Rewind is the second rockumentary by Welsh rock band Stereophonics. Released in 2007, it is the band's sixth DVD release. It contains over three hours of live and documentary footage spanning their entire career; from pre-Stereophonics years to their signing to V2 Records in 1996 to 2006. A booklet was also included with the DVD, featuring several previously unseen photographs of the band, from Kelly Jones' own personal photo album.

Release

Rewind - Disc one
Documentary film lasting 100 mins also including extended scenes, a complete set of theatrical trailers for Rewind and a 60-second preview of Stereophonics' then-unreleased album, Pull the Pin.

Live - Disc two
Live performances from 1997–2006, including a never-before-seen acoustic concert from 2001.

Track listing

References

Stereophonics video albums
V2 Records video albums
2007 live albums
2007 video albums
Live video albums
Rockumentaries
2000s English-language films

Rewind (video)


In computer networking, Fast Ethernet physical layers carry traffic at the nominal rate of 100 Mbit/s. The prior Ethernet speed was 10 Mbit/s. Of the Fast Ethernet physical layers, 100BASE-TX is by far the most common.

Fast Ethernet was introduced in 1995 as the IEEE 802.3u standard and remained the fastest version of Ethernet for three years before the introduction of Gigabit Ethernet. The acronym GE/FE is sometimes used for devices supporting both standards.

Nomenclature
The 100 in the media type designation refers to the transmission speed of 100 Mbit/s, while the BASE refers to baseband signaling. The letter following the dash (T or F) refers to the physical medium that carries the signal (twisted pair or fiber, respectively), while the last character (X, 4, etc.) refers to the line code method used. Fast Ethernet is sometimes referred to as 100BASE-X, where X is a placeholder for the FX and TX variants.

General design
Fast Ethernet is an extension of the 10-megabit Ethernet standard. It runs on twisted pair or optical fiber cable in a star wired bus topology, similar to the IEEE standard 802.3i called 10BASE-T, itself an evolution of 10BASE5 (802.3) and 10BASE2 (802.3a). Fast Ethernet devices are generally backward compatible with existing 10BASE-T systems, enabling plug-and-play upgrades from 10BASE-T. Most switches and other networking devices with ports capable of Fast Ethernet can perform autonegotiation, sensing a piece of 10BASE-T equipment and setting the port to 10BASE-T half duplex if the 10BASE-T equipment cannot perform auto negotiation itself. The standard specifies the use of CSMA/CD for media access control. A full-duplex mode is also specified and in practice, all modern networks use Ethernet switches and operate in full-duplex mode, even as legacy devices that use half duplex still exist.

A Fast Ethernet adapter can be logically divided into a media access controller (MAC), which deals with the higher-level issues of medium availability, and a physical layer interface (PHY). The MAC is typically linked to the PHY by a four-bit 25 MHz synchronous parallel interface known as a media-independent interface (MII), or by a two-bit 50 MHz variant called reduced media independent interface (RMII). In rare cases, the MII may be an external connection but is usually a connection between ICs in a network adapter or even two sections within a single IC. The specs are written based on the assumption that the interface between MAC and PHY will be an MII but they do not require it. Fast Ethernet or Ethernet hubs may use the MII to connect to multiple PHYs for their different interfaces.

The MII fixes the theoretical maximum data bit rate for all versions of Fast Ethernet to 100 Mbit/s. The information rate actually observed on real networks is less than the theoretical maximum, due to the necessary header and trailer (addressing and error-detection bits) on every Ethernet frame, and the required interpacket gap between transmissions.

Copper
100BASE-T is any of several Fast Ethernet standards for twisted pair cables, including: 100BASE-TX (100 Mbit/s over two-pair Cat5 or better cable), 100BASE-T4 (100 Mbit/s over four-pair Cat3 or better cable, defunct), 100BASE-T2 (100 Mbit/s over two-pair Cat3 or better cable, also defunct). The segment length for a 100BASE-T cable is limited to  (the same limit as 10BASE-T and gigabit Ethernet). All are or were standards under IEEE 802.3 (approved 1995). Almost all 100BASE-T installations are 100BASE-TX.

100BASE-TX

100BASE-TX is the predominant form of Fast Ethernet, and runs over two pairs of wire inside a Category 5 or above cable. Cable distance between nodes can be up to . One pair is used for each direction, providing full-duplex operation at 100 Mbit/s in each direction.

Like 10BASE-T, the active pairs in a standard connection are terminated on pins 1, 2, 3 and 6. Since a typical Category 5 cable contains four pairs and the performance requirements of 100BASE-TX do not exceed the capabilities of even the worst-performing pair, one typical cable can carry two 100BASE-TX links with a simple wiring adaptor on each end. Cabling is conventionally wired to one of ANSI/TIA-568's termination standards, T568A or T568B. 100BASE-TX uses pairs 2 and 3 (orange and green).

The configuration of 100BASE-TX networks is very similar to 10BASE-T. When used to build a local area network, the devices on the network (computers, printers etc.) are typically connected to a hub or switch, creating a star network. Alternatively, it is possible to connect two devices directly using a crossover cable. With today's equipment, crossover cables are generally not needed as most equipment supports auto-negotiation along with auto MDI-X to select and match speed, duplex and pairing.

With 100BASE-TX hardware, the raw bits, presented 4 bits wide clocked at 25 MHz at the MII, go through 4B5B binary encoding to generate a series of 0 and 1 symbols clocked at a 125 MHz symbol rate. The 4B5B encoding provides DC equalization and spectrum shaping. Just as in the 100BASE-FX case, the bits are then transferred to the physical medium attachment layer using NRZI encoding. However, 100BASE-TX introduces an additional, medium-dependent sublayer, which employs MLT-3 as a final encoding of the data stream before transmission, resulting in a maximum fundamental frequency of 31.25 MHz. The procedure is borrowed from the ANSI X3.263 FDDI specifications, with minor changes.

100BASE-T1

In 100BASE-T1 the data is transmitted over a single copper pair, 3 bits per symbol, each transmitted as code pair using PAM3. It supports full-duplex transmission. The twisted-pair cable is required to support 66 MHz, with a maximum length of 15 m. No specific connector is defined. The standard is intended for automotive applications or when Fast Ethernet is to be integrated into another application. It was developed as BroadR-Reach before IEEE standardization.

100BASE-T2

In 100BASE-T2, standardized in IEEE 802.3y, the data is transmitted over two copper pairs, but these pairs are only required to be Category 3 rather than the Category 5 required by 100BASE-TX. Data is transmitted and received on both pairs simultaneously thus allowing full-duplex operation. Transmission uses 4 bits per symbol. The 4-bit symbol is expanded into two 3-bit symbols through a non-trivial scrambling procedure based on a linear-feedback shift register. This is needed to flatten the bandwidth and emission spectrum of the signal, as well as to match transmission line properties. The mapping of the original bits to the symbol codes is not constant in time and has a fairly large period (appearing as a pseudo-random sequence). The final mapping from symbols to PAM-5 line modulation levels obeys the table on the right. 100BASE-T2 was not widely adopted but the technology developed for it is used in 1000BASE-T.

100BASE-T4
100BASE-T4 was an early implementation of Fast Ethernet.  It requires four twisted copper pairs of voice grade twisted pair, a lower-performing cable compared to Category 5 cable used by 100BASE-TX. Maximum distance is limited to 100 meters. One pair is reserved for transmit, one for receive, and the remaining two switch direction. The fact that 3 pairs are used to transmit in each direction makes 100BASE-T4 inherently half-duplex.

A very unusual 8B6T code is used to convert 8 data bits into 6 base-3 digits (the signal shaping is possible as there are nearly three times as many 6-digit base-3 numbers as there are 8-digit base-2 numbers). The two resulting 3-digit base-3 symbols are sent in parallel over 3 pairs using 3-level pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM-3).

100BASE-T4 was not widely adopted but some of the technology developed for it is used in 1000BASE-T. Very few hubs were released with 100BASE-T4 support. Some examples include the 3com 3C250-T4 Superstack II HUB 100, IBM 8225 Fast Ethernet Stackable Hub and Intel LinkBuilder FMS 100 T4.  The same applies to network interface controller cards. Bridging 100BASE-T4 with 100BASE-TX required additional network equipment.

100BaseVG

Proposed and marketed by Hewlett-Packard, 100BaseVG was an alternative design using category 3 cabling and a token concept instead of CSMA/CD. It was slated for standardization as IEEE 802.12 but it quickly vanished when switched 100BASE-TX became popular.

Fiber optics
Fiber variants use fiber-optic cable with the listed interface types. Interfaces may be fixed or modular, often as small form-factor pluggable (SFP).

Fast Ethernet SFP ports
Fast Ethernet speed is not available on all SFP ports, but supported by some devices. An SFP port for Gigabit Ethernet should not be assumed to be backwards compatible with Fast Ethernet.

Optical interoperability
To have interoperable there is some criteria that have to be meet:
 Line encoding
 Wavelength
 Duplex mode
 Media count
 Media type and dimension

100BASE-X Ethernet is not backward compatible with 10BASE-F and is not forward compatible with 1000BASE-X.

100BASE-FX
100BASE-FX is a version of Fast Ethernet over optical fiber. The 100BASE-FX physical medium dependent (PMD) sublayer is defined by FDDI's PMD, so 100BASE-FX is not compatible with 10BASE-FL, the 10 Mbit/s version over optical fiber.

100BASE-FX is still used for existing installation of multimode fiber where more speed is not required, like industrial automation plants.

100BASE-LFX
100BASE-LFX is a non-standard term to refer to Fast Ethernet transmission. It is very similar to 100BASE-FX but achieves longer distances up to 4–5 km over a pair of multi-mode fibers through the use of Fabry–Pérot laser transmitter running on 1310 nm wavelength. The signal attenuation per km at 1300 nm is about half the loss of 850nm.

100BASE-SX
100BASE-SX is a version of Fast Ethernet over optical fiber standardized in TIA/EIA-785-1-2002. It is a lower-cost, shorter-distance alternative to 100BASE-FX. Because of the shorter wavelength used (850 nm) and the shorter distance supported, 100BASE-SX uses less expensive optical components (LEDs instead of lasers).

Because it uses the same wavelength as 10BASE-FL, the 10 Mbit/s version of Ethernet over optical fiber, 100BASE-SX can be backward-compatible with 10BASE-FL. Cost and compatibility makes 100BASE-SX an attractive option for those upgrading from 10BASE-FL and those who do not require long distances.

100BASE-LX10
100BASE-LX10 is a version of Fast Ethernet over optical fiber standardized in 802.3ah-2004 clause 58. It has a 10 km reach over a pair of single-mode fibers.

