The Georgics ( ;  ) is a poem by Latin poet Virgil, likely published in 29 BCE. As the name suggests (from the Greek word , geōrgiká, i.e. "agricultural (things)") the subject of the poem is agriculture; but far from being an example of peaceful rural poetry, it is a work characterized by tensions in both theme and purpose.

The Georgics is considered Virgil's second major work, following his Eclogues and preceding the Aeneid. The poem draws on a variety of prior sources and has influenced many later authors from antiquity to the present.

Description and summary
The work consists of 2,188 hexametric verses divided into four books. The yearly timings by the rising and setting of particular stars were valid for the precession epoch of Virgil's time, and so are not always valid now.

Book One
Virgil begins his poem with a dedication to Maecenas, then a summary of the four books, followed by a prayer to various agricultural deities as well as Augustus himself. It takes as its model the work on farming by Varro, but differs from it in important ways. Numerous technical passages fill out the initial half of the first book; of particular interest are lines 160–175, where Virgil describes the plow. In the succession of ages, whose model is ultimately Hesiod, the age of Jupiter and its relation to the golden age and the current age of man are crafted with deliberate tension.  Of chief importance is the contribution of labour to the success or failure of mankind's endeavours, agricultural or otherwise.  The book comes to one climax with the description of a great storm in lines 311–350, which brings all of man's efforts to nothing.  After detailing various weather-signs, Virgil ends with an enumeration of the portents associated with Caesar's assassination and civil war; only Octavian offers any hope of salvation.

Book Two

Prominent themes of the second book include agriculture as man's struggle against a hostile natural world, often described in violent terms, and the ages of Saturn and Jupiter. Like the first book, it begins with a poem addressing the divinities associated with the matters about to be discussed: viticulture, trees, and the olive. In the next hundred lines, Virgil treats forest and fruit trees. Their propagation and growth are described in detail, with a contrast drawn between methods that are natural and those that require human intervention. Three sections on grafting are of particular interest: presented as marvels of man's alteration of nature. Also included is a catalogue of the world's trees, set forth in rapid succession, and other products of various lands. Perhaps the most famous passage  of the poem, the Laudes Italiae or Praises of Italy, is introduced by way of a comparison with foreign marvels: despite all of those, no land is as praiseworthy as Italy. A point of cultural interest is a reference to Ascra in line 176, which an ancient reader would have known as the hometown of Hesiod. Next comes the care of vines, culminating in a vivid scene of their destruction by fire; then advice on when to plant vines, and therein the other famous passage of the second book, the Praises of Spring. These depict the growth and beauty that accompany spring's arrival. The poet then returns to didactic narrative with yet more on vines, emphasizing their fragility and laboriousness. A warning about animal damage provides occasion for an explanation of why goats are sacrificed to Bacchus. The olive tree is then presented in contrast to the vine: it requires little effort on the part of the farmer. The next subject, at last turning away from the vine, is other kinds of trees: those that produce fruit and those that have useful wood. Then Virgil again returns to grapevines, recalling the myth of the battle of the Lapiths and Centaurs in a passage known as the Vituperation of Vines. The remainder of the book is devoted to extolling the simple country life over the corruptness of the city.

Book Three
The third book is chiefly and ostensibly concerned with animal husbandry.  It consists of two principal parts, the first half is devoted to the selection of breed stock and the breeding of horses and cattle. It concludes with a description of the furore induced in all animals by sexual desire.  The second half of the book is devoted to the care and protection of sheep and goats and their by-products. It concludes with a description of the havoc and devastation caused by a plague in Noricum. Both halves begin with a short prologue called a proem. The poems invoke Greek and Italian gods and address such issues as Virgil's intention to honour both Caesar and his patron Maecenas, as well as his lofty poetic aspirations and the difficulty of the material to follow.  Many have observed the parallels between the dramatic endings of each half of this book and the irresistible power of their respective themes of love and death.

Book Four
Book four, a tonal counterpart to book two, is divided approximately in half; the first half (1–280) is didactic and deals with the life and habits of bees, supposedly a model for human society.  Bees resemble man in that their labour is devoted to a king and they give their lives for the sake of the community, but they lack the arts and love. In spite of their labour, the bees perish and the entire colony dies.  The restoration of the bees is accomplished by bugonia, spontaneous rebirth from the carcass of an ox.  This process is described twice in the second half (281–568) and frames the Aristaeus epyllion beginning at line 315.  The tone of the book changes from didactic to epic and elegiac in this epyllion, which contains within it the story of Orpheus and Eurydice. Aristaeus, after losing his bees,  descends to the home of his mother, the nymph Cyrene,  where he is given instructions on how to restore his colonies.  He must capture the seer, Proteus, and force him to reveal which divine spirit he angered and how to restore his bee colonies.  After binding Proteus (who changes into many forms to no avail), Aristaeus is told by the seer that he angered the nymphs by causing the death of the nymph Eurydice, wife of Orpheus. Proteus describes the descent of Orpheus into the underworld to retrieve Eurydice, the backward look that caused her return to Tartarus, and at last Orpheus' death at the hands of the Ciconian women.  Book four concludes with an eight-line sphragis or seal in which Virgil contrasts his life of poetry with that of Octavian the general.

Sources

Greek

Virgil's model for composing a didactic poem in hexameters is the archaic Greek poet Hesiod, whose poem Works and Days shares with the Georgics the themes of man's relationship to the land and the importance of hard work. The Hellenistic poet Nicander's lost Georgics may also be an important influence. Virgil used other Greek writers as models and sources, some for technical information, including the Hellenistic poet Aratus for astronomy and meteorology, Nicander for information about snakes, the philosopher Aristotle for zoology, and Aristotle's student Theophrastus for botany, and others, such as the Hellenistic poet Callimachus for poetic and stylistic considerations. The Greek literary tradition from Homer on also serves as an important source for Virgil's use of mythological detail and digression.

Roman

Lucretius' De Rerum Natura serves as Virgil's primary Latin model in terms of genre and meter. Many passages from Virgil's poetry are indebted to Lucretius: the plague section of the third book takes as its model the plague of Athens that closes the De Rerum Natura. Virgil is also indebted to Ennius, who, along with Lucretius, naturalized hexameter verse in Latin. Virgil often uses language characteristic of Ennius to give his poetry an archaic quality. The intriguing idea has been put forth by one scholar that Virgil also drew on the rustic songs and speech patterns of Italy at certain points in his poem, to give portions of the work a distinct, Italian character. Virgil draws on the neoteric poets at times, and Catullus' Carmen 64 very likely had a large impact on the epyllion of Aristaeus that ends the Georgics 4. Virgil's extensive knowledge and skilful integration of his models is central to the success of different portions of the work and the poem as a whole.

Cultural contexts

Philosophical context

The two predominant philosophical schools in Rome during Virgil's lifetime were Stoicism and Epicureanism.  Of these two, the Epicurean strain is predominant not only in the Georgics but also in Virgil's social and intellectual milieu. Varius Rufus, a close friend of Virgil and the man who published the Aeneid after Virgil's death, had Epicurean tastes, as did Horace and his patron Maecenas.

The philosophical text with the greatest influence on the Georgics as a whole was Lucretius' Epicurean epic De rerum natura. G. B. Conte notes, citing the programmatic statement "Felix, qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas" in Georgics 2.490–502, which draws from De rerum natura 1.78–9, "the basic impulse for the Georgics came from a dialogue with Lucretius."  Likewise, David West remarks in his discussion of the plague in the third book, Virgil is "saturated with the poetry of Lucretius, and its words, phrases, thought and rhythms have merged in his mind, and become transmuted into an original work of poetic art."

Political context

Beginning with Caesar's assassination in 44 BCE and ending with Octavian's victory over Anthony and Cleopatra at Actium in 31 BCE, Rome had been engaged in a series of almost constant civil wars.  After almost 15 years of political and social upheaval, Octavian, the sole surviving member of the Second Triumvirate, became firmly established as the new leader of the Roman world.  Under Octavian, Rome enjoyed a long period of relative peace and prosperity.  However, Octavian's victory at Actium also sounded the death knell of the Republic.  With Octavian as the sole ruler of the Roman world, the Roman Empire was born.

It was during this period, and against this backdrop of civil war, that Virgil composed the Georgics.  While not containing any overtly political passages, politics are not absent from the Georgics.  Not only is Octavian addressed in the poem both directly and indirectly, but the poem also contains several passages that include references and images that could be interpreted as political, such as the description of the plague in Book 3 and Virgil's famous description of bee society in Book 4.  It is impossible to know whether or not these references and images were intended to be seen as political in nature, but it would not be inconceivable that Virgil was in some way influenced by the years of civil war.  Whether they were intentional or not, if we believe Suetonius, these references did not seem to trouble Octavian, to whom Virgil is said to have recited the Georgics in 29 BCE.

Laudes Galli
A comment by the Virgilian commentator Servius, that the middle to the end of the fourth book contained a large series of praises for Cornelius Gallus (laudes Galli means "praises of Gallus" in Latin), has spurred much scholarly debate. Servius tells us that after Gallus had fallen out of favour, Virgil replaced the praises of Gallus with the Orpheus episode. Those supporting Servius see the Orpheus episode as an unpolished, weak episode, and point out that it is unlike anything else in the Georgics in that it radically departs from the didactic mode that we see throughout, rendering it an illogical, awkward insertion. Indeed, the features of the episode are unique; it is an epyllion that engages mythological material. The episode does not further the narrative and has no immediately apparent relevance to Virgil's topic. The difficult, open-ended conclusion seems to confirm this interpretation.

