Tibet under Qing rule refers to the Qing dynasty's rule over Tibet from 1720 to 1912. The Qing rulers incorporated Tibet into the empire along with other Inner Asia territories, although the actual extent of the Qing dynasty's control over Tibet during this period has been the subject of political debate. The Qing called Tibet a fanbu, fanbang or fanshu, which has usually been translated as "vassal", "vassal state", or "borderlands", along with areas like Xinjiang and Mongolia. Like the preceding Yuan dynasty, the Manchus of the Qing dynasty exerted military and administrative control over Tibet, while granting it a degree of political autonomy.

By 1642, Güshi Khan of the Khoshut Khanate had reunified Tibet under the spiritual and temporal authority of the 5th Dalai Lama of the Gelug school, who established a civil administration known as Ganden Phodrang. In 1653, the Dalai Lama travelled on a state visit to the Qing court, and was received in Beijing and "recognized as the spiritual authority of the Qing Empire". The Dzungar Khanate invaded Tibet in 1717 and was subsequently expelled by the Qing in 1720. The Qing emperors then appointed imperial residents known as ambans to Tibet, most of them ethnic Manchus, that reported to the Lifan Yuan, a Qing government body that oversaw the empire's frontier. During the Qing era, Lhasa was politically semi-autonomous under the Dalai Lamas or regents. Qing authorities engaged in occasional military interventions in Tibet, intervened in Tibetan frontier defense, collected tribute, stationed troops, and influenced reincarnation selection through the Golden Urn. About half of the Tibetan lands were exempted from Lhasa's administrative rule and annexed into neighboring Chinese provinces, although most were only nominally subordinated to Beijing.

By the late 19th century, Chinese hegemony over Tibet only existed in theory. In 1890, the Qing and Britain signed the Anglo-Chinese Convention Relating to Sikkim and Tibet, which Tibet disregarded. The British concluded in 1903 that Chinese suzerainty over Tibet was a "constitutional fiction", and proceeded to invade Tibet in 1903–1904. However, in the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention, Britain and Russia recognized the Qing as suzerain of Tibet and pledged to abstain from Tibetan affairs, thus fixing the status of "Chinese suzerainty" in an international document, although Qing China did not accept the term "suzerainty" and instead used the term "sovereignty" to describe its status in Tibet since 1905. The Qing began taking steps to reassert control, then sent an army to Tibet for establishing direct rule and occupied Lhasa in 1910. However, the Qing dynasty was overthrown during the Xinhai revolution of 1911-1912, and after the Xinhai Lhasa turmoil the amban delivered a letter of surrender to the 13th Dalai Lama in the summer of 1912. The 13th Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa in 1913 and ruled an independent Tibet until his death in 1933.

Political status

The political status of Tibet during the Qing period has been described as a "Chinese protectorate," a "Qing protectorate," a "Manchu protectorate," a "subordinate place... within the Qing Empire," a "part of an empire," a "vassal state," a "dependent state," and a "tributary or a dependency." Western historians such as Goldstein, Elliot Sperling, and Jaques Gernet have described Tibet during the Qing period as a protectorate, vassal state, tributary, or something similar. Tibet was referred to by the Qing as a fanbu (), fanbang () or fanshu (), which has usually been translated as "vassal" or "vassal state".  As a fanshu it fell under the jurisdiction of the Lifan Yuan, which also oversaw Mongolia. Chinese authorities referred to Tibet as a vassal state up until the 1950s, and then as an "integral" part of China.

According to Jaques Gernet, the Qing gained a firm hold over Tibet in 1751, although as a protectorate, Tibet retained a large amount of internal authority. Melvyn Goldstein states there is "no question" that Tibet was subordinate to the Qing dynasty following the first decades of the 18th century. Meanwhile, Elliot Sperling says that after the Sino-Nepalese War (1788-1792), Tibet's subordination to the Qing was "beyond dispute" and that one of the memoirs of a Tibetan minister involved in the war states unambiguously that he was a subject of the Qing emperor. The Golden Urn system of selecting reincarnations was instituted by the Qing, and real authority over Tibet was wielded by its offices and officials. However, for most of the 19th century this authority was weak. After the death of the 8th Dalai Lama, Jamphel Gyatso in 1804, the Dalai Lamas did not exercise any real power for the next 70 years, during which monk regents reigned with the support of the Qing. In terms of foreign recognition, Britain and Russia formally acknowledged Chinese authority over Tibet in treaties of 1906 and 1907. This was after the 1904 British expedition to Tibet stirred China into becoming more directly involved in Tibetan affairs and working to integrate Tibet with "the rest of China." In 1910, the Qing reasserted control over Tibet by occupying Lhasa and deposing the 13th Dalai Lama. The Qing dynasty was overthrown in the Xinhai revolution the next year, and the Republic of China lacked the ability to continue the occupation. The 13th Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa in 1913 and ruled an independent Tibet until his death in 1933.

The de facto independent Tibetan government (1912–1951) and Tibetan exiles promote the status of independent nation, with only a "priest and patron" relationship between the Dalai Lama and the Qing emperor. There are varying interpretations of the patron and priest relationship, a Tibetan political theory that the relationship between Tibet and China was a symbiotic link between a spiritual leader and a lay patron, such as the relationship between the Dalai Lama and the Qing emperor. They were respectively spiritual teacher and lay patron, rather than subject and lord. Chöyön is an abbreviation of two Tibetan words: chöney, "that which is worthy of being given gifts and alms" (for example, a lama or a deity), and yöndag, "he who gives gifts to that which is worthy" (a patron). During the 1913 Simla Conference, the 13th Dalai Lama's negotiators cited the priest and patron relationship to explain the lack of any clearly demarcated boundary between Tibet and the rest of China (i.e. as a religious benefactor, the Qing did not need to be hedged against).

There are also different interpretations of titles and symbolic gestures between Tibetan and Qing authorities. The 13th Dalai Lama, for example, knelt, but did not kowtow, before the Empress Dowager Cixi and the young Emperor while he delivered his petition in Beijing.  Chinese sources emphasize the submission of kneeling; Tibetan sources emphasize the lack of the kowtow.  Titles and commands given to Tibetans by the Chinese, likewise, are variously interpreted. The Qing authorities gave the 13th Dalai Lama the title of "Loyally Submissive Vice-Regent", and ordered to follow Qing commands and communicate with the emperor only through the Manchu amban in Lhasa; but opinions vary as to whether these titles and commands reflected actual political power, or symbolic gestures ignored by Tibetans. Some authors claim that kneeling before the Emperor followed the 17th-century precedent in the case of the 5th Dalai Lama. Other historians indicate that the emperor treated the Dalai Lama as an equal.

According to Sperling, the description of a "priest-patron" religious relationship governing Sino-Tibetan relations that excluded concrete political subordination is a recent phenomenon and not substantiated. The priest and patron relationship coexisted with Tibet's political subordination to the Yuan and Qing dynasties, despite Tibetan exile commentators having come to believe that this political subordination was a misunderstanding. Sperling describes this as a "cultural notion at work as a national idea is defined anew." Tibetan interaction with the West, assimilation of modern ideals about Tibet, and the goal of cultural preservation increasingly centered discussion of Tibet around its religious and spiritual significance. This impetus to formulate a Tibetan identity based primarily on religion has made understanding the political realities of Tibet's relationship to the Yuan and Qing dynasties difficult.

Government

Regent
From 1721 to 1727, Tibet was governed by Khangchenné, who led the Tibetan cabinet known as the Kashag under close supervision of the Chinese garrison commander stationed in Lhasa. From 1728 to 1750, Tibet was a monarchy led by the princes or kings Polhané Sönam Topgyé and Gyurme Namgyal under the supervision of the Qing ambans. The regents of Tibet after 1727 were recognized by the Chinese as wang (prince) but as "king" by European missionaries. Both Polhané and Gyurme were de facto rulers of Tibet who exercised power in their own name and authority without reference to the Dalai Lama. Their post was hereditary. The Kashag was merely an executive organ and provincial administration was controlled by the nominees of the rulers. Compulsory transport service was a monopoly of the regent. After 1750, the hereditary office was abolished, and regents (gyeltsap) became temporary offices again. They were appointed to oversee the government, under the supervision of the ambans, before the Dalai Lama reached the age of majority in his 18th year.

Dalai Lama
When the Qing dynasty installed the 7th Dalai Lama in 1720, his religious supremacy was recognized by the Tibetan government, but the Qing ignored his theoretical rights. After 1720, the government was appointed by the Qing but due to distance and bad organization, retained a large amount of internal authority. After the civil war of 1727-1728, the 7th Dalai Lama was suspected of complicity in the murder of Khangchenné, who led the Tibetan cabinet, and was exiled to Gartar Monastery in Kham. All temporal authority was wielded by Polhané Sönam Topgyé in the meantime. After the events of 1750 in which the 7th Dalai Lama managed to quell the riots caused by the death of Polhané's successor at the hands of the Qing ambans, the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing dynasty promulgated the 13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet, granting the 7th Dalai Lama secular power. At the same time, the powers of the Qing ambans in Lhasa were also greatly increased. The 7th Dalai Lama then conducted government with some degree of control by the Qing.

According to The Veritable Records of the Shizong [Yongzheng] Emperor and in the Weizang tuzhi [ Topographical Description of Central Tibet ], the Dalai Lama's powers after 1751 included overseeing important decisions by ministers and appointing district governors, provincial governors, and officers based on the recommendations of the council with the approval of the ambans.

The 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th Dalai Lamas from 1758 to 1875 were unimportant or died young. The 13th Dalai Lama (1875-1933) fled to Urga during the British occupation of Lhasa in 1904. With the resulting treaty in 1906 recognizing China's suzerainty over Tibet, the 13th Dalai Lama visited Beijing in 1908 where he tried unsuccessfully to gain a greater degree of independence for Tibet. The Qing forces occupied Lhasa in 1910 and the 13th Dalai Lama fled to India. The Qing dynasty fell the next year and its forces withdrew from Tibet. In 1913, the 13th Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa and declared himself sovereign of an independent Tibet which he ruled until his death in 1933.