100BASE-BX10
100BASE-BX10 is a version of Fast Ethernet over optical fiber standardized in 802.3ah-2004 clause 58. It uses an optical multiplexer to split TX and RX signals into different wavelengths on the same fiber. It has a 10 km reach over a single strand of single-mode fiber.

100BASE-EX
100BASE-EX is very similar to 100BASE-LX10 but achieves longer distances up to 40 km over a pair of single-mode fibers due to higher quality optics than a LX10, running on 1310 nm wavelength lasers. 100BASE-EX is not a formal standard but industry-accepted term. It is sometimes referred to as 100BASE-LH (long haul), and is easily confused with 100BASE-LX10 or 100BASE-ZX because the use of -LX(10), -LH, -EX, and -ZX is ambiguous between vendors.

100BASE-ZX
100BASE-ZX is a non-standard but multi-vendor term to refer to Fast Ethernet transmission using 1,550 nm wavelength to achieve distances of at least 70 km over single-mode fiber. Some vendors specify distances up to 160 km over single-mode fiber, sometimes called 100BASE-EZX. Ranges beyond 80 km are highly dependent upon the path loss of the fiber in use, specifically the attenuation figure in dB per km, the number and quality of connectors/patch panels and splices located between transceivers.

See also
 List of interface bit rates

Notes

References

External links
 Common 100 Mbit/s Hardware Variations
 Origins and History of Ethernet
 IEEE802.3 standards free download
 ProCurve Networking 100BASE-FX Technical Brief

 Ethernet standards

Fast Ethernet


Richard Graham Williams (24 May 1945 – 17 August 1990) was an English television producer, script editor and screenwriter. He produced three seasons of the BBC science fiction television series Doctor Who during Tom Baker's era as the Fourth Doctor,  the ITV children's series Super Gran (1986–1987), and thirteen episodes of Tales of the Unexpected (1982–1984).

Early work

After working as the script editor for The View From Daniel Pike (1971), Sutherland's Law (1973), Barlow at Large (1975) and Z-Cars (1975–1976), he was encouraged by Bill Slater, then BBC Head of Serials, to move to production. He created a new police series for the BBC, which became Target, but the corporation's management decided to take him off it at an early stage and charged him with taking over Doctor Who in 1977, swapping roles with Philip Hinchcliffe.

Doctor Who

Williams was the producer on Doctor Who between 1977 and 1980, during the Tom Baker era. Under Philip Hinchcliffe, the series had "reached an almost unprecedented level of popularity", but also come under heavy criticism for its frightening and violent content, especially from Mary Whitehouse. Upon taking over the reins of the series, Williams was instructed by his superiors to tone down the violence. Williams himself thought Hinchcliffe had gone too far for a series that had a large audience of children, but said the BBC had been guilty of an overreaction in response. One of the notable early introductions to the series under the Williams tenure was the robot dog K9, which was part of his effort to aim the series more at younger viewers. Williams was also keen to introduce more humour into the series.

During his period on the programme, Williams worked closely with three script editors: Hinchcliffe-era script editor Robert Holmes continued with Williams for a short while, but was succeeded by Anthony Read in his first season. Read remained as script editor for the following season, also known as the Key to Time, which introduced the character of Romana (Mary Tamm), but Douglas Adams (now best known for The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy) took over the role for his final year, season 17, which saw Lalla Ward replace Tamm as the regenerated Romana. Williams also wrote significant portions of the scripts for two stories beset by writing problems, The Invasion of Time (1978) and City of Death (1979). Although the viewing figures dipped somewhat during Williams' first two seasons, they remained healthy and in 1979 the series achieved its highest ever ratings of 16.1 million viewers (for episode 4 of City of Death), although this was partly attributable to the strike which took the BBC's then-only rival, ITV, off the air.

Williams had three difficult years on the show, including clashes with the increasingly demanding Baker, who wanted more influence over the production side, and also had to deal with budget cuts due to inflation and several instances of industrial action affecting the show, most notably with the abandonment of his final serial, Shada. He decided to leave in 1979, handing over the role of producer to John Nathan-Turner, who had worked under him as production unit manager.

During Nathan-Turner's reign as producer, Williams was approached by script editor Eric Saward at Nathan-Turner's instigation to write a story for Colin Baker's second season. The script was at an advanced stage when it was abandoned, as were all the scripts initially commissioned for that season, after the series was put on hiatus in February 1985. It was to feature the return of the First Doctor villain the Celestial Toymaker. In 1989 Williams wrote a novelisation of his story, The Nightmare Fair ().

In 1985, he helped design the Doctor Who text video game Doctor Who and the Warlord.

His work on the series is examined in some detail in the documentary 'A Matter of Time' (included in the 2007 BBC DVD release of The Key to Time season), which includes excerpts from two interviews with Williams, conducted at 1980s Doctor Who fan conventions.

Later life and death

He left the BBC in the early 1980s and went on to produce Tales Of The Unexpected for Anglia and the Tyne Tees children's series Super Gran, before leaving television in the late 1980s to run The Hartnoll Hotel, a country hotel in Bolham, Tiverton, Devon.

He died in a shooting accident at home on 17 August 1990. He left a widow, Jacqueline, and three children.

References

External links

1945 births
1990 deaths
20th-century British screenwriters
Accidental deaths in England
BBC television producers
British television writers
Deaths by firearm in England
English television producers
Firearm accident victims

Graham Williams (television producer)


The Country Day School movement is a movement in progressive education that originated in the United States during the late 19th century. Country Day Schools sought to recreate the educational rigor, atmosphere, camaraderie and character-building aspects of the best college-prep boarding schools, while allowing students to return to their families at the end of the day. To avoid the crime, pollution and health problems of the industrial cities of the early 20th century, the schools were sited in the 'country', where wealthy families owned large homes in areas that would later be known as suburbs.

Overview
The Country Day School movement shared many values with the Arts and Crafts movement. School buildings and campus landscaping were designed with the goal of creating an inspirational atmosphere that would foster learning and culture. In keeping with this holistic view of the student learning environment, various "after-school" programs promoted student development, including athletic programs, choir and religious studies, and monitored study time. Students were given opportunities to develop leadership skills through clubs and student organizations.

The first Country Day Schools were Poly Prep Country Day School, University School (near Cleveland), Detroit Country Day School, Gilman School, McDonogh School and The Summit Country Day School.  These six college-preparatory schools provided the structure and campus location format which would guide many more Country Day Schools that would be built around the country over the next 100 years. A leader in the movement, Tower Hill School, was founded by the du Pont family in Wilmington, Delaware, and headed by Burton Fowler, a devout follower of John Dewey and president of the Progressive Education Association.

List of schools
Along with those listed above, prominent Country Day Schools include the following:

United States
Almaden Country Day School (San Jose, California)
Beaver Country Day School (Brookline, Massachusetts)
Berkshire Country Day School (Stockbridge, Massachusetts)
Berwick Academy (South Berwick, Maine)
The Blake School (Minneapolis, Minnesota)
Bryn Mawr School (Baltimore, Maryland)
Burgundy Farm Country Day School (Alexandria, Virginia)
Canton Country Day School (Canton, Ohio)
Charlotte Country Day School (Charlotte, North Carolina)
Chico Country Day School (Chico,California)
Cincinnati Country Day School (Cincinnati, Ohio)
Columbus Academy (Gahanna, Ohio)
The Country Day School (McLean, Virginia)
The Country School (Madison, Connecticut)
Crane Country Day School (Santa Barbara, California)
Dedham Country Day School, (Dedham, Massachusetts)
Detroit Country Day School (Beverly Hills, Michigan)
Evansville Day School (Evansville, Indiana)
Fairfield Country Day School (Fairfield, Connecticut)
Far Hills Country Day School (Far Hills, New Jersey)
Foothill Country Day School  (Claremont, California)
Forsyth Country Day School (Lewisville, North Carolina)
Fort Worth Country Day School (Fort Worth, Texas)
Fox Chapel Country Day School (Fox Chapel, Pennsylvania)
Glenelg Country School (Ellicott City, Maryland)
Green Fields School (Tucson, Arizona)
Greenwich Country Day School (Greenwich, Connecticut)
Grove School (Madison, Connecticut
Hamden Hall Country Day School (Hamden, Connecticut)
Hawken School (Gates Mills, Ohio)
Keith Country Day School (Rockford, Illinois)
Kentucky Country Day School (Louisville, Kentucky)
The Key School (Annapolis, Maryland)
Jacksonville Country Day School (Jacksonville, Florida)
John Burroughs School (Ladue, Missouri)
Kingswood-Oxford School (West Hartford, Connecticut)
La Jolla Country Day School (La Jolla, California)
Lake Forest Country Day School (Lake Forest, Illinois)
Lancaster Country Day School (Lancaster, Pennsylvania)
Madison Country Day School (Waunakee, Wisconsin)
Marin Country Day School (Corte Madera, California)
Mary Institute and St. Louis Country Day School (Ladue, Missouri)
Masters School (Dobbs Ferry, New York)
Maumee Valley Country Day School (Toledo, Ohio)
Memphis University School (Memphis, Tennessee)
Metairie Park Country Day School (Metairie, Louisiana)
Miami Country Day School (Miami, Florida)
Monroe Country Day School (Monroe, Georgia)
New Canaan Country School (New Canaan, Connecticut)
Newton Country Day School of the Sacred Heart (Newton, Massachusetts)
North Shore Country Day School (Winnetka, Illinois)
Miami Country Day School (Miami, Florida)
The Park School of Buffalo (Amherst, New York)
Park Tudor School (Indianapolis, Indiana)
The Pembroke Hill School (Kansas City, Missouri)
Phoenix Country Day School (Paradise Valley, Arizona)
Pingry School (Basking Ridge, New Jersey)
Princeton Day School (Princeton, New Jersey)
Providence Country Day School (East Providence, Rhode Island)
Riverdale Country School (Bronx, New York)
Riverfield Country Day School (Tulsa, Oklahoma)
Rocky Hill Country Day School (East Greenwich, Rhode Island)
Roland Park Country School (Baltimore, Maryland)
Rolling Hills Country Day School (Rolling Hills Estates, California)
Rumson Country Day School (Rumson, New Jersey)
Rye Country Day School (Rye, New York)
Sacramento Country Day School (Sacramento, California)
St. Paul Academy and Summit School (St. Paul, Minnesota)
Savannah Country Day School (Savannah, Georgia)
Scarborough Country Day School (Briarcliff Manor, New York)
Seacrest Country Day School (Naples, Florida)
Seattle Country Day School (Seattle, Washington)
Shady Side Academy (Fox Chapel, Pennsylvania)
Shore Country Day School (Beverly, Massachusetts)
St. Johns Country Day School (Orange Park, Florida)
Stuart Country Day School (Princeton, New Jersey)
The Country School (Madison, Connecticut)
Upland Country Day School (Kennett Square, Pennsylvania)
University Liggett School (Grosse Pointe Woods, Michigan)
University School of Milwaukee (Milwaukee, Wisconsin)
Westchester Country Day School (High Point, North Carolina)
Wooster School (Danbury, Connecticut)
York Country Day School (York, Pennsylvania)

Other countries
Costa Rica Country Day School (San Rafael de Alajuela, Costa Rica)
The Country Day School (King City, Ontario, Canada)
Good Hope Country Day School (Kingshill, Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands)

References

Arts and Crafts movement
Alternative education

Country Day School movement


The Großes Moor near Becklingen () is a nature reserve in Germany with an area of , of which  lie in Celle district and  in Soltau-Fallingbostel district. Since 16 December 1985 the area has been protected under conservation law. An area of  is designated as a special area of conservation (FFH-Gebiet). The name literally means "Large Bog near Becklingen" and it lies on the Lüneburg Heath, south of Wietzendorf and east of Becklingen, part of the borough of Bergen. The River Meiße has its source in this raised bog.