In a highly influential article Anderson debunked this view, and it is now generally believed that there were not Laudes Galli and that the Orpheus episode is original. Generally, arguments against the view above question Servius' reliability, citing the possibility that he confused the end of the Georgics with the end of the Eclogues, which does make mention of Gallus. Further, they question its validity based on chronological evidence: the Georgics would have been finished a number of years before the disgrace and suicide of Gallus, and so one would expect more evidence of an alternative version of the end of the poem—or at least more sources mentioning it. Instead, the Orpheus episode is here understood as an integral part of the poem that articulates or encapsulates its ethos by reinforcing many ideas or reintroducing and problematizing tensions voiced throughout the text. The range of scholarship and interpretations offered is vast, and the arguments range from optimistic or pessimistic readings of the poem to notions of labour, Epicureanism, and the relationship between man and nature.

Repetitions in the Aeneid
Within Virgil's later epic work the Aeneid, there are some 51 lines that are recycled, either whole or in part, from the Georgics. There is some debate whether these repetitions are (1) intrusions within the text of later scribes and editors, (2) indications pointing toward the level of incompleteness of the Aeneid, or (3) deliberate repetitions made by the poet, pointing toward meaningful areas of contact between the two poems. As a careful study by Ward Briggs goes a long way to show, the repetition of lines in the Georgics and the Aeneid is probably an intentional move made by Virgil, a poet given to a highly allusive style, not, evidently, to the exclusion of his own previous writings. Indeed, Virgil incorporates full lines in the Georgics of his earliest work, the Eclogues, although the number of repetitions is much smaller (only eight) and it does not appear that any one line was reduplicated in all three of his works.

The repetitions of material from the Georgics in the Aeneid vary in their length and degree of alteration. Some of the less exact, single-line reduplications may very well show a nodding Virgil or scribal interpolation. The extended repetitions, however, show some interesting patterns. In about half the cases, technical, agrarian descriptions are adapted into epic similes. This is fitting, as the stuff of many epic similes is rooted in the natural and domestic worlds from which epic heroes are cut off. Virgil shows his technical expertise by re-contextualising identical lines to produce meanings that are different, or inverted from their initial meaning in the Georgics.  Additionally, some of these reproduced lines are themselves adapted from works by Virgil's earlier literary models, including Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica, Ennius' Annals, and Lucretius' On the Nature of Things. With a single line or two, Virgil links (or distances), expands (or collapses) themes of various texts treating various subjects to create an Aeneid that is a richly intertextual.

Reception and influence

Reception in antiquity
The work on Georgics was launched when agriculture had become a science and Varro had already published his Res rusticae, on which Virgil relied as a source—a fact already recognized by the commentator Servius. Virgil's scholarship on his predecessors produced an extensive literary reaction by the following generations of authors. Seneca's account that "Virgil ... aimed, not to teach the farmer, but to please the reader," underlines that Virgil's poetic and philosophic themes were abounding in his hexameters (Sen., Moral Letter 86.15).

Reception in the 18th century
John Dryden's 1697 poetic translation of Virgil's Georgics sparked a renewed interest in agricultural poetry and country life amongst the more educated classes during the 18th century. In the same year, the young Joseph Addison published his "Essay on Virgil's Georgics". In his eyes Virgil's poem seemed the principal model for this genre, which he defined as "some part of the science of husbandry, put into a pleasing dress and set off with all the beauties and embellishments of poetry". In the context of the 18th century, however, interest in the georgic, or the choice of it as a model for independent works, was "profoundly political", recognising an affinity with Virgil's treatment of rural subjects after the social and political disruptions through which he had lived.  The tone of Virgil's work represented a longing for the "creation of order out of disorder" to which the Roman Augustan age succeeded, much as the British Augustan Age emerged from the social ferment and civil strife of the 17th century. The cultured of a later age were quick to see the parallel, but there was also an altered emphasis. Whereas for Virgil there was an antithesis between town life and country simplicity, in the view of the gentry of the 18th century, city and country were interdependent. Those who created specialised georgics of their own considered the commodities about which they wrote as items of trade that contributed to both local and national prosperity. For Roman citizens, farming was carried out in the service of the capital; for Britons the empire was consolidated as the result of mercantile enterprise and such commodities contributed to the general benefit.

A critic has pointed out that "the British Library holds no fewer than twenty translations of the Georgics from [the 18th century] period; of these, eight are separately published translations of the Georgics alone. Several of these translations, such as Dryden's, were reprinted regularly throughout the century. Also noteworthy is the fact that the brisk rate of new translations continued into the early decades of the nineteenth century, with 1808 as a kind of annus mirabilis, when three new versions appeared." Some among these, like Dryden's and the Earl of Lauderdale's (1709), had primarily poetic aims. Other translators were clergymen amateurs (Thomas Nevile, Cambridge 1767) or, translating into prose, had school use in mind (Joseph Davidson, London 1743). William Sotheby went on to place his acclaimed literary version of 1800 in the context of others across Europe when he reissued it in the sumptuous folio edition Georgica Publii Virgilii Maronis Hexaglotta (London, 1827).  There it was accompanied by versions in Italian by Gian-Francesco Soave (1765), in Spanish by Juan de Guzmán (1768), in French by Jacques Delille (1769), and in German by Johann Heinrich Voss (1789).

Dutch influence on English farming also paved a way for the poem's rebirth, since Roman farming practices still prevailed in the Netherlands and were sustained there by Joost van den Vondel's prose translation of the Georgics into Dutch (1646). English farmers too attempted to imitate what they thought were genuine Virgilian agricultural techniques. In 1724 the poet William Benson wrote, "There is more of Virgil's husbandry in England at this instant than in Italy itself".  Among those translators who aimed to establish Virgil's up-to-date farming credentials was James Hamilton, whose prose translation of Virgil's work was "published with such notes and reflexions as make him appear to have wrote like an excellent Farmer" (Edinburgh, 1742). This aspiration was supported by the assertion that, to make a proper translation, agricultural experience was a prerequisite—and for the lack of which, in the view of William Benson, Dryden's version was disqualified. That Robert Hoblyn had practical experience as a farmer was a qualification he considered the guarantee of his 1825 blank verse translation of the first book of the Georgics; and even in modern times it was made a commendation of Peter Fallon's 2004 version that he is "both a poet and a farmer, uniquely suited to translating this poem". However, Hoblyn could only support his stance at this date by interpolation and special pleading. Throughout Europe, Virgilian-style farming manuals were giving way to the agricultural revolution and their use was supplanted by scientific data, technical graphs and statistics.

Contemporary readings
The overtly political element in Virgil's poem attracted some translators, who applied it to their own local circumstances. The translation of the Georgics into Ancient Greek by Eugenios Voulgaris was published from St Petersburg in 1786 and had as one aim the support of Russia's assimilation of the newly annexed Crimea by encouraging Greek settlement there. Virgil's theme of taming the wilderness was further underlined in an introductory poem praising Grigory Potemkin as a philhellene Maecenas and the Empress Catherine the Great as the wise ruler directing the new territory's welfare. The inference is also there that Voulgaris himself (now archbishop of Novorossiya and Azov) has become thus the imperial Virgil.

In Britain there was a tendency to grant Virgil honorary citizenship. In the introduction to his turn of the century translation for the Everyman edition, T. F. Royds argued that "just as the Latin poet had his pedigree, Virgil is here an adopted English poet, and his many translators have made for him an English pedigree too". So too, living in Devon as World War II progressed, C. Day Lewis saw his own translation as making a patriotic statement. As he commented later: "More and more I was buoyed up by a feeling that England was speaking to me through Virgil, and that the Virgil of the Georgics was speaking to me through the English farmers and labourers with whom I consorted." Among a multiplicity of earlier translations, his new version would be justified by avoiding "that peculiar kind of Latin-derived pidgin-English which infects the style of so many classical scholars" and making its appeal instead through an approachable, down-to-earth idiom.

In the 21st century, Frédéric Boyer's French version of the Georgics is retitled Le Souci de la terre (Care for the earth) and makes its appeal to current ecological concerns. "For me as a translator", he explains in his preface, "I find today's tragic paradigm in relation to the earth being addressed to the future through the ancient work. In other words, the past is entering into dialogue with the future right now." And in part, as in Virgil's time, this ecological crisis has come as a result of a loss of focus, preoccupation in the past with foreign wars and civil conflict.

Selected translations in English
John Ogilby (1649), first complete Virgil in English including a translation of the Georgicks in couplets
John Dryden (London, 1697) in heroic couplets
William Sotheby (London, 1800) in heroic couplets
R. D. Blackmore (London, 1871) in heroic couplets
Musgrave Wilkins (London, 1873) "a literal translation" in prose
James Rhoades (London 1881), blank verse
Arthur Way (London, 1912) quantitative verse couplets
J. W. Mackail (New York, 1934)  prose
C. Day-Lewis (London, 1940) quantitative verse
Peter Fallon (Oxford World Classics, 2006) quantitative verse
Kimberly Johnson (Penguin Classics, 2009) irregular verse

European georgics

Gardening guides
Virgil's work addressed itself to far more than simple farming and later poems of a didactic tendency often dealt with, and elaborated on, individual subjects mentioned in the course of the Georgics. What has been described as "the earliest English georgic on any subject" limited itself to practical advice on gardening. Attributed to an unidentified Master John, "The Feate of Gardeninge" dates from the first half of the 15th century and provides instructions for sowing, planting and growing fruits, herbs and flowers through the course of the year. The poem's 98 couplets are of irregular line-length and are occasionally imperfectly rhymed; the work was never printed, although annotated manuscript copies give evidence of its being studied and put to use.