Kashag
The Kashag was a council of four ministers called kalön. The council existed between 1642 and 1705/6 but very little is known about its activity. Under Lha-bzang Khan the Kashag had little power and was composed of only Mongols to the exclusion of Tibetans. In 1721, the Qing removed the indigenous civil government that had existed in Lhasa and replaced the sde srid (civil administrator/regent) with the Kashag. The council was to govern Tibet under the close supervision of the Chinese garrison commander stationed in Lhasa, who quite often interfered with the decisions of the Kashag, especially when Chinese interests were involved. However, its members were composed of Tibetan nobles whose territorial ambitions caused the council to stop functioning, resulting in civil war in 1727-1728. The council was reconstituted again in 1728 as the executive organ of the regent. Each kalön was directly responsible to the regent. In the latter part of Polhané's reign they ceased to have meetings. After the Lhasa riot of 1750, the Qianlong Emperor sent an army to Tibet and reorganized the Tibetan government in 1751 with the 13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet. The council was reconstituted as a collective administration where all decisions were to be taken only with common agreement.

Amban
The office of the two Ambans was set up in 1728. They were imperial residents of the Qing dynasty and reported to the Qing government agency known as the Lifan Yuan. Prior to that there were no permanent representatives of the Qing emperor in Tibet and the temporary representative after 1720 was withdrawn in 1723. Between 1723 and 1728, there were special missions to Lhasa but no permanent residence. The fact that two ambans with their Chinese garrison have been stationed in Lhasa since 1728 is significant because it shows that Manchu China had effectively taken over the position of the former Mongol protector of the lamaist regime. There was a senior and junior amban but the distinction was purely formal and they both held the same authority. Between the death of A'erxun in 1734 and 1748, there was only one amban. The first two ambans, Sengge and Mala, held office for five years, but thereafter ambans held office for a maximum of three years. During the rule of Polhané, the ambans' duties mainly consisted of commanding the Qing garrison and communications with Beijing on the actions of the Tibetan ruler. During the initial period they sometimes intervened in matters of foreign relations but they never interfered with the Tibetan government at that time. In 1751, the power of the ambans was increased. Besides their former duties, their directions also had to be taken by the Kashag on every important matter, giving them broad supervision over the Tibetan government. Direct intervention by the ambans was still a rare occurrence until after the Sino-Nepalese War in 1792. By 1793, the ambans were accorded the same rank as the Dalai and Panchen Lamas, and these two high-ranking Lamas were denied the traditional right of communicating directly with the Emperor; they could only do so via the ambans. By this time the ambans were also above the Kashag and regents in regards to Tibetan political affairs. Over a period of 184 years, the amban's status changed from consultative to supervisory and finally to commanding official in Lhasa. The staff of the ambans included one or two military officers and several clerics. The clerics' function was probably similar to that of secretaries. After 1751, a number of Manchu banner officers were added.

History

Background

Khoshut Khanate
Tibet had been ruled by a joint Gelug Yellow Hat sect and Khoshut Khanate government since 1642. The Khoshut Mongols were originally part of the Oirats. The Khoshut chief Toro-Baikhu won a power struggle against his uterine brother Chöükür in 1630, after which he named himself "Dai Güshi" Taiji. A few years later, the Gelug Yellow Hat sect's 5th Dalai Lama called him to come to their aid against Choghtu Khong Tayiji, a Khalkha Mongol khan who aided their rivals, the Karmapa and Bon sects. The Oirats had already supported the Gelug since 1616 so Güshi was able to utilize their religious affiliation as call to arms. Shortly following a visit to Tibet in 1635, Güshi led a 10,000 strong army into Kokonor and killed Choghtu. In 1637, the 5th Dalai Lama bestowed upon Güshi the title of khan, the first non-Genghisid Mongol to claim the title. A mass migration of 100,000 Oirats to Kokonor ensued. By 1642, Güshi had defeated the king of Beri, Donyo Dorje, and the ruler of Tsangpa, Karma Tenkyong, uniting Tibet under the Gelug. On 13 April 1642, The 5th Dalai Lama proclaimed Güshi the khan of Tibet on 13 April 1642.

A governing body known as the Ganden Phodrang, named after the 5th Dalai Lama's residence in Drepung Monastery, was set up as a Gelug led government of Tibet in 1642. However there are various interpretations of the nature of the Khoshut Khanate's relationship with the government of Tibet under the Gelug. Some sources say that the khan had very little to do with the administration of Tibet and only maintained a priest and patron relationship with the Dalai Lama. Other sources describe Mongol representatives of the khan in Tibet while he ruled in Kokonor and treated Tibet as a protectorate. One source states that Güshi sat on a lower level than the Dalai Lama during the enthronement ceremony in 1642 but the Dalai Lama was merely a figurehead until the death of the governor, Sonam Rapten, in 1657. This is implied by descriptions in other sources of an increase in "day-to-day control of... his government" by the 5th Dalai Lama after the deaths of Sonam Rapten and Güshi. One interpretation describes the granting of all temporal powers over Tibet to the Dalai Lama, but he did not possess the power to actually administrate. An office called desi was created to carry out government while the Dalai Lama was restricted to appealing the judicial decisions of the desi, although eventually the Dalai Lama did assert his power over the government by appointing the desi. In this interpretation, the Khoshut khans had no say in government until the coup of 1705-6. Another source claims that the de facto administrator of civil affairs, Sonam Rapten, was selected by the khan while the Dalai Lama was relegated to religious affairs.

Relations with the early Qing dynasty

In 1653, the 5th Dalai Lama visited the Qing dynasty's Shunzhi Emperor in Beijing. According to Chinese sources, the emperor received the Dalai Lama in the South Park and gave him a seat and a feast. They Dalai Lama offered gifts involving local products. The visit was not characterized as a court summon. According to the autobiography of the 5th Dalai Lama, the emperor descended from his throne and took his hand. The Dalai Lama sat on a seat close to the emperor and at nearly the same height. The emperor requested the Dalai Lama drink first but they drank together after some deliberation. The emperor bestowed upon him gifts fit for a "Teacher of the Emperor". The Dalai Lama was "recognized as the spiritual authority of the Qing Empire".

In 1674, the Kangxi Emperor asked the Dalai Lama to send Mongol troops to help suppress Wu Sangui's Revolt of the Three Feudatories in Yunnan. The Dalai Lama refused to send troops, and advised Kangxi to resolve the conflict in Yunnan by dividing China with Wu Sangui. The Dalai Lama openly professed neutrality but he exchanged gifts and letters with Wu Sangui during the war further deepening the Qing's suspicions and angering them against the Dalai Lama. This was a turning point for Kangxi, who began to deal with the Mongols directly, rather than through the Dalai Lama.

In 1677, the Tibetan government formalized the frontier between Tibet and China with Kham ascribed to Tibet's authority.

The 5th Dalai Lama died in 1682. His regent, Desi Sangye Gyatso, concealed his death and continued to act in his name. In 1688, Galdan Boshugtu Khan of the Dzungar Khanate defeated the Khalkha Mongols and went on to battle Qing forces. This contributed to the loss of Tibet's role as mediator between the Mongols and the Qing emperor. Several Khalkha tribes formally submitted directly to Kangxi. Galdan retreated to Dzungaria. When Sangye Gyatso complained to Kangxi that he could not control the Mongols of Kokonor in 1693, Kangxi annexed Kokonor, giving it the name it bears today, Qinghai. He also annexed Tachienlu in eastern Kham at this time. When Kangxi finally destroyed Galdan in 1696, a Qing ruse involving the name of the Dalai Lama was involved; Galdan blamed the Dalai Lama for his ruin, still not aware of his death fourteen years earlier.

About this time, some Dzungars informed Kangxi that the 5th Dalai Lama had long since died. He sent envoys to Lhasa to inquire. This prompted Sangye Gyatso to make Tsangyang Gyatso, the 6th Dalai Lama, public. He was enthroned in 1697. Tsangyang Gyatso enjoyed a lifestyle that included drinking, the company of women, and writing poetry. In 1702, he refused to take the vows of a Buddhist monk. The regent, under pressure from Kangxi and Lha-bzang Khan of the Khoshut, resigned in 1703.

Lha-bzang Khan

Lha-bzang Khan of the Khoshut rose to power under uncertain circumstances. Differing accounts ascribe his rise to the poisoning of his elder brother and killing the Tibetan regent or that his position was requested by the Dalai Lama because the elder brother was sickly while the regent was removed by the Dalai Lama himself. Lha-bzang Khan and the regent engaged in a power struggle that resulted in the khan's victory. In 1705-1706, Lha-bzang entered Lhasa, killed the regent, and deposed the 6th Dalai Lama using his hedonous lifestyle as an excuse. Lha-bzang sought the support of the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty, who requested that he send the 6th Dalai Lama to Beijing. However the Dalai Lama fell ill soon after leaving Lhasa and died on the way in Amdo on 14 November 1706.

Lha-bzang presented a monk from Chagpori as the true reincarnation of the 5th Dalai Lama. In 1707, this monk was installed by the 5th Panchen Lama as Ngawang Yeshe Gyatso. This was not accepted by most of the Gelug school and it also annoyed the Khoshut chiefs. On 10 April 1710, the Kangxi Emperor recognized the new Dalai Lama by granting him a title and seal. In Lithang in eastern Tibet, local lamas identified a child as the reincarnation of the 6th Dalai Lama. In 1712, the youngest son of Güshi Khan, Trashi Batur Taiji, and the third son of Boshugtu Jinong, Cagan Danjin, declared their support for the boy. Lha-bzang's efforts to invalidate the Lithang reincarnation failed. The Khoshut chiefs asked the Kangxi Emperor to officially recognize the boy but the emperor left the matter undecided. Kangxi ordered the boy and his father to be interned in Kumbum Monastery in Kokonor in 1715.

Three Gelug abbots in Lhasa invited the Dzungars to help them. In 1717, the Dzungar prince Tseren Dondup invaded the Khoshut Khanate, deposed Yeshe Gyatso,installed the boy from Lithang as the 7th Dalai Lama, killed Lha-bzang Khan, and looted Lhasa. The Dzungars did not bring the boy to Lhasa and terrorized the populace, losing them the support of the Gelugpa. A Qing invasion in 1718 was annihilated by the Dzungars in the Battle of the Salween River, not far from Lhasa. A second and larger expedition of joint Qing and Tibetan forces (led by Polhané Sönam Topgyé the governor of Western Tibet) expelled the Dzungars from Tibet in 1720. They brought the boy  with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and installed him as the 7th Dalai Lama in 1721.

Qing forces arrive in Tibet

At that time, a Qing protectorate in Tibet (described by Stein as "sufficiently mild and flexible to be accepted by the Tibetan government") was initiated with a garrison at Lhasa. The area of Kham east of the Dri River (Jinsha River—Upper Yangtze) was annexed to Sichuan in 1726-1727 through a treaty.  In 1721, the Qing expanded their protectorate in Lhasa with a council (the Kashag) of three Tibetan ministers, headed by Kangchennas.  A Khalkha prince was made amban, the official representative of Qing in Tibet.  Another Khalkha directed the military. The Dalai Lama's role at this time may have been purely symbolic in China's eyes, but it wasn't to the Dalai Lama nor to the Ganden Phodrang government or the Tibetan people, who viewed the Qing as a "patron". The Dalai Lama was also still highly influential because of the Mongols' religious beliefs.

