 Running Mates (1992); TV movie
 Arctic Blue (1993)
 12:01 (1993); TV movie
 Indictment: The McMartin Trial (1995); TV movie
 For Hope (1996); TV movie
 Grand Avenue (1996); TV movie
 No One Could Protect Her (1996)
 Two Mothers for Zachary (1996); TV movie
 Lily Dale (1996) TV movie
 Every 9 Seconds (1997); TV movie
 Jitters (1997); TV movie
 The Only Thrill (1997)
 Time to Say Goodbye? (1997)
 Becoming Dick (2000); TV movie
 Tak For Alt: Survival of a Human Spirit Documentary Feature
 Mermaid (2000); TV movie
 Taking Back Our Town (2001); TV movie
 Call Waiting, (2004)
 Farce of the Penguins (2006)
 Benjamin (2018)

Television scores
 The Death of a Star (1987) TV documentary
 The Mystery of the Master Builders (1988) TV documentary
 Nightingales (1989) TV series
 The KGB, the Computer and Me (1990); TV documentary
 Testing Dirty (1990); TV series: ABC Afterschool Specials
 Magic (1991); TV series
 Edgar Allan Poe: Terror of the Soul (1995); TV series documentary: American Masters
 Robert Rauschenberg: Inventive Genius (1999); TV series documentary: American Masters
 Cinema's Exiles: From Hitler to Hollywood (2009); TV documentary
 James McNeill Whistler: The Case for Beauty'' (2014) TV documentary

References

External links

 Peter Rodgers Melnick at the Internet Off Broadway Database

American male conductors (music)
American music arrangers
American film score composers
American people of German-Jewish descent
American television composers
Musicians from New York City
American blues guitarists
American male guitarists
Jewish American musicians
1958 births
Living people
Harvard College alumni
Choate Rosemary Hall alumni
Berklee College of Music alumni
Alumni of the Guildhall School of Music and Drama
20th-century American guitarists
Classical musicians from New York (state)
20th-century American conductors (music)
21st-century American conductors (music)
American male film score composers
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century American Jews

Peter Rodgers Melnick


Stix, Baer and Fuller F.C. was a U.S. soccer club which played in the St. Louis Soccer League from 1931 to 1934.  The team was known as Hellrungs from 1929 to 1931, St. Louis Central Breweries F.C. from 1934 to 1935 and St. Louis Shamrocks from 1935 to 1938.  During its short existence, it won two National Challenge Cup titles and two league championships as Stix, Baer and Fuller and one National Cup and league title as St. Louis Central Breweries.

History

Hellrungs
Teams in the St. Louis Soccer League depended on corporate sponsorship.  As a result, the teams would frequently change names as their sponsor changed.  The team, sponsored by the Hellrung & Grimm House Furnishing Company, was established as Hellrungs in 1929 as a member of the St. Louis Soccer League (SLSL).

Stix, Baer and Fuller
In 1931, it came under new sponsorship from the Stix, Baer and Fuller, one of the largest St. Louis department stores.  Hellrungs had finished the 1930-1931 season third out of four teams in the SLSL.  Stix, Baer and Fuller (SBF) would not improve on Hellrungs' performance, finishing third in the 1931-1932 standings.  However, they found considerable success on the national level as they went to the National Challenge Cup finals.  In the semifinal series, they won the first game against Chicago's Bricklayers and Masons F.C. 3-1, before losing 2-0 the second game.  As the series was tied, the two teams played a deciding game, won by SBF 1-0.  In the National Cup finals, SBF ran up against the New Bedford Whalers of the American Soccer League.  Whalers was stocked with future Hall of Famers.  Despite that, SBF played them to a 3-3 tie in St. Louis before losing 5-2 in the second game, both played in St. Louis.  The Whalers folded after the National Cup series and five of its players moved west to join SBF.  Bolstered by the influx of talent, SBF ran to the top of the table in the 1932-1933 SLSL season.  They also won the National Cup with two victories, 1-0 and 2-1, against the New York Americans.  SBF then went on to play the Toronto Scottish in the "North American Soccer Championship" and occasional game which pitted the National Challenge Cup and Canadian championship teams.  Toronto won the game 2-1 despite a goal for SBF from Billy Gonsalves. SBF continued both its league and National Cup success in the 1933-1934 season.  They finished at the top of the SLSL table and won the National Cup over the Pawtucket Rangers in three games, a 4-2 victory, 2-3 loss and a 5-0 third game.