Master John's poem heads the line of later gardening manuals in verse over the centuries. Included among them were poems in Latin like Giuseppe Milio's De Hortorum Cura (Brescia 1574) and René Rapin's popular Hortorum Libri IV (Of Gdns, 1665). The latter was a four-canto work in Latin hexameters, dealing respectively with flowers, disposition of trees, water and orchards, and was followed by two English versions shortly afterwards, translated by John Evelyn the Younger in 1673 and James Gardiner in 1706. Where those versions were written in rhyming couplets, however, William Mason later chose Miltonic blank verse for his The English Garden: A Poem in Four Books (1772–81), an original work that took the Georgics as its model. His French contemporary Jacques Delille, having already translated the Latin Georgics, now published his own four-canto poem on the subject of Les Jardins, ou l'Art d'embellir les paysages (Gardens, or the art of beautifying landscape, 1782). Like Mason, he gave his preference for landscaped over formal garden design and his work was several times translated into English verse over the following two decades.

Rural pursuits
In the case of many of these didactic manuals, the approach of the Georgics served as a model but the information in them is updated or supplements Virgil's account. Thus Giovanni di Bernardo Rucellai's Le Api (Bees, 1542) restricts itself to the subject of the fourth book of the Georgics and is an early example of Italian blank verse. A Latin treatment of the subject figured as the fourteenth book of the original Paris edition of :fr:Jacques Vanière's Praedium Rusticum (The Rural Estate) in 1696, but was to have a separate English existence in a verse translation by Arthur Murphy published from London in 1799, and later reprinted in the United States in 1808. But an earlier partial adaptation, Joshua Dinsdale's The Modern Art of Breeding Bees, had already appeared in London in 1740, prefaced with an apology to Virgil for trespassing on his ancient territory while bringing "some new Discov'ries to impart".

For his part, Marco Girolamo Vida struck out in a new entomological direction with his poem on the breeding and care of the silkworm, the two-canto De Bombycum cura ac usu (1527) written in Latin hexameters, which had been preceded by two poems in Italian on the same subject. Vida's work was followed in England by Thomas Muffet's The Silkwormes and their Flies (1599), a subject that he had studied in Italy. The poem was written in Ottava rima, contained a wealth of Classical stories and has been mentioned as "one of the earliest of English georgic poems".

Vida's poem was just one among several contemporary Latin works on exotic subjects that have been defined by Yasmin Haskell as 'recreational georgics', a group which "usually comprises one or two short books, treats self-consciously small-scale subjects, is informed by an almost pastoral mood" and deals with products for the aristocratic luxury market. Others included Giovanni Pontano's De Hortis Hesdperidum sive de cultu citriorum on the cultivation of citrus fruits (Venice 1505) and Pier Franceso Giustolo's De Croci Cultu on the cultivation of saffron (Rome 1510). There were also works on hunting like Natale Conti's De venatione (1551) and the Cynegeticon (Hunting with dogs) of Pietro degli Angeli which were the ultimate Italian ancestors of William Somervile's The Chace (London, 1735). The preface to the last of these notes with disapproval that one "might indeed have expected to have seen it treated more at large by Virgil in his third Georgick, since it is expressly Part of his Subject. But he has favoured us only with ten Verses."

The most encyclopaedic of the authors on country subjects was Jacques Vanière whose Praedium Rusticum reached its completest version in 1730. Integrated into its sixteen sections were several once issued as separate works. They included Stagna (Fishing, 1683), ultimately section 15, in which the author informs the reader (in the words of his English translator):
::Of fish I sing, and to the rural cares
Now add the labours of my younger years…
Now more improved since first they gave me fame;
From hence to tend the doves and vine I taught,
And whate'er else my riper years have wrought. That was followed by Columbae (Doves, 1684), mentioned in the lines above and ultimately section 13; by Vites (Vines, 1689), section 10; and by Olus (Vegetables, 1698), section 9. Two English clergymen poets later wrote poems more or less reliant on one or other of these sections. Joshua Dinsdale's The Dove Cote, or the art of breeding pigeons appeared in 1740; and John Duncombe's Fishing (quoted above), which was an adaptation written in the 1750s but unpublished until 1809.

English Georgics

Besides the 18th century examples already mentioned, English poets wrote other Virgilian styled georgics and country themed pieces manifesting an appreciation of the rustic arts and the happiness of life on the country estate. Among them were poems directed to such specialised subjects as John Philips's Cyder (1708) and John Gay's Rural Sports: A Georgic (1713). Gay then went on to compose in Trivia, or the art of walking the streets of London (1716)  "a full-scale mock Georgic". The poem is dependent on the method and episodes in Virgil's poem and may be compared with the contemporary renewal of classical genres in the mock epic and the introduction of urban themes into the eclogue by other Augustan poets at that period. Later examples of didactic georgics include Christopher Smart's The Hop-Garden (1752), Robert Dodsley's Agriculture (1753) and John Dyer's The Fleece (1757). Shortly afterwards,  James Grainger went on to create in his The Sugar Cane (1764) a "West-India georgic", spreading the scope of this form into the Caribbean with the British colonial enterprise. Unlike most contemporary translations of Virgil, many of these practical manuals preferred Miltonic blank verse and the later examples stretched to four cantos, as in the Virgilian model.

Later still there were poems with a broader scope, such as James Grahame's The British Georgics (Edinburgh, 1809). His work was on a different plan, however, proceeding month by month through the agricultural year and concentrating on conditions in Scotland, considering that "the British Isles differ in so many respects from the countries to which Virgil's Georgics alluded". Jacques Delille had already preceded him in France with a similar work, L'Homme des champs, ou les Géorgiques françaises (Strasbourg, 1800), a translation of which by John Maunde had been published in London the following year as The Rural Philosopher: or French Georgics, a didactic poem, and in the USA in 1804. Both works, however, though they bear the name of georgics, have more of a celebratory than a didactic function. They are a different sort of work that, while paying homage and alluding to Virgil's poem, have another end in view.

This descriptive genre of writing had an equally Renaissance pedigree in Politian's poem Rusticus (1483), which he composed to be recited as an introduction to his lectures on the didactic poems of Hesiod and the Georgica. Its intention was to praise country living in the course of describing its seasonal occupations.  A similar approach to the beauties of the countryside in all weathers was taken by James Thomson in the four sections of his The Seasons (1730). The poem has been described as "the supreme British achievement in the georgic genre, even though it has little to do with agriculture per se," and is more descriptive than didactic. Nevertheless, the Classical inspiration behind the work was so obvious that Thompson was pictured as writing it with "the page of Vergil literally open before him".

Other works in this vein moved further from the Virgilian didactic mode. William Cowper's discursive and subjective The Task (1785) has sometimes been included, as has Robert Bloomfield's The Farmer's Boy (1800). The latter proceeds through the farming year season by season and a partial translation into Latin was described by William Clubbe as being rendered 'in the manner of the Georgics' (in morem Latini Georgice redditum). It was followed in the 20th century by Vita Sackville-West's The Land (1926), which also pursued the course of the seasons through its four books and balanced rural know-how with celebratory description in the mode of Georgian Poetry.

See also
Bugonia
Prosody (Latin)

References

Further reading
 Bibliography: Vergil, Georgica: Eine Bibliographie
 Buckham, Philip Wentworth; Spence, Joseph; Holdsworth, Edward; Warburton, William; Jortin, John,  Miscellanea Virgiliana: In Scriptis Maxime Eruditorum Virorum Varie Dispersa, in Unum Fasciculum Collecta, Cambridge : Printed for W. P. Grant; 1825.
De Bruyn, Frans, "Eighteenth-Century Editions of Virgil's Georgics: From Classical Poem to Agricultural Treatise", Lumen XXIV 2005, pp.149-63
 Yasmin Haskell, Loyola's Bees: Ideology and Industry in Jesuit Latin Didactic Poetry, OUP/British Academy, 2003
 Lembke, Janet (2006) Virgil's Georgics. Yale University Press.
 Parker, Holt.  "Virgil's Garden" or the "Hortus Vergilianus"  at the University of Cincinnati. An interactive text of the poem with plant names linked to their translations into English, German, French, and Italian, modern Latin scientific names, and pictures.
 Thibodeau, Philip. 2011. Playing the Farmer. Representations of Rural Life in Vergil's Georgics. Berkeley: University of California Press
 Interview with Virgil scholar Richard Thomas and poet David Ferry, who recently translated Virgil's Georgics, on Thoughtcast
L. P. Wilkinson, The Georgics of Virgil: A Critical Survey, CUP 1969

External links

Online text
 The original Latin text at Wikisource and Tufts University's Perseus Digital Library
 Georgica translated by Henry Rushton Fairclough in 1916 for the Loeb Classical Library

Other sources
The Georgics: A Source of Inspiration of Quotations in Wilanów at the Wilanów Palace Museum
  (in English and Latin)

Poetry by Virgil
Geoponici
1st-century BC Latin books
Works based on classical mythology

Georgics


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MEPS was modeled after the National Medical Expenditure Survey (NMES) and the National Medical Care Utilization and Expenditure Survey (NMCUES), which were conducted in 1977 (NMES-1), 1980 (NMCUES), and 1987 (NMES-2).  Each of these surveys was tasked with providing data on a representative sample of Americans'  interaction with the medical care system.  Although the NMES and NMCUES were sampled independently from the U.S. population, each new MEPS sample is drawn from the outgoing National Health Interview Survey panel. MEPS is generally considered the direct descendant of these surveys, and prestigious peer-reviewed journals commonly publish articles that examine trends calculated between MEPS and its predecessors.

