Second-harmonic generation (SHG), also known as frequency doubling, is the lowest-order wave-wave nonlinear interaction that occurs in various systems, including optical, radio, atmospheric, and magnetohydrodynamic systems. As a prototype behavior of waves, SHG is widely used, for example, in doubling laser frequencies. SHG was initially discovered as a nonlinear optical process. SHG is initially discovered a nonlinear optical process in which two photons with the same frequency interact with a nonlinear material, are "combined", and generate a new photon with twice the energy of the initial photons (equivalently, twice the frequency and half the wavelength), that conserves the coherence of the excitation. It is a special case of sum-frequency generation (2 photons), and more generally of harmonic generation.

The second-order nonlinear susceptibility of a medium characterizes its tendency to cause SHG. Second-harmonic generation, like other even-order nonlinear optical phenomena, is not allowed in media with inversion symmetry (in the leading electric dipole contribution). However, effects such as the Bloch–Siegert shift (oscillation), found when two-level systems are driven at Rabi frequencies comparable to their transition frequencies, will give rise to second-harmonic generation in centro-symmetric systems. In addition, in non-centrosymmetric crystals belonging to crystallographic point group 432, SHG is not possible  and under Kleinman's conditions SHG in 422 and 622 point groups should vanish, although some exceptions exist.

In some cases, almost 100% of the light energy can be converted to the second-harmonic frequency. These cases typically involve intense pulsed laser beams passing through large crystals and careful alignment to obtain phase matching. In other cases, like second-harmonic imaging microscopy, only a tiny fraction of the light energy is converted to the second harmonic, but this light can nevertheless be detected with the help of optical filters.

Generating the second harmonic, often called frequency doubling, is also a process in radio communication; it was developed early in the 20th century and has been used with frequencies in the megahertz range. It is a special case of frequency multiplication.

History

Second-harmonic generation was first demonstrated by Peter Franken, A. E. Hill, C. W. Peters, and G. Weinreich at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in 1961. The demonstration was made possible by the invention of the laser, which created the required high-intensity coherent light. They focused a ruby laser with a wavelength of 694 nm into a quartz sample. They sent the output light through a spectrometer, recording the spectrum on photographic paper, which indicated the production of light at 347 nm. Famously, when published in the journal Physical Review Letters, the copy editor mistook the dim spot (at 347 nm) on the photographic paper as a speck of dirt and removed it from the publication. The formulation of SHG was initially described by N. Bloembergen and P. S. Pershan at Harvard in 1962. In their extensive evaluation of Maxwell's equations at the planar interface between a linear and nonlinear medium, several rules for the interaction of light in non-linear media were elucidated.

Types in crystals

Critical phase-matching

Second-harmonic generation occurs in three types for critical phase-matching, denoted 0, I and II. In Type 0 SHG two photons having extraordinary polarization with respect to the crystal will combine to form a single photon with double the frequency/energy and extraordinary polarization. In Type I SHG two photons having ordinary polarization with respect to the crystal will combine to form one photon with double the frequency and extraordinary polarization. In Type II SHG, two photons having orthogonal polarizations will combine to form one photon with double the frequency and ordinary polarization. For a given crystal orientation, only one of these types of SHG occurs. In general to utilise Type 0 interactions a quasi-phase-matching crystal type will be required, for example periodically poled lithium niobate (PPLN).

Non-critical phase-matching
Since phase-matching process basically means to adapt the optical indices n at ω and 2ω, it can also be done by a temperature control in some birefringent crystals, because n changes with the temperature. For instance, LBO presents a perfect phase-matching at 25 °C for a SHG excited at 1200 or 1400 nm, but needs to be elevated at 200 °C for SHG with the usual laser line of 1064 nm. It is called "non-critical" because it does not depend on the crystal orientation as usual phase-matching.

Optical second-harmonic generation

Since media with inversion symmetry are forbidden from generating second-harmonic light via the leading-order electric dipole contribution (unlike third harmonic generation), surfaces and interfaces make interesting subjects for study with SHG. In fact, second-harmonic generation and sum frequency generation discriminate against signals from the bulk, implicitly labeling them as surface specific techniques. In 1982, T. F. Heinz and Y. R. Shen explicitly demonstrated for the first time that SHG could be used as a spectroscopic technique to probe molecular monolayers adsorbed to surfaces. Heinz and Shen adsorbed monolayers of laser dye rhodamine to a planar fused silica surface; the coated surface was then pumped by a nanosecond ultra-fast laser. SH light with characteristic spectra of the adsorbed molecule and its electronic transitions were measured as reflection from the surface and demonstrated a quadratic power dependence on the pump laser power.

In SHG spectroscopy, one focuses on measuring twice the incident frequency 2ω given an incoming electric field  in order to reveal information about a surface. Simply (for a more in-depth derivation see below), the induced second-harmonic dipole per unit volume, , can be written as

where  is known as the nonlinear susceptibility tensor and is a characteristic to the materials at the interface of study. The generated  and corresponding  have been shown to reveal information about the orientation of molecules at a surface/interface, the interfacial analytical chemistry of surfaces, and chemical reactions at interfaces.

From planar surfaces

Early experiments in the field demonstrated second-harmonic generation from metal surfaces. Eventually, SHG was used to probe the air-water interface, allowing for detailed information about molecular orientation and ordering at one of the most ubiquitous of surfaces. It can be shown that the specific elements of :

where Ns is the adsorbate density, θ is the angle that the molecular axis z makes with the surface normal Z, and  is the dominating element of the nonlinear polarizability of a molecule at an interface, allow one to determine θ, given laboratory coordinates . Using an interference SHG method to determine these elements of χ(2), the first molecular orientation measurement showed that the hydroxyl group of phenol pointed downwards into the water at the air-water interface (as expected due to the potential of hydroxyl groups to form hydrogen bonds). Additionally SHG at planar surfaces has revealed differences in pKa and rotational motions of molecules at interfaces.

From non-planar surfaces

Second-harmonic light can also be generated from surfaces that are 'locally' planar, but may have inversion symmetry (centrosymmetric) on a larger scale. Specifically, recent theory has demonstrated that SHG from small spherical particles (micro- and nanometer scale) is allowed by proper treatment of Rayleigh scattering, (scattering without a change in frequency from absorbed to emitted waves). At the surface of a small sphere, inversion symmetry is broken, allowing for SHG and other even order harmonics to occur.

For a colloidal system of microparticles at relatively low concentrations, the total SH signal , is given by:

where  is the SH electric field generated by the jth particle, and n the density of particles. The SH light generated from each particle is coherent, but adds incoherently to the SH light generated by others (as long as density is low enough). Thus, SH light is only generated from the interfaces of the spheres and their environment and is independent of particle-particle interactions. It has also been shown that the second-harmonic electric field  scales with the radius of the particle cubed, a3.

Besides spheres, other small particles like rods have been studied similarly by SHG. Both immobilized and colloidal systems of small particles can be investigated. Recent experiments using second-harmonic generation of non-planar systems include transport kinetics across living cell membranes and demonstrations of SHG in complex nanomaterials.

Radiation pattern

The SHG radiation pattern generated by an exciting Gaussian beam also has a (homogeneous) 2D Gaussian profile if the nonlinear medium being excited is homogeneous (A). However, if the exciting beam is positioned at an interface between opposite polarities (± boundary, B) that is parallel to the beam propagation (see figure), the SHG will be split into two lobes whose amplitudes have opposite sign, i.e. are  phase-shifted.

These boundaries can be found in the sarcomeres of muscles (protein = myosin), for instance. Note that we have considered here only the forward generation.

Moreover the SHG phase-matching can also result in : some SHG is also emitted in backward (epi direction). When the phase-matching is not fulfilled, as in biological tissues, the backward signal comes from a sufficiently high phase-mismatch which allow a small backward contribution to compensate for it. Unlike fluorescence, the spatial coherence of the process constrain it to emit only in those two directions, but the coherence length in backward is always way smaller than in forward, meaning there is always more forward than backward SHG signal.

The forward (F) to backward (B) ratio is dependent on the arrangement of the different dipoles (green in figure) that are being excited. With only one dipole ((a) in the figure), F = B, but F becomes higher than B when more dipoles are stacked along the propagation direction (b and c). However, the Gouy phase-shift of the Gaussian beam will imply a  phase-shift between the SHGs generated at the edges of the focal volume, and can thus result in destructive interferences (zero signal) if there are dipoles at these edges having the same orientation (case (d) in the figure).

Commercial uses
Second-harmonic generation is used by the laser industry to make green 532 nm lasers from a 1064 nm source. The 1064 nm light is fed through a bulk KDP crystal. In high-quality diode lasers the crystal is coated on the output side with an infrared filter to prevent leakage of intense 1064 nm or 808 nm infrared light into the beam. Both of these wavelengths are invisible and do not trigger the defensive "blink-reflex" reaction in the eye and can therefore be a special hazard to the human eyes. Furthermore, some laser safety eyewear intended for argon or other green lasers may filter out the green component (giving a false sense of safety), but transmit the infrared. Nevertheless, some "green laser pointer" products have become available on the market which omit the expensive infrared filter, often without warning. Second-harmonic generation is also used for measuring ultra short pulse width with autocorrelators.

Other applications

Ultra-short pulse measurement
Characterizing an ultrashort pulse (like measuring its temporal width) cannot be done directly with electronics only, as the time-scale is below 1ps (sec) : it needs to use the pulse itself, that is why an autocorrelation function is often used. SHG has the advantage of mixing two input fields to generate the harmonic one, it is thus a good candidate (but not the only one) to perform such a pulse measurement.
Optical autocorrelation, in its intensity or fringe-resolved (interferometric) version use SHG, unlike field autocorrelation. Also, most versions of the FROG (called SHG-FROG) use SHG to mix the delayed fields.

Second-harmonic generation microscopy

In biological and medical science, the effect of second-harmonic generation is used for high-resolution optical microscopy. Because of the non-zero second-harmonic coefficient, only non-centrosymmetric structures are capable of emitting SHG light.  One such structure is collagen, which is found in most load-bearing tissues. Using a short-pulse laser such as a femtosecond laser and a set of appropriate filters the excitation light can be easily separated from the emitted, frequency-doubled SHG signal. This allows for very high axial and lateral resolution comparable to that of confocal microscopy without having to use pinholes. SHG microscopy has been used for studies of the cornea and lamina cribrosa sclerae, both of which consist primarily of collagen. Second-harmonic generation can be produced by several non-centrosymmetric organic dyes; however, most of the organic dyes also generate collateral fluorescence along with second-harmonic generation signals. Until now, only two classes of organic dyes have been shown which do not produce any collateral fluorescence and works purely on second-harmonic generation. Recently, using two-photon excited fluorescence and second-harmonic generation-based microscopy, a group of Oxford University researchers showed that organic porphyrin-type molecules can have different transition dipole moments for two-photon fluorescence and second-harmonic generation, which are otherwise thought to occur from the same transition dipole moment.

