A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, psychoactive agent, or psychotropic drug is a chemical substance that changes the function of the nervous system and results in alterations of perception, mood, cognition, and behavior. These substances may be used medically, recreationally, for spiritual reasons (for example, by altering one's consciousness, as with entheogens for ritual, spiritual, or shamanic purposes), or for research. Some categories of psychoactive drugs may be prescribed by physicians and other healthcare practitioners because of their therapeutic value.

Some psychoactive substances may be used in detoxification and rehabilitation programs for people who may have become dependent upon or addicted to other mind-altering or mood-altering substances. Drug rehabilitation attempts to reduce addiction through a combination of psychotherapy, support groups, and sometimes psychoactive substances.

Psychoactive substances often bring various changes in consciousness and mood that the user may find rewarding and pleasant (e.g., euphoria or a sense of relaxation) or advantageous in an objectively observable or measurable way (e.g., increased alertness). Substances that are rewarding and thus positively reinforcing have the potential to induce a state of addiction – compulsive drug use despite negative consequences. In addition, sustained use of some substances may produce physical or psychological dependence, or both, associated with somatic or psychological-emotional withdrawal states, respectively.

Psychoactive drug misuse, dependence, and addiction have resulted in legal measures and moral debate. Governmental controls on manufacture, supply, and prescription attempt to reduce problematic medical drug use. Ethical concerns have also been raised about the overuse of these drugs clinically and about their marketing by manufacturers. Popular campaigns to decriminalize or legalize the recreational use of certain drugs (e.g., cannabis) are also ongoing.

History

Psychoactive drug use can be traced back to prehistory. There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances, mostly plants, dating back at least 10,000 years and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years. The chewing of coca leaves, for example, dates back over 8,000 years ago in Peruvian society.

Medicinal use is one important facet of psychoactive drug use. However, some have postulated that the urge to alter one's consciousness is as primary as the drive to satiate thirst, hunger, or sexual desire. Supporters of this belief contend that the history of drug use, and even children's desire for spinning, swinging, or sliding indicate that the drive to alter one's state of mind is universal.

One of the first people to articulate this point of view, set aside from a medicinal context, was American author Fitz Hugh Ludlow (1836–1870) in his book The Hasheesh Eater (1857):

During the 20th century, many governments across the world initially responded to the use of recreational drugs by banning use, production, or distribution of them, and making their use, supply, or trade a criminal offense. A notable example of this was Prohibition in the United States, where alcohol was made illegal for 13 years. However, many governments, government officials, and persons in law enforcement have concluded that illicit drug use cannot be sufficiently stopped through criminalization. Organizations such as Law Enforcement Against Prohibition (LEAP) have come to such a conclusion, believing:
In some countries, there has been a move toward harm reduction by health services, where the use of illicit drugs is neither condoned nor promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure users have adequate factual information readily available, and that the negative effects of their use be minimized. Such is the case of the Portuguese drug policy of decriminalization, which achieved its primary goal of reducing the adverse health effects of drug abuse.

Purposes

Psychoactive substances are used for a number of different purposes, and these uses vary widely between cultures. Some substances may have controlled or illegal uses; typically used medicinally, but other uses do exist. Other examples include social drinking, nootropics, or sleep aids. Caffeine is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive substance, but unlike many others, it is legal and unregulated in nearly all jurisdictions. In North America, 90% of adults consume caffeine daily.

Psychoactive drugs are divided into different groups according to their pharmacological effects. Commonly used psychoactive drugs and groups are listed below:

 Anxiolytics. Medicinally used to reduce the symptoms of anxiety, and sometimes insomnia.
Example: benzodiazepines such as Xanax and Valium; barbiturates
 Empathogen–entactogens. A drug class that alters one's emotional state, often resulting in an increased sense of empathy, closeness, and emotional communication.

Example: MDMA (ecstasy), MDA, 6-APB, AMT
 Stimulants (colloquially referred to as "uppers"). This category comprises substances that increase wakefulness and productivity, stimulate the nervous system, and may cause euphoria, but are not known to typically cause hallucinatory effects.  Some stimulants are used medicinally to treat individuals with ADHD and Narcolepsy.
Examples: amphetamines, caffeine, cocaine, nicotine
 Depressants (colloquially referred to as "downers"), including sedatives, hypnotics, and opioids. This classification encompasses a spectrum of substances with sedative, soporific, and anesthetic properties.
Examples: Ethanol (alcohol), opioids such as morphine, fentanyl, and codeine, cannabis, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines.
 Hallucinogens, including psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants. This category encompasses all substances that produce distinct alterations in perception, sensation of space and time, and emotional states.

Examples: psilocybin, LSD, DMT (N,N-Dimethyltryptamine)/ayahuasca, mescaline, Salvia divinorum, Nitrous oxide, and Scopolamine

Uses

Anesthesia

General anesthetics are a class of psychoactive drug used on people to block physical pain and other sensations. Most anesthetics induce unconsciousness, allowing the person to undergo medical procedures like surgery, without the feelings of physical pain or emotional trauma. To induce unconsciousness, anesthetics affect the GABA and NMDA systems. For example, Propofol is a GABA agonist, and ketamine is an NMDA receptor antagonist.

Pain management

Psychoactive drugs are often prescribed to manage pain. The subjective experience of pain is primarily regulated by endogenous opioid peptides. Thus, pain can often be managed using psychoactives that operate on this neurotransmitter system, also known as opioid receptor agonists. This class of drugs can be highly addictive, and includes opiate narcotics, like morphine and codeine. NSAIDs, such as aspirin and ibuprofen, are also analgesics. These agents also reduce eicosanoid-mediated inflammation by inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase.

Mental disorders

Psychiatric medications are psychoactive drugs prescribed for the management of mental and emotional disorders, or to aid in overcoming challenging behavior. There are six major classes of psychiatric medications:
 Antidepressants treat disorders such as clinical depression, dysthymia, anxiety, eating disorders and borderline personality disorder.
 Stimulants, used to treat disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy, and for weight reduction.
 Antipsychotics, used to treat psychotic symptoms, such as those associated with schizophrenia or severe mania, or as adjuncts to relieve clinical depression.
 Mood stabilizers, used to treat bipolar disorder and schizoaffective disorder.
 Anxiolytics, used to treat anxiety disorders.
 Depressants, used as hypnotics, sedatives, and anesthetics, depending upon dosage.

In addition, several psychoactive substances are currently employed to treat various addictions. These include acamprosate or naltrexone in the treatment of alcoholism, or methadone or buprenorphine maintenance therapy in the case of opioid addiction.

Exposure to psychoactive drugs can cause changes to the brain that counteract or augment some of their effects; these changes may be beneficial or harmful. However, there is a significant amount of evidence that the relapse rate of mental disorders negatively corresponds with the length of properly followed treatment regimens (that is, relapse rate substantially declines over time), and to a much greater degree than placebo.

Recreation

Many psychoactive substances are used for their mood and perception altering effects, including those with accepted uses in medicine and psychiatry. Examples of psychoactive substances include caffeine, alcohol, cocaine, LSD, nicotine and cannabis. Classes of drugs frequently used recreationally include:
 Stimulants, which activate the central nervous system. These are used recreationally for their euphoric effects.
 Hallucinogens (psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants), which induce perceptual and cognitive alterations.
 Hypnotics, which depress the central nervous system.
 Opioid analgesics, which also depress the central nervous system. These are used recreationally because of their euphoric effects.
 Inhalants, in the forms of gas aerosols, or solvents, which are inhaled as a vapor because of their stupefying effects. Many inhalants also fall into the above categories (such as nitrous oxide which is also an analgesic).

In some modern and ancient cultures, drug usage is seen as a status symbol. Recreational drugs are seen as status symbols in settings such as at nightclubs and parties. For example, in ancient Egypt, gods were commonly pictured holding hallucinogenic plants.

Because there is controversy about regulation of recreational drugs, there is an ongoing debate about drug prohibition. Critics of prohibition believe that regulation of recreational drug use is a violation of personal autonomy and freedom. In the United States, critics have noted that prohibition or regulation of recreational and spiritual drug use might be unconstitutional, and causing more harm than is prevented.