Research topics
The Medical Expenditure Panel Survey can be used for a wide range of topics related to the U.S. healthcare system, including Access to Care, Children's Health, Chronic Conditions, Health Insurance, Health Disparities, Women's Health, Prescription Drugs, Individuals with Disabilities, and the Elderly.  AHRQ continually produces chartbooks, statistical briefs, and fact sheets using MEPS data which shed light on these various facets of how the American healthcare system functions, what patients experience, how they behave, and who pays for the cost of care.

Data accessibility
The MEPSnet Query Tools interactive table builder allows non-statisticians to select a data year and medical variable(s) of interest, and produce descriptive statistics and crosstabulations of Household Component and Insurance Component data from the AHRQ website.

Data available
The current publicly available Medical Expenditure Panel Survey – Household Component data set consists of six files which describe the demographics and characteristics of the survey population and eight event-level files which capture all interactions with the U.S. medical system.

Household Component Full-Year Files
The six full-year files include:

 The Full-Year Consolidated Data files (released annually in November) – The main person-level file of the Household Component data set, which includes all demographic and medical characteristics, as well as patient-reported responses to the main survey questions.  Since the survey involves five interview rounds over the two-year panel, data from interview rounds 1, 2, and 3 are included for individuals in their first of two years, and data from interview rounds 3, 4, and 5 are included for individuals in their second of two years.  These single-year consolidated datafiles can be thought of as the first half of one two-year panel survey stacked on top of the second half of another two-year panel survey.
 The Full-Year Population Characteristics files (released annually in May) – A skeleton version of the person-level consolidated file, which gets released six months before the Consolidated file of the same year but does not include any income or medical expenditure variables.
 The Medical Conditions files (released annually in November) – The medical condition-level file, which can be linked to both the person-level files and the event-level files.  Unlike the medical event-level files, which describe a solitary encounter with the U.S. healthcare system, records within the Medical Conditions files contain a distinct ICD-9 code, Clinical Classification Code, and describe only one ailment (illness or injury).  In order to view all medical events during the calendar year associated with a particular condition, a many-to-one join can be executed between this file and zero, one, or more of the event-level files' records (on CONDIDX).  The medical condition records in this file can also be merged with a many-to-one join to the person-level files (on DUPERSID), where each person may have zero, one, or multiple matching condition records.
 The Jobs files (released annually in May) – The jobs-level data file contains information about each job that each MEPS-HC survey respondent held over the course of the calendar year, including wages, hours, industry, and occupation, as well as various healthcare-related survey questions (such as offers of employer-sponsored insurance, sick day availability, etc.).  This file can be merged with the full-year *person-level file (on DUPERSID), with one match per unique job an individual held during the calendar year.  It can also be merged with the Person Round Plan file, matching (on JOBSIDX) wherever a private health insurance plan was obtained through a place of employment.
 The Person Round Plan (PRPL) files (released annually in October) – This health insurance plan by interview date file contains information about each private insurance plan covering each individual surveyed, with one record per interview date (three annually).  Private health insurance plans include physician/hospital, dental, vision, medigap, and prescription drugs.  This file contains health insurance-specific information, such as an edited monthly out-of-pocket insurance premium, source of coverage and premium payment, as well as some questions about the plan holder's satisfaction with the plan.  Although this file can be merged with both person-level files (on DUPERSID) and the Jobs files (on JOBSIDX), this file contains one record per person, per plan, per interview and therefore does not easily condense into one-to-one merges.  As an analytic shortcut, data users might simply limit this data set to each unique person-plan's first interview record of the year; the first interview number (RN) available for each distinct establishment identifier and policyholder identifier combination (ESTBIDX + PHLDRIDX).
 The Longitudinal Weight files (released annually in December) – This person-level file mirrors the main Consolidated files in terms of contents, except that it contains survey responses for all five rounds and therefore contains half as many observations.  The two-year, five-interview survey data aggregated into this file is designed to be representative of two years' worth of medical behavior of the U.S. noninstitutionalized population over the period specified.

Household Component Event Files
The eight event-level files generally contain one record per event, and contain various information pertaining to the specific type of event.  Each record contains one or more ICD-9 codes to describe and categorize the type of medical encounter experienced by the surveyed individual.  The event-level files also contain the breakdown of spending by payor associated with the event and a date (or start and end dates) that the event took place.  Each of these event files can be joined with the person-level files in a many-to-one match (on DUPERSID), where an individual with zero medical events during the calendar year would generate zero matches, but an individual with two doctor visits and a dental visit would generate three matches across all of the event files.  The event-level files can also be joined with the condition files (on CONDIDX) to determine what medical expenditure can be associated with particular conditions.  The eight files include:

 The Prescribed Medicines files (released annually in October) – This file contains one household-reported prescribed medicine purchase during the calendar year.  Prescription purchases are then verified by the prescribing pharmacy.  In addition to the expenditure information, this file contains characteristics of the medication, such as the National Drug Code (NDC) identifier, the drug name, and the Multum Lexicon category.  Prescribed medical events may be more difficult to analyze, since the strength of the drug and quantity purchased may vary, despite two separate prescription-events being the same chemical substance.  Prescribed medical events may also be more difficult to analyze, since, unlike other recorded medical events, a pharmacy encounter does not guarantee that the medication has been administered (i.e. that the patient stuck to his or her drug regiment).  This file should be thought of as containing one record per pharmacy encounter.
 The Dental Visits files (released annually in August) – The file contains one record for each dental visit during the calendar year.  It includes dental-specific information such as the type of provider seen, if the visit was due to an accident, reason for the dental event, and any medication was prescribed.
 The Other Medical Expenses files (released annually in August) – This file contains one record for each medical expense that does not fit into any of the other event type categories.  The events and expenditures captured in this file are overwhelmingly recorded as Glasses and Contact Lenses, with Durable Medical Equipment (such as Orthopedic items, Prostheses, Hearing Devices) also included.
 The Hospital Inpatient Stays files (released annually in October) – This file contains hospitalization-specific information including the date of and reason for the stay, the types of services received, and any procedure(s) undertaken during the hospital inpatient stay.
 The Emergency Room Visits files (released annually in September) – This file contains emergency room-specific information including the date of and reason for the visit, the types of services received, and any procedures(s) undertaken during the visit.  Since many E.R. visits continue into Inpatient Hospital admissions, the spending incurred during any E.R. visit resulting in an Inpatient Hospital Admission gets transferred to the Hospital Inpatient Stays event file (identifiable using the ERHEVIDX variable) and the medical expenditure cannot be divided out between pre- and post-admission.
 The Outpatient Visits files (released annually in September) – This file contains information about each visit to an outpatient hospital setting, including type of test or treatment being provided, whether or not a physician was seen (and if so what specialty), and what condition or diagnosis the visit was related to.
 The Office-based Visits files (released annually in September) – This file captures each office-based encounter of all sampled individuals.  This file contains all necessary descriptive information about visits to Primary Care Physicians, specialist physicians, and non-physician medical providers (such as Nurse Practitioners and Physical Therapists) that occurred outside of a hospital setting.  In addition to the general event visit information, this file includes certain details about any preventive services, tests, and vaccinations received.
 The Home Health Visits files (released annually in August) – This file contains one record for each time that a certified home health medical practitioner visits a sampled individual.  In addition to the standard event file variables, this file contains information about the home health medical provider's credentials and skills, the length of the visit, and the type(s) of care received.  This file includes medical visits by hospice providers, which are generally paid for home-based care through the Medicare Hospice benefit.

Publications
The Medical Expenditure Panel Survey is commonly the subject of analysis in articles on health policy and health services in research journals such as Health Affairs, JAMA, Health Services Research, and the New England Journal of Medicine.

Methodology
Noninstitutionalized civilian Americans (both citizens and non-citizens) are sampled at the household, allowing for analyses of medical behavior at the family-level as well as the individual-level.  Each year, households containing a total of approximately 15,000 individuals are sub-sampled from the National Health Interview Survey's two year panel.  These individuals are then followed with five in-person interviews (rounds) over the course of two years during which a complete demographic profile is collected, all medical encounters are documented, and patient-reported subjective questions regarding topics like satisfaction with care are obtained.

MEPS employs a complex survey sample design in order to oversample certain population groups of interest; this survey design must be accounted for (using either the Taylor Series Linearization method or the Balanced repeated replication method) to appropriately calculate the standard errors.

References

External links
 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey website

Demographics of the United States
Quantitative research
Healthcare in the United States

Medical Expenditure Panel Survey


Aubrey Kachingwe (born 1926) is a Malawian novelist and short-story writer. He was educated in Malawi and Tanzania. He is "famed for being the first Malawian writer to publish with the prestigious African Writers Series (arguably the most significant publisher of African Literature in English).. he published a political novel, No Easy Task, in 1966 just four years after African Writers Series was launched." It was his first and only novel. He has written many short stories published in local and international papers and magazines.