Development

The original bog had been drained since the 1950s and largely converted to grassland in order to establish small rural settlements here. Since then the state of Lower Saxony has purchased large areas. Through water retention measures it is intended that the original bog landscape can be recreated. Problems are being caused, though, by cultivated blueberries and black cherries, neophytes that have become widespread across the area.

Fauna
As a result of its seclusion the bog provides an important habitat for the very rare black grouse which is threatened by extinction.
Together with the neighbouring and largely contiguous areas around the Munster and Bergen-Hohne Training Areas, the Lüneburg Heath Nature Reserve, the Schießplatz Unterlüß the firm of Rheinmetall and the Großen Heide near Unterlüß, the Kiehnmoor and Brambostel Moor, the bogs near Sittensen, the Ostenholz Moor, the Meißendorf Lakes and the Bannetzer Moor this part of the Lüneburg Heath provides a home to the largest single community of black grouse in the North German Plain.

Notes

External links
Photographs from the Großes Moor bei Becklingen
Overview and map from NLWKN

Lüneburg Heath
Nature reserves in Lower Saxony
Bogs of Lower Saxony
Celle (district)
Heidekreis

Großes Moor (near Becklingen)


Park Ridge is a city in Cook County, Illinois, United States, and a Chicago suburb.  The population was 39,656 at the 2020 census. It is located  northwest of downtown Chicago. It is close to O'Hare International Airport, major expressways, and rail transportation. It is a part of the Chicago metropolitan area, bordering three northwestern neighborhoods of Chicago's Far North Side (Edison Park, Norwood Park, and O'Hare.)

As its name suggests, Park Ridge lies on a ridge. The soil is abundant with clay deposits, which made it a brick-making center for the developing city of Chicago. Park Ridge was originally called Pennyville to honor George Penny, the businessman who owned the local brickyard along with Robert Meacham. Later it was named Brickton. The Des Plaines River divides Park Ridge from neighboring Des Plaines, Illinois, which is west of Park Ridge. Chicago is south and east of Park Ridge, and Niles and unincorporated Maine Township are to its north.

References

Cities in Illinois
Suburbs of Chicago
Settlements in Cook County, Illinois

Park Ridge, Illinois


A Very Capable Life: The Autobiography of Zarah Petri is a non-fiction memoir of his mother by the Canadian television host Johnnie Walters, written under his real name John Leigh Walters and published in January 2010 by Athabasca University Press. It re-tells the stories his mother described to him regarding her immigration to Canada in the 1920s. Walters gives his first person account using humor, and intrigue, to share his mother's expressed regards about her depression era experiences.

Awards and honours
A Very Capable Life won the 2010 "Edna Staebler Award for Creative Non-Fiction".

See also
List of Edna Staebler Award recipients

References

External links
AU Press, A Very Capable Life, Retrieved 11/23/2012

Canadian non-fiction books
2010 non-fiction books
Works about human migration

A Very Capable Life


There are many uses of water in industry and, in most cases, the used water also needs treatment to render it fit for re-use or disposal. Raw water entering an industrial plant often needs treatment to meet tight quality specifications to be of use in specific industrial processes. Industrial water treatment encompasses all these aspects which include industrial wastewater treatment, boiler water treatment and cooling water treatment.

Overview
Water treatment is used to optimize most water-based industrial processes, such as heating, cooling, processing, cleaning, and rinsing so that operating costs and risks are reduced. Poor water treatment lets water interact with the surfaces of pipes and vessels which contain it. Steam boilers can scale up or corrode, and these deposits will mean more fuel is needed to heat the same amount of water. Cooling towers can also scale up and corrode, but left untreated, the warm, dirty water they can contain will encourage bacteria to grow, and Legionnaires' disease can be the fatal consequence. Water treatment is also used to improve the quality of water contacting the manufactured product (e.g., semiconductors) and/or can be part of the product (e.g., beverages, pharmaceuticals).  In these instances, poor water treatment can cause defective products.

In many cases, effluent water from one process can be suitable for reuse in another process if given suitable treatment. This can reduce costs by lowering charges for  water consumption, reduce the costs of effluent disposal because of reduced volume, and lower energy costs due to the recovery of heat in recycled wastewater.

Objectives
Industrial water treatment seeks to manage four main problem areas: scaling, corrosion, microbiological activity and disposal of residual wastewater. Boilers do not have many problems with microbes as the high temperatures prevent their growth.

Scaling occurs when the chemistry and temperature conditions are such that the dissolved mineral salts in the water are caused to  precipitate and form solid deposits. These can be mobile, like a fine silt, or can build up in layers on the metal surfaces of the systems. Scale is a problem because it insulates and heat exchange becomes less efficient as the scale thickens, which wastes energy. Scale also narrows pipe widths and therefore increases the energy used in pumping the water through the pipes.

Corrosion occurs when the parent metal oxidises (as iron rusts, for example) and gradually the integrity of the plant equipment is compromised. The corrosion products can cause similar problems to scale, but corrosion can also lead to leaks, which in a pressurised system can lead to catastrophic failures.

Microbes can thrive in untreated cooling water, which is warm and sometimes full of organic nutrients as wet cooling towers are very efficient air scrubbers. Dust, flies, grass, fungal spores, and others collect in the water and create a sort of "microbial soup" if not treated with biocides. Many outbreaks of the deadly Legionnaires' Disease have been traced to unmanaged cooling towers, and the UK has had stringent Health & Safety guidelines concerning cooling tower operations for many years as have had governmental agencies in other countries.

Certain processes like tanning and paper making use heavy metals such as Chrome for tanning. Although most is used up but some amount remains and gets carried away with water. The presence in drinking water is toxic when consumed so even the smallest amount must be removed.

Disposal of residual industrial wastewaters

Disposal of residual wastewaters from an industrial plant is a difficult and costly problem. Most petroleum refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants have onsite facilities to treat their wastewaters so that the pollutant concentrations in the treated wastewater comply with the local and/or national regulations regarding disposal of wastewaters into sewage treatment plants or into rivers, lakes or oceans.

Processes
Two of the main processes of industrial water treatment are boiler water treatment and cooling water treatment. A large amount of proper water treatment can lead to the reaction of solids and bacteria within pipe work and boiler housing. Steam boilers can suffer from scale or corrosion when left untreated. Scale deposits can lead to weak and dangerous machinery, while additional fuel is required to heat the same level of water because of the rise in thermal resistance. Poor quality dirty water can become a breeding ground for bacteria such as Legionella causing a risk to public health.

Corrosion in low pressure boilers can be caused by dissolved oxygen, acidity and excessive alkalinity. Water treatment therefore should remove the dissolved oxygen and maintain the boiler water with the appropriate pH and alkalinity levels. Without effective water treatment, a cooling water system can suffer from scale formation, corrosion and fouling and may become a breeding ground for harmful bacteria. This reduces efficiency, shortens plant life and makes operations unreliable and unsafe.

Boiler water treatment
Boiler water treatment is a type of industrial water treatment focused on removal or chemical modification of substances potentially damaging to the boiler. Varying types of treatment are used at different locations to avoid scale, corrosion, or foaming. External treatment of raw water supplies intended for use within a boiler is focused on removal of impurities before they reach the boiler. Internal treatment within the boiler is focused on limiting the tendency of water to dissolve the boiler, and maintaining impurities in forms least likely to cause trouble before they can be removed from the boiler in boiler blowdown.   Deaerator is used to reduce oxygen and nitrogen in boiler feed water applications.

Cooling water treatment
Water cooling is a method of heat removal from components of machinery and industrial equipment. Water may be a more efficient heat transfer fluid where air cooling is ineffective. In most occupied climates water offers the thermal conductivity advantages of a liquid with unusually high specific heat capacity and the option that of evaporative cooling. Low cost often allows rejection as waste after a single use, but recycling coolant loops may be pressurized to eliminate evaporative loss and offer greater portability and improved cleanliness. Unpressurized recycling coolant loops using evaporative cooling require a blowdown waste stream to remove impurities concentrated by evaporation. Disadvantages of water cooling systems include accelerated corrosion and maintenance requirements to prevent heat transfer reductions from biofouling or scale formation. Chemical additives to reduce these disadvantages may introduce toxicity to wastewater. Water cooling is commonly used for cooling automobile internal combustion engines and large industrial facilities such as nuclear and steam electric power plants, hydroelectric generators, petroleum refineries and chemical plants.

Technologies
Advancements in water treatment technology have affected all areas of industrial water treatment. Although mechanical filtration, such as reverse osmosis, is widely employed to filter contaminants, other technologies including the use of ozone generators, wastewater evaporation, electrodeionization and bioremediation are also able to address the challenges of industrial water treatment.

Ozone treatment is a process in which ozone gas is injected into waste streams as a means to reduce or eliminate the need for water treatment chemicals or sanitizers that may be hazardous, including chlorine.

Chemical treatment
Chemical treatments utilizes the additive of chemicals to make industrial water suitable for use or discharge. These includes processes like chemical precipitation, chemical disinfection, Advanced oxidation process (AOP), ion exchange, and chemical neutralization. AOPs are attractive in the treatment of hazardous wastewater due to its high oxidation potential and degradation performance. In AOPs, oxidants like Fenton's reagent, Ozone or Hydrogen peroxide are introduced in the wastewater to degrade harmful substances in industrial water for discharge.

Physical treatment
Physical treatment involves the separation of solids form industrial wastewater either through Filtration or Dissolved air flotation. Filtration involves the use of Membrane or filters such as mechanical filters like sand filtration etc to achieve solid-liquid separation. Whereas for Dissolved air flotation,

pressurized air is pumped into the wastewater. The pressurized air then forms small bubbles which adhere to the suspended matter causing them to float to the surface of the water where they can be removed by a skimming device or an overflow.