Some people who take psychoactive drugs experience drug or substance induced psychosis. A 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis by Murrie et al. found that the pooled proportion of transition from substance-induced psychosis to schizophrenia was 25% (95% CI 18%–35%), compared with 36% (95% CI 30%–43%) for brief, atypical and not otherwise specified psychoses. Type of substance was the primary predictor of transition from drug-induced psychosis to schizophrenia, with highest rates associated with cannabis (6 studies, 34%, CI 25%–46%), hallucinogens (3 studies, 26%, CI 14%–43%) and amphetamines (5 studies, 22%, CI 14%–34%). Lower rates were reported for opioid (12%), alcohol (10%) and sedative (9%) induced psychoses. Transition rates were slightly lower in older cohorts but were not affected by sex, country of the study, hospital or community location, urban or rural setting, diagnostic methods, or duration of follow-up.

Ritual and spiritual

Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, have been used for religious purposes since prehistoric times. Native Americans have used peyote cacti containing mescaline for religious ceremonies for as long as 5700 years. The muscimol-containing Amanita muscaria mushroom was used for ritual purposes throughout prehistoric Europe.

The use of entheogens for religious purposes resurfaced in the West during the counterculture movements of the 1960s and 70s. Under the leadership of Timothy Leary, new spiritual and intention-based movements began to use LSD and other hallucinogens as tools to access deeper inner exploration. In the United States, the use of peyote for ritual purposes is protected only for members of the Native American Church, which is allowed to cultivate and distribute peyote. However, the genuine religious use of peyote, regardless of one's personal ancestry, is protected in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and Oregon.

Military

Psychoactive drugs have been used in military applications as non-lethal weapons.

Both military and civilian American intelligence officials are known to have used psychoactive drugs while interrogating captives apprehended in its "war on terror". In July 2012 Jason Leopold and Jeffrey Kaye, psychologists and human rights workers, had a Freedom of Information Act request fulfilled that confirmed that the use of psychoactive drugs during interrogation was a long-standing
practice. Captives and former captives had been reporting medical staff collaborating with interrogators to drug captives with powerful psychoactive drugs prior to interrogation since the very first captives release.
In May 2003 recently released Pakistani captive Sha Mohammed Alikhel described the routine use of psychoactive drugs. He said that Jihan Wali, a captive kept in a nearby cell, was rendered catatonic through the use of these drugs.

Additionally, militaries worldwide have used or are using various psychoactive drugs to improve performance of soldiers by suppressing hunger, increasing the ability to sustain effort without food, increasing and lengthening wakefulness and concentration, suppressing fear, reducing empathy, and improving reflexes and memory-recall among other things.

The first documented case of a soldier overdosing on methamphetamine during combat, was the Finnish corporal Aimo Koivunen, a soldier who fought in the Winter War and the Continuation War.

Route of administration
Psychoactive drugs are administered via oral ingestion as a tablet, capsule, powder, liquid, and beverage; via injection by subcutaneous, intramuscular, and intravenous route; via rectum by suppository and enema; and via inhalation by smoking, vaporizing, and snorting. The efficiency of each method of administration varies from drug to drug.

The psychiatric drugs fluoxetine, quetiapine, and lorazepam are ingested orally in tablet or capsule form. Alcohol and caffeine are ingested in beverage form; nicotine and cannabis are smoked or vaporized; peyote and psilocybin mushrooms are ingested in botanical form or dried; and crystalline drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamine are usually inhaled or snorted.

Determinants of effects
The theory of dosage, set, and setting is a useful model in dealing with the effects of psychoactive substances, especially in a controlled therapeutic setting as well as in recreational use. Dr. Timothy Leary, based on his own experiences and systematic observations on psychedelics, developed this theory along with his colleagues Ralph Metzner, and Richard Alpert (Ram Dass) in the 1960s.

 Dosage
The first factor, dosage, has been a truism since ancient times, or at least since Paracelsus who said, "Dose makes the poison." Some compounds are beneficial or pleasurable when consumed in small amounts, but harmful, deadly, or evoke discomfort in higher doses.

 Set
The set is the internal attitudes and constitution of the person, including their expectations, wishes, fears, and sensitivity to the drug. This factor is especially important for the hallucinogens, which have the ability to make conscious experiences out of the unconscious. In traditional cultures, set is shaped primarily by the worldview, health and genetic characteristics that all the members of the culture share.

 Setting
The third aspect is setting, which pertains to the surroundings, the place, and the time in which the experiences transpire.

This theory clearly states that the effects are equally the result of chemical, pharmacological, psychological, and physical influences. The model that Timothy Leary proposed applied to the psychedelics, although it also applies to other psychoactives.

Effects

Psychoactive drugs operate by temporarily affecting a person's neurochemistry, which in turn causes changes in a person's mood, cognition, perception and behavior. There are many ways in which psychoactive drugs can affect the brain. Each drug has a specific action on one or more neurotransmitter or neuroreceptor in the brain.

Drugs that increase activity in particular neurotransmitter systems are called agonists. They act by increasing the synthesis of one or more neurotransmitters, by reducing its reuptake from the synapses, or by mimicking the action by binding directly to the postsynaptic receptor. Drugs that reduce neurotransmitter activity are called antagonists, and operate by interfering with synthesis or blocking postsynaptic receptors so that neurotransmitters cannot bind to them.

Exposure to a psychoactive substance can cause changes in the structure and functioning of neurons, as the nervous system tries to re-establish the homeostasis disrupted by the presence of the drug (see also, neuroplasticity). Exposure to antagonists for a particular neurotransmitter can increase the number of receptors for that neurotransmitter or the receptors themselves may become more responsive to neurotransmitters; this is called sensitization. Conversely, overstimulation of receptors for a particular neurotransmitter may cause a decrease in both number and sensitivity of these receptors, a process called desensitization or tolerance. Sensitization and desensitization are more likely to occur with long-term exposure, although they may occur after only a single exposure. These processes are thought to play a role in drug dependence and addiction. Physical dependence on antidepressants or anxiolytics may result in worse depression or anxiety, respectively, as withdrawal symptoms. Unfortunately, because clinical depression (also called major depressive disorder) is often referred to simply as depression, antidepressants are often requested by and prescribed for patients who are depressed, but not clinically depressed.

Affected neurotransmitter systems
The following is a brief table of notable drugs and their primary neurotransmitter, receptor or method of action. Many drugs act on more than one transmitter or receptor in the brain.

Addiction and dependence

Psychoactive drugs are often associated with addiction or drug dependence. Dependence can be divided into two types: psychological dependence, by which a user experiences negative psychological or emotional withdrawal symptoms (e.g., depression) and physical dependence, by which a user must use a drug to avoid physically uncomfortable or even medically harmful physical withdrawal symptoms. Drugs that are both rewarding and reinforcing are addictive; these properties of a drug are mediated through activation of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, particularly the nucleus accumbens. Not all addictive drugs are associated with physical dependence, e.g., amphetamine, and not all drugs that produce physical dependence are addictive drugs, e.g., caffeine.

Many professionals, self-help groups, and businesses specialize in drug rehabilitation, with varying degrees of success, and many parents attempt to influence the actions and choices of their children regarding psychoactives.

Common forms of rehabilitation include psychotherapy, support groups and pharmacotherapy, which uses psychoactive substances to reduce cravings and physiological withdrawal symptoms while a user is going through detox. Methadone, itself an opioid and a psychoactive substance, is a common treatment for heroin addiction, as is another opioid, buprenorphine. Recent research on addiction has shown some promise in using psychedelics such as ibogaine to treat and even cure drug addictions, although this has yet to become a widely accepted practice.

Legality

The legality of psychoactive drugs has been controversial through most of recent history; the Second Opium War and Prohibition are two historical examples of legal controversy surrounding psychoactive drugs. However, in recent years, the most influential document regarding the legality of psychoactive drugs is the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, an international treaty signed in 1961 as an Act of the United Nations. Signed by 73 nations including the United States, the USSR, Pakistan, India, and the United Kingdom, the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs established Schedules for the legality of each drug and laid out an international agreement to fight addiction to recreational drugs by combatting the sale, trafficking, and use of scheduled drugs. All countries that signed the treaty passed laws to implement these rules within their borders. However, some countries that signed the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, such as the Netherlands, are more lenient with their enforcement of these laws.