Second-harmonic generation microscopy is also used in material science, for instance to characterize nanostructured materials.

Characterization of crystalline materials
Second harmonic generation is also relevant to characterize organic or inorganic crystals since is one of the most discriminant and rapid technique to detect non-centrosymmetry. In addition, this technique can be used on single crystal as well as on powdered samples. One should recall that SHG is only possible (from the bulk) in non-centrosymmetric (NC) crystals. The part of non-centroysmmetric crystals in Nature is much lower than centrosymmetric crystals (circa 22% of the Cambridge structural database), but the frequency of NC crystals increases by a lot in pharmaceutical, biological and electronic fields because of the particular properties of these crystals (piezoelectricity, pyroelectricity, polar phases, chirality,...).

In 1968, (7 years after the first experimental evidence of SHG on single crystal), Kurtz and Perry started to develop a SHG analyzer to rapidly detect the presence or not of inversion center in powdered crystalline samples. The detection of a SHG signal has been shown to be reliable and sensitive test for the detection of crystalline non-centrosymmetry with the confidence level higher than 99%. It is a relevant tool to resolve space group ambiguities that can arise from Friedel's Law in single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Furthermore, the method is referenced in the International Tables for Crystallography and is described as a "powerful method of testing crystalline materials for the absence of a symmetry center.

One possible application is also to rapidly discriminate chiral phases such as conglomerate that are of particular interest for pharmaceutical industries. It could also be used as a technique to probe the structural purity of material if one of the impurities is NC reaching a detection threshold as low as 1 ppm using Kurtz&Perry apparatus up to one part in 10 billion by volume using a SHG microscope.

Due to the high sensitivity of the technique, it can be a helpful tool in the accurate determination of phase diagram and can also be used to monitor phase transitions(polymorphic transition, dehydration, ...) when at least one of the phases is NC.

Theoretical derivation (plane wave)

At low conversion
The simplest case for analysis of second-harmonic generation is a plane wave of amplitude E(ω) traveling in a nonlinear medium in the direction of its k vector. A polarization is generated at the second-harmonic frequency:

where  is the effective nonlinear optical coefficient which is dependent on specific components of  that are involved in this particular interaction. The wave equation at 2ω (assuming negligible loss and asserting the slowly varying envelope approximation) is

where .

At low conversion efficiency (E(2ω) ≪ E(ω)) the amplitude  remains essentially constant over the interaction length, . Then, with the boundary condition  we obtain

In terms of the optical intensity, , this is,

This intensity is maximized for the phase-matched condition Δk = 0. If the process is not phase matched, the driving polarization at ω goes in and out of phase with generated wave E(2ω) and conversion oscillates as sin(Δkℓ/2). The coherence length is defined as . It does not pay to use a nonlinear crystal much longer than the coherence length. (Periodic poling and quasi-phase-matching provide another approach to this problem.)

With depletion

When the conversion to 2nd harmonic becomes significant it becomes necessary to include depletion of the fundamental. The energy conversion states that all the involved fields verify the Manley–Rowe relations. One then has the coupled equations:

where  denotes the complex conjugate. For simplicity, assume phase matched generation (). Then, energy conservation requires that

where  is the complex conjugate of the other term, or

Now we solve the equations with the premise

and obtain

which leads to

Using

we get

If we assume a real , the relative phases for real harmonic growth must be such that . Then

or

where . From , it also follows that

Theoretical expression with Gaussian beams
The excitation wave is assumed to be a Gaussian beam, of amplitude:

with ,  the direction of propagation,  the Rayleigh range,  the wave vector.

Each wave verifies the wave equation

where .

With phase-matching
It can be shown that:

(a Gaussian), is a solution of the equation (n = 2 for SHG).

No phase-matching

A non-perfect phase-matching is a more realistic condition in practice, especially in biological samples. The paraxial approximation is however supposed still valid: , and in the harmonic expression,  is now .

In the special case of SHG (n = 2), in a medium of length L and a focus position , the intensity writes:

where  is the speed of light in vacuum,  the vacuum permittivity,  the optical index of the medium at  and  the waist size of excitation.

Thus, the SHG intensity quickly decays in the bulk (), due to the Gouy phase-shift of the Gaussian beam.

In conformity with experiments, the SHG signal vanishes in the bulk (if the medium thickness is too large), and the SHG must be generated at the surface of the material: the conversion therefore does not strictly scales with the square of the number of scatterers, contrary to what the plane wave model indicates. Interestingly, the signal also vanishes in bulk for higher orders, like THG.

Materials used for second-harmonic generation
Materials capable of generating a second harmonic are crystals without inversion symmetry. This eliminates water, cubic-symmetry crystals and glass.

Here are some crystals used with certain types of laser for SHG conversion:
 Fundamental excitation at 600–1500 nm: BiBO (BiB3O6)
 Fundamental excitation at 570–4000 nm: lithium iodate LiIO3.
 Fundamental excitation at 800–1100 nm, often 860 or 980 nm: potassium niobate KNbO3.
 Fundamental excitation at 410–2000 nm: BBO (β-BaB2O4).
 Fundamental excitation at 984–3400 nm: KTP (KTiOPO4) or KTA,.
 Fundamental excitation at 1064 nm: monopotassium phosphate KDP (KH2PO4), lithium triborate (LiB3O5), CsLiB6O10 and barium borate BBO(β-BaB2O4).
 Fundamental excitation at 1319 nm: KNbO3, BBO (β-BaB2O4), monopotassium phosphate KDP (KH2PO4), LiIO3, LiNbO3, and potassium titanyl phosphate KTP (KTiOPO4).
 Fundamental excitation at ~1000–2000 nm: periodically poled crystals, like PPLN.

Notably, filamentous biological proteins with a cylindrical symmetric such as collagen, tubulin or myosin, but also certain carbohydrates (such as starch or cellulose) are also quite good converters of SHG (fundamental in the near infrared).

See also
 Half-harmonic generation
 Nonlinear optics
 Optical frequency multiplier
 Second-harmonic imaging microscopy
 Spontaneous parametric down-conversion
 Surface second harmonic generation
 Harmonic generation

References

External links

Articles

Second harmonic generation

Second-harmonic generation


Mahipatgad is a hill fort situated on the east of the Khed. It is one of the largest forts in Maharashtra, with an area of 120 acres. This fort is located 19 km from the Khed City. The Mahipatgad. Suamargad and Rasalgad are situated on a same spur 8 km long, which runs parallel to the western ghats. The Mahipatgad is on the northernmost end of the spur. The altitude of Mahipatgad is 3090 feet.

History
This fort was built by Adilshah of Bijapur in the 15th century. This fort was captured by King Shivaji in 1661. Later it passed to the Peshwas and finally to the British in 1818. There are 10 houses in the Beldarvadi village, which is at the foot hill of the fort. The villagers are said to have been brought by Shivaji as bricklayers for construction of the fort.

Places to see
The Mahipatgad looks like a hill-top covered with dense forest of Jamun, Pisa and similar trees found at higher altitude similar to that of Mahabaleshwar. There are leopards, wild pigs and barking deer on the fort.

The fort is a table land with six battlements and six gateways. The gateways are in a ruined state. The gateways are:
 Laldevdi, on north-eastern side
 Pusati, on eastern side, formerly entered by a ladder
 Yeshwant, on south-eastern side
 Khed, towards southern side; this route is still in use and connects the village Beldarwadi to the fort
 Shivganga, on western side; there is a rock cut shivling near this entrance
 Kotwal, on northern side; the pathway from this gate leads to the village Kotwal in Poladpur taluka

Here the foundation of temples of Maruti and Ganapati are seen with half walls still standing. On the southern side of the fort are remnants of horse stables which are 350-700 in numbers. There are two heaps of unused mortar on the fort. There are two large wells on the fort, one near the Khed entrance and the other near Pareshwar temple. The water from these wells is used for drinking by the villagers. The best time to visit the fort is from October to February.

How to reach
There is a new road being built up to the village Wadibeldar. At present by state transport bus, one can reach the village Wadi-jaitapur. From this village there is a steep trek of two hours to the village Wadibeldar. From Wadibeldar the trek to the fort is about 45 minutes. The Pareshwar temple is ideal for halting at night.

Gallery

References

Forts in Maharashtra
Ratnagiri district
Forts in Ratnagiri district

Mahipatgad


Marc Dragicevic (born 30 March 1981) is an Australian rules footballer who played for Richmond Football Club in the Australian Football League (AFL).

Originally from North Geelong, Dragicevic played for Geelong Falcons before being drafted by Richmond.

A small midfielder, Dragicevic underwent a knee reconstruction in early 2001 which put him out of Richmond's advance to the finals, followed by a second reconstruction. He played five more games before being delisted at the end of the 2004 season.

Following his delisting, Dragicevic signed for St Albans Football Club in the Geelong Football League.

References

External links

1981 births
Living people
Australian rules footballers from Victoria (state)
Richmond Football Club players
Geelong Falcons players
North Geelong Football Club players

Marc Dragicevic


Ferrières Abbey was a Benedictine monastery situated at Ferrières-en-Gâtinais in the arrondissement of Montargis, in the département of Loiret, France.

History
Represented in the famous Monasticon Gallicanum, it seems clear that the abbey (despite a tradition based on the Acts of Saint Savinian and a forged charter of Clovis I, dated 508) was founded in about 630 by Columbanus, an Irish monk. The dedication was to Saints Peter and Paul. (According to Dom Mazoyer  there was before then at Ferrières a chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin under the title Notre-Dame de Bethleem de Ferrières).

It reached a height of prosperity in the time of the celebrated Lupus (Loup of Ferrières) (c. 850), when the abbey became quite an active literary centre, but the library was destroyed at the same time as the monastery, and only rare fragments survive. One of these, preserved at the Vatican library (Reg.1573), recalls the memory of Saint Aldric (d. 836), Abbot of Ferrières before he became Archbishop of Sens.

The Carolingian kings Louis III and his brother Carloman held their joint coronation at the abbey in 879, and were later buried there. It was restored in the 9th century by Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald.

Among the last names in the imperfect list of the abbots of Ferrières is that of Louis de Blanchefort, who in the 15th century almost entirely restored the abbey after it was burnt down by the English in the Hundred Years' War. He was buried in its choir.