The Qing came as patrons of the Khoshut, liberators of Tibet from the Dzungar, and supporters of the Dalai Lama Kelzang Gyatso, but when they tried to replace the Khoshut as rulers of Kokonor and Tibet, they earned the resentment of the Khoshut and also the Tibetans of Kokonor. , a grandson of Güshi Khan, led a rebellion in 1723, when 200,000 Tibetans and Mongols attacked Xining. The Qing called in troops from Sichuan and suppressed the rebellion in less than a year. Polhané blocked the rebels' retreat from Qing retaliation. The rebellion was brutally suppressed.

Green Standard Army troops were garrisoned at multiple places such as Lhasa, Batang, Dartsendo, Lhari, Chamdo, and Litang, throughout the Dzungar war. Green Standard troops and Manchu Bannermen were both part of the Qing force that fought in Tibet in the war against the Dzungars. The Sichuan commander Yue Zhongqi (a descendant of Yue Fei) entered Lhasa first when the 2,000 Green Standard soldiers and 1,000 Manchu soldiers of the "Sichuan route" seized Lhasa. According to Mark C. Elliott, after 1728 the Qing used Green Standard troops to man the garrison in Lhasa rather than Bannermen. According to Evelyn S. Rawski, both Green Standard Army and Bannermen made up the Qing garrison in Tibet. According to Sabine Dabringhaus, Green Standard Chinese soldiers numbering more than 1,300 were stationed by the Qing in Tibet to support the 3,000-strong Tibetan army.

1725-1761
The Kangxi Emperor was succeeded by the Yongzheng Emperor in 1722.  In 1725, amidst a series of Qing transitions reducing Qing forces in Tibet and consolidating control of Amdo and Kham, Kangchennas received the title of Prime Minister. The Emperor ordered the conversion of all Nyingma to Gelug. This persecution created a rift between Polhanas, who had been a Nyingma monk, and Kangchennas.  Both of these officials, who represented Qing interests, were opposed by the Lhasa nobility, who had been allied with the Dzungars and were anti-Qing.  They killed Kangchennas and took control of Lhasa in 1727, and Polhanas fled to his native Ngari.  Polhanas gathered an army and retook Lhasa in July 1728 against opposition from the Lhasa nobility and their allies.

Qing troops arrived in Lhasa in September, and punished the anti-Qing faction by executing entire families, including women and children. The Dalai Lama was sent to Lithang Monastery in Kham. The Panchen Lama was brought to Lhasa and was given temporal authority over central Tsang and western Ngari Prefecture, creating a territorial division between the two high lamas that was to become a long-lasting feature of Chinese policy toward Tibet. Two ambans were established in Lhasa, with increased numbers of Qing troops. Over the 1730s, Qing troops were again reduced, and Polhanas gained more power and authority. The Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa in 1735, but temporal power remained with Polhanas. The Qing found Polhanas to be a loyal agent and an effective ruler over a stable Tibet, so he remained dominant until his death in 1747.

The Qing made the region of Amdo into the province of Qinghai in 1724, and a treaty of 1727 led to the incorporation of eastern Kham into neighbouring Chinese provinces in 1728. The Qing government sent a resident commissioner (amban) to Lhasa. A stone monument regarding the boundary between Tibet and neighbouring Chinese provinces, agreed upon by Lhasa and Beijing in 1726, was placed atop a mountain, and survived into at least the 19th century. This boundary, which was used until 1865, delineated the Dri River in Kham as the frontier between Tibet and Qing China.  Territory east of the boundary was governed by Tibetan chiefs who were answerable to China.

Polhanas' son Gyurme Namgyal took over upon his father's death in 1747. The ambans became convinced that he was going to lead a rebellion, so they assassinated him independently from Beijing's authority. News of the murders leaked out and an uprising broke out in the city during which the residents of Lhasa avenged the regent's death by killing both ambans.

The Dalai Lama stepped in and restored order in Lhasa, while it was thought that further uprisings would result in harsh retaliation from China.  The Qianlong Emperor (Yongzheng's successor) sent a force of 800, which executed Gyurme Namgyal's family and seven members of the group that allegedly killed the ambans.

Temporal power was reasserted by the Dalai Lama in 1750. But the Qing Emperor re-organized the Tibetan government again with the 13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet and appointed new ambans. The powers of the Qing ambans in Lhasa were greatly increased. The ambans by this time had a broad right of supervision on the actions of the government, although the Qianlong Emperor was later disappointed with their performance and decided to further enhance their status. The number of soldiers in Tibet was kept at about 2,000. The defensive duties were partly helped out by a local force which was reorganized by the amban, and the Tibetan government continued to manage day-to-day affairs as before. The Emperor reorganized the Kashag to have four Kalöns in it. He also used Tibetan Buddhist iconography to try and bolster support among Tibetans, whereby six thangkas portrayed the Qing Emperor as Manjuśrī and Tibetan records of the time referred to him by that name.

The 7th Dalai Lama died in 1757. Afterwards, an assembly of lamas decided to institute the office of regent, to be held by an incarnate lama "until the new Dalai Lama attained his majority and could assume his official duties". The Seventh Demo, Ngawang Jampel Delek Gyatso, was selected unanimously. The 8th Dalai Lama, Jamphel Gyatso, was born in 1758 in Tsang. The Panchen Lama helped in the identification process, while Jampal Gyatso was recognized in 1761, then brought to Lhasa for his enthronement, presided over by the Panchen Lama, in 1762.

1779-1793

In 1779, the 6th Panchen Lama, fluent also in Hindi and Persian and well disposed to both Catholic missionaries in Tibet and East India Company agents in India, was invited to Peking for the celebration of the Emperor's 70th birthday. The "priest and patron" relationship between Tibet and Qing China was underscored by Emperor prostrating "to his spiritual father". In the final stages of his visit, after instructing the Emperor, the Panchen Lama contracted smallpox and died in 1780 in Beijing.

The following year, the 8th Dalai Lama assumed political power in Tibet. Problematic relations with Nepal led in 1788 to Gorkha Kingdom invasions of Tibet, sent by Bahadur Shah, the Regent of Nepal. Again in 1791, Shigatse was occupied by the Gorkas as was the great Tashilhunpo Monastery, the seat of the Panchen Lamas which was sacked and destroyed.

During the first incursion, the Qing Manchu amban in Lhasa spirited away to safety both the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama, but otherwise made no attempt to defend the country, though urgent dispatches to Beijing warned that alien powers had designs on the region, and threatened Qing Manchu interests.  At that time, the Qing army found that the Nepalese forces had melted away, and no fighting was necessary. After the second Gorka incursion in 1791, another force of Manchus and Mongols joined by a strong contingents of Tibetan soldiers (10,000 of 13,000) supplied by local chieftains, repelled the invasion and pursued the Gorkhas to the Kathmandu Valley.  Nepal conceded defeat and returned all the treasure they had plundered.

The Qianlong emperor was disappointed with the results of his 1751 decree and the performance of the ambans. Another decree followed, contained in the 29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet of 1793. It was designed to enhance the ambans' status, and ordered them to control border inspections, and serve as conduits through which the Dalai Lama and his cabinet were to communicate. Imperial China seized more power from the Tibetan authorities with each intervention on behalf of the Dalai Lama, and with this decree China created a much stricter form of indirect rule in Lhasa.

The 29-article decree instituted the Golden Urn system which contradicted the traditional Tibetan method of locating and recognizing incarnate lamas. The same decree also elevated ambans above the Kashag and above the regents in regards to Tibetan political affairs. The decree prohibited the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama from petitioning the Chinese Emperor directly whereas petitions were decreed to pass through the ambans. The ambans were to take control of Tibetan frontier defense and foreign affairs. Tibetan authorities' foreign correspondence, even with the Mongols of Kokonor (present-day Qinghai), were to be approved by the ambans, whom were decreed as commanders of the Qing garrison, and the Tibetan army whose strength was set at 3000 men. Trade was also decreed as restricted and travel documents were to be issued by the ambans. The ambans were to review all judicial decisions.  The Tibetan currency, which had been the source of trouble with Nepal, was to be taken under Beijing's supervision.

The 29-article decree also controlled the traditional methods used to recognize and enthrone both the incarnate Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama, by means of a lottery administered by the ambans in Lhasa. The Emperor wanted to control the recognition process of incarnate lamas because the Gelug school of the Dalai Lamas was the official religion of his Qing court. Another purpose was to have the Mongol grand-lama Qubilγan found in Tibet rather than from the descendants of Genghis Khan. With the decreed lottery system, the names of candidates were written on folded slips of paper which were placed in a golden urn (Mongol altan bumba; Tibetan gser bum:Chinese jīnpíng:金瓶). According to Warren Smith, the 29-article decree's directives were either never fully implemented, or quickly discarded, as the Qing were more interested in a symbolic gesture of authority than actual sovereignty; the relationship between Qing and Tibet was one between states, or between an empire and a semi-autonomous state. However, Elliot Sperling states that the subordination place of Tibet within the Qing Empire by this time was beyond dispute. Despite this attempt to further control Tibet's secular and spiritual ruling classes, the Emperor's urn was not always used or politely ignored in such cases. The Tibetans left some question regarding the urn's usage to highlight Tibetan autonomy when the Qing powers were strong, but Qing emperors had the final say in recognizing new incarnations through the system of the Golden Urn. At times, the selection was approved after the fact by the Emperor. The Emperor's urn was formally used at other times, and there was suggestion that the Tibetans were more willing to employ the urn to maintain a semblance of Qing's protection when the imperial power was weaker. The 11th Dalai Lama was selected by the Golden Urn method. While the 12th Dalai Lama was recognized by traditional Tibetan methods, he was confirmed by the urn. There was an open pretense that the urn was used for the 10th Dalai Lama, when it was actually not used.

19th century
The Qing government was alarmed by the British defeat of Nepal in the Anglo-Nepalese War and the re-establishment of a British resident in Nepal's capital Kathmandu because the Nepalese, in an effort to obtain aids from Qing China, gave false information to the Qing government, claiming that the British demanded free passage through Nepalese territory to Tibet and that they were ordering Nepal to transfer her tribute from China to the Indian government (then under the British East India Company). In order to learn more about what had occurred, Qing China dispatched an imperial high commissioner to Tibet in charge of a small military force. When the Qing imperial commissioner discovered the truth, he declined to aid Nepal and instead restricted himself to expressing his desire that the Indian government could decide it was time to withdraw its resident from Kathmandu. The Qing imperial commissioner let the matter go and left for China proper in 1817 after the British said they would do so if China sent a resident to Nepal to stop Anglo-Nepalese tensions.