Biological treatment
Biological treatment is needed to treat wastewater containing biodegradable elements. It is commonly used in municipal and industrial wastewater management facilities and usually consists in adding common bacteria and other microbes, mostly environmentally friendly, to treat the water. It is a sustainable practice that has been successful for over a century.

Slow sand filters use a biological process to purify raw water to produce potable water. They work by using a complex biological film that grows naturally on the surface of sand. This gelatinous biofilm called the hypogeal layer or Schmutzdecke is located in the upper few millimetres of the sand layer. The surface biofilm purifies the water as it flows through the layer, the underlying sand provides a support medium for the biological treatment layer. The Schmutzdecke consists of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, rotifera and a range of aquatic insect larvae. As the biofilm ages, more algae may develop and larger aquatic organisms including bryozoa, snails and Annelid worms may be present. As water passes through the hypogeal layer, particles of matter are trapped in the mucilaginous matrix and soluble organic material is adsorbed. The contaminants are metabolised by the bacteria, fungi and protozoa.

Slow sand filters are typically 1–2 metres deep, and have a hydraulic loading rate of 0.2–0.4 cubic metres per square metre per hour. Filters lose their performance as the biofilm thickens and reduces the rate of flow. The filter is refurbished by removing the biofilm and a  thin upper layer of sand. Water is decanted back into the filter and re-circulated to enable a new biofilm to develop. Alternatively wet harrowing involves stirring the sand and flushing the biolayer through for disposal.

Ultraviolet irradiation

Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection technology has been a common water treatment technology in the past two decades due to its ability to provide disinfected water without the use of harmful chemicals.  The UV-C portion represents wavelengths from 200 nm - 280 nm which is used for disinfection. UV-C photons penetrate cells and damage the nucleic acid, rendering them incapable of reproduction, or microbiologically inactive.

Process water treatment technology
Process water is water that is used in a variety of manufacturing operations, such as: coating and plating; rinsing and spraying; washing, etc. Municipal and ground water often contain dissolved minerals which make it unsuitable for these processes because it would affect product quality and/or increase manufacturing costs. A proper incoming water treatment system can remedy these issues and create the right water conditions for specific industrial processes.

See also
 Water treatment
 Wastewater treatment
 Wastewater quality indicators
 Cooling tower
 Fouling
 Pumpable ice technology

References

Industrial processes
Water treatment

ja:下水処理場

Industrial water treatment


The 2006 abduction of Russian diplomats in Iraq took place on June 3, 2006, in Baghdad, Iraq when Iraqi insurgents ambushed a car belonging to the Russian Embassy.
Vitaly Titov, (a security guard), was killed in the attack and the other four people in the car – Fyodor Zaitsev (the embassy Third Secretary), Rinat Agliuglin (a cook), Oleg Fedoseyev (a security guard), and Anatoly Smirnov (a driver) – were abducted.

On June 19, 2006, the Mujahedeen Shura Council, a group affiliated with al Qaeda, claimed responsibility for the attack and issuing an ultimatum to Russia to withdraw from Chechnya and release all Muslim prisoners within 48 hours.  On June 25, the group issued a statement that it had beheaded three of the hostages and shot to death the fourth.  The statement was accompanied by a video showing a few seconds of the beheading of one hostage, the beheaded corpse of a second hostage, and the shooting of a third. The execution of the fourth hostage is not shown.

Aftermath
On June 28, Russian President Vladimir Putin ordered Russian security services to locate and kill those responsible for the kidnapping and execution of the diplomats.  Nikolai Patrushev, the head of the Federal Security Service (FSB), the successor organisation of the KGB, noted that the order would be carried out regardless of the "time and effort" required.

A similar order was believed to have been issued against Zelimkhan Yandarbiyev, the one-time acting president of the former Chechen Republic of Ichkeria.  Yandarbiyev was killed by a bomb in Doha, Qatar in February 2004.

However, Aleksandr Goltz, a Russian military expert, questioned the ability of Russian intelligence agencies to carry out the assassination order in a country mired in civil war.

One of the kidnappers of the Russian diplomats was captured in December 2006. He admitted his involvement in the incident and is believed to have personally beheaded two of the diplomats. Another kidnapper was killed in October 2008. He is believed to have personally shot one of the hostages. Another kidnapper was sentenced to death in May 2010.

The bodies of the four diplomats were found in 2012.

References

2000s in Baghdad
2006 crimes in Iraq
Kidnappings in Iraq
Iraq–Russia relations
Russian diplomats
Terrorist incidents in Iraq in 2006
Terrorist incidents in Baghdad
Crime in Baghdad

Abduction of Russian diplomats in Iraq


The Dutch Reformed Church (, abbreviated NHK) was the largest Christian denomination in the Netherlands from the onset of the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century until 1930. It was the original denomination of the Dutch Royal Family and the foremost Protestant denomination until 2004. It was the larger of the two major Reformed denominations, after the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Gereformeerde kerk) was founded in 1892. It spread to the United States, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Brazil, and various other world regions through Dutch colonization. Allegiance to the Dutch Reformed Church was a common feature among Dutch immigrant communities around the world and became a crucial part of Afrikaner nationalism in South Africa.

The Dutch Reformed Church was founded in 1571 during the Protestant Reformation in the Calvinist tradition, being shaped theologically by John Calvin, but also other major Reformed theologians. The church was influenced by various theological developments and controversies during its history, including Arminianism, the Nadere Reformatie, and a number of splits in the 19th century that greatly diversified Dutch Calvinism. The church functioned until 2004, the year it merged with the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands to form the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (PKN), a united church of both Reformed and Evangelical Lutheran theological orientations. At the time of the merger, the Church had 2 million members organised in 1,350 congregations. A minority of members of the church chose not to participate in the merger and instead formed the Restored Reformed Church (HHK).

Status

Before the demise of the Dutch Republic in 1795, the Dutch Reformed Church enjoyed the status of "public" or "privileged" church. Though it was never formally adopted as the state religion, the law demanded that every public official should be a communicant member. Consequently, the Church had close relations with the Dutch government. A privilege of members of the Dutch Reformed Church was that they could have their businesses open on Sundays, otherwise considered a religious day and not one for business.

Disestablishment
The Dutch Reformed Church was officially disestablished in 1795 with the end of the Republic. Although it remained endorsed by the Royal Family, the Netherlands never had any public church afterwards.

History

Reformation and the Synod of Emden

The Reformation was a time of religious violence and persecution by the established Catholic Church and governments, in some cases. Efforts to form a Reformed church in the southern provinces stemmed from a secret meeting of Protestant leaders at Antwerp in 1566, and despite Spanish repression, many nobles joined the Protestant movement. Two years later, in 1568, following an attack on the Netherlands by the forces of the Duke of Alba, many Netherlanders fled to the German city of Wesel, where a Synod was convened at which the Belgic Confession and Heidelberg Catechism were adopted, and provisions were made for the offices of pastor, elder, teacher and deacon. The first Synod of 23 Dutch Reformed leaders was held in October 1571 in the German city of Emden. The Synod of Emden is generally considered to be the founding of the Dutch Reformed Church, the oldest of the Reformed churches in the Netherlands. The Synod both affirmed the actions of the earlier Synod of Wesel, as well as established presbyterian church government for the Dutch Reformed Church.

Synod of Dort

The first Synod to be located in the Dutch Republic was held in Dordrecht in 1578. This synodical meeting is not to be confused with the better known Second Synod of Dort of 1618. Large groups of Marranos settled in Emden and converted to Christianity. Mostly all Marranos, many Jewish groups converted to Christianity around 1649 to the Nederduitsche, Niederdeutsche church later on Dutch Reformed Church. In the latter meeting, the Church fathers expelled Arminians and added the Canons of Dort to the Confessions. The Canons of Dort, together with the previously adopted Belgic Confession and Heidelberg Catechism, were called the Drie formulieren van Enigheid (Three Forms of Unity). Most conflicts and splits in the Church arose because of disagreement over the substance and interpretation of these doctrinal documents. The government of the Dutch Republic, which had instigated the Arminians' expulsion, subsequently prohibited the Reformed Church from assembling synodically. No Synod was held in the Netherlands until after the end of the Republic in 1795.

Further Reformation

The 17th and early 18th centuries were the age of the Dutch Nadere Reformatie (best translated in English as the Further Reformation), led primarily by Gisbertus Voetius and Wilhelmus à Brakel, which was greatly influenced by English Puritanism.

19th century splits

In the 19th century, theological liberalism led to splits in the Dutch Reformed Church. King William I of the Netherlands imposed a new form of government for the church, in which the civil authorities selected the commissioners to the National Synod in 1816, making it increasingly difficult for ministers to speak out against perceived errors. In 1834, the minister Hendrik de Cock of the town of Ulrum was told by church leaders that he could not preach against certain colleagues, who he believed held erroneous views. He and his congregation seceded from the Dutch Reformed Church. In time, the Afscheiding (the Separation) led to the departure of 120 congregations from the Dutch Reformed Church. In 1886, another separation, the Doleantie, occurred, led by Dutch Reformed journalist, theologian and politician Abraham Kuyper.

20th century to the present
The Dutch Reformed Church remained the largest church body in the Netherlands until the middle of the 20th century, when it was overtaken by the Roman Catholic Church. The rapid secularisation of the Netherlands in the 1960s dramatically reduced participation in the mainstream Protestant church. From the '60s onward, a number of attempts were made to effect a reunion with the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland). This led to the two churches uniting with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Evangelisch-Lutherse Kerk in het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden) to establish the Protestant Church in the Netherlands in 2004.

The 2004 merger led to a separation in which a number of congregations and members of the Dutch Reformed Church separated to form the Restored Reformed Church (Hersteld Hervormde Kerk). Estimations of their membership vary from 35,000 up to 70,000 in about 120 local congregations served by 88 ministers. The Restored Reformed Church disapproves of the pluralistic nature of the merged church, which they allege contains partly contradicting Reformed and Lutheran confessions. This conservative group also opposes the ordination of women and the blessing of same-sex unions in Christian churches, which have been adopted as practices by the merged church.

International distribution

Africa

Dutch migrants carried the Dutch Reformed Church with them, planting several Reformed denominations in Kenya (The Reformed Church of East Africa), South Africa, including the Three Sister Churches of South Africa (the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa (NGK) (Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk), the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa (NHK) (Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk), the Reformed Churches in South Africa (Gereformeerde Kerke in Suid-Afrika)), the Afrikaans Protestant Church (Afrikaanse Protestantse Kerk), and the Uniting Reformed Church in Southern Africa (Verenigende Gereformeerde Kerk in Suid-Afrika).