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authority over all drugs, including psychoactive drugs. The FDA regulates which psychoactive drugs are over the counter and which are only available with a prescription. However, certain psychoactive drugs, like alcohol, tobacco, and drugs listed in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs are subject to criminal laws. The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 regulates the recreational drugs outlined in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Alcohol is regulated by state governments, but the federal National Minimum Drinking Age Act penalizes states for not following a national drinking age. Tobacco is also regulated by all fifty state governments. Most people accept such restrictions and prohibitions of certain drugs, especially the "hard" drugs, which are illegal in most countries.

In the medical context, psychoactive drugs as a treatment for illness is widespread and generally accepted. Little controversy exists concerning over the counter psychoactive medications in antiemetics and antitussives. Psychoactive drugs are commonly prescribed to patients with psychiatric disorders. However, certain critics  believe that certain prescription psychoactives, such as antidepressants and stimulants, are overprescribed and threaten patients' judgement and autonomy.

Effect on animals

A number of animals consume different psychoactive plants, animals, berries and even fermented fruit, becoming intoxicated. An example of this is cats after consuming catnip. Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced humankind to their use. Animals and psychoactive plants appear to have co-evolved, possibly explaining why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system.

Widely used psychoactive drugs
This is a list of commonly used drugs that contain psychoactive ingredients. Please note that the following lists contains legal and illegal drugs (based on the country's laws).

 Alcohol
 Benzodiazepines
 Caffeine
 Cannabis
 Cocaine
 Heroin
 LSD
 Methamphetamine
 Ecstasy
 Nicotine
 Opioids
 Psilocybin mushrooms

See also

 Contact high
 Counterculture of the 1960s
 Demand reduction
 Designer drug
 Drug
 Drug addiction
 Drug checking
 Drug rehabilitation
 Hamilton's Pharmacopeia
 Hard and soft drugs
 Harm reduction
 Neuropsychopharmacology
 Psychopharmacology
 Poly drug use
 Project MKULTRA
 Psychedelic plants
 Psychoactive fish
 Recreational drug use
 Responsible drug use
 Self-medication

References

External links
 Neuroscience of Psychoactive Substance Use and Dependence by the WHO

fi:Psykoaktiivinen aine

Psychoactive drug


Margaret Brouwer (born February 8, 1940, in Ann Arbor, Michigan) is an American composer and composition teacher.  She founded the Blue Streak Ensemble chamber music group.

Biography
Brouwer studied at Oberlin College, graduating in 1962, and received her master's degree from Michigan State University. Having started her musical career as a professional violinist with the Fort Worth Symphony and Dallas Symphony, she went on to earn her DMA in composition from Indiana University. Her teachers have included Donald Erb, Harvey Sollberger, Frederick A. Fox, and George Crumb. From 1996 to 2008 Brouwer served as head of the composition department and holder of the Vincent K. and Edith H. Smith Chair in Composition at the Cleveland Institute of Music. She is now professor emeritus at CIM.

Brouwer was in residence at the Wellesley Composers Conference in 2002 and at the MacDowell Colony in 2001, and was a Norton Stevens Fellow there in 1999.  She served as Composer-in-Residence at Indiana University in 2004.

In 2004 Brouwer was named a Guggenheim Fellow. In 2006, she received an American Academy of Arts and Letters award in music. In 2010 she received a Meet The Composer Commissioning/USA award to compose Path at Sunrise, Masses of Flowers which was premiered by the Cleveland Women's Symphony.

In 2011, Brouwer founded Blue Streak Ensemble, a mixed chamber group devoted to performing her work and the works of other living composers, alongside arrangements of core repertoire.  With Blue Streak Ensemble, Brouwer launched the 'Music by the Lake' series, with summer performances around the northern Ohio Lake Erie region. Brouwer's Violin Concerto was performed by Michi Wiancko with both the South Carolina Philharmonic and Columbus Georgia Symphonies.

Her students have included composers Peter Gilbert and Joseph Hallman.

Performances
Ensembles in New York, Seattle, San Francisco, Washington, D.C., Boston, and Cleveland have programmed her works.  In New York, Brouwer's music has been programmed by the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center, American Composers' Orchestra at Carnegie Hall, Merkin Hall, the Cutting Room, and Symphony Space; by the Orchestra of St. Luke's on its "Second Helping" series; and by the Cassatt and Cavani String Quartets.  In Washington, D.C. her music has been performed at the Kennedy Center, the Concoran Gallery, and the Phillips Gallery.

Formerly published by Carl Fischer and Theodore Presser, Brouwer's music is now available through Brouwer New Music Publishing.

1999–2004
In June 2001 the Cleveland Museum of Art presented a concert devoted entirely to Brouwer's chamber music, in which two of the four works performed, (Light and Under the Summer Tree) were premieres.  Other premieres during the 2001–02 season included Mandala for the Cleveland Chamber Symphony and Quartet for Franklin Cohen, principal clarinet of the Cleveland Orchestra.  Brouwer's Diary of an Alien and Skyriding were heard in Washington, D.C. in a Prelude Concert of the National Symphony Orchestra in June, 2001.  Other performances included Demeter Prelude by the Cavani String Quartet, Crosswinds by the Aurora String Quartet on San Francisco's Composers, Inc. concert series, "Horn Sonata" with Richard King, principal hornist with the Cleveland Orchestra, Quartet at the Composers Conference at Wellesley College in Massachusetts, and Diary of an Alien at the National Flute Association Convention in Washington, D.C.  Brouwer's SIZZLE was premiered by the Women's Philharmonic of San Francisco in September 2000 in a concert which also included her Symphony No. 1.

The 2002–03 season saw the November 2002 premiere of Brouwer's Concerto for Percussion, Aurolucent Circles, by Evelyn Glennie and the Seattle Symphony conducted by Gerard Schwarz.  In the words of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer: "(Brouwer) has written a marvelous display piece… music (that is) effective and solid, often rather atmospheric, and gives the percussion soloist many opportunities." In September 2002, the Cleveland Public Theater and Ursuline College presented Brouwer's Mystical Connections, a 75-minute work which incorporates musicians and music from other cultures. Brouwer was selected to compose the Ohio Bicentennial commissioned work premiered by the ProMusica Chamber Orchestra in February, 2003. In April, 2003 the Roanoke Symphony premiered Pulse, for which Brouwer received a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts.  In January, New York City's Steinway Hall presented an evening of her chamber music including Quartet, Winter's Dream, Under the Summer Tree and Demeter Prelude.

2005–2009
Brouwer's Light for Soprano, harpsichord, flute, clarinet, violin, cello, and percussion was performed at the Tanglewood Music Center's 2005 Festival of Contemporary Music. Reviewing this concert Allan Kozinn wrote in the New York Times, "Margaret Brouwer's fantastically eclectic "Light" filtered fragments of medieval and Renaissance pieces through a prism of free-ranging melody." Brouwer was awarded an Ohio Council for the Arts Individual Fellowship for 2005.

In January 2006, Naxos released a CD of her orchestral entitled Aurolucent Circles (CD # 8.559250) featuring Evelyn Glennie, solo percussionist and The Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra with Gerard Schwarz conducting. Skyriding was performed at the Contemporary Music Forum in Washington, D.C. in February 2005.

In 2007, violinist Michi Wiancko and conductor James Gaffigan premiered Brouwer's Concerto for Violin and Chamber Orchestra with CityMusic Cleveland Chamber Orchestra. In reviewing this work, Donald Rosenberg wrote about its "surprising tension between skittish and poetic material... the violinist has long, bravura statements that melt seamlessly into tender utterances and back again."

In 2009, premieres included Brouwer's Rhapsody for Orchestra commissioned and premiered by the Detroit Symphony, Leonard Slatkin, conducting, and BREAKDOWN, a collaborative work by Brouwer and video/sound artist Kasumi, commissioned and premiered by the American Composers Orchestra, George Manahan conducting, at Carnegie's Zankel Hall.

2010-
Brouwer's Concerto for Viola and Orchestra, commissioned by the Dallas Symphony, was premiered in January 2010. A 2010 Voices of Change concert in Dallas featured several of Brouwer's works including Trio, Skyriding, and Diary of an Alien. Her first children's symphonic drama, Daniel and Snakeman, was premiered by CityMusic Cleveland in May 2011.

The Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra, Arild Remmereit conducting, premiered Brouwer's new orchestral work which they commissioned, Caution Ahead – Guard Rail Out, in May 2012. Brouwer was one of five American women composers to be commissioned by American Pianists Association to write a work for solo piano. Her composition Prelude and Toccata premiered in Indianapolis on April 15, 2013, by Eric Zuber, for the APA's 2013 ProLiance Energy Classical Fellowship Awards. On April 18 and 19, 2013 the Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra performed Brouwer's Remembrances. Violinist Michi Wiancko, conductor Gary Schneider and the Orchestra for the Next Century gave the east coast premiere of Margaret Brouwer's highly acclaimed Violin Concerto at Merkin Hall in New York.

Style

Brouwer's music has been noted for its use of imagery, memorable melodies, and accessible and engaging nature while making "no obvious concessions toward styles of the day." In the words of Sarah Bryan Miller of the St. Louis Post Dispatch, Brouwer is "accessible and engaging for a wide range of audiences... not afraid to be spiky when spikiness is indicated, but there's never a sense in any of these works that she's using atonality for its own sake." Furthermore, Brouwer's music has been noted for having "a keen balance between contemporary and tonal language." Fanfare magazine described Brouwer's music as having "a sense of stylistic independence and an openness of spirit.

Recordings

Works

Chamber music
 Inner Voices (2014) - flute, voice, violin, cello, trombone, piano
 Rhapsodic Sonata for Viola and Piano (2012)
 Lonely Lake (2011) - Flute (Piccolo), Clarinet (Bass Clarinet), Violin, Cello, Percussion and Piano
 Shattered Glass (2007) - Flute, Cello, Percussion, Piano
 Fling (2006) - String Quartet
 Trio (2005) - Violin, Clarinet, Piano
 Quintet for Clarinet in A and String Quartet (2005) - Clarinet, 2 violins, viola, cello
 Declaration (2005) - Soprano or mezzo-soprano, violin, piano
 Clarinet Quintet (2005)
 Lament (2002) - Violin, clarinet, bassoon, percussion
 Wedding Song (2001) - String Quartet
 Light (2001) - Soprano, harpsichord, flute, clarinet, violin, cello, percussion
 Rapunzel (1998) - Soprano, Flute, Bassoon, French Horn, Trombone, Percussion, Narrator/Synthesizer
 Celebration (1998) - Brass Quintet
 Demeter Prelude (1997) - String Quartet
 Sonata for Horn and Piano (1996)
 A Little Renaissance Music - Violin, oboe, clarinet, cello, double bass
 Crosswinds (1995) - String quartet
 Tolling the Spirits (1994) - Brass Quintet: 2 trumpets (doubling fluegelhorns), Horn, Trombone, Tuba
 Chamber Concerto (1993) - Solo clarinet, Percussion, Piano
 Skyriding (1992) - Flute, Violin, Cello, Piano
 Two Songs (1990) - Soprano, flute, violin, cello, tuba or trombone, percussion, piano
 Two Pieces for Viola (1989) - Viola and Piano
 Sonata for Violin and Piano (1987)
 Timespan (1986) - Brass Quintet - 2 trumpets (doubling Fluegelhorns), Horn, Trombone, Tuba
 Aurolucent Echoes (1985) - Solo Harp; Echo Harp, 2 Percussion, Violin, Viola, Cello
 Dream Drifts (1983) - Viola (with tape delay) and Piano (with Percussion)
 Ruins of Riveaulx (1982) - Electronic tape with optional visuals

Chamber orchestra
Daniel and Snakeman (2011) - A Children's Symphonic Drama for Narrator and Chamber Orchestra
 Century's Song (2003) - Version available for community and high school orchestra
 Wedding Song (2001) - String Orchestra
 Mandala (2001)
 Prelude and Vivace for Clarinet and Chamber Ensemble (1996)
 Then the Bells (1991)
 Skattle (1990)

Orchestral
Caution Ahead - Guard Rail Out (2012)
 Path at Sunrise, Masses of Flowers (2010)
 Rhapsody for Orchestra (2009)
 Breakdown (2009) - A sample based hybrid opera in one act
 Stardance (2007)
 Pulse (2003)
 Centennial Bells (2003) - From Century's Song. Easy arrangement for middle school and high school orchestras
 Sizzle (2000)
 Symphony No. 1, Lake Voices (1997)
 Pluto - A Sequel (1997) - Orchestra and Women's Chorus
 Remembrances (1996)
 Third From the Sun (1988)

Concerti
Concerto for Viola and Orchestra (2010)
 Concerto for Violin and Orchestra (2007)
 Aurolucent Circles (2002) - Concerto for Percussion and Orchestra
 Concerto for Clarinet and Orchestra (1994)

Solo Instrumental

Piano
Prelude and Toccata (2013)
 Under the Summer Tree (2000)
 Sonata for Solo Piano (1998)
 Dancing on Hot Coals (1998)

Other
No Rotary Phone (1995) - Clarinet
 Diary of an Alien (1994) - Flute
 SCHerZOid (1989) - Horn

Vocal
Sing with the Lark (2003) - SATB, a cappella, optional piano, optional handbells.  Also available with chamber or orchestra accompaniment.
 Winter Dream (2000) - Soprano and piano
 Missa Brevis (1991) - Men's chorus and piano (3 Chimes or Hand Bells, played by chorus members)
 Washington and Lee Hymn (1990) - SATB a cappella

Band and Wind Ensemble
Pulse (2013)
Red Hill Special March (2003)
 Sizzle (2002) - Wind Ensemble, college, and high school bands

Arrangements
Bach - Two Part Invention in F Major (BWV 779) - arranged for Flute, Clarinet, Violin, Cello, Piano and Percussion
Debussy - Clair de Lune - arranged for Flute, Clarinet, Violin, Cello and Piano

References

External links
Official website of Margaret Brouwer
 Official website of Blue Streak Ensemble
 Brouwer New Music Publishing

American women composers
American composers
Michigan State University alumni
Centaur Records artists

Margaret Brouwer


Túpac Huallpa (or Huallpa Túpac) (before July 1533 – October 1533), original name Auqui Huallpa Túpac, was the first vassal Sapa Inca installed by the Spanish conquistadors, during the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire led by Francisco Pizarro.

Life
Túpac Huallpa, born in Cusco, was a younger brother of Atahualpa and Huáscar. After Atahualpa's execution on 26 July 1533, the Spaniards appointed Túpac Huallpa as a puppet ruler and ensured he was crowned with great recognition and ceremony. All this was done to convince the Inca people that they were still being ruled by an Inca.
Túpac died in Jauja during October 1533. He was succeeded by another brother, Manco Inca Yupanqui.

Descendants
Túpac Huallpa was the father of at least five children:
 Francisco Huallpa Túpac Yupanqui;
 Beatriz Túpac Yupanqui, who married the conquistador Pedro Alvarez de Holguín de Ulloa (1490–1542), son of Pedro Alvarez de Golfín and his wife Constanza de Aldana, and had issue
 Palla Chimpu Ocllo, baptized as Isabel Suárez Chimpu Ocllo, who married Sebastián Garcilaso de la Vega y Vargas, and was the mother of Inca Garcilaso de la Vega. After she was widowed, she married secondly Juan de Pedroche and had two daughters: one, Ana Ruíz, married her cousin Martín de Bustinza, and had issue, while the other, Luisa de Herrera, married Pedro Márquez de Galeoto, becoming the mother of Alonso Márquez de Figueroa.
 Leonor Yupanqui, who married Juan Ortiz de Zárate, and had issue.
 Francisca Palla, who married the conquistador Juan Munoz de Collantes, born at The Palacio de la Alhambra, Granada, Spain. Together they had a daughter, called Mencia Munoz de Collantes Palla.

References

Inca emperors
Deaths from smallpox
16th-century births
1533 deaths
Infectious disease deaths in Peru
16th-century Sapa Incas

Túpac Huallpa


Digital certificates are electronic 'credit cards' that establish your credentials when doing a business or other transactions on the Web. It is issued by a certification authority (CA). It contains your name, a serial number, expiration dates, a copy of the certificate holder's public key (used for encrypting messages and digital signatures), and the digital signature of the certificate-issuing authority so that a recipient can verify that the certificate is real. Some digital certificates conform to a standard, X.509. Digital certificates can be kept in registries so that authenticating users can look up other users' public keys.