In 1568, the abbey was besieged by the troops of Louis de Condé, Protestant friend of the Coligny family, pillaged and profaned and, although no monks were killed, the reliquaires and treasures of the abbey were dispersed, the tombs there of Louis III, Carloman II and Louis de Blanchefort heavily damaged and the monks' stalls removed. Odet de Coligny (abroad by then, and abbot of the abbey until shortly beforehand) only intervened to stop this after three days when his own financial interests in the benefice seemed threatened. After suffering this and other severe damage during the Wars of Religion, Ferrières was rebuilt in the 17th century by the prior Guillaume Morin, but then disappeared with all the ancient abbeys at the time of the French Revolution, and its treasures and library were ruined and scattered.

Buildings

Today only some ruins of the ancient monastic buildings are to be seen.

At its height, the abbey occupied a vast enclosed estate with a great cloister (adjoining the monastic church to the south of its nave) and a little cloister (adjoining its choir).

The abbey church is formed of a 12th-century nave and 13th-century transepts and choir. She must have been begun around 1150. On September 29, 1163, Pope Alexander III consecrated the nave whilst it was under construction. The volume of the nave was doubled by a unique second nave to its left, destroyed in 1739 by the collapse of the crossing tower - one can also sees the great arcades linking the two, whose bases (laid out today in bricks) alternated between one big column and two doubled smaller ones (as at the collegiate church of Champeaux, at Saint-Martin de Champeaux; the doubling-up and the decoration betray the influence of Sens Cathedral). It seems there was no plan to vault the main nave, covered instead with a paneled framework. In the right wall, one notices the door (walled-up) that led into the great cloister. The windows, high up because of the cloister, are apparently contemporary with the transept and choir.

These were constructed in the first years of the 13th century. The crossing is formed by an octagonal rotonda. This very original plan was maybe imposed on the builders by the presence in this location of some foundations of a Carolingian building, sometimes identified with the choir of the church rebuilt on the orders of Aldaric, abbot from 821 to 828 - visible traces of this foundation include an arch of alternating stone and nated brick on the right rear of the rotonda. The central space is not covered by a cupola but by an arch of ribs radiating out to eight supports. Between the transept chapel and the choir is located a small room (formerly the sacristy and mortuary, where the bodies of dead monks were deposited for the day before funeral, before being placed in the choir for the funeral itself). Off the left transept opens a chapel of the 14th century, perhaps replacing a chapel similar to that off the right transept.

The choir is covered with a sexpartite (six-part) arch (a 13th-century type particular to Champagne and Burgundy). Its lateral walls present traces of an 11th-century phase of construction. In the choir is the tomb of Louis de Blanchefort.

The crossing carried a tower called a "lead steeple" (visible on the engraving of the "Monastecon gallicanum"), decorated with eight 2.5m high lead statues and the arms of Louis XIII and the prince of Condé, but destroyed in 1739. The tower steeple, to the left, is very ancient at its base; the floors were remade to in the 13th century; the arrow, at the end of the 15th.

The tympanum of the earlier door of the central nave, today in the open air, was decorated with a scene of Christ in majesty, with (some believe) Christ as a portrait of Clovis I. In the earlier door of the secondary nave was a capital representing a fight between Pepin the Short and a lion.

The glass-windows of the apse date back to the end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th, ordered by Louis of Blancafort or his successor Pierre de Martigny (1518-1527).

Besides the monastic church (12th and 13th centuries), the Notre-Dame de Bethléem chapel (to the west of the monastic church), in which is a retable of 1650 by Gilles Guérin, and parts of the convent were preserved, all largely dating to Louis de Blanchefort's 15th century rebuild.

List of abbots

Loup (Lupus) of Ferrières (c. 850)
Saint Aldric 821 to 828, Abbot before he became Archbishop of Sens
Louis de Blanchefort, 1465 to 1507
Pierre de Martigny, 1518-1527 (Blanchefort's successor)
Odet de Coligny, 1556 - 1563

See also
List of Carolingian monasteries
Carolingian art

Notes
 "The Benedictine Abbey at Ferrières-en-Gâtinais has been most unfortunate from the view of historical science, having lost its archives, its charters, and everything which would aid in the reconstruction of its history. Thus legend and the existence of the abbey about the credulity have had full play. But it is interesting to encounter in the work of an obscure Benedictine of the eighteenth century, Dom Philippe Mazoyer, information perhaps the most accurate and circumspect obtainable". (Catholic Encyclopedia)

References

Benedictine monasteries in France
Carolingian architecture
Christian monasteries established in the 7th century
Irish monastic foundations in continental Europe
7th-century churches in France

Ferrières Abbey


The Moravská gobelínová manufaktura (MGM), is a tapestry manufactory in Valašské Meziříčí in the Zlín Region of the Czech Republic. The manufactory has been involved in the area of handmade classical and artistic tapestries, restoring and also creating new pieces with modern themes for more than fifty years. It is considered the first tapestry manufactory in Czechoslovakia, and the only workshop of this kind in Moravia and Czech Silesia.

The workshop, textile manufactory and museum, is also well known for its collaborative works with Czech artists and architects. Its main focus is deeply rooted in preserving the principal technical methods of fine manual work. The manufactory and school of Gobelin tapestry idealized by painter and tapestry designer Rudolf Schlattauer, has now been in activity for more than one hundred years.

History
The first stage in the history of the Moravská gobelínová manufaktura in Valašské Meziříčí dates back to the 19th century, when the author Rudolf Schlattauer materialized his idea of opening a tapestry-weaving workshop. After training as painter at the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna, Schlattauer studied and practiced painting in other European cities, spending a period of time in Scandinavia. There, he became acquainted with the local manufacture of handwoven tapestry. Schlattauer Scandinavian sojourn is generally considered a turning point in his subsequent professional activities. In 1898, after returning from the Nordic countries, he established a tapestry-weaving practice in the village of Zašová, near the Moravian town of Valašské Meziříčí. The region's traditional textile cottage industry and in turn skilled work force were viewed as assets for the tapestry workshop's most successful operation.

Collaboration
During its initial years, however, the plant confronted difficulties, particularly of economic type. The protracted problems with sales of the product led to the request for official funding support, which ultimately resulted in the manufactory's takeover by the Moravian Regional Committee, followed by its transformation into the Jubilee Regional Tapestry and Carpet School, located in Valašské Meziříčí. Artistically, the school's initial period is associated with textile designs created by its director Rudolf Schlattauer: his tapestries, screens and furniture upholstery feature Art Nouveau motifs, shapes and ornamentation. Of equal importance was the Valašské Meziříčí manufactory's collaboration with Czech painter Hanuš Schwaiger, Schlattauer's fellow student from the Vienna Academy. The factory produced tapestries based on Schwaiger's decorative patterns, and their variations were much more in demand in later years. The woven wall tapestry as well as the manufactory's second main article, the hand-knotted carpet, were perceived as potential style-forming components in the decoration of interior spaces and as such inspired the manufactory to turn to architects. These included Dušan Jurkovič, Jan Kotěra and a large number of their students and followers, many of whom were engaged at the School for Fine Woodworking in Valašské Meziříčí after their Prague studies. The fabrics produced under the directorship of Schlattauer's successor Jaro Kučera are characterized, in terms of style, by a decorativism Art Deco idiom and, thematically, by an espousal of figural subjects related to the newly established Czechoslovakia — to those of work and life in the young republic.

In the 20th century
The creative partnership between the tapestry establishment and visual artists, through which paintings were translated into textile form, continued to flourish; tapestries were woven from designs by artists Václav Špála, František Süser, and many others. The ensuing 1930s were marked by a minimalist artistic expression, distinctive of functionalist-style carpet designs. During World War I, the manufactory's art production stagnated due to the lack of fine-quality material for tapestry weaving. In 1946, a new management was appointed to the plant and its specialization was expanded to include the restoration of historical tapestries and production of handwoven carpets. The following year saw the establishment of cooperation with foreign companies, among them the French traditional tapestry workshop in Aubusson. In the 1950s, a tapestry was made for the Triennale in Milan from a design by Pravoslak Kotík and another piece was produced from a pattern by Ludmila Kybalová for the World's Fair Expo '58 in Brussels. In the 1960s, the manufactory collaborated with the textile designer Antonín Kybal and a sizable group of his students. Jan T. Sryček, the current director of the Moravská Gobelínová Manufaktura, was also enrolled in Kybal's studio at the Academy of Arts, Architecture and Design in Prague. Sryček has been representing the manufactory's modern history from the early 1990s. Apart from textile design work, Sryček also initiated the Actual Textile Art project. The purpose of this initiative has been to resurrect the manufactory's time-tested collaboration with contemporary artists. Over the years, a host of prominent artists embodying many different styles and distinctive aesthetic approaches have been invited to express themselves through the medium of wool.

See also
Gobelins Manufactory
Textile arts
Morris & Co.

References

Further reading
The Language of Fibers by Jan T. Strýček, Miluška Trachtová, Pavel Šopák

External links

Moravská gobelínová manufaktura on Virtual Travel Globe
Moravská gobelínová manufaktura on Seznam.cz

Manufacturing companies established in 1898
Tapestry-making operations
Manufacturing companies of the Czech Republic
Textile museums
Museums in the Zlín Region
Art museums and galleries in the Czech Republic
Czech brands
1898 establishments in Austria-Hungary
Manufacturing companies of Czechoslovakia

Moravská gobelínová manufaktura


Fiorenzo Angelini (1 August 1916 – 22 November 2014) was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He was the former President of the Pontifical Council for the Pastoral Care of Health Care Workers in the Roman Curia. He was born in Rome, Italy.

He was elevated to the cardinalate in 1991. When Cardinal Ersilio Tonini died on 28 July 2013, Cardinal Angelini became the oldest living cardinal until Pope Francis appointed 98-year old Archbishop Loris Francesco Capovilla as a cardinal.

Angelini died in Rome, Italy from natural causes, aged 98.

References

1916 births
2014 deaths
Italian cardinals
People from Rome

Fiorenzo Angelini


Jacques Mehler (17 August 1936 – 11 February 2020) was a cognitive psychologist specializing in language acquisition.

Education

Mehler studied chemistry and obtained his Licenciatura en Ciencias Quimicas  at the Universidad de Buenos Aires from 1952 to 1958. After that, he went to Oxford University and University College of London where he obtained his B.Sc. degree in 1959.
From 1961 to 1964, he studied at Harvard University, at the time of the cognitive revolution, where he worked with George A. Miller and obtained a PhD. in psychology.

Career
Mehler was Emeritus at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, where he directed the Laboratoire de Sciences Cognitives et Psycholinguistique (LSCP); he was also the head of the Language, Cognition and Development lab at the International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA) in Trieste (Italy). In 1982, He became a member of the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics' Scientific Council in 1982. He was editor-in-chief of the journal Cognition until 2007. Mehler was elected a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2001, a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2003, and an international member of the American Philosophical Society in 2009.