References

1926 births
Living people
Malawian novelists
Malawian short story writers
20th-century novelists
20th-century short story writers

Aubrey Kachingwe


Onseepkans is a small settlement on the banks of the Orange River in Northern Cape Province, South Africa. It is a border post with Namibia for traffic between Pofadder in South Africa and Keetmanshoop in Namibia. The name either originated from a combination of three Nama words: 'tconsiep' (an elbow projecting into the river), 'nias' (a rocky surface), and 'tcaans' (thorntrees), or a derivative of a nama word that means 'watering place for cattle'.

In 1909, a prospector by the name of Edwells settled in the area. The land was eventually bought from him in 1916 by a group of farmers, who saw potential for irrigation in the area. Ecotourism has been growing ever since the establishment of a riverside campsite and various farm cottages. It is also the entry point for visits to the Ritchie Falls, the second highest waterfall on the Orange River, after the Augrabies Falls. The Ritchie Falls are in a pristine wilderness area, only accessible after a two-day hike or by rafting down from Onseepkans. Guided hikes and rafting trips are available. The falls (both Augrabies and Ritchie) are threatened by the development of a hydro power station proposed by a consortium between Hydro Tasmania and Hydro South Africa, despite the fact that only 10% of the Orange River is considered to be pristine wilderness.

From 1969 onwards, there were 2 companies of SADF Border Guards located at the town, co-located with an Operating Signals Regiment of the SADF Air Force.

There are small communities on both sides of the Orange River in one of the most remote and beautiful parts of the country. The Quiver tree (Kokerboom in Afrikaans) forest between Pofadder and Onseepkans is stunning and is the largest forest of its type in the Southern Hemisphere.

The area is very hot. Summer temperatures can exceed 50 °C while in the middle of winter temperatures in the high 30s can still be experienced. To reach the settlement one has to travel 49 kilometers along the R358 from Pofadder.

References

Populated places established in 1916
Populated places in the Khâi-Ma Local Municipality
Namibia–South Africa border crossings

Onseepkans


The North Fork of the Humboldt River is an approximately  long tributary of the Humboldt River in northern Elko County, Nevada.

Course
The river has its headwaters on the north slopes of McAfee Peak in the Independence Mountains of northeastern Nevada.  It quickly exits the mountains and turns southward for approximately , joining its waters with numerous other streams.  Making a sharp bend to the east, it flows through a small gorge called Devil's Gap and then combines with Beaver Creek before resuming its southward course.  The river, often with no more than a trickle of water left after its long journey through the dry hills of north-central Elko County, finally flows into the main branch of the Humboldt River about  northeast of the city of Elko.

History
The North Fork watershed is remote. Some mining activity in the area took place in about 1870, followed by cattle ranching and later sheep ranching in the 1890s. Problems of overgrazing and erosion in the Independence Mountains, which form the headwaters of the North Fork, prompted the federal government to establish the Independence Forest Reserve in 1906. This reserve has since been incorporated into the Mountain City Ranger District of the Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest.

References

External links

Tributaries of the Humboldt River
Rivers of Elko County, Nevada
Rivers of Nevada
Humboldt–Toiyabe National Forest

North Fork Humboldt River


Raffaele La Capria (3 October 1922 – 26 June 2022) was an Italian novelist and screenwriter. He was known for his series of three novels (the most important is "Ferito a morte") which were known as Tre romanzi di una giornata. La Capria was born in Naples. He was married to actress Ilaria Occhini until her death in July 2019.

He worked as co-scriptwriter on many of Francesco Rosi's movies, including Le mani sulla città (1963), Uomini contro (1970) and Cristo si è fermato a Eboli (1979). In September 2001 he won a Premio Campiello lifetime achievement award and in 2005 L'estro quotidiano was selected as the winner of the Viareggio Prize for fiction.

La Capria died on 26 June 2022 in Rome, Italy at the age of 99.

References

1922 births
2022 deaths
Italian novelists
Italian screenwriters
Movie people from Naples
Writers from Naples

Raffaele La Capria


The 1796 United States presidential election in South Carolina took place between November 4 and December 7, 1796, as part of the 1796 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose 8 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.

During this election, South Carolina cast 8 electoral votes for former Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson.

References

South Carolina
1796
1796 South Carolina elections


Arnaut de Mareuil (fl. late 12th century) was a troubadour, composing lyric poetry in the Occitan language. Twenty-five, perhaps twenty-nine, of his songs, all cansos, survive, six with music. According to Hermann Oelsner's contribution to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Arnaut de Mareuil surpassed his more famous contemporary Arnaut Daniel in "elegant simplicity of form and delicacy of sentiment". This runs against the consensus of both past and modern scholars: Dante, Petrarch, Pound and Eliot, who were familiar with both authors and consistently proclaim Daniel's supremacy

His name indicates that he came from Mareuil-sur-Belle in Périgord. He is said to have been a "clerk" from a poor family who eventually became a jongleur; he settled at the courts of Toulouse and then Béziers. He apparently loved the countess Azalais, daughter of Raymond V of Toulouse, married to Roger II Trencavel, and Arnaut's surviving poems may be seen as a sequence (lyric cycle) telling of his love. Alfonso II of Aragon was his rival for Azalais's affections, and according to the razó to one of Arnaut's poems, the king jealously persuaded her to break off her friendship with Arnaut. He fled to Montpellier, where he found a patron in count William VIII.
Arnaut's cantaire (singer) and jongleur (minstrel, messenger) was Pistoleta.

References
Biographies des troubadours, ed. J. Boutière, A.-H. Schutz. Paris: Nizet, 1964. pp. 32–38.
Gaunt, Simon, and Kay, Sarah (edd.) The Troubadours: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. .
Johnston, R. C. Les poèsies lyriques du troubadour Arnaut de Mareuil. Paris, 1935.

Notes

12th-century French troubadours
People from Dordogne

Arnaut de Mareuil


N-type metal–oxide–semiconductor logic uses n-type (-) MOSFETs (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors) to implement logic gates and other digital circuits. These nMOS transistors operate by creating an inversion layer in a p-type transistor body. This inversion layer, called the n-channel, can conduct electrons between n-type "source" and "drain" terminals. The n-channel is created by applying voltage to the third terminal, called the gate. Like other MOSFETs, nMOS transistors have four modes of operation: cut-off (or subthreshold), triode, saturation (sometimes called active), and velocity saturation.

For many years, NMOS circuits were much faster than comparable PMOS and CMOS circuits, which had to use much slower p-channel transistors. It was also easier to manufacture NMOS than CMOS, as the latter has to implement  p-channel transistors in special n-wells on the p-substrate. The major drawback with NMOS (and most other logic families) is that a direct current must flow through a logic gate even when the output is in a steady state (low in the case of NMOS). This means static power dissipation, i.e. power drain even when the circuit is not switching, leading to high power consumption.

Additionally, just like in diode–transistor logic, transistor–transistor logic, emitter-coupled logic etc., the asymmetric input logic levels make NMOS and PMOS circuits more susceptible to noise than CMOS. These disadvantages are why CMOS logic has supplanted most of these types in most high-speed digital circuits such as microprocessors despite the fact that CMOS was originally very slow compared to logic gates built with bipolar transistors.

Overview
MOS stands for metal-oxide-semiconductor, reflecting the way MOS-transistors were originally constructed, predominantly before the 1970s, with gates of metal, typically aluminium. Since around 1970, however, most MOS circuits have used self-aligned gates made of polycrystalline silicon, a technology first developed by Federico Faggin at Fairchild Semiconductor. These silicon gates are still used in most types of MOSFET based integrated circuits, although metal gates (Al or Cu) started to reappear in the early 2000s for certain types of high speed circuits, such as high performance microprocessors.

The MOSFETs are n-type enhancement mode transistors, arranged in a so-called "pull-down network" (PDN) between the logic gate output and negative supply voltage (typically the ground). A pull up (i.e. a "load" that can be thought of as a resistor, see below) is placed between the positive supply voltage and each logic gate output. Any logic gate, including the logical inverter, can then be implemented by designing a network of parallel and/or series circuits, such that if the desired output for a certain combination of boolean input values is zero (or false), the PDN will be active, meaning that at least one transistor is allowing a current path between the negative supply and the output. This causes a voltage drop over the load, and thus a low voltage at the output, representing the zero.

As an example, here is a NOR gate implemented in schematic NMOS.  If either input A or input B is high (logic 1, = True), the respective MOS transistor acts as a very low resistance between the output and the negative supply, forcing the output to be low (logic 0, = False).  When both A and B are high, both transistors are conductive, creating an even lower resistance path to ground. The only case where the output is high is when both transistors are off, which occurs only when both A and B are low, thus satisfying the truth table of a NOR gate:

A MOSFET can  be made to operate as a resistor, so the whole circuit can be made with n-channel MOSFETs only. NMOS circuits are slow to transition from low to high.  When transitioning from high to low, the transistors provide low resistance, and the capacitive charge at the output drains away very quickly (similar to discharging a capacitor through a very low resistor). But the resistance between the output and the positive supply rail is much greater, so the low to high transition takes longer (similar to charging a capacitor through a high value resistor). Using a resistor of lower value will speed up the process but also increases static power dissipation. However, a better (and the most common) way to make the gates faster is to use depletion-mode transistors instead of enhancement-mode transistors as loads. This is called depletion-load NMOS logic.