Central Breweries
Following their National Cup victory, the team again changed sponsorship, this time to St. Louis Central Breweries. The newly renamed team continued to find success, winning both the 1935 SLSL and National Cup titles.

Shamrocks
In October 1935, the team changed sponsorship, starting the season as Democratic Country Club. In mid October the sponsors James A.Burke and John J.Dwyer dropped their connection with the team and for the next month were known simply as St. Louis soccer club. Without financial backing and some of the players otherwise unemployed they considered disbanding. It was in mid November that they withdrew from the league and began an intercity schedule out of Sportsmans Park under the name Father Dempsey's Shamrocks with the backing of Phil A.Riley who had resigned as league president to head up the management of this experimental attempt to run an independent pro team.  However, the core of the team remained and the Shamrocks went to the 1936 and 1937 National Cup finals, only to fall to the Philadelphia German-Americans and New York Americans, respectively.

In April 1936 the Shamrock played two matches against the visiting Botafogo FC from Rio de Janeiro with stars like Leônidas da Silva and Carvalho Leite. The Shamrocks won the first match 1-0 and in the second one held the visitors to a 3-3 draw.

In October 1936, the team was without USFA affiliation which was rectified when they joined the Illinois State FA. The Shamrocks continued to compete as an independent playing out of their new grounds at Public Schools Stadium playing their first game of the season October 11 against Oak Park Acorns of Chicago winning 4-0.  In November 1936, Shamrocks played the St.Louis League All Stars in the league all star game.  Shamrocks won, 3-0, with one local newspaper writing, "The series was well worth while but it only strengthened the belief that no combination of Pro League players could be put together to give the Shamrocks a real test. Even a bit off form, as the Shamrocks were yesterday, they are far superior to any team the league officials might put on the field."  In 1938, the Shamrocks folded after several players left the team to sign with St. Patrick.  Shamrocks sued for player tampering, but the team collapsed and the remaining players signed with South Side Radio.

Record

Honors
National Challenge Cup
 Winner (3): 1933, 1934, 1935
 Runner Up (3): 1932, 1936, 1937

League Championship
 Winner (3): 1933, 1934, 1935

References

External links
 Open Cup champions by year
 History of Soccer in St. Louis

Association football clubs established in 1929
Association football clubs disestablished in 1938
Defunct soccer clubs in Missouri
Soccer clubs in St. Louis
St. Louis Soccer League teams
1929 establishments in Missouri
1938 disestablishments in Missouri
U.S. Open Cup winners
Works soccer clubs in the United States

Stix, Baer and Fuller F.C.


McGhee Tyson Air National Guard Base  is a joint military facility located at McGhee Tyson Airport.  It is located approximately 10 miles (16 km) south of the central business district of Knoxville, near Alcoa, Tennessee. It was the site of McGhee Tyson Air Force Base from 1952 until 1960.

Overview
McGhee Tyson ANGB is the home of the 134th Air Refueling Wing (134 ARW) of the Tennessee Air National Guard, an Air Mobility Command (AMC) gained unit which functions as the host wing for the installation. Other tenants of the base include the 119th Command and Control Squadron the I.G. Brown Air National Guard Training and Education Center, Air National Guard Band of the South, and the 1st Squadron, 230th Armored Cavalry Regiment's Army Aviation Support Facility of the Tennessee Army National Guard, operating several OH-58 Kiowa Warrior helicopters.