In 1837, a minor Kham chieftain Gompo Namgyal, of Nyarong, began expanding his control regionally and launched offensives against the Hor States, Chiefdom of Lithang, Kingdom of Derge, the Kingdom of Chakla and Chiefdom of Bathang, which were considered Tusi under the umbrella of the Qing Empire. Qing China sent troops in against Namgyal in 1849 but the campaign was unsuccessful. They tried to negotiate and additional troops were not dispatched. Qing military posts were present along the historic trading route between Beijing and Lhasa, but "did not have any authority over the native chiefs". By 1862, Namgyal blocked trade routes from China to Lhasa, and sent troops to Chamdo and Drayab. The Kingdom of Derge and another had appealed to both the Lhasa and the Qing imperial governments for help against Namgyal. During the Nyarong War, the Tibetan authorities sent an army in 1863, and defeated Namgyal then killed him at his Nyarong fort by 1865. Afterward, Lhasa asserted its authority over parts of northern Kham and established the Office of the Tibetan High Commissioner to govern. Lhasa reclaimed Nyarong, Degé and the Hor States north of Nyarong. China recalled the imperial forces.

Nepal was a tributary state to China from 1788 to 1908. In the Treaty of Thapathali signed in 1856 that concluded the Nepalese-Tibetan War, Tibet and Nepal agreed to "regard the Chinese Emperor as heretofore with respect." Michael van Walt van Praag, legal advisor to the 14th Dalai Lama, claims that 1856 treaty provided for a Nepalese mission, namely Vakil, in Lhasa which later allowed Nepal to claim a diplomatic relationship with Tibet in its application for United Nations membership in 1949. However, the status of Nepalese mission as diplomatic is disputed and the Nepalese Vakils stayed in Tibet until the 1960s when Tibet had been annexed by the People's Republic of China for more than a decade.<ref>Li, T.T., The Historical Status of Tibet, King's Crown Press, New York, 1956</ref>

In 1841, the Hindu Dogra dynasty attempted to establish their authority on Ü-Tsang but were defeated in the Sino-Sikh War (1841–1842).

In the mid-19th century, arriving with an amban, a community of Chinese troops from Sichuan that had married Tibetan women settled down in the Lubu neighborhood of Lhasa, where their descendants established a community and assimilated into Tibetan culture. Another community, Hebalin, was where Chinese Muslim troops and their wives and offspring lived.

In 1879, the 13th Dalai Lama was enthroned, but did not assume full temporal control until 1895, after the National Assembly of the Tibetan Government (tshongs 'du rgyas 'dzom) unanimously called for him to assume power.
Before that time, the British Empire increased their interest in Tibet, and a number of Indians entered the region, first as explorers and then as traders. The British sent a mission with a military escort through Sikkim in 1885, whose entry was refused by Tibet and the British withdrew. Tibet then organized an army to be stationed at the border, led by Dapon Lhading (mda' dpon lha sding, d.u.) and Tsedron Sonam Gyeltsen (rtse mgron bsod nams rgyal mtshan, d.u.) with soldiers from southern Kongpo and those from Kham's Drakyab. At a pass between Sikkim and Tibet, which Tibet considered a part of Tibet, the British attacked in 1888.

Following the attack, the British and Chinese signed the 1890 Anglo-Chinese Convention Relating to Sikkim and Tibet, which Tibet disregarded as it did "all agreements signed between China and Britain regarding Tibet, taking the position that it was for Lhasa alone to negotiate with foreign powers on Tibet's behalf".Powers 2004, pg. 80 Qing China and Britain had also concluded an earlier treaty in 1886, the "Convention Relating to Burmah and Thibet" as well as a later treaty in 1893. Regardless of those treaties, Tibet continued to bar British envoys from its territory.

Then in 1896, the Qing Governor of Sichuan attempted to gain control of the Nyarong valley in Kham during a military attack led by Zhou Wanshun. The Dalai Lama circumvented the amban and a secret mission led by Sherab Chonpel (shes rab chos 'phel, d.u.) was sent directly to Beijing with a demand for the withdrawal of Chinese forces. The Qing Guangxu Emperor agreed, and the "territory was returned to the direct rule of Lhasa".

 Lhasa, 1900-1909

At the beginning of the 20th century the British Empire and Russian Empires were competing for supremacy in Central Asia. During "the Great Game", a period of rivalry between Russia and Britain, the British desired a representative in Lhasa to monitor and offset Russian influence.

Years earlier, the Dalai Lama had developed an interest in Russia through his debating partner, Buriyat Lama Agvan Dorjiev. Then in 1901, Dorjiev had delivered letters from Tibet to the Tzar, namely a formal letter of appreciation from the Dalai Lama, and another from the Kashak directly soliciting support against the British. Dorjiev's journey to Russia was seen as a threat by British interests in India, despite Russian statements they would not intervene. After realizing the Qing lacked any real authority in Tibet, a British expedition was dispatched in 1904, officially to resolve border disputes between Tibet and Sikkim. The expedition quickly turned into an invasion which captured Lhasa.

For the first time and in response to the invasion, the Chinese foreign ministry asserted that China was sovereign over Tibet, the first clear statement of such a claim.

Before the British invasion force arrived in Lhasa, the 13th Dalai Lama escaped to seek alliances for Tibet. The Dalai Lama travelled first to Mongolia and requested help from Russia against China and Britain, and learned in 1907 that Britain and Russia signed a non-interference in Tibet agreement. This essentially removed Tibet from the so-called "Great Game". The Dalai Lama received a dispatch from Lhasa, and was about to return there from Amdo in the summer of 1908 when he decided to go Beijing instead, where he was received with a ceremony appropriately "accorded to any independent sovereign", as witnessed by U.S Ambassador to China William Rockwell. Tibetan affairs were discussed directly with Qing Dowager Empress Cixi, then together with the young Emperor. Cixi died in November 1908 during the state visit, and the Dalai Lama performed the funeral rituals. The Dalai Lama also made contacts with Japanese diplomats and military advisors.

The Dalai Lama returned from his search for support against China and Britain to Lhasa in 1909, and initiated reforms to establish a standing Tibetan army while consulting with Japanese advisors. Treaties were signed between the British and the Tibetans, then between China and Britain. The 1904 document was known as the Convention Between Great Britain and Tibet. The main points of the treaty allowed the British to trade in Yadong, Gyantse, and Gartok while Tibet was to pay a large indemnity of 7,500,000 rupees, later reduced by two-thirds, with the Chumbi Valley ceded to Britain until the imdenity was received. Further provisions recognised the Sikkim-Tibet border and prevented Tibet from entering into relations with other foreign powers. As a result, British economic influence expanded further in Tibet, while at the same time Tibet remained under the first claim in 1904 of "sovereignty" by the Qing dynasty of China.

The Anglo-Tibetan treaty was followed by a 1906 Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet, by which the "Government of Great Britain engages not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the administration of Tibet. The Government of China also undertakes not to permit any other foreign State to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet." Moreover, Beijing agreed to pay London 2.5 million rupees which Lhasa was forced to agree upon in the Anglo-Tibetan treaty of 1904.

As the Dalai Lama had learned during his travels for support, in 1907 Britain and Russia agreed that in "conformity with the admitted principle of the 1904 suzerainty of China over Tibet", (from 1904), both nations "engage not to enter into negotiations with Tibet except through the intermediary of the Chinese Government."

 Qing in Kham, 1904-1911

Soon after the British invasion of Tibet, the Qing rulers in China were alarmed. They sent the imperial official Feng Quan (凤全) to Kham to begin reasserting Qing control. Feng Quan's initiatives in Kham of land reforms and reductions to the number of monks led to an uprising by monks at a Batang monastery in the Chiefdom of Batang. Tibetan control of the Batang region of Kham in eastern Tibet appears to have continued uncontested following a 1726-1727 treaty. In Batang's uprising, Feng Quan was killed, as were Chinese farmers and their fields were burned.  The British invasion through Sikkim triggered a Khampa reaction, where chieftains attacked and French missionaries, Manchu and Han Qing officials, and Christian converts were killed. French Catholic missionaries Père Pierre-Marie Bourdonnec and Père Jules Dubernard were killed around the Mekong.

In response, Beijing appointed army commander Zhao Erfeng, the Governor of Xining, to "reintegrate" Tibet into China. Known of as "the Butcher of Kham" Zhao was sent in either 1905 or 1908 on a punitive expedition. His troops executed monks destroyed a number of monasteries in Kham and Amdo, and an early form of "sinicization" of the region began. Later, around the time of the collapse of the Qing Dynasty, Zhao's soldiers mutinied and beheaded him.

 Program of integration of Tibet to the rest of China (1905-1911)
From 1905, China temporarily took back the control of Tibet as suzerain power, until the revolution of 1911 which marked the collapse of the Qing Empire and the installation of the Republic of China. After obtaining the departure of the British troops in return for an indemnity payment, the Qing dynasty, although weakened, decided to play a more active role in the conduct of Tibetan affairs. To preserve its interests, it implemented, from 1905 to 1911, a program of integration of Tibet to the rest of China at the political, economic and cultural levels.

Plans were laid to build a railway line connecting Sichuan to Tibet, to form an army of six thousand men and to secularise the Tibetan government by creating non-ecclesiastical governmental commissions. A mint was to be established, roads and telephone lines were to be built and local resources were to be exploited. In Lhasa, a Chinese school opened in 1907 and a military college in 1908.Laurent Deshayes, Histoire du Tibet, Fayard, 1997, .

A Chinese postal service with five post offices was established in central Tibet and the first stamps were issued (with inscriptions in Chinese and Tibetan).Geoffrey Flack, Chinese Imperial: "For approximately two years, five Chinese Post Offices operated in Central Tibet and a Chinese Post Office at Chambo (Eastern Tibet) was open in 1913 and 1914. Initially the Post Office used regular Chinese Imperial stamps, but in 1911 a set of eleven stamps (surcharged in three languages) was introduced for Tibet."

In 1909, a bilingual newspaper, the Vernacular newspaper of Tibet, the first of its kind, was printed in Lhasa on presses imported from Calcutta. It appeared every ten days and each issue was printed in 300 or 400 copies. Its objective, at the same time educational and of propaganda, was to facilitate the administrative reforms engaged by Lian Yu and Zhang Yintang.