Research
Jacques Mehler devoted most of his career to language processing and language acquisition. Early on, he and his colleagues discovered that 2-year-olds display previously unsuspected cognitive capacities, providing alternative explanations for Piagetian demonstrations, and contributed to a shift from the constructivist viewpoint toward biologically grounded theories that required validation with much younger infants.

While at the CNRS in France, he established collaborations with the Cochin-Baudeloque maternity, where they created a laboratory to study the core dispositions in neonates. These studies helped to understand precursors of language learning in neonates, such as recognizing their mother's voice, perceiving speech streams as a sequence of syllables, distinguishing lists of bisyllabic items from lists of trisyllabic items, and computing rhythmic properties of speech utterances.

These findings helped formulate bootstrapping accounts of language acquisition. Rhythmical computations became a central topic of his subsequent research. Further, he and his students explored the brain structures involved in language processing using brain-imaging devices – PET, MRI, and eventually Near-Infrared Spectroscopy. One of their early results was to demonstrate a left-lateralized response to speech over backward-speech in newborns.

In 2001 he moved to SISSA-ISAS, in Trieste, Italy, where he established the Language, Cognition and Development (LCD) laboratory, to pursue studies of the mind/brain system during early development. He organized a neonate-testing unit in Udine at the University Hospital and helped develop a Near Infrared Spectroscopy brain-imaging laboratory to explore the mind/brain mechanisms in neonates.

In Trieste, his group became interested in how the process of statistical, or distributional learning (a non-language-specific mechanism) in infants might interact with their capacity of extracting and generalizing algebraic-like structures from their perceptual input. Subsequently, the group developed an interest in how speech prosody contributes to the process of language acquisition. Jacques and his group showed that prosody provides perceptible domains that constrain the acquisition process.

Further, along with Marina Nespor and other colleagues, they hypothesized that vowels and consonants play different roles in language processing and acquisition, a proposal that has given rise to a host of experimental investigations revealing functional differences between vowels and consonants, even in infancy.

Along with his students and collaborators, Jacques also explored adult speech processing, arithmetic abilities, music, social cognition, executive functions in bilingual infants, and human reasoning. For example, The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2009) describes the research conducted by Agnes Melinda Kovacs and Jacques Mehler on the cognitive gains in seven-month-old bilingual infants. In three eye-tracking studies, Kovacs and Mehler found that infants, reared with two languages from birth, display improved cognitive control abilities compared with matched monolinguals.

References

1936 births
2020 deaths
French psychologists
Developmental psycholinguists
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
20th-century psychologists
20th-century French scientists
Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
Fellows of the Cognitive Science Society
Members of the American Philosophical Society

Jacques Mehler


In Celtic cultures, a bard is a professional story teller, verse-maker, music composer, oral historian and genealogist, employed by a patron (such as a monarch or chieftain) to commemorate one or more of the patron's ancestors and to praise the patron's own activities.

With the decline of a living bardic tradition in the modern period, the term has loosened to mean a generic minstrel or author (especially a famous one). For example, William Shakespeare and Rabindranath Tagore are respectively known as "the Bard of Avon" (often simply "the Bard") and "the Bard of Bengal". In 16th-century Scotland, it turned into a derogatory term for an itinerant musician; nonetheless it was later romanticised by Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832).

Etymology
The English term bard is a loan word from the Celtic languages: Gaulish: bardo- ('bard, poet'),  and  ('bard, poet'),  ('singer, poet'), Middle Breton: barz ('minstrel'), Old Cornish:   ('jester'). The ancient Gaulish *bardos is attested as  (sing.) in Latin and as  (plur.) in Ancient Greek. It also appears as a stem in bardo-cucullus ('bard's hood'), bardo-magus ('field of the bard'), barditus (a song to fire soldiers), and in bardala ('crested lark', a singing bird).

All of these terms come from the Proto-Celtic noun  ('poet-singer, minstrel'), itself derived, with regular Celtic sound shift  > , from the Proto-Indo-European compound , which literally means 'praise-maker'. It is cognate with Sanskrit:  ('calls, praise'),  ('grateful, pleasant, delightful'),  ('praise'), and Armenian:  ('raise voice').

History
In the words of the Oxford English Dictionary, the bards were an "ancient Celtic order of minstrel-poets, whose primary function appears to have been to compose and sing (usually to the harp) verses celebrating the achievements of chiefs and warriors, and who committed to verse historical and traditional facts, religious precepts, laws, genealogies, etc."

In medieval Gaelic and Welsh society, a bard (Scottish and Irish Gaelic) or bardd (Welsh) was a professional poet, employed to compose elegies for his lord. If the employer failed to pay the proper amount, the bard would then compose a satire (c.f. fili, fáith). In other Indo-European societies, the same function was fulfilled by skalds, rhapsodes, minstrels and scops, among others. A hereditary caste of professional poets in Proto-Indo-European society has been reconstructed by comparison of the position of poets in medieval Ireland and in ancient India in particular.

Bards (who are not the same as the Irish  or ) were those who sang the songs recalling the tribal warriors' deeds of bravery as well as the genealogies and family histories of the ruling strata among Celtic societies. The pre-Christian Celtic people recorded no written histories; however, Celtic peoples did maintain an intricate oral history committed to memory and transmitted by bards and filid. Bards facilitated the memorization of such materials by the use of metre, rhyme and other formulaic poetic devices.

Regions

Ireland

In medieval Ireland, bards were one of two distinct groups of poets, the other being the fili. According to the Early Irish law text on status, Uraicecht Becc, bards were a lesser class of poets, not eligible for higher poetic roles as described above. However, it has also been argued that the distinction between filid (pl. of fili) and bards was a creation of Christian Ireland, and that the filid were more associated with the church.  By the Early Modern Period, these names came to be used interchangeably.

Irish bards formed a professional hereditary caste of highly trained, learned poets. The bards were steeped in the history and traditions of clan and country, as well as in the technical requirements of a verse technique that was syllabic and used assonance, half rhyme and alliteration, among other conventions. As officials of the court of king or chieftain, they performed a number of official roles. They were chroniclers and satirists whose job it was to praise their employers and damn those who crossed them. It was believed that a well-aimed bardic satire, , could raise boils on the face of its target.

The bardic system lasted until the mid-17th century in Ireland and the early 18th century in Scotland. In Ireland, their fortunes had always been linked to the Gaelic aristocracy, which declined along with them during the Tudor Reconquest.

The early history of the bards can be known only indirectly through mythological stories. The first mention of the bardic profession in Ireland is found in the Book of Invasions, in a story about the Irish colony of Tuatha Dé Danann (Peoples of Goddess Danu), also called Danonians. They became the aos sí (folk of the mound), comparable to Norse alfr and British fairy. During the tenth year of the reign of the last Belgic monarch, the people of the colony of Tuatha Dé Danann, as the Irish called it, invaded and settled in Ireland. They were divided into three tribes—the tribe of Tuatha who were the nobility, the tribe of De who were the priests (those devoted to serving God or De) and the tribe of Danann, who were the bards. This account of the Tuatha Dé Danann must be considered legendary; however the story was an integral part of the oral history of Irish bards themselves. One of the most notable bards in Irish mythology was Amergin Glúingel, a bard, druid and judge for the Milesians.

Scotland

The best-known group of bards in Scotland were the members of the MacMhuirich family, who flourished from the 15th to the 18th centuries. The family was centred in the Hebrides, and claimed descent from a 13th-century Irish bard who, according to legend, was exiled to Scotland. The family was at first chiefly employed by the Lords of the Isles as poets, lawyers, and physicians. With the fall of the Lordship of the Isles in the 15th century, the family was chiefly employed by the chiefs of the MacDonalds of Clanranald. Members of the family were also recorded as musicians in the early 16th century, and as clergymen possibly as early as the early 15th century. The last of the family to practise classical Gaelic poetry was Domhnall MacMhuirich, who lived on South Uist in the 18th century.

In Gaelic-speaking areas, a village bard or village poet () is a local poet who composes works in a traditional style relating to that community. Notable village bards include Dòmhnall Ruadh Chorùna and .

Wales

A number of bards in Welsh mythology have been preserved in medieval Welsh literature such as the Red Book of Hergest, the White Book of Rhydderch, the Book of Aneirin and the Book of Taliesin. The bards Aneirin and Taliesin may be legendary reflections of historical bards active in the 6th and 7th centuries. Very little historical information about Dark Age Welsh court tradition survives, but the Middle Welsh material came to be the nucleus of the Matter of Britain and Arthurian legend as they developed from the 13th century. The (Welsh) Laws of Hywel Dda, originally compiled around 900, identify a bard as a member of a king's household. His duties, when the bodyguard were sharing out booty, included the singing of the sovereignty of Britain—possibly why the genealogies of the British high kings survived into the written historical record.

The royal form of bardic tradition ceased in the 13th century, when the 1282 Edwardian conquest permanently ended the rule of the Welsh princes. The legendary suicide of The Last Bard (c. 1283), was commemorated in the poem The Bards of Wales by the Hungarian poet János Arany in 1857, as a way of encoded resistance to the suppressive politics of his own time. However, the poetic and musical traditions were continued throughout the Middle Ages, e.g., by noted 14th-century poets Dafydd ap Gwilym and Iolo Goch. Also the tradition of regularly assembling bards at an eisteddfod never lapsed and was strengthened by formation of the Gorsedd by Iolo Morganwg in 1792.

Wales in the twentieth century is a leading Celtic upholder of the bardic tradition. The annual National Eisteddfod of Wales () (which was first held in 1880) is held in which bards are chaired (see :Category:Chaired bards) and crowned (see :Category:Crowned bards). The Urdd National Eisteddfod is also held annually. And many schools hold their own annual eisteddfodau which emulate bardic traditions.

Several published research studies into the Welsh bardic tradition have been published. They include Williams (1850), Parry-Williams (1947), Morgan (1983) and Jones (1986). Doubtless research studies have also been published in the current century.

Literature

From its frequent use in Romanticism, 'The Bard' became attached as a title to various  poets,
 'The Bard of Armagh' is Martin Hearty
 'The Bard of Avon,' 'The Immortal Bard' or (in England) simply 'The Bard' is William Shakespeare
 'The Bard of Ayrshire' (or in Scotland, simply 'The Bard') is Robert Burns
 'The Bard of Bengal' is Rabindranath Tagore
 'The Bard of Olney' is William Cowper
 'The Bard of Rydal Mount' is William Wordsworth
 'The Bard of Salford' is John Cooper Clarke
 'The Bard of Twickenham' is Alexander Pope
 Australian bush poets such as Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson are referred to as 'bush bards'
 Bob Dylan, Jim MacCool and the band Blind Guardian have also been termed 'bards'

Popular culture
From its Romanticist usage, the notion of the bard as a minstrel with qualities of a priest, magician or seer also entered the fantasy genre in the 1960s to 1980s, for example as the 'Bard' class in Dungeons & Dragons and Pathfinder, Bard by Keith Taylor (1981), Bard: The Odyssey of the Irish by Morgan Llywelyn (1984), in video games in fantasy settings such as The Bard's Tale (1985), and in modern literature and TV like The Witcher books by Andrzej Sapkowski (1986–2013) show by  Lauren Schmidt Hissrich (2019).