Types of digital certificate
• Class 1 defines the certificate that does not hold any legal validity as the validation process is based only on a valid email ID and involves no direct verification.

• Class 2 category states that a person's identity is to be verified against a trusted,pre-verified database.

• Class 3 requires the person to present himself or herself in front of the registration authority and prove his or her identity.

Cryptography

Digital certificates


A seat belt is a strap that holds a person into his or her seat in a car, truck, plane, or other vehicle, so that in a crash he or she would not be injured or killed by flying forward and hitting parts of the vehicle or being thrown out of it. They are helpful in saving lives in car accidents.

In 1946 a doctor in Pasadena, California proposed better seat belts than were used then. In 1955 several improved seat belts were patented. Automobile manufacturers sold many more cars with such seat belts, starting then. Eventually, laws required cars to have them.

Safety

Seat belt


HitQuarters was an international music industry publication and contact database founded in 1999. It was noted for its in-depth interviews with industry figures, as well as its A&R and manager contact directory, free artist promo pages and song sale facility, demo reviews and A&R chart, and was the sister site to the songwriting tip sheet SongQuarters. The site was sporadically active from May 2017 up until September 20, 2020, and no posts have been made on its Twitter and Facebook accounts since March and May 2015 respectively.

Focus on aiding unsigned and independent artists
The website had a strong focus on offering unsigned and independent artists, songwriters and producers with tools to help develop their music careers, whether through attracting the attentions of record label A&R and management, pitching songs and tracks, releasing and marketing music independently, or just learning more about how the music industry works.

To this aim the website featured an extensive contact database known as HitTracker, where users could find contact information for A&R, publishers, managers, producers and songwriters based on their track records, a news bulletin service, free artist promo pages, demo review feature judged by A&Rs, producers and managers, and an archive of several hundred interviews with industry figures that were geared towards offering constructive career advice and industry know-how.

Members of HitQuarters that had gone on to find success include Christelle, The Knife, Dominique Young Unique, Bobby Creekwater, Lesley Roy and State of Shock.

Interviews and features

One of HitQuarters' most prominent features was its weekly in-depth interviews with major industry figures such as A&Rs, producers, managers, songwriters, promoters and publishers. Interviewees included pop impresario and entertainment mogul Simon Cowell, industry executives and A&R Martin Kierszenbaum, Mike Caren, Jason Flom, Peter Edge, Chris Hicks, Richard Russell, Miles Leonard and Ron Fair, managers Jonathan Dickins, Dumi, Louis Walsh and Eric Härle, songwriters Diane Warren, Wayne Hector, Rami Yacoub and Andreas Carlsson, producers RedOne, Chris Braide, Steve Mac, JR Rotem, Richard X and Phil Ek, and songwriter, producer and A&R Linda Perry.

The website also ran a regular demo review feature where a changing panel of industry experts reviewed songs uploaded to the site by unsigned artists, assessing their hit potential and offering advice on how the tracks can be improved. Judges included Visible Noise CEO Julie Weir, and producers Colin Richardson and Eddie Galan and producer and publisher Steve "Blast" Wills.

A&R chart
HitQuarters founded the world's first A&R chart that measured the success of individual A&R representatives based on points accumulated from their respective artists' chart success. Most notably, 2004 saw Wind-Up Records' Diana Meltzer become the first woman to top HitQuarters' World Top 100 A&R Chart, a considerable achievement in what is traditionally a male dominated field. Previous number 1s included Clive Davis, Tommy Mottola, Dr. Dre, and Mark Williams.

SongQuarters

HitQuarters was a companion site to SongQuarters, an online tip sheet for "songwriting leads to major and developing artists". It shares the same contact directory as HitQuarters and its members automatically had access to the HitQuarters site. It was also a subscription-based service with 7-day trials available for those wanting to try it out first. The songwriting leads were split into three categories according to the level of the artist they relate to: 'Top 500', 'Newly Signed and Developing' and 'Unsigned and Up-and-coming'.

References

External links
Official HitQuarters Facebook page, no posts since May 2015
Official Twitter, no posts since March 2015

Internet properties established in 1999
Online music stores of the United States
1999 establishments in the United States

HitQuarters


Emanuel Tov (born September 15, 1941, Amsterdam, Netherlands) is emeritus professor in the Department of Bible at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He is known as the editor-in-chief of the Dead Sea Scrolls publication project and as the world's leading authority on the textual criticism of the Hebrew Bible.

Biography
Emanuel Tov was born in Amsterdam, the Netherlands (1941) and emigrated to Israel in 1961. From 1986 to 2009 he was professor at Hebrew University in Jerusalem and since 1990 he holds the J.L. Magnes chair.

He was one of the editors of the Hebrew University Bible Project. He is a member of the editorial board of the journals Dead Sea Discoveries and the Journal of Jewish Studies. He served on the Academic committee of the Magnes Press. He is the co-founder and chairman (1991–2000) of the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation, a Member of the Academic Committee of the Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls, and Senior Associate Fellow of the and an Honorary Fellow of the Oxford Centre for Postgraduate Hebrew Studies.

From 1990-2009 he served as the Editor-in-Chief of the international Dead Sea Scrolls Publication Project, which during those years produced 33 volumes of the series Discoveries in the Judean Desert as well as two concordances.

He also published an electronic edition of all the extra-biblical Qumran scrolls and a six-volume printed edition of the scrolls meant for the general public. He also created electronic editions of the Hebrew and Greek Bible.

Emanuel Tov is married to Lika (née Aa). They have three children and four granddaughters.

Prizes and honorary titles
 1999 – 2004 – Humboldt Research Prize, Germany
 2003 – Ubbo Emmius medal, University of Groningen
 2004 – Emet Prize for Biblical Research, Israel
 2006 – Appointed Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy
 2008 – Honorary doctorate from the University of Vienna
 2009 – Israel Prize in biblical studies
 2010 – Samaritan Medal for Humanitarian Achievement
 2012 – Appointed Member of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities
 2017 – Appointed Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 2019 – Honorary doctorate from the University of Salzburg

References

Bibliography

1941 births
Living people
Dutch Jews
Harvard University alumni
Hebrew language
Hebrew University of Jerusalem faculty
Israeli Jews
Manuscripts
People from Amsterdam

Emanuel Tov


Helcystogramma trijunctum is a moth in the family Gelechiidae. It is found in China (Anhui, Gansu, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hubei, Hunan, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Yunnan) and Taiwan.

The length of the forewings is 6-6.5 mm. The forewings have a fuscous fascia from the base to halfway the length of the anterior margin. There is a large, triangular costal blotch nearly connected to the fuscous fascia arising from the posterior margin at one-fourth the length and the postmedian line is incurved, dark brown beyond it. There is also a well—developed blackish tuft beyond the cell on the fold near the middle, other smaller ones near the middle and end of the cell.

References

Moths described in 1934
trijunctum
Moths of Asia
Moths of Taiwan

Helcystogramma trijunctum


The New Orleans mayoral election of 1990 resulted in the reelection of Sidney Barthelemy to a second term as mayor of New Orleans.

Background

Elections in Louisiana—with the exception of U.S. Presidential and Congressional elections—follow a variation of the open primary system. Candidates of any and all parties are listed on one ballot; voters need not limit themselves to the candidates of one party. Unless one candidate takes more than 50% of the vote in the first round, a run-off election is then held between the top two candidates, who may in fact be members of the same party. In this election, Barthelemy won 55% of the vote in the first round of voting held on February 3, 1990, so no runoff round was needed.

Candidates
 incumbent mayor Sidney Barthelemy
 Donald Mintz, a lawyer and member of the Board of Commissioners of the Port of New Orleans.
 Herman Bustamante, the owner of a ship supply company
 Rudy Mills Sr.