See also
PMOS logic
Depletion-load NMOS logic including the processes called HMOS (high density, short channel MOS), HMOS-II, HMOS-III, etc. A family of high performance manufacturing processes for depletion-load NMOS logic circuits that was developed by Intel in the late 1970s and used for many years. Several CMOS manufacturing processes such as CHMOS, CHMOS-II, CHMOS-III, etc., descended directly from these NMOS-processes.

References

External links

Logic families
MOSFETs
Arab inventions
Egyptian inventions
South Korean inventions

NMOS logic


The Army of Mississippi (also called the Confederate Army of the Mississippi) was a Confederate army during the American Civil War. It should not be confused with the Union Army of the Mississippi. It was formed on March 29, 1862. The commander was Full General Albert Sidney Johnston with Full General P. G. T. Beauregard as second-in-command. After Johnston's death at the Battle of Shiloh, Beauregard took over. After that there were a series of commanders. In November 1862, the Army of Mississippi was renamed the Army of Tennessee. The second army called the Army of Mississippi was created in December 1862, under Lieutenant general John C. Pemberton. This army had a confusing number of additional names. The II corps, under Major general Sterling Price was called the "Army of West Tennessee". It was also called the Army of the West. When both corps (I corps and II corps) were changed into divisions in January 1863, they dropped the name Army of Mississippi. Leonidas Polk had commanded I corps. In May 1864, Polk's troops joined with Joseph E. Johnston's Army of Tennessee to form the third Army of Mississippi. Polk was killed in June 1862 after which the army was simply called Alexander P. Stewart's corps.

Notes

References

Confederate States of America
1862 establishments in the United States

Army of Mississippi


The New Canaan Nature Center () is a botanical garden, arboretum and nature preserve located at 144 Oenoke Ridge, Route 124, about  north of the center of New Canaan, Connecticut.

The nature center includes wet and dry meadows, two ponds, wet and dry woodlands, dense thickets, an old orchard, and a cattail marsh, as well as a  greenhouse. Landscaped areas of the site include a wildflower garden (which won the 1997 Homer Lucas Landscape Award from the New England Wild Flower Society), a herb garden and a perennial border. About 90% of the plant specimens in the wildflower garden are native species, including bloodroot, columbine, mayapple, jack-in-the-pulpit, wild geranium, Solomon's plume, starflower, and trillium. Shade-loving perennials include bleeding heart, crested iris, Jacob's ladder, hepatica, European ginger and Virginia bluebells. Azaleas, rhododendrons and a stand of mountain laurel also feature.

The center also contains a small arboretum of Sciadopitys verticillata (Umbrella Pine), Chamaecyparis pisifera Squarrosa (Moss Sawara Cypress), Chamaecyparis pisifera Plumosa (Plume False Cyprus), Pinus densiflora 'Umbraculifera' (Japanese Umbrella Pine), Fagus sylvatica 'Atropunicea' (Purple Beech), Fagus sylvatica 'Pendula' (European Weeping Beech), Cercis canandensis (Eastern Redbud), Acer palmatum 'Dissectum-Pendula', Pinus cembra (Swiss Stone Pine) and Picea apies 'Repens' (Weeping Norway Spruce).

New Canaan Nature Center features many nature programs throughout the year, including the Fall Fair every October, and maple sugaring celebrations in early spring.

See also
 List of botanical gardens in the United States
 List of nature centers in the United States

References

External links
 New Canaan Nature Center Homepage

Buildings and structures in New Canaan, Connecticut
Tourist attractions in Fairfield County, Connecticut
Nature centers in Connecticut
Botanical gardens in Connecticut
Arboreta in Connecticut
Protected areas of Fairfield County, Connecticut
Protected areas established in 1960
Education in Fairfield County, Connecticut

New Canaan Nature Center


Binsey is a hill on the northern edge of the Lake District in Cumbria, England. It is detached from the rest of the Lakeland hills, and thus provides a good spot to look out at the Northern and North Western Fells of the Lake District, as well as the coastal plain and, across the Solway Firth, Scotland.  Snaefell on the Isle of Man is also visible on a clear day. It is the northernmost of the Wainwrights.

Topography
Binsey stands on the otherwise low-level watershed separating the catchments of the Ellen to the north and the Derwent to the south. A slight ridge connects it to Great Cockup in the main massif of the Northern Fells, two miles to the south east. Binsey itself has a rounded form, but somehow manages to impress the eye more than the similar Great Mell Fell and Little Mell Fell.

The 'pudding basin' shape holds all around Binsey except to the north west where a ridge descends over Whitas Park to a depression containing the remains of a Roman fort. Beyond is St John's Hill (950 ft / 290 m) (called Caermote Hill in Wainwright's Outlying Fells) which is topped by an earthwork called 'The Battery'. Finally the ridge descends to the village of Bothel in the Ellen Valley.

Binsey sends out a further spur to the east, culminating in the shapely top of Latrigg (1,030 ft)— not to be confused with Latrigg near Keswick. Beneath Latrigg is Over Water, a large tarn which was raised by damming in 1920 to provide drinking water for Wigton. The outflow of Over Water feeds the Ellen, as does the gloriously named Humble Jumble Gill which drains Binsey's northern flank.

The hill is largely grass and heather, with only one significant outcrop of rock, West Crag. Flanking the eastern slopes of the fell is a thin belt of mixed woodland and a further plantation sits below West Crag.

Summit
The summit is crowned by a tumulus whose stones have been raided to produce several small circular wind-shelters. There is also a modern cairn atop the tumulus and a trig point.
Regarding the view, Wainwright stated: '...it is a most excellent station for appraising the Northern Fells as a preliminary to their exploration...it is a viewpoint of outstanding merit.' Far to the south the Coniston Fells can be seen, almost 25 miles (40 km) away, while to the north the Solway Firth and the hills of Scotland are visible.

A computer-generated summit panorama can be seen here. The furthest point visible on a clear day is the top of Slieve Donard, the highest mountain in Northern Ireland, in Mourne, 115 miles (185 km) away.

Geology
The hill is formed from volcanic rocks, namely various sub-units of the Eycott Volcanic Group, which consists of basaltic andesite, andesite and rhyolitic lavas. There are several small disused quarries to the east and north.

Ascents
The hill can be climbed by several routes, perhaps most simply beginning in the south-east (Parking on the road between Binsey Lodge and Fell Side Farm), following a track to the summit. An alternative is along a lane from the A591 road, just north of Bewaldeth. From the top of the lane a loop to the left and behind a disused pit will enable the track across the summit to be picked up. Wainwright also lists a further route from High Ireby.

Views from the summit

References

Marilyns of England
Fells of the Lake District
Tumuli in England
Cumberland (unitary authority)

Binsey


The Top End of Australia's Northern Territory is a geographical region encompassing the northernmost section of the Northern Territory, which aside from the Cape York Peninsula is the northernmost part of the Australian continent. It covers a rather vaguely defined area of about 245,000 km² (95,000 sq mi) behind the northern coast from the Northern Territory capital of Darwin across to Arnhem Land with the Indian Ocean on the west, the Arafura Sea to the north, and the Gulf of Carpentaria to the east, and with the almost waterless semi-arid interior of Australia to the south, beyond the huge Kakadu National Park.

The Top End contains both of the Territory's cities and one of its major towns, Darwin, Palmerston and Katherine.  The well-known town of Alice Springs is located further south, in the arid southern part of the Northern Territory, sometimes referred to by Australians as the Red Centre.

The landscape is relatively flat with river floodplains and grasslands with eucalyptus trees along with rocky areas and patches of rainforest, and in western Arnhem Land a high rugged sandstone plateau cut through with gorges, much of which is in Kakadu National Park. The rivers that form the wetlands include the South and East Alligator Rivers, Mary River, and the Glyde River. The climate is tropical monsoon with a wet and dry season, bringing the highest rainfall in northern Australia (over  per year). Temperatures do not fluctuate widely throughout the year.

There are a number of islands off the Top End coast including the  Tiwi Islands (Bathurst Island and  Melville Island), and Groote Eylandt as well as many smaller ones.

Flora
Most savanna in Australia is used for grazing livestock, but in this far north, vast areas of grassland are in their original state and dotted with Darwin stringybark and Darwin woollybutt  eucalyptus trees; these grasslands are a unique and highly important ecoregion. The sandstone plateau area of the ecoregion is a particularly rich centre of biodiversity supporting a unique heathland flora. The northern Top End is within the Arnhem Land tropical savanna ecoregion. A belt of transitional tropical savannas and woodlands (Carpentaria, Kimberley, and Victoria Plains) lies between the Top End and the semi-arid mulga scrubland, mallee, and sand dunes of Australia's centre. The transition is gradual, and the demarcation line that divides the Top End from the centre is arbitrary.

Fauna
This area is home to unique wildlife. The rivers and estuaries are home to large populations of both saltwater and freshwater crocodiles, as well as bull sharks, sawfish, and dugongs. The wetlands are a rich habitat vital to bird migration and home to large populations of birds, including the world's largest breeding colony of magpie geese, as well as large numbers of rodents and snakes. Endemic species of the Top End include the Woodward's wallaroo, Oenpelli python, chestnut-quilled rock-pigeon, Arnhem Land rock rat, and several species of skinks. Other reptiles include frill-necked lizards and large monitor lizards (known locally as goannas). Snakes include the olive python, death adder (Acanthophis), mulga, water python (Liasis fuscus), and various others. The plateau is home to many of these endemics, especially invertebrates, fish, and frogs, including, for example, hundreds of species of ants. The offshore islands are home to unique subspecies of some of this wildlife.