As of 2020, an online trend to cover modern songs using medieval style musical instruments and composition, including rewriting the lyrics in a medieval style, is known as bardcore.

In 2023 Google released its AI chatbot Bard.

See also

 Aois-dàna
 Bard (Dungeons & Dragons)
 Bard (League of Legends)
 Bard (Soviet Union)
 Bhāts
 Cacofonix
 Charan (India)
 Contention of the bards
 Druid
 Fili
 Gorsedd
 Gorseth Kernow (Cornwall)
 Griot
 Poet as legislator
 Rhapsodist
 Skald
 The Bards of Wales
 The Bard's Tale (1985 video game)
 Vates
 Welsh bardic music

References

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading
 Walker, Joseph C., Historical Memoirs of the Irish Bards. New York: Garland, 1971.

External links

 Irish Bardic Poetry Corpus of Electronic Texts, University College Cork.

Occupations in music
Celtic culture
History of Wales
Irish literature
Scottish literature
Welsh literature
Welsh folk music
Welsh poets
Medieval Ireland
Culture of medieval Scotland
Cornish culture
Romanticism
Eisteddfod
Medieval performers
Poets

Bard


Cádiz is a Spanish city, capital of the Province of Cádiz, in Andalusia. It is the southernmost capital in the Iberian Peninsula. The population is 130,000, but it is the centre of a metropolitan area, the Bay of Cádiz, with more than 500,000 inhabitants. Majority of its inhabitants follow Catholic Church. The Cádiz Cathedral is the seat of the Diocese of Cadiz y Ceuta. The cathedral was declared Bien de Interés Cultural in 1931.

Cádiz is known for its attractive beaches where many nautical sports can be practiced. This is possible thanks to the excellent climate all year round. It is one of the oldest cities in Western Europe and it used to be one of the most imporant Spanish ports during the Spanish Golden Age and the Age of Discovery.

References

Capital cities in Spain

Cádiz


Phyllis Sheffield (December 29, 1916 – July 16, 2015) was a painter with a history as a documentary photographer of Miccosukee Indians in Florida. As a teenager, she helped photograph the natives living in the Everglades during trips with her aunt Florence (Stiles) Randle.  She was born in Miami in 1916. Jeff Klinkenberg wrote about their work and it has been displayed at the Smithsonian. Randle was a WPA photographer. Her work is also in the P.K. Yonge Library of Florida History  and the collections of the South Florida Archaeology and Ethnography Program at the Florida Museum of Natural History in Gainesville, Florida.  Their work is also included in the Phyllis Sheffield Collection at the Department of Anthropology & Genealogy, Seminole Tribe of Florida.

Sheffield lived in Palatka in 1996. Her paintings include custom made maps of Florida and nautical charts. She also sells the vintage photos she and her aunt made of the Miccosukee Indians around 1937. Sheffield died on July 16, 2015.

References

American photographers
1916 births
2015 deaths
Artists from Miami
American women photographers
21st-century American women

Phyllis Sheffield


Louis Tracy (1863–1928) was a British journalist, and prolific writer of fiction. He used the pseudonyms Gordon Holmes and Robert Fraser, which were at times shared with M. P. Shiel, a collaborator from the start of the twentieth century.

He was born in Liverpool to a well-to-do middle-class family. At first he was educated at home and then at the French Seminary at Douai. Around 1884 he became a reporter for a local paper, The Northern Echo at Darlington, circulating in parts of Durham and North Yorkshire; later he worked for papers in Cardiff and Allahabad. During 1892–1894 he was closely associated with Arthur Harmsworth, in The Sun and ''The Evening News and Post.

His fiction included mystery, adventure and romance.

External links

 Works by Louis Tracy at The Online Books Page

British short story writers
19th-century British novelists
20th-century British novelists
1863 births
1928 deaths
British male novelists
British male short story writers
19th-century British short story writers
19th-century British male writers
20th-century British short story writers
20th-century British male writers
British mystery writers

Louis Tracy


Claire Parnet is a French journalist.

She is famous for having co-written with Gilles Deleuze (her former teacher) the book Dialogues (1977). It is a book of exchanges, interspersed with questions, where each author responds by contributing a block of text.

Eleven years later, Parnet renewed this experience by doing a television programme with Deleuze called L'Abécédaire de Gilles Deleuze (The ABCs of Gilles Deleuze) where she asked the philosopher to speak on twenty-five themes presented in alphabetical order.

In the 1980s she was the editor of the journal L'Autre. Later she served as curator of television cultural shows like L'Hebdo of Michel Field and L'Appartement (with Ariel Wizman) broadcast on Canal +.

She has also been editorial adviser for literary programs of the French television network France 5.

References

French women journalists
Women television journalists
French television journalists
20th-century French writers
20th-century French women writers
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Claire Parnet


The [2,3]-Wittig rearrangement is the transformation of an allylic ether into a homoallylic alcohol via a concerted, pericyclic process. Because the reaction is concerted, it exhibits a high degree of stereocontrol, and can be employed early in a synthetic route to establish stereochemistry. The Wittig rearrangement requires strongly basic conditions, however, as a carbanion intermediate is essential. [1,2]-Wittig rearrangement is a competitive process.

Introduction
[2,3]-Sigmatropic rearrangements occur for a variety of groups X and Y (see below). When X is a carbanion and Y an alkoxide, the rearrangement is called the [2,3]-Wittig rearrangement and the products are pent-1-en-5-ols. The [1,2]-Wittig rearrangement, which produces isomeric pent-5-en-1-ols, is a competitive process that takes place at high temperatures. Because of the high atom economy and stereoselectivity of the [2,3]-rearrangement, it has gained considerable synthetic utility. The carbanion is generated by direct lithiation of moderately acidic substrates, tin transmetallation, or reductive lithiation of O,S-acetals. Stereoselective methods employing chiral starting materials have been used to effect either asymmetric induction or simple diastereoselection
(1)

Mechanism and stereochemistry

Prevailing mechanism
After carbanion formation, the [2,3]-Wittig rearrangement is rapid and selective at low temperatures. However, if the reaction mixture is allowed to reach temperatures above −60 °C, [1,2]-rearrangement becomes competitive.
(2)
The postulated transition state possesses a five-membered, envelope-like structure. The group attached to the carbanion (G) can occupy either a pseudoequatorial or pseudoaxial position, although the former is usually preferred. Large substituents on the other side of the ether oxygen prefer to occupy the exo position (RE) to avoid A1,3 strain. These restrictions lead to a preference for the syn product from (Z) isomers and anti products from (E) isomers; however, some exceptions to this rule are known.
(3)

Stereoselective variants
Stereoselective variants of the [2,3]-Wittig rearrangement have employed three strategies: diastereoselection based on an existing, established stereocenter, placement of a chiral auxiliary on the starting material whose configuration is unaffected by the reaction, and the use of a chiral base. The relative diastereoselection strategy works well only for a limited number of G groups, but usually results in high yields because no chiral auxiliary group needs to be removed or modified. The stereocenter opposite the carbanion usually must be tertiary (rather than quaternary) in order to enforce the placement of the largest substituent in the RE position.
(4)
The asymmetric induction approach relies on stereocenters already set in the starting material that are unaffected by the reaction (chiral auxiliaries). The most success has been achieved by placing these stereocenters either in the G group or in a substituent attached to the end of the double bond. Diastereomeric ratios in excess of 90:10 are common for these reactions; however, removal of the chiral auxiliary is sometimes difficult.
(5)
The use of chiral bases has afforded enantioenriched rearrangement products in a few cases, although this method does not appear to be general. Enantioselectivity in these reactions is often low, suggesting that the association between the conjugate acid of the base and the rearranging carbanion is likely weak.
(6)

Scope and limitations
A variety of allylic ethers undergo the Wittig rearrangement—the fundamental requirement is the ability to generate the appropriate carbanion in the substrate. This demands either acidic hydrogens, a reducible functional group, or a carbon-metal bond. Historically, alkenyl, alkynyl, and phenyl groups have been used to acidify the α position. Free terminal alkynes are tolerated, although yields are higher when silyl-protected alkynes are used.
(7)
When an alkene is used as the anion-stabilizing group G, issues of selectivity arise concerning the site of the carbanion. Anion-stabilizing groups such as (trimethyl)silyl or methylthio provide essentially complete site selectivity.
(8)
Carbonyl groups may also be used as the anion-stabilizing group; carbonyl groups are particularly useful for asymmetric rearrangements that employ chiral auxiliaries.
(9)
A highly enantioselective method employing chromium carbonyl complexes involves the use of the acidified phenyl ring as an anion-stabilizing group.
(10)
That the substrate must contain acidic hydrogens adjacent to the ether oxygen was a significant limitation of the original reaction. Thus, the development of transmetallation methods that allowed the selective generation of carbanions from carbon-tin bonds represented a profound methodological advance. The scope of the groups that could be attached to the anionic center expanded dramatically as a result.
(11)

Synthetic applications
The products of the [2,3]-Wittig rearrangement of bis(allylic) ethers are 1,5-dien-3-ols. These substrates may undergo the oxy-Cope rearrangement upon deprotonation, affording δ,ε-unsaturated carbonyls. This tandem sigmatropic strategy has been employed in the synthesis of some natural products, including brevicomine and oxocrinol.
(12)

Variations
One variation of the 2,3-Wittig rearrangement is the Wittig-Still rearrangement

Experimental conditions and procedure

Typical conditions
Rearrangements must be carried out at temperatures below −60 °C to avoid competitive [1,2]-rearrangement. Typically, simple treatment of the substrate with n-butyllithium is sufficient to cause rearrangement. Reactions involving butyllithium should be carried out under nitrogen or argon with strict exclusion of water.

See also
 Smiles rearrangement

References

Name reactions
Rearrangement reactions
Chemical reactions of ethers

2,3-Wittig rearrangement


Charles Seymour Robinson, D.D., LL.D., (March 31, 1829 – February 1, 1899), was a pastor, and an editor and compiler of hymns.

Born in Bennington, Vermont, Robinson graduated from Williams College in 1849, then spent a year and a half at Princeton Theological Seminary before entering the Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York, where he was afterward an instructor. He was ordained by the Presbytery of Troy, April 19, 1855, and was pastor of the Park Street (Presbyterian) church of Troy, New York from 1855 to 1860. He was then pastor of the First church of Brooklyn from 1860 to 1868, and of the American Chapel of Paris from 1868 to 1871. He then became pastor of the Memorial Presbyterian church, New York City, which was erected and freed from debt under his management.