History
The announcement that the United States Air Force (USAF) would build an air base at McGhee-Tyson Airport was made on January 26, 1951. Fighter-interceptors based there would defend the Atomic Energy Commission facilities at nearby Oak Ridge National Laboratory, the Alcoa aluminum plant and the rest of the Tennessee Valley, including the vital Tennessee Valley Authority dams. Initial construction was estimated at $5.5 million.  The military facilities built on the northwest side of the airfield have remained separate from the civilian airport.

The base officially opened on August 9, 1952, as McGhee Tyson Air Force Base, but air defense alert operations began there much sooner.  The federalized Tennessee Air National Guard Detachment 1, 105th Fighter Interceptor Squadron, was assigned to the base while on active duty during the Korean War. Assigned to Air Defense Command (ADC) and flying F-47D Thunderbolts, the 105th FIS was headquartered at Berry Field in Nashville.  The 105th FIS remained at the base until 1 January 1952 when it was returned to state control under the Tennessee Air National Guard

The Air Defense Command's active duty Central Air Defense Force, 516th Air Defense Group (516 ADG), replaced the Air National Guard unit on 1 January 1952.  With it were the 516th Air Base Squadron, 516th Materiel Squadron, and the 516th Infirmary. Between 1200 and 1400 airmen, with a then-$1.5 million annual payroll, were assigned to the base.

The tactical unit of the 516 ADG was the 469th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron (469 FIS), which initially inherited the World War II-vintage F-47s (formerly P-47 Thunderbolts) of the Air National Guard, later replacing them with F-86D Sabre jet fighters. In 1953, the 460th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron became a second F-86D squadron at the base.  The 460th was reassigned to Portland Airport, Oregon, in 1955, while the 469th remained at TYS until 1957 when it was inactivated.

The 516th Air Defense Group was redesignated as the 355th Fighter Group (Air Defense) on 18 August 1955.  The 354 FIS was activated with F-86Ds to become the second FIS.

On August 29, 1957, the Air Force announced that the base, by then worth $7.75 million in then-current dollars, would close. About 4,000 active duty Air Force personnel left the area, taking with them $25.5 million in equipment from the base. Regular Air Force operations at McGhee Tyson Airport ended on January 8, 1958, and the 354 FIS was inactivated on that date.  The 355 FIS remained until 1 July 1960 when it was inactivated along with the F-86 interceptor squadrons, and the base turned over to Tennessee Air National Guard control.

The 134 ARW, which is operationally gained by the Air Mobility Command (AMC), operates KC-135R Stratotankers for both air mobility and aerial refueling of military aircraft.

McGhee Tyson ANGB is also home to the I.G. Brown Air National Guard Training and Education Center and its associated Academy of Military Science (AMS).  Similar to USAF Officer Training School (OTS), AMS was an alternate commissioning source for prospective USAF officers, primarily former enlisted airmen of the Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard directly inputted into various units of the Air Force Reserve Command and the Air National Guard throughout the United States.  The AMS program was merged into the OTS organization at Maxwell AFB, Alabama in 2010.

See also

 Aerospace Defense Command Fighter Squadrons

References

 Maurer, Maurer. Air Force Combat Units Of World War II. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office 1961 (republished 1983, Office of Air Force History, ).

  A Handbook of Aerospace Defense Organization 1946–1980,  by Lloyd H. Cornett and Mildred W. Johnson, Office of History, Aerospace Defense Center, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado
 Winkler, David F. (1997), Searching the skies: the legacy of the United States Cold War defense radar program. Prepared for United States Air Force Headquarters Air Combat Command.

Airports in Tennessee
Knoxville, Tennessee
Buildings and structures in Blount County, Tennessee
Installations of the United States Air National Guard
Installations of the United States Air Force in Tennessee
Airports established in 1952

McGhee Tyson Air National Guard Base


Polonio Pass is a low mountain pass that separates the Temblor Range to the south, and the Diablo Range to the north, linking Kern County, California, in the Central Valley, to Shandon and Paso Robles in San Luis Obispo County, both in the American state of California. The pass is surrounded by grassy plains, with Highway 46 beginning its wind through the narrow mountain gap just a couple miles west. It is the southernmost crossing of the Diablo Range.