Campaign

Sidney Barthelemy began the campaign under a cloud of declining popularity and questions surrounding his leadership.  He campaigned on his record, citing his role in spurring the beginnings of an economic recovery for New Orleans.    Mintz felt that Barthelemy was vulnerable enough on the issue of leadership in a city burdened by high unemployment and crime that black voters would be willing to choose a white challenger over a black incumbent.  His campaign portrayed Barthelemy as an inattentive mayor better at distributing patronage than generating income.  A close friend of former mayor Dutch Morial, Mintz expected to receive Morial's endorsement against Barthelemy, the former mayor's long-time political opponent.   Morial's endorsement would likely have helped Mintz's support among black voters, but Morial died unexpectedly on Christmas Eve 1989, six weeks before the election, before endorsing either candidate.   Barthelemy, who received most of his support from white voters in the 1986 election, began stressing his record of achievements for the black community in order to compensate for the number of white supporters he expected to lose to Mintz.  His campaign featured slogans like "I'm not ready to lose the gains we've made."

The election results showed votes were largely cast along racial lines.  Barthelemy's victory was assured by a combination of his overwhelming 86% support of black voters (who formed 54% of the electorate) and a significant number (23%) of white voters who supported him over Mintz.  Mintz was able to garner strong support among white voters who had helped elect Barthelemy in 1986, but was not able to convince enough black voters to reject Barthelemy and elect a white candidate instead.  He received only 14% support among black voters; not enough to unseat the incumbent.

Results

Sources
 The New Orleans Times-Picayune  "Barthelemy wins re-election:  Mayor beats Mintz with 55% of the vote."  February 4, 1990.
 The New Orleans Times-Picayune  "Challenger couldn't shake mayor's black support."  February 4, 1990.
 The New Orleans Times-Picayune  Timing turns bad for Mintz at race's end."  February 5, 1990.

1990
1990 Louisiana elections
New Orleans

1990 New Orleans mayoral election


Marion Sunshine (born Mary Tunstall Ijames, May 15, 1894 – January 25, 1963) was an American actress and songwriter. During her youth she worked in many films and Broadway musicals, as well as vaudeville and variety shows. In the 1930s she was involved in the so-called "rhumba craze" and translated the lyrics of many Latin music songs.

Life and career

Sunshine was born in Louisville, Kentucky on May 15, 1894. After moving to New York City at a young age, she sang in Broadway musicals such as Going Up. Between 1908 and 1916 she appeared on 26 films. In many of her performances she appeared with her sister Florence Tempest.

Sunshine also worked as a vaudeville performer, and as a songwriter for Edward B. Marks. In 1922, while working in the Ziegfeld Follies, she became romantically involved with Cuban businessman Eusebio Azpiazú, known in the Latin music scene as Don Antobal. His brother Justo Ángel Azpiazú, better known as Don Azpiazú, was a prominent band leader in Havana. The 1930 rendition of "The Peanut Vendor" recorded by his Havana Casino Orchestra featuring Antonio Machín on vocals became the first million-selling single in the history of Latin music. Sunshine translated the lyrics into English, as she would later do with other rhumba hits such as "Mango Mangüé". In December 1930 she married Don Antobal, and continued her involvement in the rhumba scene, which earned her the nickname "The Rumba Lady". Besides, she wrote several jazz standards such as "When I Get Low, I Get High," recorded by Ella Fitzgerald with Chick Webb in 1936.

Sunshine died in New York City on January 25, 1963, aged 68 years.

Selected filmography
 The Red Girl (1908)
 Mr. Jones at the Ball (1908)
 Her Awakening (1911)

References

External links

1894 births
1963 deaths
American film actresses
American silent film actresses
Vaudeville performers
20th-century American actresses
Actresses from Louisville, Kentucky
Songwriters from Kentucky
Actresses from New York City

Marion Sunshine


Eyasu Berhe Asemahegne (; 11 June 1956 – 18 January 2010) was an Ethiopian singer, writer, producer and poet who was one of the most popular and influential Tigrigna musical artists of the 20th century.

Early life
Eyasu was born in Mekelle, where he attended primary and secondary school. Eyasu obtained his MA degree from Open University of the United Kingdom in Business Administration. He was studying for his PhD.

Music career
Through music, Eyasu inspired many young men and women to join the TPLF during the Ethiopian Civil War.  Eyasu has played significant role in mobilizing the public for the bitter struggle and later joined the cultural group established by the TPLF. Over 70 to 80 percent of the group's songs, which conveyed political and social messages, were produced by Eyasu.

Death and legacy
Eyasu died suddenly while performing onstage in Alamata. In April 2010, the Tigray Development Association announced plans to construct a library in his honor in Mekelle at a cost of 11 million Birr.

References

1956 births
2010 deaths
20th-century Ethiopian male singers
Alumni of the Open University
People from Tigray Region
21st-century Ethiopian male singers

Eyasu Berhe


The Milkmaid and Her Pail is a folktale of Aarne-Thompson-Uther type 1430 about interrupted daydreams of wealth and fame. Ancient tales of this type exist in the East but Western variants are not found before the Middle Ages. It was only in the 18th century that the story about the daydreaming milkmaid began to be attributed to Aesop, although it was included in none of the main collections and does not appear in the Perry Index. In more recent times, the fable has been variously treated by artists and set by musicians.

The stories

In the East
There is a theme common to the many different stories of this type that involves poor persons daydreaming of future wealth arising from a temporary possession. When they get carried away by their fantasy and start acting it out, they break the container on which their dream is founded and find themselves worse off. One of the earliest is included in the Indian Panchatantra as "The brahman who built air-castles". There a man speculates about the wealth that will flow from selling a pot of grain that he has been given, progressing through a series of sales of animals until he has enough to support a wife and family. The child misbehaves, his wife takes no heed, so he kicks her and in doing so upsets the pot that was to make his fortune. Other variants include Bidpai's "The Poorman and the Flask of Oil", "The Barber's Tale of his Fifth Brother" from The 1001 Nights and the Jewish story of "The Dervish and the Honey Jar".

The Western fable
At its first appearance in the 14th century Dialogus creaturarum, the story was told as a cautionary fable of a milkmaid who engages in detailed financial calculations of her profits. In a Castilian form it is told under the title "Of what happened to a woman called Truhana" in Don Juan Manuel's Tales of Count Lucanor (1335), illustrating the lesson that you should 'Confine your thoughts to what is real'. In this case it is the jar of honey from which she hopes to enrich herself that Truhana unbalances from her head.

The story gained lasting popularity after it was included in La Fontaine's Fables (VII.10). The charm of La Fontaine's poetic form apart, however, it differs little from the version recorded in his source, Bonaventure des Périers' Nouvelles récréations et joyeux devis (1558). There the fable is made an example of the practice of alchemists, who are like 'a good woman that was carrying a pot of milk to market and reckoning up her account as follows: she would sell it for half a sou and with that would buy a dozen eggs which she would set to hatch and have from them a dozen chicks; when they were grown she would have them castrated and then they would fetch five sous each, so that'd be at least a crown with which she would buy two piglets, a male and a female, and farrow a dozen more from them once they were grown, and they'd sell for twenty sous a piece after raising, making twelve francs with which she'd buy a mare that would have a fine foal. It would be really nice as it grew up, prancing about and neighing. And so happy was the good woman imagining this that she began to frisk in imitation of her foal, and that made the pot fall and all the milk spill. And down tumbled with it her eggs, her chickens, her capons, her mare and foal, the whole lot.' This has led to the proverb "Don't count your chick(en)s until they hatch.

In Britain the earliest appearance of the fable was in Bernard Mandeville's selection of adaptations from La Fontaine, which was published under the title Aesop dress'd (1704). The false connection with Aesop was continued by the story's reappearance in Robert Dodsley's Select fables of Esop and other fabulists (1761). Titled there "The country maid and her milk pail", it is prefaced with the sentiment that 'when men suffer their imagination to amuse them with the prospect of distant and uncertain improvements of their condition, they frequently sustain real losses by their inattention to those affairs in which they are immediately concerned'. The story is briefly told and ends with the pail being dislodged when the girl scornfully tosses her head in rejection of all the young men at the dance she was to attend, wearing a new dress to be bought with the proceeds of her commercial activities.

A different version was versified by Jefferys Taylor as "The Milkmaid" in his Aesop in Rhyme (1820). As in Bonaventure des Périers' telling, the bulk of the poem is given over to the long reckoning of prices. It ends with the maid toppling her pail by superciliously tossing her head in rejection of her former humble circumstances. The moral on which Taylor ends his poem is 'Reckon not your chickens before they are hatched', where a later collection has 'Count not...' The proverb fits the story and its lesson so well that one is tempted to speculate that it developed out of some earlier oral version of the fable, but the earliest recorded instance of it is in Thomas Howell's New Sonnets and Pretty Pamphlets (1570). The idiom used by La Fontaine in the course of his long conclusion is 'to build castles in Spain', of which he gives a few examples that make it clear that the meaning he intends is 'to dream of the impossible'. Avoiding that may well be what Bonaventure des Périers intended in telling his story too, but in the English versions the moral to be drawn is that to bring a plan to completion more than dreaming is required.