This program was however reduced to nothing by the outbreak of the Chinese revolution in 1911, the collapse of the Qing empire and the elimination of Chao Ehr-feng.

For Hsaio-ting Lin, the series of reforms initiated by Chao Ehr-feng can be seen as the first attempt at state-building by modern China in its southwestern marches.

Before the collapse of the Qing Empire, the Swedish explorer Sven Hedin returned in 1909 from a three-year-long expedition to Tibet, having mapped and described a large part of inner Tibet. During his travels, he visited the 9th Panchen Lama. For some of the time, Hedin had to camouflage himself as a Tibetan shepherd (because he was European). In an interview following a meeting with the Russian czar he described the situation in 1909 as follows:
"Currently, Tibet is in the cramp-like hands of China's government. The Chinese realize that if they leave Tibet for the Europeans, it will end its isolation in the East. That is why the Chinese prevent those who wish to enter Tibet. The Dalai Lama is currently also in the hands of the Chinese Government"... "Mongols are fanatics. They adore the Dalai Lama and obey him blindly. If he tomorrow orders them go to war against the Chinese, if he urges them to a bloody revolution, they will all like one man follow him as their ruler. China's government, which fears the Mongols, hooks on to the Dalai Lama."... "There is calm in Tibet. No ferment of any kind is perceptible" (translated from Swedish).

 Qing collapse and Tibet independence
In February 1910, the Qing General  sent another army to Tibet during its attempt to establish direct rule. After the Dalai Lama was told he was to be "arrested", he escaped from Lhasa to India and remained for three months. Reports arrived of Lhasa's sacking, and the arrests of government officials. He was later informed by letter that Qing China had "deposed" him.

After the Dalai Lama's return to Tibet at a location outside of Lhasa, the collapse of the Qing dynasty began due to the Wuchang Uprising in October 1911. After the Xinhai Lhasa turmoil the Qing amban submitted a formal letter of surrender to the Dalai Lama in the summer of 1912.

On 13 February 1913, the Dalai Lama declared Tibet an independent state, and announced that what he described as the historic "priest and patron relationship" with China had ended. The amban'' and China's military were expelled, and all Chinese residents in Tibet were given a required departure limit of three years. All remaining Qing forces left Tibet by 1913.

See also
 Tibet under Yuan rule
 Ming–Tibet relations
 Qing dynasty in Inner Asia
 Manchuria under Qing rule
 Mongolia under Qing rule
 Xinjiang under Qing rule
 Taiwan under Qing rule
 Lifan Yuan
 Dzungar–Qing War
 Ganden Phodrang
 Kashag
 List of rulers of Tibet
 Tibet (1912–1951)
 History of Tibet

References

Bibliography

 Tibet: Proving Truth from Facts, Central Tibetan Administration, 1 January 1996.

Qing dynasty
History of Tibet
18th century in Tibet
19th century in Tibet
20th century in Tibet
1912 disestablishments in Asia
1720 establishments in China
States and territories established in 1720
China–Tibet relations

Tibet under Qing rule


The Penalty is a 1941 American crime film directed by Harold S. Bucquet and written by Harry Ruskin and John C. Higgins. The film stars Edward Arnold, Lionel Barrymore, Marsha Hunt, Robert Sterling, Gene Reynolds and Emma Dunn. The film was released on March 14, 1941, by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.

Plot
A gangster hires men to do some work, states they are going to the bank then holds up the bank (unknownst to the workers). The gangster, "Stuff" Nelson, leaves the workers wondering what happened.

A 16-year-old boy visits his father's girlfriend, who loves furs. Roosty loves his father, who is a gangster and does not think twice about shooting people. At a cabin in the woods, there is a shootout and the girlfriend is killed. Roosty, the boy, is captured and sent to reform school. He is later sent to live with a family on a farm and has a hard time adjusting, but comes to love and care about the family.

Stuff Nelson is able to locate his boy. The family tries to talk him out of leaving. The boy finally stands up to Stuff and refuses to leave. Stuff is immediately shot by the police.

Cast
Edward Arnold as Martin 'Stuff' Nelson
Lionel Barrymore as 'Grandpop' Logan
Marsha Hunt as Katherine Logan
Robert Sterling as Edward 'Ted' McCormick
Gene Reynolds as Russell 'Roosty' Nelson
Emma Dunn as 'Ma' McCormick
Veda Ann Borg as Julie Jackson
Richard Lane as FBI Agent Craig
Gloria DeHaven as Anne Logan
Grant Mitchell as Judge
Phil Silvers as 'Grapevine' Hobo
Warren Ashe as Jay
William Haade as Johnny Van Brook
Ralph Byrd as FBI Agent Brock
Edgar Barrier as 'Burnsy' Burns

References

External links

1941 films
American crime films
1941 crime films
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
Films directed by Harold S. Bucquet
American black-and-white films
1940s English-language films
1940s American films

The Penalty (1941 film)


A gallery gun, Flobert gun, parlor gun or saloon gun is a type of firearm designed for recreational indoor target shooting.  These guns were developed in 1845, when French inventor Louis-Nicolas Flobert created the first rimfire metallic cartridge by modifying a percussion cap to hold a small lead bullet. In the 19th century, gallery guns were typically pump-action rifles chambered in .22 Short. Gallery guns are still manufactured, although by the late 20th century, they have been eclipsed by airguns for the purpose of indoor shooting.

Gallery guns

Gallery guns are smallbore, single-shot or pump-action rifles, typically chambered in .22 Short. Some of the more popular guns are the Winchester Model 1890, Colt Lightning Carbine, Gevarm open bolt and the Winchester Model 62.  Home shooting parlors and galleries began to decline in the early 20th century. However, gallery guns went on to be used in shooting galleries in carnivals, fairs and amusement parks. By the late 20th century, gallery guns have been eclipsed by airguns for the purpose of indoor shooting. Gallery guns are still manufactured, although they are primarily used for plinking and small game hunting.

Flobert guns

Frenchman Louis-Nicolas Flobert invented the first rimfire metallic cartridge in 1845. The 6mm Flobert cartridge consisted of a percussion cap with a bullet attached to the top. These cartridges do not contain any powder, the only propellant substance contained in the cartridge is the percussion cap. In Europe, the .22 BB cap (introduced in 1845) and the slightly more powerful .22 CB cap (introduced in 1888) are both called "6mm Flobert" and are considered the same cartridge. These cartridges have a relatively low muzzle velocity of around  to . Flobert also made what he called "parlor guns" for this cartridge, as these rifles and pistols were designed to be shot in indoor shooting parlors in large homes.

Parlor pistols

Parlor pistols came into fashion in the mid-19th century; they typically featured heavy barrels and were chambered in a small caliber. They were used for target shooting in homes with a dedicated parlor or gallery for this purpose. The Remington Rider single shot pistol was one of the better-known American-made parlor guns.

Saloon gun
Saloon guns were smoothbore weapons that fired 6mm Flobert rounds, but can refer to a large caliber firearm that was made to shoot a smaller caliber round in indoor shooting galleries by use of a chamber insert called a Morris tube.  The Morris tube was shaped to the cartridge that the weapon was capable of firing and inside this tube was a smaller chamber for the round (typically .255 Morris) to fit.

References

External links
Winkler Parlor Pistol
Guns of the American West

Firearms by type

Gallery gun


British Columbia Highway 37A, which is known as the Stewart Highway and also as the Glacier Highway, is a 65 km (40 mi) long spur of Highway 37 west from Meziadin Junction to the border towns of Stewart and Hyder, Alaska, where it connects with Alaska's Salmon River Road. It was first built in the early 1960s to facilitate the movement of asbestos from the town of Cassiar. The Highway 37A designation was assigned in 1984.

The Salmon River Road continues from the border as an unsigned highway in Alaska, and heads north-westerly through Hyder and the Tongass National Forest.  It crosses the border again at the abandoned town site of Premier, British Columbia, where it continues on as Granduc Road to the Salmon Glacier summit viewpoint ending at the Granduc Mine.

The road is extremely vulnerable to avalanches through Bear Pass. As such, the Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure runs an anti-avalanche program through the pass.

References

External links

 weather.com description of route

Stewart Country
Nass Country
037

British Columbia Highway 37A


Ruaridh Arrow is a British journalist and film-maker known for his 2011 feature documentary How to Start a Revolution about Nobel Peace Prize nominee Dr Gene Sharp.

The film was described as an underground hit with the Occupy movement, which launched around the time of the film's release in September 2011. In 2012 the film won a BAFTA Scotland New Talent Award in the 'Factual: Over 30 Minutes' category. How to Start a Revolution won Best Documentary at the 2011 Raindance Film Festival in London. It was funded by Arrow and via the crowdfunding site Kickstarter.

Educated at King's College London and Glasgow University, Arrow was named Sky News Student Reporter of the Year at the Guardian Student Media Awards in 2004.

References

External links
 How to Start a Revolution, documentary directed by Ruaridh Arrow

British documentary filmmakers
Scottish journalists
Scottish film directors
Living people
Alumni of King's College London
Year of birth missing (living people)

Ruaridh Arrow


Francisco Serrano (born June 27, 1949) is a Mexican poet and writer whose multiple works also include opera librettos and publications in collaboration with painters. For over a decade, Serrano contributed actively to a variety of cultural affairs initiatives undertaken by the Mexican government.

Biography
Serrano initiated his studies at Colegio Madrid in Mexico City, his city of origin. He studied political science and filmmaking at the National Autonomous University of Mexico and French literature at the Sorbonne University in Paris. He was a poetry scholarship recipient from the Centro Mexicano de Escritores and from the Sistema Nacional de Creadores de Arte.

An active participant in his native country's cultural affairs for many years, Serrano's past appointments and positions include: Coordinator of Publications for the Ministry of Education's Directorate of Publications and Libraries; Director of International Relations for the National Institute of Fine Arts; and Chief Advisor roles with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' Secretariat for International Cooperation, the National Council for Culture and Arts (Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes) and the National Institute of Anthropology and History. For several years, he directed the publication of México en el Arte, and was an active collaborator on publications such as Casa del Tiempo, the newspapers El Nacional, La Jornada Semanal and El Universal, amongst others.

In 1971 he published his first book, Canciones egipcias. A disciple of Octavio Paz, Serrano experimented with the use of random processes in poetic composition. In 1980, in collaboration with painter Arnaldo Coen and composer Mario Lavista, he was a co-creator of Mutaciones, Jaula, In/cubaciones, a piece of work combining design, music and poetry conceived as a tribute to American composer John Cage. In 1982, Serrano published Libro de hexaedros, a collection of sixty-four poems that together, reinterprets and synthesizes images and processes described in the hexagrams of the I Ching.  Libro de hexaedros served as the foundation for the creation of El cubo de los cambios, a piece of stochastic poetry which, again, was the result of a creative collaboration with Arnaldo Coen.