Robinson, in 1876–1877 was editor of the Illustrated Christian Weekly, and compiled and published several successful hymn-books. The first was the Songs of the Church in 1862, revised as the Songs for the Sanctuary in 1865, which was "very widely adopted". Around the time of his return from Europe to New York City there was a demand for an additional work of a slightly different character which he met by issuing (through the Century Company) the book called Spiritual Songs, 1878. In 1884, Robinson published another hymn-book in the series, titled Laudes Domini. Robinson resigned his final pastorate in 1887, and died in his home, in New York City.

References

External links

1829 births
1899 deaths
Williams College alumni
American Presbyterian ministers
Hymnologists
People from Bennington, Vermont
19th-century American clergy
19th-century musicologists

Charles Seymour Robinson


Born Joseph Wright (born 1824) in Waverton, Cheshire, the second eldest son of Joseph & Ann Wright.

Career
Joseph Wright became one of the best known breeders and trainers of coursing greyhounds in the United Kingdom. He kept an extensive breeding and training establishment at Waverton, and his pedigree puppies annually offered high prices and won many noted events.

Controversy
He became involved in a court case regarding dog licences, where one of his employees was found with four greyhounds that were allegedly unlicensed. The reporting media noted that it was a case of considerable importance for large owners of greyhounds. The magistrates were eventually satisfied that the dogs were licensed, but noted that it was desirable that separate licences were granted for separate packs of greyhounds.

Family
Joseph Wright was the father of four well known celebrities in the coursing world - Jack Wright, Joe Wright, Robert Kelsell Wright and Tom Wright.

He died on 17 June 1908 at Well House Farm, Waverton, Cheshire.

References

Dog trainers
1824 births
1908 deaths
People from Waverton

Joseph Wright (greyhound trainer)


Wall Street is a street which runs through the Financial District of New York City, which due to many financial centers being located on the street is further a metonym for the Economy of the United States.

Wall Street may also refer to:

Places in New York
 Financial District, Manhattan, area of New York City containing Wall Street, and is sometimes known as "Wall Street"

Subway stations
 Wall Street station (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line), at William Street, serving the  trains
 Wall Street station (IRT Lexington Avenue Line), at Broadway, serving the  trains

Arts and entertainment
 Wall Street (photograph), by Paul Strand
 Wall Street (1929 film), directed by Roy William Neill
 Wall Street (1987 film), directed by Oliver Stone
 Wall Street (soundtrack), a soundtrack album from the 1987 film
Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps, a 2010 film directed by Oliver Stone, sequel to the 1987 film
 Wall Street (Wig Wam album) or the title song, 2012

Other uses
 Wallstreet, the world's first-ever  graded rock climb by Wolfgang Gullich.
 Wall Street (Asheville, North Carolina), a woonerf (or living street)
 Wall Street, a former train of the Reading Railroad

See also
Wall Street Historic District (Manhattan)
Wall Street Historic District (Norwalk, Connecticut)
 The Wall Street Journal, a daily newspaper
 Occupy Wall Street, 2011 protests in Wall Street, part of the worldwide Occupy movement against socioeconomic inequality
 r/wallstreetbets, a subreddit (forum on the social media website Reddit) dedicated to the stock market
 The Black Wall Street (disambiguation)
 Wolf of Wall Street (disambiguation)
 Bay Street (disambiguation), a financial street in Toronto, Canada, also used metonymically to refer to the Canadian financial market

Wall Street (disambiguation)


Józef Kostrzewski (25 February 1885 - 19 October 1969) was a Polish archaeologist.

Kostrzewski was born in Węglewo (now in Poznań County). He studied first in Kraków, then from 1910 onwards with Gustaf Kossinna at Berlin and graduated in 1914. Back in Poland, he was to turn Kossinna's settlement-archaeological method ("Siedlungsarchäologische Methode") against its creator and to try to prove a Slavonic autochthonism in Poland from at least the Bronze Age (Lusatian culture) onwards.

Kostrzewski became professor of prehistory at the newly founded University of Poznań in 1919, and from 1934 conducted the excavation of the Iron Age settlement of Biskupin, which he continued after the war.

After 1918, Kostrzewski became involved in bitter polemics about the ethnic ascription of the Lusatian and Pomeranian cultures with the German archaeologist Bolko von Richthofen.

During the German occupation of Poland during World War II, Polish universities and museums were closed, the finds were often transported to Germany, and many scholars were arrested, tortured and detained, or murdered.

Kostrzewski hid from the Gestapo during the war, but returned to his Poznań chair in 1945. He died in Poznań in 1969, aged 84.

Publications
 Gród prasłowiański w Biskupine w powiecie żnińskim (Poznań 1938).
 Kultura prapolska (1947)
 with W. Chmielelewski and K. Jażdżewski, Pradzieje Polski (Wrocław 1965)

References

Further reading
J. Lech, Between captivity and freedom: Polish archaeology in the 20th century. Archaeologia Polona 35–36, 1997/98, 25–222, ISSN 0066-5924

1885 births
1969 deaths
People from Poznań County
People from the Province of Posen
20th-century Polish archaeologists
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Academic staff of Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań
Officers of the Legion of Honour
Knights Commander with Star of the Order of St. Gregory the Great
Member of the Tomasz Zan Society

Józef Kostrzewski


Italian-American cuisine () is a style of Italian cuisine adapted throughout the United States. Italian-American food has been shaped throughout history by various waves of immigrants and their descendants, called Italian Americans.

As immigrants from the different regions of Italy settled throughout the various regions of the United States, many brought with them a distinct regional Italian culinary tradition. Many of these foods and recipes developed into new favorites for the townspeople and later for Americans nationwide.

Influences

Italian-American food is based primarily on the culinary traditions of Southern Italian immigrants, although a significant number of Northern Italian immigrants also came to the United States and also influenced this style of cuisine to some extent.

Italian-Americans often identify foods with their regional heritage. Southern Italian staples include dry pasta, tomato sauce, and olive oil, whereas Northern Italian staples include foods such as risotto, white sauce and polenta.

Migration
In the late 19th and early 20th century, the Italian poor suffered from sever food insecurity, from taxes, modernization (depriving them of feudal land access), and overpopulation.  The non-landowning class survived on a mostly vegetarian diet consisting of hard bread and soups; meat, if any, is reserved for celebration. Partial knowledge of fine food trickled down from the rich from restaurants, despite the poor having little means to access them.

Under this background, waves of Italians immigrated to the United States, mainly through Ellis Island. In the US, these immigrants found hard work, but pay good enough to buy plenty of soft bread, flour, meat, cheese, eggs, and even olive oil, dry pasta, and cheese imported from Italy or the Italian diaspora in Argentina. Reacting to this newfound abundance, Italian-American cuisine shows two important characteristics: it heavily emphasizes the use of "rich ingredients" (meat, cheese, and eggs) compared to its Italian peasant counterpart, yet it retains a simple-to-prepare style characteristic of the poor's meals. The stereotypical Italian-American "red sauce" cuisine is, accordingly, a fusion of these characteristics with a Southern Italian (chiefly Neapolitan and Sicilian cuisine) base.

Northern Italians also left important marks on Italian-American cuisine. Two cheesemakers from Parma, Paolo Sartori and Count Julio Bolognaisi, took advantage of the milk supply in Wisconsin and produced Parmesan cheese.

Further contact
Over time, through an increased appreciation of Italian cuisine in the United States, as well as increased imports into the United States from Italy, there has been a push towards producing more authentic dishes, which use techniques and ingredients that are more native to Italy.

American cuisine has readily received innovations from Italy, such as espresso (which evolved into specialty coffee drinks, now ubiquitous in American life), tiramisu, and Nutella.

On the other hand, e.g. pasta alla carbonara, a dish unrecorded in Italy before World War II, may be due to an American influence in relationship to the allied liberation of Rome in 1944. Many Italians then were happy to use powdered eggs and bacon supplied by the United States and their armed forces for pasta dishes.

Popularity
Italian-American food and Mediterranean cuisine has been highly influential in the American diet. It is one of the top three cuisines in the United States, according to the National Restaurant Association:

Rated high on the list of popular, or trending, items in the survey include Mediterranean flatbread, ciabatta bread, espresso and specialty coffee drinks. Pizza and pasta are also common dishes in the United States; however, they are often presented in very different forms than in Italy.

Wine
There is a strong association between Italian-American cuisine and the history of winemaking in the United States.

Many Italian wines were first introduced to the United States in the late 18th century. Italian vintners were first brought to the state of Florida in 1766 by Dr. Andrew Turnbull, a British Consul at Smyrna (now Izmir). Philip Mazzei, an Italian physician, and close friend of U.S. President Thomas Jefferson, also helped to cultivate vineyards, olives, and other Mediterranean fruit with the help of Italians.

In later years, American viticulture was more influenced by the Italian diaspora of the transatlantic migrations, which steadily brought more Italians to America from the 1870s through the 1920s. Most of these Italians entered the East Coast of the United States through Ellis Island, whereas many of those quickly passed through to the American West Coast, where California still had its famous "Gold Rush".

In California, Italian-Americans were inspired by the expanse of rolling hills and fertile fields. Prior to Prohibition starting in 1919, many wineries had made their start: Seghesio, Simi, Sebastiani Vineyards and Foppiano began in the late 19th century and remain in operation today. Others included Giuseppe Magliavacca's Napa winery, Secondo Guasti's Italian Vineyard Company and Andrea Sbarbaro's Italian–Swiss Colony.

From 1919 until the repeal of Prohibition in 1933, many Italian-Americans struggled to keep their vineyards going. Many remained through providing sacramental wine to the Catholic Church or grape juice to the general market. These few holdouts can be credited with salvaging America's viticulture heritage, in an industry that values the longevity and tradition of the vine and its produce.

Today, Italian-American wineries prove a powerful asset on the world market. Some of these companies include: Atlas Peak (also known as Antinori), Cosentino, Dalla Valle, Delicato, Ferrari-Carano, E & J Gallo Winery, Geyser Peak, Louis M. Martini, Mazzocco, Robert Mondavi, Monte Bello Ridge, Corrado Parducci, Pedroncelli Winery, Robert Pepi, Picchetti Brothers Winery, Rochioli, Rafanelli, Rubicon Estate Winery (also known as Francis Ford Coppola Presents), Sebastiani Vineyards, Signorello, Sattui, Trinchero (most often under the Sutter Home brand), Valley of the Moon, Viansa, and more.