References

Mountain passes of California
Diablo Range
Landforms of Kern County, California
Transportation in Kern County, California

Polonio Pass


Horror fiction or just horror is fiction that is meant to frighten the reader. There are many different kinds of horror. Some of it deals with the Supernatural, like ghosts and monsters, while other kinds are about scary things in the real world like serial killers.

Genres

Horror fiction


Yangdong Folk Village (), or Yangdong Village of Gyeongju, is a traditional yangban (Korean Aristocracy) village from the Joseon dynasty. The village is located in Gangdong-myeon, sixteen kilometers northeast of Gyeongju, Gyeongsangbuk-do, South Korea, along the Hyeongsan River. Mt. Seolchang stands to the north of the village. The village is designated as Important Folklore Materials No. 189 by the South Korean government.

The size, degree of preservation, numerous cultural assets, traditionalism, beautiful natural setting all contribute to the importance of Yangdong Village. It is also a fine example of the yangban (Korean aristocracy) lifestyle and Neo-Confucian traditions.

The village is listed by the South Korean government with UNESCO as a World Heritage Site with Hahoe Folk Village in 2010.

Overview
The village was founded by Son So (孫昭 1433–1484). The household of the Wolseong Son clan was placed on an auspicious site according to Korean theories of pungsu (geomancy). Son So and his wife, the daughter of Yu Bok Ha had a daughter who married Yi Beon of the Yeogang Yi family. The marriage produced one of the eighteen sages of Korea, Yi Unjeok. The village of Yangdong has continued since its auspicious beginning in the 15th century.

Although some of the village is unoccupied today, the overall the village has over 160 tile-roofed and thatched-roof homes built throughout the dense forest. Fifty-four historic homes over 200 years old have also been preserved. The village preserves folk customs as well as traditional buildings of traditional Joseon dynasty architecture. Seobaekodang is the primary home of the Wolseong Son Family. Mucheomdang, is the primary house of the Yeogang Yi family. Hyangdan is National Treasure No. 412. Ihayangjeon and Simsujeong pavilions, and the Ganghakdang village school are also notable structures of the village as well as Gwangajeong and Sonsoyeongjeong. Tonggamsokpyeon, a book printed on movable metal type and National Treasure No. 283, is also located in the village.
A picture of the village as you enter it.

Important folk materials at the village include:
Seobaekdang (No. 23)
Nakseondang
Sahodang
Sangchunheon
Geunam Manor
Dugok Manor
Sujoldang
Ihyangjeong
Suunjeong
Simsujeong
Allakjeong
Ganghakdang

Other cultural properties include:
Jeokgae Gongsin Nonsang Rokgwan (Tangible Cultural Property No. 13)
Sonso's Will (Tangible Cultural Property No. 14)
Pine Tree in Yangdong
Daeseongheon
Son Jong-ro Jeongchungbigak (Cultural Asset Material No. 261)
Gyeongsan Seodang (Folk Cultural Asset Material)
Dugok Yeongdang (Folk Cultural Asset Material).

The village follows the topography of the mountains and valleys and is shaped like an auspicious Hanja character. This arrangement has been carefully preserved. The homes of the Wolseong Son and Yeogang Yi clans, as well as their descendants' homes are located on the high ground of the mountains and valleys. The lower-class homes, characterized by their thatched roofs were built on lower ground. The village's organization highlights the severe social stratification characteristic of Joseon dynasty society. Prince Charles visited Yangdong in 1993.

Gallery

See also
 Hahoe Folk Village

References

External links

 Website of Yangdong Village
 UNESCO
 Visit Korea
 World Heritage in Korea (pdf)

Joseon
Folk villages in South Korea
Gyeongju
Korean culture
World Heritage Sites in South Korea
Tourist attractions in North Gyeongsang Province
Important Folklore Cultural Properties of South Korea

Yangdong Folk Village