Asia

Through the Dutch East India Company and its workers, the Dutch Reformed Church was established in Ceylon in 1642. The Dutch Reformed Church of Ceylon officially changed its name in 2007 to the Christian Reformed Church of Sri Lanka to reflect its Christian identity in the nation, rather than on its Dutch colonial heritage.  As of 2007, its membership stands around 5,000, comprising both communicant and baptised members in 29 congregations, preaching stations, and mission outposts. Christianity in Indonesia is strongly influenced under the Dutch reformed church, the first known church established in the country is "De Oude kerk" in Batavia in 1640. Christianity in Indonesia, like Sri Lanka, has been nationalised into different branches of Protestantism while retaining many of the reformed church elements, such as Protestant Church in Indonesia.

Americas
The Dutch Reformed Church went with migrants to the Americas, beginning in 1628 in New Amsterdam. St. Thomas Reformed Church, founded in 1660 in St. Thomas, Danish West Indies, became the first Dutch Reformed Church in the Caribbean. During the period of Dutch settlement in Brazil in the 17th century colonists organised the Reformed Church
in Pernambuco.

In Canada and the United States, the oldest and second largest body is the Reformed Church in America, which was the American branch of the Dutch Reformed Church in the Netherlands between 1628 and 1819.  The largest Dutch Reformed body in North America, the Christian Reformed Church in North America, split off from Reformed Church in America in 1857. Smaller related denominations and federations include the Canadian and American Reformed Churches, the Free Reformed Churches of North America (FRC), the Heritage Reformed Congregations (HRC), the Netherlands Reformed Congregations (NRC), the Protestant Reformed Churches in America (PRC), and the United Reformed Churches in North America (URC). The Dutch were mainly Protestant and Catholic before arrival to America, but became dominantly Protestant after settling in America. They spread their religion by forming bonds with the natives in The Ohio River Valley.

In 1766, ministers of the Dutch Reformed Church founded Queen's College, which would later become Rutgers College, in the Province of New Jersey. Today, Rutgers University is a major public research institution in the State of New Jersey. As one of nine colonial colleges clustered in the eastern United States, Rutgers serves as a reminder of early Dutch cultural influence in the North American colonies.

Former U.S. Presidents Martin Van Buren and Theodore Roosevelt, both of Dutch descent, were affiliated with the Dutch Reformed Church.

See also

History of religion in the Netherlands
Religion in the Netherlands
Protestant Church in the Netherlands
Bible Belt (Netherlands)

References

Reformed denominations in the Netherlands
Reformed denominations in Canada
Reformed denominations in the United States
Members of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches
Former Christian denominations
History of Calvinism in the Netherlands
Protestant denominations established in the 16th century
Religious organizations established in the 1570s
Christian organizations disestablished in 2004
1571 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
2004 disestablishments in the Netherlands

Dutch Reformed Church


The system of highways in Puerto Rico is made up of about  of roads. It is managed by Puerto Rico's Department of Transportation and Public Works.

The roads in Puerto Rico are divided into four types:

 Primary roads
 Urban primary roads
 Secondary (or inter-municipal) roads
 Tertiary (or local) roads

A highway may contain several types of roads, but the highway will continue to have the same route number. Primary roads have numbers 1 to 99. Secondary roads are numbered 100 to 299. Municipal (tertiary) roads are numbered 300 to 9999.

Interstates

There are three Interstate Highways in Puerto Rico. Together, they total . As with Interstate Highways in Alaska and Hawaii, these routes do not connect to the rest of the United States' Interstate Highway System. However, they still get money from the U.S. government.

These Interstate Highways run along tollways and roads that are not grade-separated, which means drivers must use a specially made group of ramps to get to the road. There are no signs for these Interstate Highways. They are signed as Puerto Rico routes.

Puerto Rico's interstate routes are not to be confused with Puerto Rico Routes PR-1, PR-2, and PR-3. These are other major highways in Puerto Rico.

The three Interstate Highways in Puerto Rico are:

 Interstate PRI-1 goes from San Juan southwest to Ponce on the shortest route. It goes along Puerto Rico Highway 52 and Puerto Rico Highway 18. It is  long.
 Interstate PRI-2 goes from San Juan to Ponce along the coast of western Puerto Rico. It goes along Puerto Rico Highway 22 and Puerto Rico Highway 2. It is  long.
 Interstate PRI-3 goes from San Juan southeast to Ceiba. It goes along Puerto Rico Highway 53. It is  long.

References

Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico
Highways

Highways in Puerto Rico


Anne Lise Broadbent is a mathematician at the University of Ottawa who won the 2016 Aisenstadt Prize for her research in quantum computing, quantum cryptography, and quantum information.

Early life and education
Broadbent specialised in music at De La Salle High School in Ottawa, graduating in 1997. Her interest in science led her to major in mathematics for her undergraduate degree.

Broadbent was a student of Alain Tapp and Gilles Brassard at the Université de Montréal, where she completed her master's in 2004 in the topic of Quantum pseudo-telepathy games, and her Ph.D. in 2008 with a dissertation on Quantum nonlocality, cryptography and complexity.

Career
After postdoctoral studies at the Institute for Quantum Computing at the University of Waterloo, she moved to Ottawa in 2014. She is an associate professor at the University of Ottawa and holds a University Research Chair there.

Awards
Broadbent is the winner of the 2010 John Charles Polanyi Prize in Physics of the Council of Ontario Universities. She was awarded the Aisenstadt Prize by International Scientific Advisory Committee of the Centre de Recherches Mathématiques in 2016 for her leadership and work in quantum information and cryptography.

References

External links

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Canadian mathematicians
Women mathematicians
Quantum physicists
Université de Montréal alumni
Academic staff of the University of Ottawa

Anne Broadbent


John Stuart Cox (born 13 September 1940) was Archdeacon of Sudbury from 1995 to 2006.

Cox was educated at Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge. He was ordained in 1969 and served curacies in Liverpool and Birmingham. He was Rector of St George, Birmingham, then Selection Secretary for the ACCM. He was a Canon Residentiary at Southwark Cathedral from 1983 to 1991 and then Vicar of Holy Trinity, Roehampton until he took up his Archdeacon's appointment. He has written several books.

References

1940 births
Alumni of Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge
Archdeacons of Sudbury
Living people

John Cox (priest)


Suheil Salman al-Hassan (Arabic: سهيل الحسن) (born 10 June 1970), nicknamed The Tiger, is a Brigadier General in the Syrian Army, currently serving as commander of its elite Tiger Forces. He graduated from the Syrian Arab Air Force academy in 1991, and served in many units of the Syrian Arab Air Forces and Air Defence Command, completing several training courses. After serving in the Syrian Arab Air Force and Syrian Arab Air Defence units, he joined the Air Force Intelligence service, where he was responsible for the training of the elements of the Special Operations Section. During the Syrian Civil War, Suheil al-Hassan has served and commanded his troops during several major engagements, including Operation Canopus Star and the battle for the Shaer gas field. He is part of the new generation of field Syrian army commanders who emerged during the civil war. French newspaper Le Monde has claimed he could be a rival to Assad as leader of Syria.

al-Hassan was described by analysts as preferring Russia (as opposed to Iran) to serve as the Syrian Government's main ally during the Syrian Civil War and subsequent post-war reconstruction. His position is contrasted by Maher al-Assad, brother of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and head of Syria's Republican Guard and 4th Armoured Division, who is reported as preferring Iran. His great friend Sari Hemeche is also one of the strongest officers in the Syrian Arab Army

1970 births
Living people
Syrian generals

Suheil al-Hassan


The Rava is a French sheep  breed originating from the Massif Central, more specifically from the Chaîne des Puys in the Puy-de-Dôme region. It is characterized by its white fleece with long locks and coarse, garlicky wool, and its bare head marked with black spots. This breed is particularly hardy and well-suited to breeding in the sometimes harsh conditions of its birthplace. In fact, when sent to summer pastures in the Auvergne Volcanoes Regional Nature Park, it helps to maintain the landscape at a lower cost. It is bred as a purebred or crossbred to improve the conformation of lambs destined for the southeastern French market. It almost disappeared, absorbed by crossbreeding with beef breeds to improve conformation, but today seems to be preserved, with around 33,000 to 40,000 sheep in 2000.

Origin and history

Name origin
Depending on the author, the breed's name is written Rava as an invariable proper noun or, indifferently, Rava or Ravat, with agreement in the plural. Ravat, as well as rabas, rabat, ravas, is in fact an Occitan dialect word used in southeastern France (Provence, Dauphiné, Cévennes, Forez, and perhaps also Auvergne) to designate, among other things, a "sheep with coarse, hanging wool (the skin of this sheep) common in Piedmont, Lombardy and Savoy". The term ravat is also used with this meaning by ancient authors to designate a coarse sheep population in the southeast and Piedmont.

Another meaning of the Occitan word ravat is interesting to consider, namely that of an animal, the badger: indeed, the term badger in this particular case refers to sheep breeds with a particular black-and-white facial variegation, known in English as badger-faced sheep, even if the irregular variegation of today's Rava is different from that of its British congeners in which the badger-face character has been fixed.

Breed origin

The Rava is originally from the Chaîne des Puys in the Puy-de-Dôme region. In the past, it was particularly represented around Olby, which is considered the breed's cradle. The geographical map published by Quittet in 1965 shows the breed's area of dominance and presence in the Puy-de-Dôme at that time. This is a mountain breed, which spends the summer in summer pastures at altitudes of between 1,200 and 1,500 m, and descends to lower-altitude areas in winter.

André Sanson, a zootechnician and morphologist in the second half of the 19th century, is the author of a classification of sheep breeds whose groupings have retained a certain relevance. He described a "Central Plateau breed", zoologically designated Ovis aries arvernensis, into which he distinguished several varieties: the Auvergne, including different types such as the Rava, which is presented as a type or sub-variety in the Puy-de-Dôme, the Marchoise in Creuse, the Limousine in Haute-Vienne, the Saintongeoise in Charentes and the Bizet in Haute-Loire (the Noire du Velay, formerly known as the Mouton de Bains, is ignored). Comparing the spread of this ethnic group with the migrations of Celtic peoples has not been verified, and is not based on any serious foundation, even though the interest this mention may arouse has led to references to it in notices presenting these breeds.

In fact, the conclusion that can be drawn from reading various texts by ancient authors who have dealt with the Rava or "Rava sheep" is that they have long constituted a highly composite and mixed sheep population whose dominant traits were a "coarse constitution" combined with "very great rusticity and frugality". The origin of the term rava also confirms this original identity. In 1911, in his book on ovine zootechnics, Paul Diffloth mentions the Rava in the following terms: "In the Puy de Dôme, there was a local variety known as the Rava, which was mainly farmed between Volvic, Rochefort and Pontgibaut. Small in size, the rustic and undemanding Rava had a broad, stocky conformation. The small head, with a straight chamfer, was adorned with developed horns; the fleece, weighing 1.5 kg, was very coarse and very long; the sheep weighed 25 to 30 kilograms. This ovine population mixed with sheep from Corrèze and Haut-Limousin, where the rather famous sheep were distinguished by the presence of a black circle around the eyes; rams from the Causses de Larzac were even imported, so that the Auvergne's ovine contingent is one of the most mixed and least defined". In 1983, Quittet and Franck wrote: "Should we speak of the Ravas as a race or just a population? It's debatable".