Threats and preservation
The landscape is well preserved and most of the area is traditionally managed by Aboriginal land trusts, including Kakadu National Park, which is Australia's largest national park and a World Heritage Site. Although some populations have declined, there have been no major extinctions of wildlife in this area. Darwin, though, is a growing city and a base for agriculture and mining, both of which threaten habitats. Introduced plants and animals, such as the water buffalo, are also changing natural habitats, and there has been criticism of the way the local population has changed the fire regimes used to control the bush foliage, in which large areas are burnt each year and allowed to renew. Also there was a large aboriginal trade in that area  which has mostly settled down.

References

External links

Regions of the Northern Territory
Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
Drainage basins of Australia

Top End


The one-party dominant state is a system of majority rule where one political party has successively won election victories by a very large majority and is, therefore, the dominant ruling party, which does not have to form coalitions (alliances) with other smaller political parties as a result.

The one-party dominant state differs from a one-party state, because opposition parties against the dominant ruling party are allowed, but have no real chance of gaining power.

Many one-party dominant states are dictatorships where only one party can by law be in control, but some one-party dominant states are real democracies, where there are no limits by law against other parties.

A case of this was Mexico, where Presidential candidates (the person running for this governmental office) of the Institutional Revolutionary Party were popularly elected for more than 70 years. In Sweden and Japan, the ruling party lost at least one election but soon won another and returned to power.

Another example is South Africa, where the African National Congress has been the ruling party of post-apartheid South Africa since the democratization of the country with the election of Nelson Mandela in the 1994, winning every election since then. During the apartheid era, the National Party of South Africa ruled from 1948 to 1994 and imposed apartheid.

In one-party dominant states that are dictatorships, the ruling party often stays in power through electoral fraud and gerrymandering, and also by suppressing the opposition who don't accept this for moral reasons, which totally undermines the political legitimacy of the ruling party and the system.

Political systems
Dictatorship

One-party dominant state


The Vojnović family (Serbian Cyrillic: Војновић,  Vojnovići / Војновићи) or Vojinović (Serbian Cyrillic: Војиновић,  Vojinovići / Војиновићи), was a Serbian noble family in the Bay of Kotor and Dalmatia active in the 18th and early 19th century, serving the Republic of Venice and Republic of Ragusa. They were very prominent politicians, intellectuals, soldiers, maritime captains and merchants in history of Dalmatia.

The family tree can be reached back to 1536. According to tradition, the family descended from Vojin, the grandson of Serbian king Stefan Dečanski (r. 1321–32).  The family moved to the Bay of Kotor from Herzegovina in 1692, fleeing Ottoman terror, settling in Herceg Novi, which was taken over by the Republic of Venice after the 1689–92 battles of the Morean War. The Republic of Venice recognized their nobility status and coat of arms after 1771, Austria in 1815 (along with other para-nobility of Dalmatia and the Bay of Kotor). Upon receiving noble status, the family adopted the coat of arms of Serbian magnate Nikola Altomanović ( 1359–76) as displayed in the Il regno di Slavi of Mavro Orbini (1563–1614).

From the end of the 17th- to the 19th-century members of the family emigrated to Austria, Italy, Hungary and Russia. Marko Vojnović (1732–1807) founded the Black Sea Fleet of the Imperial Russian Navy. Jovan V. Vojnović (fl. 1772–82) was a Russian admiral and general consul in the Greek archipelago. Aleksandar V. Vojnović was a Russian cavalry general.

Family tree

Vujo Vojinović
Miloš Vujov Serdarević
Jovan Vujov Vojnović, progenitor of the Herceg Novi Vojnović
Pavle Jovanov Vojnović
brothers Jovan Vojnović, Vojin Vojnović, Dimitrije Vojnović of Trieste
Marko Jovanov Vojnović of Imperial Russia
Vasilije (Vasilj) Jovanov Vojnović (married Ana Magazinović)
Jovan (Ivan) Vasiljević Vojnović
Đorđe Vasiljević Vojnović (married Cassandra Angeli Radovani)
Jovan Đorđev Vojnović (married Katarina Gojković)
Đorđe Jovanov Vojnović (married an unknown member of the Martinelli clan)
Dušan Đorđev Vojnović
Ljubica Vojnović (married an unknown member of the Mirković clan)
Darinka Vojnović (married an unknown member of the Gojković clan)
Konstantin (Kosta) Jovanov Vojnović (married Maria Serragli)
Ivo Konstantinov Vojnović
Lujo Konstantinov Vojnović (married Tinka Kopač)
Marija (Marica) Lujov Vojnović (married an unknown member of the Schidlof clan)
Ivan Schidlof
Xenia Vojnović (not married)
Eugenija Vojnović (married Charles Loiseau)
Frédéric-Jean Loiseau
Geneviève Loiseau (married René Carlier)
Christiane Loiseau (married André Bommeler)
Ivan Loiseau (married Jeanne-Marie Pavie)
Kostia Loiseau
Marie-Hélène Loiseau (married François Jager)
François Jager (married Bernadette Lefebure)
Henriette Jager (married Emmanuel Lescure)
Kostia Jager (married Marie Seichepine)
Hélène Jager (married Mériadec Lescure)
Jérôme Lescure - 1960
Patricia Lescure - 1962 (married Xavier d'Esquerre)
Séverine d'Esquerre -1988 (married Jean-Baptiste du Tremolet de Lacheisserie)
Constantin du Tremolet de Lacheisserie- 2014
Paul du Tremolet de Lacheisserie - 2016
Anne-France d'Esquerre-1991
Matthieu d'Esquerre-1991
Arnaud d'Esquerre - 1996
Louis d'Esquerre -2001
Alexandre d'Esquerre - 2003
Benoit Lescure
François Lescure
Nicolas Lescure - 1970
Catherine Lescure
Kristina Vojnović
Katica Vojnović
Aleksandar Vasiljević Vojnović
Dmitar Vasiljević Vojnović
Nikola Vojnović

References

Sources

Serbian noble families
Bay of Kotor
History of Dalmatia
Ragusan noble families
Republic of Venice families

Vojnović noble family


Jesse Tobias (born April 1, 1972) is an American musician who has been the lead guitarist and co-writer for Morrissey since 2004. Tobias first gained fame during a brief tenure with the Red Hot Chili Peppers in 1993, although he was replaced by Dave Navarro within a month after joining the band. Before he joined the Chili Peppers, he briefly played with the band Mother Tongue. In 1995, Tobias joined the touring band for Alanis Morissette, and from 1999 to 2005 he was a member of the musical duo Splendid alongside his then-wife Angie Hart.

Life and career
In 1990, Tobias formed the band Mother Tongue in Austin, Texas. They were signed to a record label in 1992. Anthony Kiedis of the Red Hot Chili Peppers spotted Tobias and Mother Tongue in a local nightclub, while they were looking for guitar player to replace John Frusciante. Dave Navarro had recently turned them down.

Kiedis felt that Tobias had what the band was looking for and after months of long auditions (in which the band took out an ad in the newspaper), Tobias was on board as the new guitarist for the Chili Peppers. Tobias and the Peppers began writing for the next record; however, while the band felt Tobias was a great guitarist, the connection just wasn't there between Jesse and the other three, especially bassist Flea. At this time, Dave Navarro suddenly made himself available and the band fired Tobias, Kiedis saying that it would have happened regardless of Navarro becoming available. The band felt bad that they pulled Tobias away from a band he just joined only to fire him a month later.

Tobias would resurface two years later with Alanis Morissette and would be her guitarist on her Jagged Little Pill world tour. While he was on tour with Morissette in 1996, he met Angie Hart, whose band Frente! was Morissette's opening act. The two were married in 1997 and moved to Los Angeles. Tobias continued to work as a session player, touring guitarist and in other non-performing roles in the music industry. The pair formed their own band, Splendid, which released an album in 1999. The album's release was largely received only in Australia; and the band's American exposure was largely due only to their association with Joss Whedon, creator of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, including on-camera appearances when Splendid performed at The Bronze, the fictional nightclub featured in the series. Tobias was credited as a producer (with Christophe Beck and Whedon) and with arranging the music (with Beck) for "Once More, with Feeling", the musical episode from Whedon's show's sixth season. Hart and Tobias ended their marriage in divorce in early 2005.

Tobias joined Morrissey's touring band in 2004 after the illness of Alain Whyte and eventually became a permanent member of the group, having appeared on all studio recordings and live gigs since. He has also co-written several top-charting singles for Morrissey which includes You Have Killed Me, In The Future When All's Well, and All You Need Is Me.

In 2020, Tobias worked with Morrissey on his upcoming album Bonfire of Teenangers, which was due to be released in February 2023, but in December 2022, it was announced that Capitol Records had backed out of the deal. The fate of the album is unknown.