Dishes

Pastas and grains
 American chop suey – a distant relative of ragù bolognese made primarily with hamburger meat
 Baked ziti – ziti pasta, originally from Sicily, tube-shaped pasta similar to penne but much longer, mixed with a tomato sauce and covered in cheese, then baked in the oven
 Lasagna, particularly using ricotta, called lasagne alla napoletana in Italy. The ricotta distinguishes it from the original and better-known (outside the U.S.) North Italian style that uses béchamel sauce, called  lasagne alla bolognese or just lasagne
 Penne alla vodka – the sauce of this pasta dish consists of tomato, onion, prosciutto, cream and vodka
 Spaghetti and meatballs – a dish based on Neapolitan festival dishes involving much smaller meatballs as well as other ingredients, iconic in the United States. The dish as served in the United States is unknown in Italy. Meatballs (polpette) are not served on top of pasta in Italy.

Vegetable dishes
 Eggplant parmesan or melanzane alla parmigiana is a common Italian dish. It typically includes sliced eggplant, marinara sauce, and cheese, layered repeatedly. It is never served on or with spaghetti in Italy and there are no meat "parmigianas" though zucchini- and artichoke-based versions do exist.
 Peas and eggs, or piselli cacio e uova, originally a meal eaten by poor Italian immigrants, has since become a favorite lenten meal. It consists of simply eggs and peas, fried in a pan with olive oil and some garlic, onion and pepper.

Meats and eggs
 Frittata – An open-faced omelette containing meat, cheese, potatoes, peas, asparagus, peppers, cucuzza (i.e., squash), onions, and other vegetables, alone or in combination. These can be eaten by themselves or on sandwiches.
 Sausage and peppers – Salsiccia, peppers and onions cooked together, sometimes with a very light red sauce.
 Porchetta, also known as "porketta," Italian roast pork sandwich, or Italian pulled pork depending on the region of the U.S. Roast pork butt or shoulder; often a full suckling pig. Traditionally a holiday or celebration dish or found at festivals or fairs. However, it is commonly eaten in a sandwich form, usually with broccoli rabe, in Philadelphia's Italian-American communities and in recent times throughout the city. Brought to America mostly by immigrants from Abruzzo, as well as those from Lazio (especially the Alban Hills), Marche, and Tuscany.
 Chicken (or Veal) Parmesan – fried breaded chicken or veal cutlets covered in sauce and cheese, served with pasta. A very popular dish in casual dining restaurants, as well as a sandwich filling. The name of this dish is often abbreviated to "parm".
 Chicken marsala – chicken cutlets, mushrooms, and Marsala wine.
 Buffalo wing – unbreaded chicken wing section coated or dipped in a sauce consisting of a vinegar-based cayenne pepper hot sauce.
 Chicken Francese was developed by Italian American restaurateurs after the Second World War, when French food became popular after GIs returning from France had developed a taste for it.

Sauces
 Alfredo sauce – derived from the Fettuccine Alfredo made popular by Roman restaurateur Alfredo di Lelio starting in 1914. American Alfredo sauce consists largely of cream, butter, and Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese with nutmeg and black pepper seasonings, and is served over vegetables and some meats (particularly chicken and shellfish) as well as the signature pasta ribbons. The authentic Alfredo dish only consists of fettuccine pasta, butter and parmigiano reggiano. The primary difference between authentic fettuccine Alfredo and Alfredo sauce is that while the pasta dish is prepared by adding ingredients to the cooked pasta, Alfredo sauce is prepared in bulk and poured over pasta or other ingredients (vegetables such as broccoli and meats such as shrimp or grilled chicken are common additions). Though very popular in the United States, this sauce is virtually unheard of in Italy.
 Marinara sauce – a quick-cooking, sometimes spicy tomato sauce without meat served on pasta. Salsa al pomodoro is the usual Italian name.
 Bolognese sauce – a meat-based sauce originating from Bologna, Italy.
 Sunday sauce – a meat-infused tomato sauce commonly made on Sundays and special occasions; derived from the Italian ragù napoletano. In some areas, including Boston, New Jersey, and Philadelphia, it is sometimes called "gravy".

Seafood dishes
 Lobster Fra Diavolo – a pasta dish made with lobster, sometimes other seafood, that contains crushed red pepper to make it spicy.
 Baccalà – salt cod fish, traditionally served during Lent or for Christmas Eve. Can be fried, baccalà salad, so on.
 Alici or Acciughe – another integral dish served during Christmas Eve's Feast of the Seven Fishes. This dish's full name is spaghetti con aglio, olio e acciughe (spaghetti with garlic, oil, and anchovies; alici is another word for anchovy). The anchovies and garlic are sliced very thin and dissolve in the oil. When served, the dish appears to be just pasta covered in hot oil. (Many variants exist in Italy: some don't have anchovies, some add capers or chili pepper.)

Soups and stews
 Cioppino – a fish stew characteristic of West Coast Italian American cookery, particularly San Francisco.
 Wedding soup – a soup with meatballs or sausage and pasta in a chicken broth.
 Pasta e fagioli (or "pasta fazool" in Italian-American slang, from Southern Italian fasule ("beans") instead of standard Italian fagioli)—pasta with beans, often cannellini beans, that has the consistency of a stew.

Breads, sandwiches, and savory baked goods

 Calzone and stromboli – while the half-moon shaped Italian calzone is well known in the United States, the very similar tube-shaped stromboli as well as large, loaf-like calzones served in slices are also fairly common.
 Italian bread – Perhaps a bit closer to French bread in composition and appearance, American "Italian bread" is a lean white bread, often braided and covered in sesame seeds, with a thin but usually crisp crust and a soft crumb. American "Italian bread" does not particularly resemble many traditional Italian bread forms, but is very popular in both loaf form and roll form, where it is often closely associated with sandwich making. A regional variety of this is Scali.
 Pizza – the most common form of American pizza is based on (and called) the Neapolitan style, the earliest and essentially standard version of which is commonly called New York–style. Also popular in America is a version of the Sicilian pizza, a larger square pizza in which the dough is risen an inch or more, and which is topped (contrary to native Sicilian tradition) in much the same way as the thin-crusted round Neapolitan form, including the use of mozzarella. Even more Americanized forms such as Greek pizza, apizza (i.e. New Haven–style pizza) and Chicago-style have become common.
 Submarine sandwich – originated in several different Italian American communities in the Northeastern United States from the late 19th to mid-20th centuries.
 Muffuletta – a large sandwich with cold cuts and olive salad, made on a round loaf; originated in New Orleans.
 Italian beef sandwich – a type of roast beef sandwich native to Chicago, similar to a French dip sandwich.
 Italian sandwich
 Meatball sandwich
 Pizzagaina,  pizza ghen or pizza rustica – Easter pie, made with various cheeses, eggs, and salted meats. Compare , from Liguria, or the Italian–Argentine version, torta pascualina. Pizzagaina may also be called pasteed or pastiere, although it is more of a quiche than pie unlike pizzagaina.

Sweets
 Tiramisu – a sweet multi-layered cake with light fluffy cream, often served with a coffee or other hot caffeinated beverage. Tiramisu is one of the more recent Italian imports, having been invented after World War II (probably in the Veneto region), but adopted readily by American diners.
 Cannoli – a sweet ricotta filling in a fried pastry shell.
 Struffoli (or Struf') – Fried dough for dessert. Christmas cake is typical of Naples. In Abruzzo, this dish is called cicerchiata, meaning "blue sweet-pea dish" and is eaten before Easter.
 Biscotti d'annodare – knot cookies.
 Sfogliatelle – a sort of custard turnover made with leaved (millefoglie) pastry; a similar pastry, larger and filled with a type of pastry cream, is sometimes called a "lobster tail".
 Biscotti – generally anise flavored, often nut-studded hard cookie that may alternatively contain dried fruit or chocolate are common as well; often dipped in coffee rather than sweet dessert wines as in Italy. American biscotti are almost always loaf-type cookies that are sliced and rebaked to crispness, while the term refers to almost all forms of cookie in Italy.
 Pizzelle – traditional Italian waffle cookies made from flour, eggs, sugar, butter or oil, and flavoring (usually anise or anisette, less commonly vanilla or lemon zest). Originally from Abruzzo, brought over to the United States by Abruzzese immigrants. Popular during Christmas in the Northeastern United States among Italian-Americans and especially in Philadelphia and other cities where large numbers of Abruzzese immigrants settled.
Zeppole – these cream puffs are often served on Saint Joseph's Day in many Italian-American communities in the United States.  They are made with pâte à choux and then filled with a custard based pastry cream and topped with maraschino cherries and powdered sugar before serving.

See also

Italian cuisine
Cuisine of the United States
North American cuisine
Culinary revolution
New American cuisine
Mediterranean cuisine

References

Further reading
There are many styles of cookbooks available in English, both on the subjects of traditional and authentic "Italian cuisine" and "Italian American" food.
Bastianich, Lidia Matticchio, Lidia's Italian American Kitchen. New York, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001. Focuses on the Italian American kitchen and also the basis of the PBS television cooking show series. Winner of the IACP cookbook Award. Bastianich incorporates Northern Italian and Istrian Slavic influences in her cooking.
Buonopane, Marguerite D., The North End Italian Cookbook, 5th ed. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot Press, 2004, : An oft-updated collection of Italian American recipes from Boston, Massachusetts.
De Laurentiis, Giada, Giada's Family Dinners. New York, New York: Crown Publishing Group/ Random House, Inc., 2006,  or 0-307-23827-X: By the star of television Food Network's Everyday Italian and Behind the Bash, De Laurentiis' cooking style bridges the gap between Italian and Italian American food.
Editoriale Domus (editor), The Silver Spoon (original title, "Il cucchiaio d'argento"). London: Phaidon Press, 2005, : An English translation of a best-selling Italian kitchen reference providing a broad survey of the dishes popular around Italy; provided for comparison with the references about American Italian food.
Gabaccia, Donna, "Food, Recipes, Cookbooks, and Italian American Life" pp. 121–155 in American Woman, Italian Style, Fordham Press, 2011. .
Gentile, Maria, The Italian Cook Book: The Art of Eating Well. New York: The Italian Book Co., 1919: A post-World War I effort to popularize Italian cooking in the United States.
Hill, Henry, The Wiseguy Cookbook. New York: Penguin-Putnam, 2002, : A presentation of the role of food in the life of the American Mafia by the subject of the movie Goodfellas.
Mariani, John and Galina, The Italian American Cookbook. Boston: Harvard Common Press, 2000, : A broad history and survey of Italian American food as eaten around the United States.
Middione, Carlo, The Food of Southern Italy. New York: William Morrow & Company, 1987,  (hardcover). A San Franciscan chef's perspective on Italian food.
Rice, William, Steak Lover's Cookbook. New York: Workman Publishing, 1997, . Not an Italian cookbook, but talks extensively about the influence of Italian American cuisine on steakhouse culture and menus.
Rucker, Alan, and Michele Scicolone, The Sopranos Family Cookbook. New York: Warner Books, 2002, : A tie-in to the popular HBO television series, featuring recipes typical of Neapolitan-derived New Jersey Italian American food (the fictional Soprano family claimed descent from the town of Avellino).