Race or population, the Rava's originality and identity were forged around its exceptional hardiness and maternal qualities. This situation almost changed in the 1950s, when it was decided to crossbreed sheep with rams of beef breeds to improve lamb conformation, without keeping sufficient numbers of replacement females. The animals resulting from crossbreeding with Charmoise and Southdown, in particular, were not adapted to the difficult environment in which the breed lived, and the breed almost disappeared. However, lambs of this very precocious breed would sometimes serve as sheep before being slaughtered, thus preserving a core of purebred animals. This cross-breeding stopped in the 1970s, and the breed has since been developing slowly in its original mountains.

The Rava breeders' association, created in 1971, played an important role in this revival and in the selection of the breed, which then began to organize itself. The Rava section of UPRA (Unité Pour La Race, by its extension in French) Races ovines des massifs was created in 1973, and the breed standard was defined in 1975. A breeding center for rams intended for reproduction was set up the following year, and the foundations of a selection base were laid in 1986. Since then, the breed has benefited from a functional selection scheme, and numbers have risen again, reaching an estimated 33,000 to 40,000 sheep in 2000.

Description

Here is the official breed standard, as presented in Gilles Perret's 1986 book on sheep breeds: Head: rather fine, without wool, marked with black spots, sometimes russet, sometimes limited to the eye area, sometimes extending to almost completely invade the face; forehead a little rounded, horns rare, especially in sheep; ears medium-sized and carried horizontally; eyes not very prominent; muzzle with slightly arched profile.
 Neck: long, slender neck.
 Rump: straight back, broad loins.
 Tail: with tapering attachment.
 Bones: fine.
 Limbs: always marked with spots of the same color as those on the head.
 Wool: coarse, long-stapled.
 Fleece: white, often mixed with brown or dark gray tufts, with long, open locks, stopping well above the knee and hock, freeing the nape of the neck and underside of the belly.
 Size: medium. Adult sheep: 50 to 60 kg, adult rams: 70 to 85 kg.In the 2000s, the weights presented by the UPRA Races Ovines des Massifs, responsible for breed selection, were slightly higher, at 60 and 75 kg for sheep and between 80 and 100 kg for males, probably due to selection objectives and results aimed at increasing the breed's size.

Selection

The breed's selection scheme is managed by a selection organization (SO) called ROM Sélection (Races Ovines de Massifs - Sélection by its extension in French). This name has replaced UPRA des Races Ovines des Massifs. This organization jointly looks after six hardy sheep breeds from the Massif Central: Blanche du Massif Central, Limousine, Grivette, Rava, Noire du Velay and Bizet. The Rava section manages the breed's herd book and sets selection objectives. These include improving sheep' milk production, size, prolificacy and resistance to scrapie.

In 2009, 25 flocks were registered for performance testing. They held 7,915 controlled ewe lambs, distributed as shown on the attached map (24 flocks and 8,030 sheep in 2010, including 20 flocks and 7,809 sheep enrolled in the SO, with the same distribution). It can also count on the Riom young ram breeding center, which each year gathers 40 to 50 rams chosen according to their ancestry and checks their performance, in order to select the best to supply the artificial insemination cooperative.

In its group of six Races ovines de Massifs, after the Blanche du Massif Central, the Rava breed has the most sheep subject to performance testing: 8,030 sheep lambed in 24 flocks in 2010. In a general context of declining sheep farming in France since 1980, it is also one of the breeds whose selection base has been relatively well maintained:

Aptitudes

Hardiness
Rava's main characteristic is its hardiness, which is related to its ability to adapt to its very restrictive breeding environment: quality feed resources in very limited quantities, often coarse fodder, long wintering periods. It is one of the hardy French sheep breeds best adapted to making the most of the most diverse and unconventional roughages provided by the local natural flora, from tree foliage to herbaceous plants. If food is scarce, the Rava is renowned for mobilizing its body reserves with great ease, before replenishing them in more favorable periods. It is an excellent walker, accustomed to the sometimes steep mountain trails of the Auvergne. Its coarse fleece with long locks offers good protection against the elements. A sheep produces 1.8 kg of this wool per year, while a male produces 2.5 kg. However, this production is of little economic interest, as wool, once the primary source of textiles, has been largely supplanted by synthetic materials. Moreover, Rava's coarse, colored wool is of mediocre quality for spinning. It is used for other purposes, such as insulation.

Maternal qualities
Rava is renowned for its excellent maternal qualities. She lambs without difficulty. It takes good care of its lambs, while offering a good capacity for adopting other lambs. Her dairy aptitudes are good, given her feeding habits, and she raises her lambs easily. Weight at standard age 30 days is an indicator of the sheep' dairy potential, estimated through lamb growth over this period:

Breeding
Rava is a fairly prolific breed. Performance control results show that prolificacy after natural estrus was 149.4 % for sheep over 19 months of age (out of 8,323 farrowings), and 130.8 % for sheep under 19 months of age (out of 1,028 farrowings). These sheep are also very sexually precocious, since they have their first estrus at around 4 months of age, and can give birth as early as 12 months. They also shed very easily and naturally. As a result, lambing is relatively spread out over the year, with a significant number of lambings in August and September, leading to fighting in spring and early summer, which is not the usual breeding season for sheep.

Lamb growth
The Rava breed is selected primarily for its maternal qualities. As a result, the results of growth testing of lambs between 30 and 70 days of age concern too few animals to be significant.

Breeding
The classic breeding system for a flock of Rava sheep is based on breeding in the spring, or even two breeding periods (autumn and spring), with a breeding rhythm that, depending on the farm, can be accelerated (three lambings in two years). In both 2009 and 2010, 21 % of sheep registered with the breeding organization lambed twice during the year. Thanks to its ease of deseasoning, reproduction is virtually unaffected by estrus induction using hormone treatments, whatever the season. From May to October, the sheep are sent to summer pastures at altitudes ranging from 1,200 to 1,500 m.

Rava lambs are supplied to the South-East of France, and are mostly slaughtered in Lyon or Vaucluse. They are light lambs of medium conformation, slaughtered at between 30 and 38 kg at an age of between 110 and 120 days. They are fairly well-priced, thanks to their fine bone structure and therefore good meat yield, and moderate fat content. They can be marketed under the "Agneau de l'Adret" or "Terre d'Agneaux" labels.

To improve the conformation of these lambs, the sheep can be crossed with rams of butcher breeds. In this way, three types of breeding can be observed in the field, similar to what exists elsewhere in mountain and piedmont sheep systems with hardy breeds:

 breeders, who run their flocks as purebreds ;
 multipliers, who produce F1 sheep from Rava sheep crossed with Île-de-France rams;
 producers of terminal lambs, who cross the F1 sheep thus obtained with other rams with strong butchering aptitudes to obtain lambs for slaughter.

In its cradle, the Rava is linked to the Auvergne Volcanoes Regional Nature Park. It helps to maintain mountain pastures, which are too often abandoned and tend to become overgrown. Its hardiness makes it a perfect breed for keeping the landscape open in this region with its harsh climate.

Distribution
Originating in the foothills of the Chaîne des Puys in the Puy-de-Dôme, the breed's distribution has changed very little since then, and it's still in this part of the Massif Central that it's most present. Thus, 85% of the 33,000 sheep recorded in 2000 were located in Auvergne, with the vast majority in Puy-de-Dôme and a few breeders in Allier. There is a particularly high concentration of this breed in a triangle between Olloix, Rochefort-Montagne and Chapdes-Beaufort, close to the breed's birthplace. Over time, however, the breed has been exported somewhat, and has been adopted by breeders in the Livradois and Forez mountains, and even further east in the Lyonnais mountains and as far as Bresse. In the west, it is well established in Corrèze. It also has a small presence in northern Hérault.

Rava breed in culture
The Rava is a breed emblematic of its region of origin, and is often evoked with its characteristic black and white head in turn-of-the-century descriptions of Auvergne. A herd of Rava is mentioned, for example, in Auvergne writer Jean Anglade's book Pays oublié. For some, the Rava is a fitting symbol of the Auvergne mountains, as it is, in the words of a farmer who confided in Daniel Brugès: "like the people of these mountains: thrifty, resilient, stubborn and backing down from nothing, even in the face of misery".

References

Bibliography

Sheep breeds
Sheep
Animal breeding
Sheep breeds by country of origin

Rava sheep


Malingre Précoce is a white variety of grape of French origin used primarily as table grape and to some extent for wine. It was first cultivated by a French gardener named Malingre in the vicinity of Paris around 1840, who created it from seedlings of unknown origin. The term "précoce" indicates early ripening, and because of this property Malingre Précoce finds some use in cold climate viticulture. Malingre Précoce has been used as a crossing partner for many other grape varieties, including Madeleine Angevine and Zarya Severa.

Synonyms
Malingre Précoce is also known under the following synonyms: Blanc Précoce de Malingre, Chasselas de Tramontaner, Dr. Schmidtmanns, Early Malingre, Früher Gelber Malingre, Früher Malingre, Frühreifender Malingre, Hodvabne, Hodvapne, Korai Malingre, Madeleine Blanche de Malingre, Malengr Precos, Malengr Prekos, Malengr Ranii, Malinger Früher Gelber, Malinger Skory, Malingre, Malingre Koraija, Malingre Precose, Malingrovo Rane, Malingrovo Skore, Malmgra Pracosa, Précoce Blanc, Précoce de Malingre, Precos Blan, Precose de Malingre, Preko, Prekos de Malengr.

References

Grape varieties of France
Crops originating from Europe

Malingre Précoce


Qatar National Cement Company is a cement manufacturer based in Umm Bab, Qatar. It was the first cement company established in the State of Qatar. The company claims to serve 70% of the local cement demands in the country.

Location
The company is situated in Umm Bab in western Qatar. Umm Bab was selected as a result of the site being one of the two areas in the country where large quantities of limestone and clay can be easily excavated from.

History
The cement industry in Qatar was initially planned in 1956, with a preliminary survey being conducted in 1963. Qatar National Cement Company was established in 1965 and was the first major non-oil industry to be commissioned in Qatar. It had a starting capital of QR5 million, and was one of the few industries to have had both private and public ownership. The government of Dubai was one of its first private stakeholders.

The first board of directors was appointed in its inauguratory year, with nine members overall. Two were government officials, one was an official from the government of Dubai, and six were founding members. The Dubai government official withdrew from the board in 1972.