He ventured as well upon visual poetry and theater. He is the author of the dramatic poems: La rosa de Ariadna, used as the libretto in the opera of the same name written by Italian composer Gualtiero Dazzi, and which premiered in 1995 at the Musica Festival in Strasbourg, France; and En susurros los muertos, a musical, also with G. Dazzi, first presented at the Música y Escena Festival in Mexico in 2005.

Serrano is the co-author of several books with Mexican painters Manuel Felguérez, Vicente Rojo, Gabriel Macotela and Roberto Cortázar. He has published thirteen titles of poetry, including No es sino el azar (1984), Confianza en la materia (1997), Música de la lengua (1999), Aquí es ninguna parte (2000), Prosa del Popocatépetl (2005) and Cuenta de mis muertos (2006). His poems have been translated into English, French, Portuguese, Italian, German, Flemish, Swedish and Japanese. He is the author of various anthologies of Mexican and Latin American poetry and several books for children. He has also contributed to the enrichment of the Spanish language having penned literary translations of poetry first written by the Provençal troubadours, the Carmina Buranas, the Book of Job and various other works of mainly French and English poets. These translations are compiled in the volume entitled Movimiento de traslación.

Francisco Serrano lives and works in Mexico City.

Works

Poetry

• Canciones egipcias (1979)

• Poema del fino amor (1981)

• Libro de hexaedros (1982)

• No es sino el azar (1984)

• Alicuanta (1984)

• La rosa de Ariadna (1992)

• Música de la lengua (1999)

• Confianza en la materia (1997)

• Aquí es ninguna parte (2000)

• Al raso (2000)

• Poemas (1969–2000) (2003)

• Prosa del Popocatépetl (2006)

• Cuenta de mis muertos (2006)

Poetic Collaborations with Painters
• Mutaciones, Jaula, Incubaciones, con Arnaldo Coen y Mario Lavista (1980–81)

• El cubo de los cambios, con Arnaldo Coen (1982)

• Ciudad Rota, con Gabriel Macotela (1986)

• Casas en el aire, con Gabriel Macotela (1991)

• Autobiografía de la creación, con Manuel Felguérez (1992)

• mutaciones transmutaciones in/cubaciones, con Arnaldo Coen (1992)

• Tierra volando, con Gabriel Macotela (1992)

• Ángeles cardinales, con Roberto Cortázar (1993)

• Prosa del Popocatépetl, con Vicente Rojo (2003)

Opera Librettos
• La rosa de Ariadna (1995)

• Orpheus in Underland (1996)

• Anhelo de amor (1997)

• En susurros los muertos (1998)

• Sol de movimiento (1999)

Books for Children and Young Readers
• La luciérnaga, antología para niños de la poesía mexicana (1983)

• Los vampiritos y el profesor (1986)

• La loquita frente al mar (1991)

• Esplendor de la América Antigua (1992)

• 24 poetas latinoamericanos (1997)

• Lecturas de poesía clásica, t. I (2000)

• Lecturas de poesía clásica, t. II (2001)

• El jardín de los pájaros (2005)

• El rey poeta (2006)

Anthologies
• La rosa de los vientos, antología de la poesía mexicana actual (1992)

Translations
• Carmina Burana (1991)

• Memorias de un esqueleto a la intemperie, viaje del año 1684, de Matsúo Basho (1995)

• La voz humana, de Jean Cocteau (2001)

• El libro de Job (2006)

• Movimiento de traslación (2009)

References

Bibliography

External links
 francisco-serrano.com Francisco Serrano's Official Website
 Francisco Serrano CIDCLI – Books for Children and Young Readers

Mexican male poets
Mexican male writers
Living people
1949 births
Poets from Mexico City
National Autonomous University of Mexico alumni
University of Paris alumni

Francisco Serrano (poet)


Michael Anthony Knox (February 1, 1961 – September 15, 2009) was an American software businessman and expert.  Knox was a co-founder of Park Place Productions with Troy Lyndon in 1989, which produced such classic video games as John Madden Football and Muhammad Ali Heavyweight Boxing.

Knox first became interested in the software gaming industry while he was living in Tracy, California, with his family. A woman, who lived in the area, introduced Knox to the fledgling video game industry. Knox and his older brother, Richard Knox Jr., later enlisted in the United States Navy, where he worked as an engineer and computer programmer.

In 1989, Knox founded Park Place Productions with Troy Lyndon.  At the time, Park Place Productions was one of the largest independent software development companies in North America. With Knox as a producer, the company developed approximately 70 video game titles, including John Madden Football, which has been called "the most successful sports game of all time."
 Other notable productions included Batman Returns, Monday Night Football and Muhammad Ali Heavyweight Boxing.

Knox and Lyndon received the Inc. Magazine's "Entrepreneur of the Year" award by Ernst & Young and Merrill Lynch for the software industry category for the Greater San Diego Country region in 1993.

Michael Knox died on September 15, 2009, of colon cancer in Kaneohe, Hawaii, at the age of 48. He is survived by his parents, Vickie Lenore Knox and Richard James Knox Sr., son Aaron Michael Knox, daughter Tyra Renee Knox, sisters Kanani L.Y. Fung and Kahle Miller, and two grandchildren.

References

1961 births
2009 deaths
American computer businesspeople
Deaths from colorectal cancer
Deaths from cancer in Hawaii
Video game businesspeople

Michael Knox (software businessman)


The reaction rate or rate of reaction is the speed at which a chemical reaction takes place, defined as proportional to the increase in the concentration of a product per unit time and to the decrease in the concentration of a reactant per unit time.  Reaction rates can vary dramatically. For example, the oxidative rusting of iron under Earth's atmosphere is a slow reaction that can take many years, but the combustion of cellulose in a fire is a reaction that takes place in fractions of a second. For most reactions, the rate decreases as the reaction proceeds. A reaction's rate can be determined by measuring the changes in concentration over time.

Chemical kinetics is the part of physical chemistry that concerns how rates of chemical reactions are measured and predicted, and how reaction-rate data can be used to deduce probable reaction mechanisms. The concepts of chemical kinetics are applied in many disciplines, such as chemical engineering, enzymology and environmental engineering.

Formal definition
Consider a typical balanced chemical reaction:

{\mathit{a}A} + {\mathit{b}B} -> {\mathit{p}P} + {\mathit{q}Q}

The lowercase letters (, , , and ) represent stoichiometric coefficients, while the capital letters represent the reactants ( and ) and the products ( and ).

According to IUPAC's Gold Book definition
the reaction rate  for a chemical reaction occurring in a closed system at constant volume, without a build-up of reaction intermediates, is defined as:

where  denotes the concentration of the substance  or . The reaction rate thus defined has the units of mol/L/s.

The rate of a reaction is always positive. A negative sign is present to indicate that the reactant concentration is decreasing. The IUPAC recommends that the unit of time should always be the second. The rate of reaction differs from the rate of increase of concentration of a product P by a constant factor (the reciprocal of its stoichiometric number) and for a reactant A by minus the reciprocal of the stoichiometric number. The stoichiometric numbers are included so that the defined rate is independent of which reactant or product species is chosen for measurement. For example, if  and  then  is consumed three times more rapidly than , but  is uniquely defined. An additional advantage of this definition is that for an elementary and irreversible reaction,  is equal to the product of the probability of overcoming the transition state activation energy and the number of times per second the transition state is approached by reactant molecules. When so defined, for an elementary and irreversible reaction,  is the rate of successful chemical reaction events leading to the product.

The above definition is only valid for a single reaction, in a closed system of constant volume. If water is added to a pot containing salty water, the concentration of salt decreases, although there is no chemical reaction.

For an open system, the full mass balance must be taken into account:

where
 is the inflow rate of  in molecules per second;
 the outflow;
 is the instantaneous reaction rate of  (in number concentration rather than molar) in a given differential volume, integrated over the entire system volume  at a given moment.
When applied to the closed system at constant volume considered previously, this equation reduces to:
,
where the concentration  is related to the number of molecules  by  Here  is the Avogadro constant.

For a single reaction in a closed system of varying volume the so-called rate of conversion can be used, in order to avoid handling concentrations. It is defined as the derivative of the extent of reaction with respect to time.

Here  is the stoichiometric coefficient for substance , equal to , , , and  in the typical reaction above. Also  is the volume of reaction and  is the concentration of substance .

When side products or reaction intermediates are formed, the IUPAC recommends the use of the terms the rate of increase of concentration and rate of the decrease of concentration for products and reactants, properly.

Reaction rates may also be defined on a basis that is not the volume of the reactor.  When a catalyst is used the reaction rate may be stated on a catalyst weight (mol g−1 s−1) or surface area (mol m−2 s−1) basis.  If the basis is a specific catalyst site that may be rigorously counted by a specified method, the rate is given in units of s−1 and is called a turnover frequency.

Influencing factors
Factors that influence the reaction rate are the nature of the reaction, concentration, pressure, reaction order, temperature, solvent, electromagnetic radiation, catalyst, isotopes, surface area, stirring, and diffusion limit. Some reactions are naturally faster than others. The number of reacting species, their physical state (the particles that form solids move much more slowly than those of gases or those in solution), the complexity of the reaction and other factors can greatly influence the rate of a reaction.

Reaction rate increases with concentration, as described by the rate law and explained by collision theory. As reactant concentration increases, the frequency of collision increases. The rate of gaseous reactions increases with pressure, which is, in fact, equivalent to an increase in the concentration of the gas. The reaction rate increases in the direction where there are fewer moles of gas and decreases in the reverse direction. For condensed-phase reactions, the pressure dependence is weak.

The order of the reaction controls how the reactant concentration (or pressure) affects the reaction rate.

Usually conducting a reaction at a higher temperature delivers more energy into the system and increases the reaction rate by causing more collisions between particles, as explained by collision theory. However, the main reason that temperature increases the rate of reaction is that more of the colliding particles will have the necessary activation energy resulting in more successful collisions (when bonds are formed between reactants). The influence of temperature is described by the Arrhenius equation. For example, coal burns in a fireplace in the presence of oxygen, but it does not when it is stored at room temperature. The reaction is spontaneous at low and high temperatures but at room temperature, its rate is so slow that it is negligible. The increase in temperature, as created by a match, allows the reaction to start and then it heats itself because it is exothermic. That is valid for many other fuels, such as methane, butane, and hydrogen.

