Genetics Research is an open access, peer-reviewed scientific journal covering all aspects of human and animal genetics, reporting key findings on genomes, genes, mutations and molecular interactions, extending out to developmental, evolutionary, and population genetics as well as ethical, legal and social aspects. It was established in 1960 as Genetical Research, obtaining its current name in 2008. The founding editor-in-chief was Eric C.R. Reeve (University of Edinburgh).

It is published by Cambridge University Press and the editor-in-chief is Marc Tischkowitz (University of Cambridge). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2017 impact factor of 1.059, ranking it 149th out of 171 journals in the category "Genetics & Heredity".

The journal has published papers from such renowned researchers as Mary Lyon (of Lyonisation), Charlotte Auerbach, and John Maynard Smith, author of Genetics Research's most cited paper, The hitch-hiking effect of a favourable gene.

References

External links

Genetics journals
Bimonthly journals
Cambridge University Press academic journals
Academic journals established in 1960
English-language journals

Genetics Research


Vasyl' Mykolayovych Verkhovynets' (1880 - 1938) was an actor, conductor, composer, voice teacher, amateur musicologist, balletmaster, choreographer and dance ethnographer He is credited for fundamentally altering the course of Ukrainian dance by devising a method of transcribing dance to paper, recording traditional dances and steps from numerous villages, setting dances on a stage, and fostering generations of Ukrainian dance researchers and practitioners. He was also the founder of the modern three-part hopak.

Vasyl' Verkhovynets' was born "Vasyl' Kostiv" in Myzun, on January 5, 1880.

References

In English:
 Shatulsky, Myron (1980). The Ukrainian Folk Dance, Kobzar Publishing Co. Ltd. .
 Zerebecky, Bohdan (1985). Ukrainian Dance Resource Booklets, Series I-IV, Ukrainian Canadian Committee, Saskatchewan Provincial Council.

In Ukrainian:
 Avramenko, Vasyl (1947). Ukrainian National Dances, Music, and Costumes, National Publishers, Ltd.
 Humeniuk, Andriy (1962). Ukrainian Folk Dance, Academy of Sciences Ukrainian of the SSR.
 Humeniuk, Andriy (1963). Folk Choreographic Art of Ukraine, Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR.
 Verkhovynets', Vasyl' (1912). Ukrainian Wedding.
 Verkhovynets', Vasyl'(1919). Theory of Ukrainian Folk Dance.
 Verkhovynets', Vasyl' (1925). Vesnyanochka State Publishers of the Ukraine.
 Verkhovynets', Yaroslav (1963). Biographical outline of Vasyl' Verkhovynets' in the third edition of Theory of Ukrainian Folk Dance, State Publishers of Pictorial Art and Musical Literature.

Ukrainian male dancers
Ukrainian dancers
Dance teachers
Ukrainian choreographers
1880 births
1938 deaths
Ukrainian musicologists
Ukrainian ethnographers
Ukrainian music educators
Folk dancers
20th-century musicologists
Ukrainian folklorists

Vasyl Verkhovynets


Steven Henikoff is a scientist at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, and an HHMI Investigator. His field of study is chromatin-related transcriptional regulation.
He earned his BS in chemistry at the University of Chicago. He earned his PhD in biochemistry and molecular biology from Harvard University in the lab of Matt Meselson in 1977. He did a postdoctoral fellowship at the University of Washington. His research has been funded by the National Science Foundation, National Institutes of Health, and HHMI. In 1992, Steven Henikoff, together with his wife Jorja Henikoff, introduced the BLOSUM substitution matrices. The BLOSUM matrices are widely used for sequence alignment of proteins. In 2005, Henikoff was elected to the National Academy of Sciences.

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American biochemists
Harvard University alumni
Howard Hughes Medical Investigators
University of Chicago alumni
Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center people

Steven Henikoff


Jumbo (about Christmas 1860 – September 15, 1885) was the first international animal superstar. He was the first African bush elephant to reach modern Europe alive. He was born in eastern Africa, and captured there by Arabian hunters in early 1862. He was sold first to a traveling zoo in Germany, then to the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. He was traded to the London Zoological Gardens for a rhinoceros.

Jumbo lived in the London Zoo about 16 years. He was the biggest elephant in captivity. American circus showman P. T. Barnum simply had to have this huge elephant in his circus. He bought Jumbo in 1882.  The elephant made his debut in the United States on Easter Sunday 1882 at Madison Square Garden in New York City. He toured with Barnum's circus for three years. In September 1885, he was killed in a railroad accident in Canada.

Jumbo attracted as much attention after his death as he did in life. His hide was stuffed and his bones preserved. His hide and skeleton were displayed first with Barnum's circus and then with museums. His hide was destroyed in a fire at Tufts University in 1975. His skeleton was displayed for many years in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. As time passed, children forgot about him. His skeleton was put away.