A version of the fable was written by the German poet Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim in the 18th century. It differs little from other retellings, apart from its conclusion. The woman confesses what has happened to her husband, who advises her to live in the here and now and be content with what she has rather than 'building castles in air'. Here he uses the German equivalent of La Fontaine's idiom. The story has also provided German with another idiomatic phrase, 'milkmaid's reckoning' (Milchmädchenrechnung), used of drawing naïve and false conclusions.

Artistic uses of the fable
Illustrations of La Fontaine's fables in books, limited as they are to the dismayed milkmaid looking down at her broken crock, are almost uniformly monotonous. An early exception is Jean-Baptiste Oudry's print in which the girl has fallen on her back (1755), an episode unsanctioned by the text. The explanation for the inelegant posture seems to be that the idiom la cruche casée (the broken pitcher) then meant the loss of virginity and so suggests a less innocent explanation of how the milk came to be spilt. Jean-Honoré Fragonard also depicts a fall in his picture of the fable (1770), although in this case the girl has tumbled forward and the smoke of her dreams spills from the pitcher at the same time as the milk. Other paintings that allude to the fable at the time include Jean-Baptiste Huet's "The milkmaid" (La Laitière, 1769) and François Boucher's "The little milkmaid" (1760). A Gobelins tapestry based on this was later to be presented to the king.

In the 19th century the story was taken up elsewhere. The American Symbolist, Albert Pinkham Ryder, painted his "Perrette" some time before 1890, taking its title from the name that La Fontaine gave his milkmaid. She walks abstractedly through a visionary landscape with the bucket balanced on her head. The Spanish Joaquín Sorolla y Bastida painted his "The Milkmaid" in 1890 and portrays a pensive girl seated on a flowering bank with her bucket overturned beside her. In Kate Greenaway's painting of 1893 she is seated instead on the steps of a cottage with the pail on the ground in a treatment that has been described as Pre-Raphaelite. In the following century, the fable is featured on one of Jean Vernon's (1897-1975) medals from the 1930s, where Perrette stands with a frieze of her lost beasts behind her.

The most celebrated statue of this subject is the bronze figure that the Russian artist Pavel Sokolov (1765–1831) made for the pleasure grounds planned by Tsar Nicholas I of Russia at his palace of Tsarskoye Selo. It shows the seated milkmaid weeping over her broken pot, which has been converted into a water feature by a channeled feed from a nearby spring. Originally it was called "Girl with a pitcher", but it became so celebrated that it is now better known as "The Milkmaid of Tsarskoye Selo". There is only a copy there today in what has become a public park, while the original is preserved in a St Petersburg museum. In fact several other copies have been made over the years. One was given by the wife of Nicholas I, the princess Charlotte of Prussia, as a birthday gift to her brother Karl in 1827. This was placed in the grounds of his Glienicke Palace near Berlin but was eventually destroyed during World War II; it is now replaced by a modern copy and is known as Die Milchfrau. Yet another was erected in the public park of Schloss Britz in 1998, and still another at Soukhanovo, near Moscow.

One of the reasons for the original statue's celebrity as 'the muse of Tsarskoye Selo' was its connection with the writer Alexander Pushkin, who stayed there in 1831 and had been inspired to write the poem "The statue at Tsarskoye Selo".
One day a girl with an urn
Let it drop on the boulder beneath her.
Sadly she sits and alone,
Uselessly holding the pieces.

But see! What marvel is this?
For the water pours yet from her vessel.
There she continues today,
Her gaze on this endless spring.
The lyric was set for piano and alto voice in 1899 by Cesar Cui and is still performed today.

La Fontaine's fable has been set by a number of French composers:
Jacques Offenbach as the fourth of his 6 Fables (1842)
Benjamin Godard, the first of his Six Fables de La Fontaine (Op. 17 1872/9)
Louis Lacombe for piano and voice (Op. 73.3, 1875)
Abbé Léon-Robert Brice, who set it to a traditional melody, adjusting the poem to six-syllable lines to fit the music
Isabelle Aboulker in the children's operetta La Fontaine et le Corbeau (1999)

References

External links

17th-18th century illustrations
Two prints by Gustave Doré

Fables
La Fontaine's Fables
Indian folklore
Indian literature
Indian fairy tales
ATU 1350-1439

The milkmaid and her pail


SA Waste Holdings (Pty) Ltd is a waste management company, based in Johannesburg, South Africa, in Gauteng Province. It was launched in 1990, and  boasted 626 staff members. The company boasts clients in the retail, commercial, entertainment and gambling sectors. SA Waste is a BEE (Black Economic Empowerment) conscious company, and has a Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) subsidiary, Kofifi Thusano (Pty) Ltd.

Business Listings
SA Waste Holdings (Pty) Ltd is a registered recycler with the Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment (DACE) as of 30 September 2005, and a registered transporter with the same department, as of 19 September 2007.

The company and its subsidiaries are listed in a variety of online business directories and government sources such as FindSA, Firstier, and Business Day's list of companies. On 18 March 2005, they appeared in a Government Notice, on the Schedule of designated employers that have submitted employment equity reports in terms of Section 21, of the Employment Equity Act, Act No. 55 of 1998.

Known customers (past, present and prospective)
SA Waste is a registered contractor with Sabai (a townhouse complex in Randburg). It is unclear what services they provide to Sabai, as Pikitup is the only company in Johannesburg that is permitted to collect waste form residential buildings.

According to the April/May 2000 issue of Vodaworld Magazine, Vodacom also counted themselves as a client. SA Waste was responsible for collecting waste from Vodacom's site on a daily basis, and transporting it to their recycling plant, where it would be sorted and sold to external recycling companies.

Pikitup
In 2006 to 2007, the company was a registered supplier to Pikitup, where they were awarded tender number PU 68/2003, providing hire of labour to the parastatal. This contract ended on 28 February 2007.

SA Waste is in the process (as of March 2008) of tendering for another contract at Pikitup. This one will involve providing of a total refuse removal service (Including round-collected refuse removal, street cleaning, servicing of garden sites, and servicing informal settlements) for Johannesburg's Ivory Park area. The closing date for bids on this tender was 7 March 2008, at 11:00 SAST, and proposals are currently being considered. More information on this contract can be found at on the Pikitup website.

In the news
On 12 May 2005, Gauteng environment minister Khabisi Mosunkutu paid a surprise visit to their recycling plant in Marlboro, near Alexandra (North of Johannesburg). The company was accused of illegally using their recycling plant to store non-recyclable and unsortable waste. Following the visit, the minister instructed that the site be shut down immediately and be given 14 days to remove all rubbish from the area. This was not the first such warning the company had been issued with. On 29 May 2005, the debacle was reported by the popular wildlife and environmental programme, 50/50. After much effort from SA Waste to clean up their operations, they were granted a conditional green light to resume operations, on 30 September 2005.

On 7 July 2005, SA Waste participated in Reach For a Dream's attempt at the Guinness World Record for a  long birthday cake (An event which took place at Cresta Shopping Centre in Johannesburg). This attempt was successful, with the official length of the cake being .

References

External links

Waste management companies of South Africa
Companies based in Johannesburg

SA Waste Holdings


The Gringo Gazette is a newspaper in the English language founded by Carrie Duncan, published every other week for the American expatriate communities in Baja California and Baja California Sur, Mexico.

It has been published since 2001. Most of its contributors are Americans living in Mexico or Americans with a second home in Mexico. Most of the subscribers of this newspaper are located in San Felipe, La Paz and Cabo San Lucas.

References

Newspapers in North America

Gringo Gazette


In circuit complexity, AC is a complexity class hierarchy.  Each class, ACi, consists of the languages recognized by Boolean circuits with depth  and a polynomial number of unlimited fan-in AND and OR gates.

The name "AC" was chosen by analogy to NC, with the "A" in the name standing for "alternating" and referring both to the alternation between the AND and OR gates in the circuits and to alternating Turing machines.