On Italian American Winemaking
Wine Heritage: The Story of Italian American Vintners. Dick Rosano (Author), Robert Mondavi (Foreword).

On Related topics of migration, immigration and diaspora

Worrall, Janet E, et al. editors, Italian Immigrants Go West: the Impact of Locale on Ethnicity.  Cambridge, MA: Italian American Historical Association (AIHA), 2003,  (hardcover) or 0-934675-51-X (softcover): an anthology of essays on Italian Americans, including subjects of history, literature, ethnic relations, movement west in America, early 19th Century migration from Italy, politics, urban/ suburban/ rural living, typical labor and work life, etc.
Gabaccia, Donna R., Italy's Many Diasporas.  Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2000,  or 0-295-97918-6 (alk. paper): Foreign countries, emigration and immigration. See essays on "Patria e natio" (29), "legacy of civilta italiana" (33), table 3.3. "Destinations of migrants by region, 1876-1914 by percentage" (70), "Paese, regione and the global labor market" (68). This book will also help better understand the concepts of community among working Italian Americans with the ideas of "paese" or "paesani," and the shared, formative culture among them, often referred to as "civilita italiana."

External links
 Italian American recipes by La Gazzetta Italiana
 FOODS OF AFFECTION ISSUE SPRING 2008 Italian Americana: The voice of leading cultural, intellectual and literary Italian Americans
 To Make Pizza - How To Make Pizza Dough

Italian cuisine
Articles containing video clips
American cuisine

Italian-American cuisine


The Arcadia, Gulf Coast and Lakeland Railroad Company was owned by George B. Morton, Anthony Peters and Woodward Emery. It was incorporated under Florida state law chapter FOO, approved May 21, 1891, "for the purpose of constructing, maintaining and operating a railroad from a point on or near Gasparilla Island, in the county of Lee, via the town of Arcadia, in the county of DeSoto, to Plant City, in the county of Hillsborough, and to the city of Lakeland, in the county of Polk, with such extensions and branches as they may deem necessary". The railroad was promised land grants along its line.  The company managed to operate a short 9-mile stretch of track between Bradenton and Sarasota.

Amendment
Florida state law chapter 4259, approved May 30, 1893, extended the incorporation, due to the railroad not being able to complete its line in the time allotted, though it was already running trains on part of the route. The railroad then had two years from May 30, 1893, to complete the railroad; any sections built after then would not receive land grants. The amendment also gave them the right "to change their line of railway, so that the road will begin in Lee county, Florida, at or near the mouth of Charlotte Harbor, at or near a point known as Gasparilla Island; and that its line shall run via the town of Arcadia, in the county of DeSoto, to Plant City and Lakeland, in the counties of Hillsborough and Polk; and that the company shall have the right to build such extensions and branch lines as the board of directors shall find from time to time necessary".

Successors
The Arcadia, Gulf Coast and Lakeland Railroad was taken over by the Florida, Peninsular and Gulf Railroad in 1893 but ceased operations in 1896. The Seaboard Air Line Railroad later built their line from Durant to Sarasota in 1903 using some of the former right of way.

See also
 List of Florida railroads
 List of Seaboard Air Line Railroad precursors

References

External links
 Photograph at University of South Florida Libraries

Defunct Florida railroads


Wang Huiqin (; born 21 October 1955) is a Chinese-Slovenian artist: painter, calligrapher, book illustrator and author.

Wang Huiqin was born in Nantong, China in 1955. She graduated from the department of fine arts at the Nanjing Faculty of Education. In 1983, Wang came to Slovenia where she specialized in graphic arts and painting at the Academy of Fine Arts in Ljubljana. She lives and works in Ljubljana. Her creative medium is visual art and also writing. She collaborates with the Department for Asian and African Studies and with the Arts Faculty of the University of Ljubljana where she teaches calligraphy and Chinese art. In 2000, she became senior university assistant professor for drawing and calligraphy.

She represents an extremely precious addition to Slovenian multiculturalism. She lives the Asian-European experience in her own way, as a sensitive creator that unites ontological experiences of the Western and Eastern painting traditions with the intimate experience of a displaced person-woman. In 2005, Slovenian Times chose her for the cultural personality of the year. She represented Slovenian artists at the entry of Slovenia into the European Union and exhibited in Portugal, Italy, Belgium, Austria and Germany. She has had a lot of exhibitions in Slovenia and China.
She has illustrated and also written a number of children's books for Slovene publishers, most often tales and stories with Far Eastern references.

In 2008 she has started Ferdinand Avguštin Hallerstein, a big project with a lot of different events, exhibitions and an illustrated book.

Her husband is Slovenian sinologist Mitja Saje.

Illustrations and books:
Jack London: Klic divjine (The Call of the Wild, ČZP Kmečki glas, Ljubljana 1986)
 (Brocade Image, Tales of Chinese Ethnic Minorities, Mladinska knjiga, Ljubljana 1991) received the Levstik Award for her illustrations of traditional stories
Alenka Auersperger:  (Chinese Notes, Dolenjska založba, Novo mesto 1994)
 (Tales from the Roof of the World, Tibetan Tales, Mladinska kniga, Ljubljana 1995)
 (The Most Beautiful Fan, Japanese Fairy Tales, Mladinska knjiga, Ljubljana 1996)
Franci Koncilija:  (Pursued Memories, Dolenjska založba, Novo mesto 1998)
 (Calligraphy As an Art, scripta, Beletrina 2010)
Huiqin Wang: Ferdinand Avguštin Hallerstein: . (Ferdinand Augustin Hallerstein: Slovenian in the Forbidden City; Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga 2014, 31pp) received the Kristina Brenk Award for the best original Slovene picture book in 2014 and the Golden Pear Award for the best children non-fiction book in 2015.
Huiqin Wang: Giuseppe Castiglione: slikar v Prepovedanem mestu. (Giuseppe Castiglione: painter in the Forbidden City; Jezero: Morfemplus 2015, 31pp)
Huiqin Wang: Jaz, Marco Polo. (Me Marco Polo; Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga 2018, 31pp)

Selected individual exhibitions
Šivec House Art Gallery, Radovljica, Slovenia 1984
Niš Municipal gallery, Niš, Yugoslavia 1986
Jiangsu Province Art Gallery, Nanjing, China 1992
Dolenjska Muzeum, Novo mesto, Slovenia 1993
The Clash of East and West, The ZDSLU Gallery, Ljubljana, Slovenia 1993
The XXOY Gallery, Bruseels, Belgium 1995
The TR3 Gallery, Ljubljana, Slovenia 1997
Scrolls 1990–1997, Domžale Art Gallery, Slovenia 1997
Loža Gallery, Koper, Slovenia 1998
We are Ephemeral – Sonhos Efemeros(with Živko Marušič), Palacio Foz Lisbon, Portugal 1999
Beyond Dreams (with Tomaž Lunder), Nanjing Shenhua Art Centre, China 2004
Impalpable Beings, Cankarjev dom, Ljubljana, Slovenia 2006
Insieme – Skupaj (together with Zora Stančič), A+A gallery, Venice, Italy 2006
Live Calligraphy (with Daisuke Sakaki), Kibla, Maribor, Slovenia 2007
Transfer Beyond Time, Shanghai Archives, China 2008
Transfer Beyond Time, Slovenian Ethnographic Museum, Ljubljana, Slovenia 2008
Science Meets Art -Hallerstein, Ge Yi Gallery, Nantong, China 2009
Intertwined path, Municipal Gallery Ljubljana, Slovenia 2010
Everything is possible, The White Box Gallery, Beijing 798, China 2011
May or May not (with Marko Mandič), Equrna Gallery, Ljubljana, Slovenia 2012
Icons of Socialism (with z Metod Frlic), Alkatraz Gallery, Ljubljana, Slovenia 2013
Hallerstein, Slovenian in Forbidden City, Slovenian Ethnographic Museum, Ljubljana, Slovenija, 2014
Hallerstein and Silk Road, UNO, Wien, Austria, 2017

Selected awards:

Levstik Award, 1993
Hinko Smrekar Distinction, 1993
Guest Star – Slovenia Times, 2005
Kristina Brenk Award, 2014
The Golden Pear Award, 2015

References

External links
 Wang Huiqin official site
 http://www.fotosay.com/topics/whq/index.html
 http://www.artlinkart.com/en/artist/overview/783bsypp
 http://oldsite.sinologystudy.com/2011/1016/225.php
 http://www.ibby.org/fileadmin/user_upload/european_newsletter_11-18/IBBY_European_Newsletter_November_2018.htm

Chinese illustrators
Living people
1955 births
Levstik Award laureates
20th-century Chinese calligraphers
Slovenian artists
University of Ljubljana alumni
Academic staff of the University of Ljubljana
Chinese emigrants to Slovenia
Chinese emigrants
Immigrants to Yugoslavia
Educators from Nantong
Women calligraphers
Painters from Nantong
21st-century Chinese calligraphers

Wang Huiqin


Nicolás Terol Peidro (born 27 September 1988 in Alcoy, Valencie, Spain) is a professional motorcycle road racer. He currently races in the Moto2 Warld championship, an wis the feenal champion in the 125cc cless, in 2011. He began his profeesional racin career in 2005. He teuk his first internaitional victory in the rain-shortened 2008 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix as he wis leadin the race at the time o the feenal completit lap.

1988 births
Spaingie motorcycle racers
Livin fowk

Nicolás Terol


Jesse Poe (born August 5, 1975, in Louisville, Kentucky) is a songwriter and primary member of Tanakh, the musical collective. He spent a decade in Virginia, beginning in 1993; the first half of the decade was spent in Blacksburg, and relocated to Richmond where he met David Lowery and several Sound of Music Studios stalwarts.

In 2003, he moved to Italy and worked as a teacher by day. In addition to managing Tanakh, Poe has also been involved in other projects. Jesse Poe is a distant relative of the literary figure Edgar Allan Poe.

Collaborations
Poe is involved with an ambient vocal-led improv project called Crevlyn, which also features Tanakh associate Ben Scott (of Ting Ting Jahe). He is also in a folk-pop band with Tanakh bassist Michele Poulos. In addition to performing as a backup for the Anomoanon and Six Organs of Admittance, Poe has played electric guitar for the latter.

References

External links

1975 births
Living people
Musicians from Louisville, Kentucky
Songwriters from Kentucky

Jesse Poe