In 1967, the company began installing its facilities. Its facilities were inaugurated in May 1969, with an annual production capacity of 100,000 tonnes. The government formed two departments for the company in 1976. One was for exporting cement, and the other was supervising cement sales within the country. Both departments proved to be ineffectual and were annulled shortly after. In 1980, the board was restructured, resulting in a greater representation of the Qatari government. As of 2010, the Qatari government owns 43% of the company.

Facilities
Qatar National Cement Company's first facility was inaugurated in May 1969. Its second facility was constructed in 1974, and the third in 1976. A lime calcination plant was completed in 1978, with a capacity of 100 tpd. In 1985, a hydrated lime plant was established with a tpd of 240.

Production capacities
In 1970, the daily production capacity was 271 tonnes. Its production capacity was not officially recorded prior to this year. The company's facilities were originally designed to produce only Portland cement, but demand soon grew to produce salt-resistant cement. In 1980, the daily production capacity stood at approximately 575 tonnes. , the daily production capacity is 14,750 tonnes. The daily clinker capacity is at 11,900.

References

Cement companies of Qatar
1965 establishments in Qatar
Manufacturing companies established in 1965
Companies listed on the Qatar Stock Exchange

Qatar National Cement Company


The Aplacophora is a class of small, deep-water, exclusively benthic, shell-less marine molluscs. They are found in all oceans of the world. They are a small group of molluscs which have deviated from the normal molluscan form. There are approximately 320 known species living today. They are rather worm-like and average about an inch (2.5 cms.) in length.

Description
Most live in deep water, except a few more northern species.  One group bury themselves into the sand and mud of the ocean bottom where they feed on annelids and other small invertebrates. The rest of the known aplacophorans parasitize hydroids and other corals.

This class used to be classified as sea cucumbers in the echinoderms. In 1987, they were officially recognized as molluscs and given their own class. The class is polyphyletic, and consists of two clades.

References

Molluscs

Aplacophora


Triple M Central West (call sign: 2OAG) is an Australian radio station, licensed to Orange, New South Wales. It is owned and operated by Macquarie Regional RadioWorks, and transmits on 105.1 MHz on the FM band. It originally broadcast on 990 kHz, before switching to 1089 kHz, before switching to the FM band. The former Am frequency of 1089 was turned into a relay station of an automated Sydney station, and later purchased by Broadcast Operations Group.

The station was founded in the mid-1930s. It was opened by the Postmaster General, Sen. McLachlan on the evening of 31 October 1935. The ceremony was actually performed in Sale, Victoria, as the Senator was performing a similar duty opening the new ABC regional station 3GI. The speech was relayed by landline to Orange. Contrary to popular thought, 2GZ was not the first to open west of the Blue Mountains as previously thought, that honour goes to 2MK at Bathurst, it opened in 1925 and closed in 1930/31. The original licensee of 2GZ was Country Broadcasting Services (later Country Television Services Ltd), who also launched CBN-8 Orange and CWN-6 Dubbo, now Prime Television, in the 1960s.

The station converted to the FM band on October 8, 1999.

Today the station broadcasts an Adult Contemporary/Classic Hits format, with a wide playlist of songs from the 1960s through to the 1990s and today, with a target demographic of 35–55 years.

It was the Central West outlet for the John Laws morning show, as well as running its own breakfast program, similar to most of the former DMG-owned stations. It then ran the Charles Wooley morning show, sending Laws to 2EL. Ironically, 2GZ was once one of the regional stations that Laws worked at before becoming a national radio icon. In December, Macquarie severed ties with Charles Wooley, and was one of a handful of regional stations to take up a feed of Ray Hadley's 2GB radio show, commencing January 27.

In late 2016 Southern Cross Austereo took over and rebranded the station, along with quite a few regional stations Triple M Central West.

See also
2EL - the station that now operates on 2GZ's old frequency.

References

External links
 2GZ FM

Radio stations in New South Wales
Southern Cross Media Group
Radio stations established in 1935
Adult contemporary radio stations in Australia

Triple M Central West


Rough Firth is an inlet on the northern coast of the Solway Firth in the Stewartry area of Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland. The firth lies between Almorness Point and Castlehill Point, and contains Rough Island. The village of Kippford stands near the head of the firth where the Urr Water reaches the sea; the only other coastal settlement of any size is Rockcliffe. The area is designated as the East Stewartry Coast National Scenic Area, one of the forty national scenic areas (NSAs) in Scotland.

44 ha on the eastern side of the firth is owned by the National Trust for Scotland, forming the Rockcliffe property, which covers a stretch of coastline and several small islands (including Rough Island).

Description
The area includes several different landscapes, as identified by Scottish Natural Heritage when undertaking a review of the "special qualities" of the area in 2010:

There is a small 6th-century trading post known as the Mote of Mark, which stands on a rocky outcrop, and is owned by the National Trust for Scotland.
The site was excavated in 1913, and two drystone huts were found, along with over 100 flints, which may be prehistoric in origin. Additionally, a small piece of Samian ware and a piece of a mortarium were uncovered, along with fragments of clay moulds from the early Christian period, and pieces of 9th-century glass likely to have come from the Mediterranean region.

Another historic site within the East Stewartry Coast is Orchardton Tower, a ruined tower house built in the fifteenth century. It is located 6 km south of Dalbeattie, and 2 km south of Palnackie. It is remarkable as the only cylindrical tower house in Scotland, being built around 200 years after such towers had gone out of fashion. Orchardton Tower is in the care of Historic Environment Scotland as a Scheduled Ancient Monument.

East Stewartry Coast National Scenic Area
National scenic areas are defined to identify areas of exceptional scenery and to ensure their protection from inappropriate development. The areas protected by the designation are considered to represent the type of scenic beauty "popularly associated with Scotland and for which it is renowned".

The East Stewartry Coast was first defined as an NSA in 1981, and was redesignated under new legislation in 2010.  The designated area covers 9620 ha in total, of which 8447 ha is on land, with a further 1173 ha being marine (i.e. below low tide level). As well as the inlet of Rough Firth and its immediate surroundings the designated area extends eastwards as far as the Mersehead Sands near the small settlement of Caulkerbush. The northern edge of the NSA borders Dalbeattie Forest.

National scenic areas are primarily designated due to their scenic qualities, however the area covered may well have other special qualities, for example related to culture, history, archaeology, geology or wildlife. Areas with such qualities may be protected via other national and international designations that overlap with the NSA designation. The East Stewarty Coast NSA overlaps partially with the Solway Firth Special Area of Conservation and Special Protection Area.

References

External links
 Rough Firth entry in the "Gazetteer for Scotland"
 Photos of Rough Firth
 East Stewartry Coast NSA Management Strategy

National scenic areas of Scotland
Protected areas of Dumfries and Galloway
Landforms of Dumfries and Galloway
Firths of Scotland
Solway Firth

Rough Firth


In Economics common goods are a kind of good. Common goods have two properties:
It is not possible to prevent people from using them (called excludability)
A person making use of the good will reduce its amount.
An example for a common good is wild fish.

Other page
Public good
Goods

Common good (economics)


Huttonsville Correctional Center is a prison located near Huttonsville in Randolph County, West Virginia.  It was created by an act of the Legislature in 1937 to relieve overcrowding at the West Virginia State Penitentiary.  It remained a branch of the parent institution until 1947, at which time the Legislature established it as a separate entity – the West Virginia Medium Security Prison. In 1970, the center received its current name by legislative act. Huttonsville Correctional Center has been in operation since 1939 and is the oldest facility in the state.

With recently completed construction, the capacity of the Huttonsville Correctional Center is 1,186. Living quarters at this facility consist of military style dormitories in the original building and single/multi-cell housing in the new units. A Segregation Unit known as "The Hole" and an Intake Unit were established upon the opening of the new additions, which houses 120 single cells. Huttonsville Correctional Center is one of the largest employers in Randolph County with a Staff of 383.

There are many educational programs, both vocational and academic, offered to inmates by The State Department Of Education. These classes give them an opportunity to engage in rehabilitation efforts during their incarceration. Inmates are able to attend classes in the Adult Basic Education Program to work towards or obtain GED certificates. Vocational Courses offered includes Auto Mechanics, Auto Body, Welding, Machine Shop, Carpentry, Masonry, Electrical, and Computer Lab.

Prison Industries operate the Braille Program and Furniture plant located at Huttonsville. Regular textbooks are transcribed into Braille and distributed throughout the United States. The furniture plant refinishes and builds new furniture for various agencies.

The original focus of the prison was as a labor-intensive general-purpose farm.  In 1977 the  farm was turned over to the state Farm Management Commission and converted to a beef cattle operation, and the majority of inmates were transferred to other work.   Today inmates work on the cattle farm, in a furniture plant, automotive parts shop, and welding shop.  The prison is the largest transcriber of textbooks into Braille in the United States, accounting for almost 90% of the Braille textbooks.

The current capacity of the prison is 1183.  The majority of inmates live in barracks-style housing, but two new 120-inmate cell units were opened in 2000.

See also
Huttonsville State Farm Wildlife Management Area

External links
 Huttonsville Correctional Center

Prisons in West Virginia
Buildings and structures in Randolph County, West Virginia
1939 establishments in West Virginia

Huttonsville Correctional Center


Rye whiskey can refer to two different, but related, types of whiskey:
 American rye whiskey, which is similar to bourbon whiskey, but must be distilled from at least 51 percent rye grain
 Canadian whisky, which is often referred to as (and often labelled as) rye whisky for historical reasons, although it may or may not actually include any rye grain in its production process.

American rye whiskey

In the United States, rye whiskey is, by law, made from a mash of at least 51 percent rye. (The other ingredients in the mash are usually corn and malted barley.) It is distilled to no more than 160 U.S. proof (80% abv) and aged in charred, new oak barrels. The whiskey must be put in the barrels at no more than 125 proof (62.5% abv). Rye whiskey that has been aged for at least two years and has not been blended with other spirits may be further designated as straight, as in "straight rye whiskey".

History
Rye whiskey was historically the prevalent whiskey in the northeastern states, especially Pennsylvania, New York and Maryland. Pittsburgh was the center of rye whiskey production in the late 1700s and early 1800s. By 1808, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania farmers were selling half a barrel for each man, woman and child in the country. By the 1880s, Joseph F. Sinnott's distillery, Moore and Sinnott, located in Monongahela, Pennsylvania, was the largest producer of rye whiskey, with a capacity of 30,000 barrels a year. In 1886, rye whiskey was produced in 17 states.

Rye whiskey largely disappeared after Prohibition. A few brands, such as Old Overholt, survived, although by the late 1960s former Pennsylvania brands like Old Overholt were being distilled mostly in Kentucky.