The smallest AC class is AC0, consisting of constant-depth unlimited fan-in circuits.

The total hierarchy of AC classes is defined as

Relation to NC
The AC classes are related to the NC classes, which are defined similarly, but with gates having only constant fanin.  For each i, we have

As an immediate consequence of this, we have that NC = AC.

It is known that inclusion is strict for i = 0.

Variations

The power of the AC classes can be affected by adding additional gates.  If we add gates which calculate the modulo operation for some modulus m, we have the classes ACCi[m].

Notes

References

.

Circuit complexity
Complexity classes

AC (complexity)


Anna Olivia Nielsen, née Christensen, (1852–1910) was a Danish trade unionist and politician. Under her leadership, the Danish Women Workers Union (KAD) gained prominence as agreements resulted from effective strike action. Founded 1901, Nielsen chaired the organisation until her death in 1910.

Biography
Born in Helsingør on 7 June 1873, Nielsen was the daughter of Jørgen Christensen, a farmhand, and his wife Anne Marie Olsdatter. Brought up in a working-class environment, she married the factory worker Oluf Nielsen when she was 20 and already pregnant. She went on to have nine children, two of whom died in infancy. In order to provide for the children, Nielsen was forced to work in Helsingør, probably as a laundress. In the 1880s, the family moved to Copenhagen where it was easier to find work.

Union work
In Copenhagen, Nielsen became associated with the Kvindeligt Arbejderforbund (KAF) which was founded in 1885 as a union for cleaners and washerwomen and from 1890 for women industrial workers. In 1891, Nielsen became a member of the union's steering committee and in 1892 its president. She introduced a more structured approach with monthly meetings and membership fees, resolving the association's financial problems. Over the following years, she arranged information meetings with prominent speakers, including Johanne Meyer of the Kvindelig Fremskridtsforening (Women's Progressive Society) and M.C. Lyngsie, head of the working men's organization Arbejdsmændenes Forbund. As a result, women joined from various branches of industry such as breweries, printing works, ropemaking and cable factories.

The KAF's first successful wage agreement was concluded in 1986 with the Tuborg Breweries but negotiations with Jacob Holm og Sønners Reberbane, a ropeworks, proved more difficult. After a seven-week strike and a court case for the KAF's defamatory press articles, there was nevertheless a settlement. In the late 1890s, provincial branches of the KAF were established in Randers, Svendborg, Næstved and Køge. By 1900, the organization had around 1,000 members. This led in 1901 to the launching of the Danish Women Workers' Union (KAD), the first formal national trade union for women in the country. Nielsen served as secretary general of the KAD while maintaining leadership of its Copenhagen branch. By the time of her death in 1910, KAD membership had increased to 2,000. Nielsen also served as a council member of De samvirkende Fagforbund (Federation of Danish Trade Unions) established in 1898, becoming a member of the executive committee in 1909.

Politics
Nielsen was a supporter of the Socialdemokratiske arbejderbevægelse (Social Democratic Workers Movement), addressing a May Day demonstration in Copenhagen in 1899 together with Andrea Brochman leader of De kvindelige Herreskrædderes Fagforening (Women's Union of Men's Tailors). In 1909, after women were permitted to participate in local elections, she was co-convenor of a meeting of women workers, later serving as a Social Democratic member of the municipal council along with two other women trade unionists, Henriette Crone and Anna Johansen.

Death and assessment
Olivia Nielsen died on 11 July 1910 while she was in Aarhus in connection with a congress of the Dansk Arbejdsmandsforbund (Union of Unskilled Labourers). On her deathbed, she encouraged the executive committee to continue her life's work and successfully urged them to elect her daughter Gudrun Bodø as her successor. She is now considered to have been one of the most prominent pioneers of the Danish women's trade union movement, succeeding in improving unskilled women's pay and working conditions.

References

1852 births
1910 deaths
People from Helsingør
Danish trade union leaders
Danish women trade unionists
Socialist feminists

Olivia Nielsen


Armand Samuel de Marescot, born in Tours on 1 March 1758, died 5 November 1832 at Castle Chaslay near Montoire Loir-et-Cher was a French general of engineering in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. MARESCOT is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, on Column 14.

Career
In Germany in 1796, he was the commander of Landau on 16 April. He repelled an attack in October 1796 by Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze, then later defended the fortifications of Kehl until its surrender in early 1797.

Subsequently, he was appointed Commander in Chief of Engineering of the Rhine Army, he served at the crossing of the Rhine River at Kehl until 20 April 1797. He was then successively appointed commander of Army engineering in Germany, the commander of engineers in the Army of the Danube 7 March 1799, and then commander of Army engineers of the joint Army of Helvetia and the Army of the Danube under Andre Massena on 30 April 1799. He served in the Swiss campaign until the peace of 1801, and later in the War of the Third Coalition.  Subsequently, he fought in the Peninsular War.

He died at Vendome on 25 December 1832 and his name is on the east side of the Arc de Triomphe.

1758 births
1832 deaths
Engineers from Tours, France
French marquesses
Counts of the First French Empire
Members of the Chamber of Peers of the Bourbon Restoration
French generals
French Republican military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars
French military personnel of the Napoleonic Wars
Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe
Military personnel from Tours, France

Armand Samuel de Marescot


Bandeirantes Avenue (in Portuguese: Avenida dos Bandeirantes - see Bandeirantes) is one of the most important avenues of São Paulo, serving as one of the main access roads to the Congonhas Airport, as well as a link between Marginal Pinheiros highway and Rodovia Anchieta and Rodovia dos Imigrantes. The avenue had large truck traffic due to the export flow flowing through the Port of Santos, however, after August 2010, the movement of such vehicles on the road was restricted to the nighttime due to the conclusion of the south section of the Rodoanel Mário Covas (see below).  The avenue also serves as the southern boundary of the area known as the "expanded central zone."
Bandeirantes Avenue originally was called Estrada da Traição ("Betrayal Road"). Traição stream was channeled into a pipeline and the avenue was built on top of this, hence its name.

On July 28, 2010, Mayor Gilberto Kassab announced a ban on trucks on the road on weekdays between 5:00 AM and 9:00 PM (21:00) hours. The measure aims to relieve traffic in the city and encourage the use of the newly opened southern passage Rodoanel Mário Covas, created specifically for the purpose of removing the large cargo trucks from the urban center.

References

Streets in São Paulo

Bandeirantes Avenue


Hidy and Howdy were the official mascots of the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. They were anthropomorphic twin polar bears who wore western/cowboy style outfits. Students of Bishop Carroll High School in Calgary were used as performers during Hidy and Howdy's four years as the mascots of the XVth Olympic Winter Games. After the Closing Ceremonies, they retired from public life, only ever reappearing once for the filming of the 1993 movie Cool Runnings for a brief cameo appearance, since the film is based on the Calgary Olympics.

Hidy and Howdy were also featured on various "Welcome To Calgary" signs located throughout the city of Calgary, but in 2008 the local government had the signs removed and "respectfully transported" to Canada Olympic Park where they are now kept, in turn ending the duo's iconic place in the city.

References

1988 Winter Olympics
Olympic mascots
Bear mascots
Fictional polar bears
Canadian mascots
Fictional characters from Alberta

Hidy and Howdy


In the Westminster system of government, the Estimates are an outline of government spending for the following fiscal year presented by the cabinet to parliament.  The Estimates are drawn up by bureaucrats in the finance ministry in collaboration with cabinet ministers.  They consist of detailed reports on how each department or ministry will spend its money.  The estimates are normally introduced in the responsible chamber (the lower house in bicameral parliaments) just prior to the main Budget Day, which gives them time to be analyzed by House committees.  Unlike the budget, the estimates contain no references to fiscal policy, long-term goals, or funding.  After each section is reviewed by the relevant committee the entire Estimates are voted on as one bill. Defeat on the vote is treated as loss of supply and tantamount to loss of confidence. Unlike tax proposals in the budget, the Estimates are rarely controversial, with most issues being dealt with in committee.

Most of the countries also mandate an update or series of updates to the Estimates to account for changes in the economy or in government policy.  In Canada, for instance, this update must be passed in December each year.

References
McMenemy, John. "Estimates' The Language of Canadian Politics. 1995

Westminster system

Estimates