Reaction rates can be independent of temperature (non-Arrhenius) or decrease with increasing temperature (anti-Arrhenius). Reactions without an activation barrier (for example, some radical reactions), tend to have anti-Arrhenius temperature dependence: the rate constant decreases with increasing temperature.

Many reactions take place in solution and the properties of the solvent affect the reaction rate. The ionic strength also has an effect on the reaction rate.

Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy. As such, it may speed up the rate or even make a reaction spontaneous as it provides the particles of the reactants with more energy. This energy is in one way or another stored in the reacting particles (it may break bonds, and promote molecules to electronically or vibrationally excited states...) creating intermediate species that react easily. As the intensity of light increases, the particles absorb more energy and hence the rate of reaction increases. For example, when methane reacts with chlorine in the dark, the reaction rate is slow. It can be sped up when the mixture is put under diffused light. In bright sunlight, the reaction is explosive.

The presence of a catalyst increases the reaction rate (in both the forward and reverse reactions) by providing an alternative pathway with a lower activation energy. For example, platinum catalyzes the combustion of hydrogen with oxygen at room temperature.

The kinetic isotope effect consists of a different reaction rate for the same molecule if it has different isotopes, usually hydrogen isotopes, because of the relative mass difference between hydrogen and deuterium.
In reactions on surfaces, which take place, for example, during heterogeneous catalysis, the rate of reaction increases as the surface area does. That is because more particles of the solid are exposed and can be hit by reactant molecules.

Stirring can have a strong effect on the rate of reaction for heterogeneous reactions.

Some reactions are limited by diffusion. All the factors that affect a reaction rate, except for concentration and reaction order, are taken into account in the reaction rate coefficient (the coefficient in the rate equation of the reaction).

Rate equation

For a chemical reaction , the rate equation or rate law is a mathematical expression used in chemical kinetics to link the rate of a reaction to the concentration of each reactant. For a closed system at constant volume, this is often of the form

For reactions that go to completion (which implies very small ), or if only the initial rate is analyzed (with initial vanishing product concentrations), this simplifies to the commonly quoted form

For gas phase reaction the rate equation is often alternatively expressed in terms of partial pressures.

In these equations  is the reaction rate coefficient or rate constant, although it is not really a constant, because it includes all the parameters that affect reaction rate, except for time and concentration. Of all the parameters influencing reaction rates, temperature is normally the most important one and is accounted for by the Arrhenius equation.

The exponents  and  are called reaction orders and depend on the reaction mechanism. For an elementary (single-step) reaction, the order with respect to each reactant is equal to its stoichiometric coefficient. For complex (multistep) reactions, however, this is often not true and the rate equation is determined by the detailed mechanism, as illustrated below for the reaction of H2 and NO.

For elementary reactions or reaction steps, the order and stoichiometric coefficient are both equal to the molecularity or number of molecules participating. For a unimolecular reaction or step, the rate is proportional to the concentration of molecules of reactant, so the rate law is first order. For a bimolecular reaction or step, the number of collisions is proportional to the product of the two reactant concentrations, or second order. A termolecular step is predicted to be third order, but also very slow as simultaneous collisions of three molecules are rare.

By using the mass balance for the system in which the reaction occurs, an expression for the rate of change in concentration can be derived. For a closed system with constant volume, such an expression can look like

Example of a complex reaction: hydrogen and nitric oxide
For the reaction

the observed rate equation (or rate expression) is:

As for many reactions, the experimental rate equation does not simply reflect the stoichiometric coefficients in the overall reaction: It is third order overall: first order in H2 and second order in NO,  even though the stoichiometric coefficients of both reactants are equal to 2.

In chemical kinetics, the overall reaction rate is often explained using a mechanism consisting of a number of elementary steps. Not all of these steps affect the rate of reaction; normally the slowest elementary step controls the reaction rate. For this example, a possible mechanism is:

Reactions 1 and 3 are very rapid compared to the second, so the slow reaction 2 is the rate-determining step. This is a bimolecular elementary reaction whose rate is given by the second-order equation:

where  is the rate constant for the second step.

However N2O2 is an unstable intermediate whose concentration is determined by the fact that the first step is in equilibrium, so that  where  is the equilibrium constant of the first step. Substitution of this equation in the previous equation leads to a rate equation expressed in terms of the original reactants

This agrees with the form of the observed rate equation if it is assumed that . In practice the rate equation is used to suggest possible mechanisms which predict a rate equation in agreement with experiment.

The second molecule of H2 does not appear in the rate equation because it reacts in the third step, which is a rapid step after the rate-determining step, so that it does not affect the overall reaction rate.

Temperature dependence

Each reaction rate coefficient  has a temperature dependency, which is usually given by the Arrhenius equation:

where
 is the activation energy;
 is the gas constant;
 is the exponential function.
Since at temperature  the molecules have energies given by a Boltzmann distribution, one can expect the number of collisions with energy greater than  to be proportional to  The coefficient, , is the pre-exponential factor or frequency factor.

The values for  and  are dependent on the reaction. There are also more complex equations possible, which describe the temperature dependence of other rate constants that do not follow this pattern.

Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the reactants. As temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the reactants increases. That is, the particles move faster. With the reactants moving faster this allows more collisions to take place at a greater speed, so the chance of reactants forming into products increases, which in turn results in the rate of reaction increasing. A rise of ten degrees Celsius results in approximately twice the reaction rate.

The minimum kinetic energy required for a reaction to occur is called the activation energy and is denoted by  or . The transition state or activated complex shown on the diagram is the energy barrier that must be overcome when changing reactants into products. The molecules with an energy greater than this barrier have enough energy to react.

For a successful collision to take place, the collision geometry must be right, meaning the reactant molecules must face the right way so the activated complex can be formed.

A chemical reaction takes place only when the reacting particles collide. However, not all collisions are effective in causing the reaction. Products are formed only when the colliding particles possess a certain minimum energy called threshold energy. As a rule of thumb, reaction rates for many reactions double for every ten degrees Celsius increase in temperature. For a given reaction, the ratio of its rate constant at a higher temperature to its rate constant at a lower temperature is known as its temperature coefficient, ().  Q10 is commonly used as the ratio of rate constants that are ten degrees Celsius apart.

Pressure dependence
The pressure dependence of the rate constant for condensed-phase reactions (that is, when reactants and products are solids or liquid) is usually sufficiently weak in the range of pressures normally encountered in industry that it is neglected in practice.

The pressure dependence of the rate constant is associated with the activation volume. For the reaction proceeding through an activation-state complex:

the activation volume, , is:

where  denotes the partial molar volume of a species and  (a double dagger) indicates the activation-state complex.

For the above reaction, one can expect the change of the reaction rate constant (based either on mole fraction or on molar concentration) with pressure at constant temperature to be:

In practice, the matter can be complicated because the partial molar volumes and the activation volume can themselves be a function of pressure.

Reactions can increase or decrease their rates with pressure, depending on the value of . As an example of the possible magnitude of the pressure effect, some organic reactions were shown to double the reaction rate when the pressure was increased from atmospheric (0.1 MPa) to 50 MPa (which gives  −0.025 L/mol).

See also
 Diffusion-controlled reaction
 Dilution (equation)
 Isothermal microcalorimetry
 Rate of solution
 Steady state approximation

Notes

External links
 Chemical kinetics, reaction rate, and order (needs flash player)
 Reaction kinetics, examples of important rate laws (lecture with audio).
 Rates of reaction
 Overview of Bimolecular Reactions (Reactions involving two reactants)
 pressure dependence Can. J. Chem.

Chemical kinetics
Chemical reaction engineering
Temporal rates

Reaction rate


Galois theory (pronounced gal-wah) is a subject in mathematics that is centered around the connection between two mathematical structures, fields and groups. Fields are sets of numbers (sometimes abstractly called elements) that have a way of adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. Groups are like fields, but with only one operation often called addition (subtraction is considered addition with negative numbers). Fields are often hard to study because there are so many possible combinations of numbers, that the internal structure is hard to decipher. Groups are usually much less complex and easier to understand. Galois theory gives a concrete connection between hard to study fields and easy to study groups.

Disclaimer
The nature of Galois' work is extremely advanced. It is usually considered out of reach for general audiences, or anyone without a strong technical background in Abstract algebra. This article will go into some detail, mostly defining types of equations and groups, and give a brief overview of the main ideas behind Galois theory. This article may not truly belong on Simple English Wikipedia, though it may be referenced by those who have trouble understanding the main Wikipedia page, and just need a brief discussion on the subject. Beyond the first paragraph of this page, some mathematical experience may be required. All things considered, any high schooler should be able to follow the main ideas laid forth in this article.

Historical Motivation

Euclid and Geometry
In the year 300 BCE, the Greek mathematician Euclid (pronounded yook-lid) wrote a book on geometry titled Elements. The text contained thirteen books, all on how to solve problems in geometry. Euclid was able to find ways to bisect any angle; that is, he was able to find an angle that was half of any other angle. Euclid was able to do much more, too. He could construct with a straightedge and compass shapes like circles, triangles, squares, pentagons, and others. However, he was unable to find a way to make every possible polygon. For example, Euclid was unable to make a regular 9-gon, a shape with 9 equal sides, using only ruler and compass. Mathematicians, like Euclid, tried to solve other problems as well. If they could cut any angle in two halves, then was there a way to cut any angle into three equal angles? Similarly, was there a way to square the circle (find a square with area equal to π, or a square with side length equal to  ), or double the cube(find a cube with twice the volume of another, by constructing a side of the cube with length  )? These questions remained unanswered for over 2000 years.

The Sisters of the Quadratic Formula
A polynomial equation is an equation where you are only allowed to add and subtract multiples of powers of a variable, like . An nth power is a variable multiplied by itself n times. Or example polynomial has 5th, 3rd, 2nd, and 1st powers of x. The degree of a polynomial is the largest power found in the equation. In school, students learn about a type of polynomial equation called a quadratic equation. This is an equation where the highest power, or multiple, is two. An example of a quadratic equation is, or . Notice that the only thing we care about is that there is a squared term. This makes the equation quadratic. If  are numbers and , then  is a valid quadratic equation. You may remember from school that if you know  then you can solve this equation using the quadratic formula,which gives the solutions to our equation only by plugging in . Mathematicians hoped to find a simple equation for the solutions (or, roots) for any polynomial equation, hopefully using only addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and two other simple calculations: powers and roots. Mathematicians were able, after years of work, to find equations for polynomials with degree 3, and eventually degree 4. However, no one was ever able to find a formula for the solutions to a polynomial with degree 5 or higher. Why not? What was preventing them from being able to plug in the (in this case, since there are 5 powers)  in  and get the answers? No one could find out why.