Jumbo's sale in 1882 created public anger in Britain. It drew the attention of people around the world. "Jumbomania", a fad for all things Jumbo, was born. The civilized world was flooded with Jumbo neckties, jewelry, and other souvenirs. People around the world were sad when he died. Jumbo's greatest legacy is his name. In the English language, it is now a word that means "very large".

Early life
It is impossible to know exactly where or when Jumbo was born. In February 1862, a British explorer met Jumbo in the desert camp of Arabian elephant hunters. This camp was on the border of eastern Sudan and Abyssinia (now, Eritrea). The hunters had been hired to capture wild animals for export to European zoos.

The explorer estimated that Jumbo was  tall and weighed about . Based on his height and weight, Jumbo was about one year old. He was probably born at Christmas 1860.

Jumbo had a long, hot journey ahead of him. He walked several hundred miles with other wild animals to the Red Sea. At the port of Suakin, the little elephant was put aboard a steamship. In time, he arrived in Trieste, Italy. From Italy, he was taken by train to Dresden, Germany. He was then sold to a traveling zoo.

Jardin des Plantes

In late 1862, Jumbo was sold to the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. Jumbo was probably brought to his new home in either late 1862 or early 1863. The French were disappointed with him; they thought he would be larger. Jumbo lived in the Rotunda for Large Herbivores with two Asian elephants, several camels and giraffes, and a hippopotamus.

In October 1863, two more baby African elephants and several camels were brought to the Rotunda. The little elephants were called Castor and Pollux. They played together and slept together. Children loved the new elephants. The two animals came to be called "the pets of young Paris". Jumbo did not want attention from people; he stayed in his stable. Five elephants now lived in the Rotunda of the Jardin.

In April 1865, the government found that the living conditions in the Jardin were very bad. Officials thought some of the elephants should be sent to zoos in other countries. The officials of the London Zoological Gardens in Regent's Park wanted an African elephant. They traded an Indian rhinoceros and a few other animals for Jumbo. He was brought to the London Zoo in June 1865. Jumbo was lucky. Castor and Pollux were killed during a war with Prussia in 1871. They were eaten by the French.

London Zoological Gardens

Jumbo was very ill when he arrived at the London Zoo. He had not been fed properly. His hide was covered with filth that had to be scraped and scrubbed off. The nails on his feet were overgrown, and the soles of his feet were covered with sores.

Abraham Bartlett, the Superintendent of the London Zoological Gardens, put the little elephant into the care of animal keeper Matthew "Scotty" Scott. Scotty had a talent for understanding and managing animals. Jumbo grew stronger and healthier under Scotty's care.

The little elephant was named Jumbo. There is no record of the origin of this name. He may have been named after Mumbo Jumbo, a west African tribal holy man. This is not certain though. Bartlett may have named the elephant Jumbo because he liked the sound of the word. He had once named a gorilla Mumbo. There is a very slim possibility that Jumbo may have been named in Paris.

Jumbo became a great attraction in the London Zoo. Queen Victoria and members of the Royal Family adored him. Children rode in the saddle (howdah) on his back for a penny. The young Winston Churchill (and probably Queen Victoria's children Prince Leopold and Princess Beatrice) rode in Jumbo's howdah.

By the time Jumbo was seven years old, he had a huge appetite. Every day he ate  of hay, a barrel of potatoes, two bushels of oats, fifteen loaves of bread, and lots of onions. He also drank several pails of water. If Scotty thought Jumbo needed some medicine, the elephant was given a gallon or two of whiskey.

In 1880, Jumbo hit his iron cage doors with his tusks and broke both off near the jawbone. He was in pain. He stopped eating. He leaned against the walls for support. Bartlett and Scotty were forced to perform some crude surgery with a harpoon-like tool they had made. Bartlett was disappointed with the damage to Jumbo's tusks.  He had been hoping that Jumbo would grow to be a "tusker"  an elephant with huge tusks. After the surgery, Jumbo kept his tusks worn away by rubbing them against the walls of the Elephant House. They never grew more than a few inches long.

In 1882, Jumbo was  tall at the shoulder. He weighed more than . His trunk was  long. It could reach high into the trees. In the magazine Harper's Weekly, Jumbo was said to be "as gentle with children as the best-trained poodle dog." The magazine said he gently took biscuits and lumps of sugar from zoo visitors.

Jumbo is sold

When Jumbo was brought to the zoo in 1865, Bartlett had wanted to raise the elephant himself. He needed a keeper who would obey him. He chose Scotty because he was rather inexperienced. Bartlett would be disappointed. Scotty had his own opinion on how to raise Jumbo. The close relationship that grew between the keeper and the elephant was something Bartlett hated.

In 1882, Jumbo was the biggest elephant living in captivity. Bartlett thought it best to find a new home for Jumbo for two reasons. First, he thought Jumbo was about to enter musth. This is a difficult time in a male elephant's life. Certain glands in the elephant's head become inflamed causing the animal to behave violently. The other reason Bartlett wanted to move Jumbo was the elephant's close relationship with Scotty. Bartlett thought Jumbo might go on a dangerous rampage if Scotty should die.