Discography
with Alanis Morissette
 Jagged Little Pill, Live (1997)
with Splendid
 "Less Than Zero" (1999)
 Have You Got A Name For It (1999)
 "Come Clean" (1999)
 States of Awake EP (2004)
with Morrissey
 Live at Earls Court (2005)
 Ringleader of the Tormentors (2006)
 Years of Refusal (2009)
 Greatest Hits (2008)
 Swords (2009)
 25Live (2013)
 World Peace Is None of Your Business (2014)
 Low in High School (2017)
 California Son (2019)
 I Am Not a Dog on a Chain (2020)
 Bonfire of Teenagers (2023)
 Without Music the World Dies (2023)
other appearances
 "Once More, with Feeling" by Jesse Tobias with Christophe Beck

Songwriting credits with Morrissey
"You Have Killed Me", "The Youngest Was the Most Loved", "In The Future When All's Well", "On the Streets I Ran" and "I Just Want to See the Boy Happy" from Ringleader of the Tormentors
"All You Need Is Me", "Sorry Doesn't Help" and "I'm OK by Myself" from Years of Refusal
"I'm Not a Man", "The Bullfighter Dies", "Kiss Me a Lot", "Smiler with Knife" and "Kick the Bride Down the Aisle" from World Peace Is None of Your Business – "Forgive Someone" (only on deluxe version)
"I Bury The Living" and "When You Open Your Legs" from Low in High School
"Jim Jim Falls", "I Am Not a Dog On a Chain", "What Kind of People Live in These Houses?", "Knockabout World", "Once I Saw the River Clean" and "My Hurling Days Are Done" from I Am Not a Dog on a Chain
"Kerouac's Crack", "I Live in Oblivion" and "I Ex-Love You" from Bonfire of Teenagers
"The Night Pop Dropped" and "Zoom Zoom The Little Boy" from Without Music the World Dies
"I Knew I Was Next", "If You Don't Like Me, Don't Look at Me", Children in Pieces", "People Are the Same Everywhere" and "I Thought You Were Dead" are tracks that appeared on B-sides of Morrissey singles.
"By The Time I Get To Wherever I'm Going", "Once Upon a Woman's Body" and "You Don't Need Their Approval" are unreleased tracks.

References

1972 births
Living people
Musicians from Austin, Texas
American rock guitarists
American male guitarists
Red Hot Chili Peppers members
American session musicians
American musicians of Mexican descent
Frente! members

Jesse Tobias


James Deetz (February 8, 1930 – November 25, 2000) was an American anthropologist, often known as one of the fathers of historical archaeology. His work focused on culture change and the cultural aspects inherent in the historic and archaeological record, and was concerned primarily with the Massachusetts and Virginia colonies. James Deetz was interested in obtaining valuable information that could be used to better understand the lives of early North American colonists, natives, and African Americans. He investigated a variety of material culture related to these groups to better comprehend their social behavior.

In 1997 Deetz received the J. C. Harrington Award, presented by the Society for Historical Archaeology for his life-time contributions to archaeology centered on scholarship.

Biography
Deetz was born in Cumberland, Maryland, coal country, and was the first in his family to finish high school, much less follow with three Harvard degrees on a full scholarship.  He felt a particular affinity for author John Updike and regretted that their times at Harvard did not overlap.

Deetz received his BA, MA, and PhD degrees from Harvard. Following college, Deetz enlisted in the United States Air Force. He served for four years before he was honorably discharged in 1955.

In 1957, he began working on the River Basin Survey site in Missouri. This work inspired him to get his PhD dissertation in "An Archaeological Approach to Kinship Change in Eighteenth Century Arikara Culture." Deetz then became an Assistant Professor of Anthropology at the University of California. He also taught at University of California, Santa Barbara, Harvard, Brown, William and Mary, the University of Cape Town, the University of California, Berkeley, and the University of Virginia. While teaching at the University of California, Deetz teamed up with J. O. Brew and Harry Hornblower to excavate sites related to North American colonial archaeology.  He would later meet Henry Glassie who was his inspiration to write In Small Things Forgotten: The Archaeology of Early American Life, which was published in 1977.

By the time he was an established scholar, he was active in evaluating grant applications for the National Endowment for the Sciences and was particularly fond of having approved the construction of a 19th-century settlement village proposed to be burned to the ground so that the patterns of nail distribution could be studied to allow more accurate reconstruction of archaeological sites.

Deetz was appointed assistant director at Plimoth Plantation in 1959, and implemented changes to the way the heritage site was run. He removed everything which would not have been in the settlement in 1637, such as interpretative signs, and introduced first-person interpretation by costumed staff: "part of a simulation of life in which all senses are involved, feeling, thinking, and acting in an environment as close to reality as research could make it". Deetz and his wife, Jody Deetz, brought up their nine children whilst he was working at the site. Deetz worked at Plimoth Plantation until 1978, when he took up a position at University of California, Berkeley.

Contributions
Deetz emphasized the importance of analyzing the physical artifacts themselves, rather than just interpreting them from archaeological reports. Deetz wrote more than 60 articles and books,  influencing the style of how authors in the field of archaeology write. One of Deetz's most famous works, In Small Things Forgotten, he used a simple yet sophisticated writing style which incorporated detailed examples of his research, including the methods and theories of his works. This book is still used in introductory archaeology classrooms today because of its ability to be understood at a basic level.

Deetz was one of the first archaeologists to foresee the influence that technology could have on the evolution of archaeology. While working on a site in Massachusetts in 1959, Deetz was able to tie in technology into the archaeological profession. He wrote a program that was used in an IBM mainframe computer, which was able to sort rim sherds based on specific characteristics of each individual piece. The program successfully differentiated and sorted the different sherds. The success of his program illustrated how archaeology can be more accurate by eliminating the human bias from rim sherd sorting. Programming today is now a much more efficient and accurate process than from the past, meaning archaeologists now routinely use its power in their work. Jim Deetz was able to influence the use of technology in the field of archaeology, making the profession much more accurate.

Published works
The Times of Their Lives: Life, Love, and Death in Plymouth Colony. (With Patricia Scott Deetz). New York: W.H. Freeman. 2000.
In Small Things Forgotten: An Archaeology of Early American Life. (Expanded and revised edition). New York: Anchor, Doubleday. 1996.
Flowerdew Hundred: The Archaeology of a Virginia Plantation, 1619- 1864. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. 1993.
The Transformation of British Culture in the Eastern Cape, 1820-1860 (with Margot Winer). Social Dynamics vol. 16 no.1 pp. 55–75. 1990.
American Historical Archaeology: Methods and Results. Science vol. 239, January 22: 362–7. 1988.
History and Archaeological Theory: Walter Taylor Revisited. American Antiquity 53(1):13-22. 1988.
In Small Things Forgotten: The Archaeology of Early American Life. New York: Doubleday. 1977.
 Invitation to Archaeology. Garden City, NY: Natural History Press. 1967

See also
Anthropology
Archaeology
Colonial America
Historical archaeology
Parting Ways (Plymouth, Massachusetts)

References

Further reading

External links
James Deetz, University of Virginia Anthropology Department
The Plymouth Colony Archive Project

Flowerdew Hundred Plantation

1930 births
2000 deaths
Harvard University alumni
University of California, Santa Barbara faculty
Harvard University faculty
College of William & Mary faculty
Brown University faculty
University of Virginia faculty
Academic staff of the University of Cape Town
20th-century American anthropologists
People from Cumberland, Maryland

James Deetz


Floyd Melvin ("Mel") Hammond (born December 19, 1933) was an Idaho politician and has been a general authority of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) since 1989. He was the nineteenth general president of the church's Young Men organization from 2001 to 2004.

Hammond was born in Blackfoot, Idaho. He served as an LDS Church missionary in the Spanish–American Mission from 1954 to 1956. Hammond attended Ricks College and Brigham Young University (BYU). After graduating from BYU, Hammond became a professor of religion at Ricks College in 1966. He was a member of the Idaho House of Representatives from 1969 to 1984 and served as House Minority Leader for three terms.

Before his call as a general authority, Hammond served in the LDS Church as a bishop, stake president, and regional representative.  In 1984, Hammond became president of the church's Bolivia Cochabamba Mission.  In 1989, he became a member of the Second Quorum of the Seventy. In 1993, he was transferred to the First Quorum of the Seventy, where he served until being designated as an emeritus general authority in 2005.

From 1997 to 1998, Hammond was second counselor to Jack H. Goaslind in the Young Men General Presidency. From 1998 to 2001, he served as first counselor to general president Robert K. Dellenbach. In 2001, Hammond succeeded Dellenbach as the organization's general president. Hammond served until 2004, when he was succeeded by Charles W. Dahlquist II. Hammond was the last general authority of the church to serve as the Young Men General President.  From 2005 to 2008, Hammond served as president of the Washington D.C. Temple.

In 2003, Hammond was awarded the Silver Buffalo Award by the Boy Scouts of America for his work to incorporate Scouting into the LDS Church's Young Men program.

Hammond is married to Bonnie Sellers and they are the parents of six children.

References

"Elder F. Melvin Hammond of the Second Quorum of the Seventy," Ensign, May 1989, p. 95

External links
F. Melvin Hammond Official profile

1933 births
American general authorities (LDS Church)
American Mormon missionaries in the United States
Brigham Young University alumni
Brigham Young University–Idaho faculty
General Presidents of the Young Men (organization)
Living people
Members of the Idaho House of Representatives
Members of the First Quorum of the Seventy (LDS Church)
Members of the Second Quorum of the Seventy (LDS Church)
Mission presidents (LDS Church)
American Mormon missionaries in Bolivia
Regional representatives of the Twelve
Temple presidents and matrons (LDS Church)
20th-century Mormon missionaries
Counselors in the General Presidency of the Young Men (organization)
Religious leaders from Idaho
Latter Day Saints from Idaho

F. Melvin Hammond