Fields and Groups
The solution to these problems arrived out of the study of fields and groups. It turns out that each equation has a special field and group associated with it.

Fields
The field associated with each equation has complicated structure. However, you can tell a lot about the structure by how much you can rearrange elements by shuffling without changing the structure.

Groups and Sn
All of the ways of shuffling a field can be turned into a group. There are special types of groups, called the Symmetric Group on n elements labeled Sn, which are all the ways of shuffling n things. Symmetric groups are well behaved and easy to work with when you only shuffle 1, 2, 3, or 4 things. If you use 5 or more, the structure of the symmetric group becomes too chaotic.

Galois's Solution

Up until the early 1800s, mathematicians were able to find some answers for specific cases of these unsolved problems. Unfortunately, no one had given a reason (or, proof) for any equation. It was French mathematician Évariste Galois (25 October 1811 – 31 May 1832) who was the first to find a solution, explaining why certain equations like 2nd, 3rd, and 4th degree polynomials did have nice solution formulas, but other equations, like 5th degree and above, cannot have a formula. The answer boiled down to reducing the problem of the equations's field to the equation's group; Galois proved that the two had a connection.

Galois' Realization
Galois noticed that the structure of the groups associated with polynomials were really just the symmetric groups in disguise. If the degree of a polynomial was n, then the group of the polynomial was the symmetric group on n elements. Galois saw that the group of the equation shuffled the roots of the polynomial, and the structure of the shuffles could be analyzed instead.

Solving Euclid's Problems
Euclid had wanted to find a way of cutting any angle in thirds. Galois showed that if a ruler and compass could be used to make a third of an angle, it would have an associated equation of degree 3. He showed that only powers of two could be made, by analyzing the equation's group and field. Galois showed that trisecting an arbitrary angle was impossible. Galois' theory could also be used to show that it was impossible to square a circle and double a cube.

What Polynomials had Formulas?
Galois used his theory to also show that for polynomials of degree 5 and higher, their associated groups were Sn. He also showed that if an equation had a formula to solve it, then the group of the equation would have a nice structure and was not chaotic. Since the structure of the symmetric group is chaotic for , he showed that no general formula could exist for those polynomials.

References

Abstract algebra

Galois theory


The Ohio Wesleyan University Library is the library system of Ohio Wesleyan University in Delaware, Ohio. It comprises five individual libraries and is the second largest academic library in Ohio among liberal arts colleges, ranked by number of volumes held. Organized into 3 major divisions (main collection, science collection and a music collection), in 2005 it held 600,000 printed volumes in open stacks, 800,000 microfilms and microfiches, and a total of 140,000 maps, motion pictures, DVDs, sound recordings, and computer files in its collections, in addition to extensive digital resources and the University Archives.

History
Initially, the system was a collection of 9000 volumes stored in Slocum Hall. Slocum Hall, built in 1898 served as the University library until 1966 when Beeghly Library was built. Holdings include a strong rare book collection, a solid representation of 19th century periodicals, and print and electronic subscriptions to thousands of periodicals. Housed in Beeghly is one of the country's oldest government publications depositories. All libraries are linked by an integrated online catalog and circulation system, CONSORT.

Initiatives

Government documents collection plays an active role in furthering online archiving of scientific and historical documents at the school. The Ohio Wesleyan University Beeghly Library has been a federal depository for government publications since 1845, and is one of the oldest continuous federal depository libraries in the United States. The library receives approximately 26% of all publications available for selection through the Federal Depository Library Program, which distributes millions of U.S. government publications to libraries across the countries.

The CONSORT integrated library system is shared with Denison University, Kenyon College, and the College of Wooster and provides access to the combined holdings of all four colleges. The project is aimed at enabling resource sharing with each other and OhioLINK.

The primary purpose of cooperative collection development activities by the four CONSORT Colleges is to maximize the strength, currency, and diversity of the individual collections. A secondary purpose is the simultaneous containment of costs by reducing unnecessary duplication of library materials and the deliberate purchase of more specific materials that would not have been purchased otherwise. The four libraries will also continue to explore and adopt policies and procedures for increased sharing and timely delivery of materials.

References

External links
 Ohio Wesleyan University Library
 Special Collections
 Digital Collections

Library buildings completed in 1966
Library
University and college academic libraries in the United States
Libraries in Ohio

Ohio Wesleyan University Library


Mischief in Wonderland () is a 1957 West German fantasy film directed by Otto Meyer, loosely based on the story Schlaraffenland by poet Hans Sachs and a satire on the German Wirtschaftswunder. The film was released in the United States by K. Gordon Murray. It is also known as Riot in Cockaigne and Scandal in Fairyland.

Plot
The king of Irgendwo is beset by worries: The food stocks are empty and he has no money. The only way out, proposed by his advisers Schnorr and Astropolex, to marry off his young daughter to the Sultan of Persipanien, fails: The princess denied the marriage and the sultan wants a rich wife.

One night during a thunderstorm, a young woman arrives at the castle. The king lets her in and gives her the last milk ration. She turns out to be a fairy who now wants to thank him: He receives a magic button with which he can ask for any food he wants. Soon the inhabitants of the little kingdom are living in a wonderland. From the village fountain now gushes wine and lemonade, the fountain itself is made of marzipan and the fences are made of chocolate. To avoid jeopardizing the splendor, a rice pudding mountain is built around the kingdom.

But soon people, especially children, realize there are disadvantages. All the people are fat and the school is closed due to "laziness". They ask the princess for help, as she is the only person who has avoided eating too much. But the adults got used to the new way of life, so a riot breaks out in the land of milk and honey ...

Cast
 Alexander Engel as the King of Irgendwo
 Werner Krüger as the Scholar Astropolex
 Sabine Sesselmann as the Fairy
 Cordula Trantow as the Princess
 Alexa von Porembsky as the Chambermaid
 Harry Wüstenhagen as the Valet Schnorr
 Otto Czarski as the Physician
 Helmut Ziegner as the Sultan of Persipanien

See also
 Cockaigne

References

External links

1957 films
1950s children's fantasy films
West German films
Films based on fairy tales
German children's fantasy films
Films set in a fictional country
1950s German films

Mischief in Wonderland


Steve Bowman (born January 14, 1967) is an American rock drummer and songwriter.  He was a founding member and drummer for Counting Crows during the recording and period of time following their debut album, August and Everything After. The band's unexpected success led them to performances  on Late Night with David Letterman, and Saturday Night Live. They toured with The Rolling Stones, were nominated for two Grammy Awards, and won an American Music Award.  By 1994, they were also on the cover of Rolling Stone magazine.

Bowman left the band in late 1994.  In the next few years, he went on to play with Third Eye Blind, John Wesley Harding, and Penelope Houston.  In 1998, Bowman and his new band Luce recorded the song "Good Day", which was featured in the films How to Lose a Guy in 10 Days and 13 Going On 30.  Bowman also played on Luce's second
record which produced the hit single, "Buy a Dog."

Bowman is active as a session musician, has released a book on drumming called Groove Control, contributes freelance articles to various music magazines, and runs a private teaching studio just outside Nashville called Murfreesboro Music Lab.

As of 2022, Bowman had created a studio called Murfreesboro Music Lab and started a podcast called Letters To An Aspiring Musician, to help other musicians.

References

External links

Living people
1967 births
American male bloggers
American bloggers
American rock drummers
Songwriters from Tennessee
Counting Crows members
Place of birth missing (living people)
American session musicians
Musicians from Nashville, Tennessee
20th-century American drummers
American male drummers

Steve Bowman


Joel Maurice Hefley (born April 18, 1935) is an American Republican politician who served as a member of the United States House of Representatives representing the 5th Congressional District of Colorado from 1987 to 2007. His wife, Lynn Hefley, is, like him, a former member of the Colorado State House of Representatives. They have three daughters.

He was born in Ardmore, the seat of Carter County in southeastern Oklahoma, earned his B.A. at Oklahoma Baptist University in Shawnee, and his M.A. at Oklahoma State University in Stillwater. He worked as a management consultant and then as executive director of the Colorado Community Planning and Research Council, a nonprofit organization. He was a member of the Colorado House of Representatives for one term in 1977–78. Hefley was subsequently elected to  the Colorado Senate before entering the U.S. House of Representatives.

He served as chairman of the House Ethics Committee until 2005. His tenure propelled him from being "among the most obscure members" in the House to gaining national attention, when the Committee formally admonished House Majority Leader Tom DeLay three times; Hefley also handled the expulsion case of James Traficant, and oversaw the investigation of Alan Mollohan. Because Hefley had served 3 terms as chairman, he was term limited from serving as chairman in the 109th Congress.

When the new Congress opened in January 2005, House Republicans pushed through new rules curtailing the ways ethics investigations can be launched. While Hefley voted for the rules, he criticized the procedure, "saying he thought the changes were a mistake since they were done without bipartisan discussion." Within a month, Rep. Doc Hastings was chosen as Hefley's replacement due to Hefley's chairmanship expiring.

On February 16, 2006, Hefley ended speculation as to whether he would seek re-election in 2006, instead retiring after 10 terms in Congress, despite pledging in 1986 that he would not serve longer than three terms (6 years.)

Gay rights
In 1998, Hefley introduced an amendment blocking federal funding for Executive Order 13087, an executive order issued by President Bill Clinton to prohibit discrimination against gay and lesbian employees in the federal government.

2006 Congressional race

In the August GOP primary to succeed him, Hefley backed his long-time aide, former administrative director Jeff Crank, who lost in a contentious six-way race to State Senator Doug Lamborn. Hefley was incensed at the tactics used in the election, particularly a mailed brochure from the Christian Coalition of Colorado associating Crank with "public support for members and efforts of the homosexual agenda." Hefley said that he "suspected, but couldn't prove, collusion between Lamborn's campaign, which is managed by Jon Hotaling, and the Christian Coalition of Colorado, which is run by Hotaling's brother, Mark." Hefley called it "one of the sleaziest, most dishonest campaigns I've seen in a long time," and, as a result, refused to endorse Lamborn.

References

External links

 OnTheIssues
 Voting record maintained by the Washington Post

1935 births
Living people
People from Ardmore, Oklahoma
American Presbyterians
Oklahoma Baptist University alumni
Oklahoma State University alumni
Republican Party members of the Colorado House of Representatives
Republican Party Colorado state senators
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Colorado
21st-century American politicians
Politicians from Colorado Springs, Colorado
Spouses of Colorado politicians

Joel Hefley