In the early 21st century, an expanding number of rye whiskey brands are produced by Campari Group (Wild Turkey Rye), Diageo (George Dickel Rye and Bulleit Rye), Heaven Hill (Pikesville Rye and Rittenhouse Rye), Beam Suntory (Old Overholt and Jim Beam Rye), The Sazerac Company (Col. E. H. Taylor, Sazerac Rye, and Thomas H. Handy), and various smaller companies. A particularly large producer is MGP of Indiana (formerly known as Lawrenceburg Distillers Indiana), which is a distiller for many brands that are marketed by others (including some of the large companies previously listed).

Rye whiskey has been undergoing a small but growing revival in the US. Since the beginning of the 21st century, more producers have been experimenting with rye whiskey, and several now market aged rye whiskey. For example, Brown-Forman began production of a Jack Daniel's rye whiskey and released unaged and lightly aged versions as limited editions. A reconstructed distillery at Mount Vernon (the estate of George Washington) sells a rye that is similar to the whiskey Washington made. At its peak, Washington's original distillery was among the largest producers of rye whiskey in the United States, averaging  per year. In 2023, Maryland passed legislation naming Maryland rye whiskey as the state's official liquor.

Differences between rye and bourbon
Rye grain is known for imparting what many call a spicy or fruity flavor to the whiskey. Bourbon, distilled from at least 51% corn, is noticeably sweeter and tends to be more full-bodied than rye. As bourbon gained popularity beyond the southern United States, bartenders increasingly substituted it for rye in cocktails such as the whiskey sour, Manhattan, and Old Fashioned, which were originally made with rye. All other things being equal, the character of the cocktail will be drier (i.e., less sweet) with rye.

Canadian rye whisky

Canadian whisky is often referred to as "rye whisky" because historically much of the content was from rye. There is no requirement for rye to be used to make Canadian whisky, and the labels "Canadian whisky", "Canadian rye whisky" and "Rye whisky" are all legally permitted, regardless of the actual composition, provided the whiskies "possess the aroma, taste and character generally attributed to Canadian whisky".

In modern practice, most Canadian whiskies are blended to achieve this character, primarily consisting of a high-proof base whisky typically made from corn or wheat and aged in used barrels combined with a small amount of flavoring whisky made from a rye mash and distilled to a lower proof. In some cases, the corn-to-rye ratio may be as high as 9:1. There are a few exceptions, such as Alberta Premium and Canadian Club Chairman's Select, which are made from 100% rye mash.

Canadian whisky must be aged in wooden barrels that are not larger than  for at least three years, and the barrels do not have to be new oak or charred. This requirement differs from regulations for U.S. blended whiskey, in which the bulk base spirits are not required to be aged.

Rye elsewhere
Scotch whisky distillers were using rye as a mash ingredient for grain whisky in the 18th century. By the 2020s, tariffs on biogas producers had led to an increase in availability of the grain, leading modern distilleries to begin experimenting with the new raw material.

See also
 List of whisky brands
 Outline of whisky
 Starka

References

Rye whiskey


Grafendahn Castle () lies in the southern Palatine Forest, the German part of the Wasgau region, just under 1 kilometre east of the small town of Dahn in the state of Rhineland-Palatinate.

Location
The rock castle of Grafendahn belongs to the group of castles at Dahn, which also includes Altdahn and Tanstein. Although the three castles are sited next to one another on a rocky ridge, they were not built at the same time. A similar type of castle arrangement is also found e. g. in the nearby French Vosges in the upper Alsace where there is a cluster of three castles at Husseren.

History
Grafendahn was built in 1287 by Conrad of Mursel, who was a Lehnsmann or vassal of the bishops of Speyer and a nephew of Frederick of Dahn (see Altdahn). The castle was conceived from the outset as a so-called Ganerbenburg - a castle in which several families or family lines lived and worked at the same time. As early as 1288, there were five other heirs, besides Conrad Mursel, who included the counts of Sponheim. In 1339, Count John II of Sponheim purchased all parts of the site from the various parties concerned (including William of Winstein, Conrad Mursel's son-in-law) and thus became the sole owner.

In 1425, the castle defences were strengthened and, in 1437, when the House of Sponheim became extinct on the death of John V, it was transferred by inheritance treaty into the possession of the margraves of Baden. However its defences were not robust enough to withstand a siege by Prince Elector Frederick the Victorious; in 1462 he took the castle and had it slighted. It was clearly not rebuilt in a systematic way. In 1480 Hans von Trotha, who was already the liegeman of Berwartstein Castle, was also given Grafendahn as a fief by the prince elector, and took full ownership in 1485 through purchase. Nevertheless, around 1500, the castle was described as "uninhabitable".

Until 1637 the ruined castle belonged to the lords of Fleckenstein. In 1642 it changed hands again and was acquired by the tavern at Waldenburg, where it remained for about 150 years. In 1793 the site went back to the Bishopric of Speyer as Lehnsherr (liege lord), who did not enfeoff it again.

Site
Grafendahn Castle is the smallest of the three Dahn castles and is located on the middle of the five castle rock outcrops. The development of the upper ward (the Oberburg) is rather unclear today due to its modern parapet walls. In the west of the upper ward are the striking ruins of a shield wall, that was erected facing Tanstein Castle. Parts of it have survived at its original height. It was built of rusticated ashlars. Against the shield wall there was a small palas as well as several domestic buildings.

In the lower ward (the Unterburg), which is situated on two narrow rock terraces, several chambers, cattle troughs and a well shaft have survived. The castle museum has been house in a restored stable block since 1987.

Literature
 Stefan Grathoff: Die Dahner Burgen. Alt-Dahn – Grafendahn – Tanstein. Guidebook 21. Edition Burgen, Schlösser, Altertümer Rheinland Pfalz. Schnell und Steiner, Regensburg, 2003. .
 Walter Herrmann: Auf rotem Fels. Ein Führer zu den schönsten Burgen der Pfalz und des elsässischen Wasgau. DRW-Verl. Weinbrenner, Braun, Karlsruhe, 2004, .

 Elena Rey: Burgenführer Pfalz. Superior, Kaiserslautern, 2003, .
 Günter Stein: Burgen und Schlösser in der Pfalz. Ein Handbuch. Weidlich, Frankfurt, 1976, .
 Alexander Thon (ed.): ...wie eine gebannte, unnahbare Zauberburg. Burgen in der Südpfalz. 2., verb. Aufl. Schnell + Steiner, Regensburg, 2005, pp. 18–25, .

See also
 Castles of Dahn
 Altdahn Castle
 Tanstein Castle
 Neudahn Castle
 List of castles in Rhineland-Palatinate
 Jungfernsprung

External links

 Dahner Felsenland: Altdahn–Grafendahn–Tanstein

Rock castles
Castles in Rhineland-Palatinate
Dahn
Ruined castles in Germany

Grafendahn Castle


The Bugatti Type 55 is a sports car produced by Bugatti from 1932 to 1935. It is a road-going version of the Type 51 Grand Prix car. A roadster, it had a 108.3 in (2750 mm) wheelbase and 1800 lb (816 kg) weight.

History
The Type 55 was introduced at the 1931 Paris Motor Show and that particular car, chassis 55201, was subsequently purchased by the Duke of Tremoille. It was available starting in 1932 and was produced until 1935, with the last car being delivered on July 30 of that year. 38 cars were produced in total. The majority of Type 55s had factory bodywork designed by Jean Bugatti, with 16 of the 38 wearing 2-seater roadster bodies and another 7 wearing coupe bodies, both of his design. Of the other 15, 11 were bodied by outside coachbuilders and the other four are unidentified. None of the factory bodied cars had doors which made them far less practical than the cars bodied by external coachbuilders, most of which did have doors. The Type 55 was often criticized by reviewers for its lack of practicality and for being deafening to ride in, due to a combination of noisy mechanicals and straight cut gears.

Specifications
The Type 55 is powered by a detuned version of the Type 51's 2.3 L (2262 cc/138 in³) 2-valve DOHC straight-8 engine with a Roots-type supercharger. It produces 130 hp (96 kW) at 5000 rpm. Differences from the Type 51's engine include the addition of a camshaft driven AC mechanical petrol pump and a modified supercharger drive. The compression ratio was also lowered by the use of a larger 9 mm (0.3 in) compression plate (the Type 51 used a 6 mm (0.2 in) plate). The car's 4-speed manual transmission came from the Type 49 touring car and featured straight cut gears. The car also wore the signature Bugatti eight spoke aluminum wheels.

References
55
24 Hours of Le Mans race cars
1930s cars
Cars introduced in 1931

Bugatti Type 55


St John Clerkenwell is a former parish church in Clerkenwell, London, its original priory church site retains a crypt and has been given over to the London chapel of the modern Order of St John. It is a square, light-brick resurrection of the small church of Clerkenwell Priory – the crypt of which is beneath – without a spire or tower. Its three centuries of former decline reflected the disbandment of the medieval Order of St John, or Knights Hospitaller.

Sites

Buildings and garden of remembrance of the Order of St John of Jerusalem
A chapel, crypt beneath, garden of remembrance and narrow Georgian entrance building alongside, are owned by the order's eventual successor, the Order of Saint John (chartered 1888), which fundraises for and supports St John Ambulance.

St John's Gardens, Benjamin Street
A small public park or garden is a block south-west, beyond the Order's Museum and other small retail outlets and professional offices.  This replaced the Victorian enlarged edition of the church.

History

Queen Anne church
The crumbling structure was purchased and conserved by early 18th century London's partly successful Commission for Building Fifty New Churches.

Victorian restoration and conservation
The church was lightly restored and improved by William Pettit Griffith in 1845. In 1878 one of the large painted windows at the east end survived, as did remains of Prior Thomas Docwra's church in the south and east walls, and capitals and rib mouldings of the former church underpinned the pews. In 1868 its living was a rectory valued £260, in the patronage of the lord chancellor.

Redundancy of the parish church and wartime bombing of the old and new buildings
In 1931, because of falling attendances, the parish was united with that of St James, Clerkenwell, and St John's ceased to be a parish church. The original site here was handed over to the worldwide Order of Saint John (chartered 1888) to be its main English chapel, which it remains.

The larger, successor Victorian church one block away, 150 metres to the south-west, was largely gutted by bombing in 1941 as was this site.

Reconstruction of the old chapel
This replacement chapel for the Order was rebuilt from 1951 to 1958 by the architects John Seely and Paul Paget. The crypt of the medieval building survives in the present structure.

The outline of the round church consecrated in 1185 is marked out in St John's Square in front of the church; to the south of the church is the Garden of Remembrance that occupies the site of a 16th-century chapel.

Bibliography

References

External links
GENUKI
 History of Islington - has several pages on the church and priory
  - 'Archives in London' has more detail

History of the London Borough of Islington
Clerkenwell
Buildings and structures in Clerkenwell
Clerkenwell

St John Clerkenwell