Jumbo had tantrums. He would try to damage the Elephant House at night. He may have been frightened and angry because Scotty went home every night. He was only calm during the day when Scotty was nearby or when he carried children around the zoo in his howdah. Jumbo's behavior only made Bartlett more sure that he must find another home for the elephant. Years after Jumbo's death, zoologists studied casts of the elephant's teeth. They discovered that his molars were erupting abnormally and probably causing him pain. This was likely the reason for Jumbo's tantrums.

Bartlett and members of the London Zoological Society were happy when P. T. Barnum, a circus showman from the United States offered to buy Jumbo for $10,000. Barnum had once owned two museums in New York City. They had burned to the ground. He was now part-owner of the Barnum, Bailey, & Hutchinson Circus. Barnum knew the huge elephant would make him a fortune if he appeared with the circus.

Barnum's partner Hutchinson did not want to buy Jumbo. "What difference does it make if an elephant is seven feet high or eleven or twelve feet high? An elephant is an elephant!" he said. But Barnum wanted Jumbo more than he wanted any other elephant in the world because Jumbo was the biggest elephant in the world. Bartlett and the London Zoological Society took only two days to decide that Jumbo would be sold to Barnum.

When the British learned that their beloved Jumbo was going to be sold, they were outraged. Bartlett received many angry letters. Children begged Bartlett to keep Jumbo in London. Art critic John Ruskin wrote that the English were not "in the habit of selling their pets." An effort was made to stop the sale by going to court, but Barnum won. The British courts said he was the legal owner of Jumbo.

A large wheeled box was built to hold Jumbo during his journey to America. It was made of heavy pine boards bolted to a strong oak base, and made even stronger with iron straps. It measured  long,  wide, and  high. It was large enough for Jumbo to stand in it, but it was not large enough for him to lie down or turn around. Although the ends of the box were open, they were made strong with iron bars. Jumbo could look out the open end and swing his trunk.

Plans were made to move Jumbo on February 18. Jumbo would not get into the box. A second attempt was made on February 19 with the same result. Jumbo laid down in the street. Crowds of people cheered for Jumbo. He stayed in the street for a week. Bill Newman, Barnum's agent in London, sent the showman a telegram. "Jumbo won't get up", it read. Barnum sent a telegram back reading, "Let him stay there as long as he wants. It's great publicity."

Bartlett thought Scotty was controlling Jumbo with a secret signal to keep him from getting into the box. He told Scotty
he would be fired if Jumbo did not get into the box. The next day, Scotty got Jumbo to enter the box. Barnum hired Scotty to take care of Jumbo even though he had many elephant keepers in the United States.

Jumbomania

People around the world were interested in the sale of Jumbo. Souvenirs such as Jumbo neckties, fans, and hats were sold in England and America. Jumbo's picture was printed on thousands of advertisements. Some of these advertisements showed Jumbo in strange places like the opera house and a saloon in the Wild West.

Potholders, cigars, and a large sewing machine were all named after Jumbo. Soap, thread, and baking powder were sold using Jumbo's name. One advertisement from this time shows Jumbo in leather boots running across a desert. Another picture shows Jumbo feeding a baby elephant a laxative called Castoria.

Thousands of letters were sent to London Zoo officials. The writers of these letters wanted Jumbo to live at peace in England. A "Jumbo Retention Fund" was set up to keep Jumbo in the London Zoo. One lady sent her new sewing machine to the fund. A bride sent Jumbo a piece of her wedding cake. Thousands of children wrote to Barnum begging him to leave Jumbo in his London home. Barnum refused.

Jumbo leaves England

Jumbo lived sixteen years and nine months in the London Zoo. He was now about to start a new life in another land. His trip to America started on the cold morning of March 22, 1882. Jumbo was put into a harness early in the morning. He was led to the box. He did not want to get into it, but he did. It took two hours to chain the fighting elephant inside the box.

Six horses pulled the box from the yard at the Elephant House. It sank into the soft soil of a path. It took three hours to pull the box from the path. It sank into soft soil two more times on its way to the zoo gates. Four more horses were harnessed to the box. It passed through the main gate about 1:30 a.m. The five-mile trip to the London docks started.

The most level way to the Thames was chosen because the horses could not pull the box up any hills. Crowds were watching. Scotty rode on the front of the box. He comforted Jumbo and stroked his trunk. Jumbo was quiet through most of the journey. The box started down a steep hill near the old Clerkenwell House of Detention at the top of Farrington Road. Jumbo shook his head in alarm.  The box was forced to move very slowly.

At St Katharine's Dock, east of the Tower of London, the box was lifted with a winch at 7 a.m. on March 23. It was put on the barge, Clarence. Workers made the box secure. Jumbo was given a big breakfast. An old lady who had walked behind the box all the way from Regent's Park brought Jumbo some beer. She said good-bye through her tears.

Three hours later, the tide was favorable. The barge was towed into the river by tugboats bearing the Union Jack and the Stars and Stripes. Thousands of people had gathered in every empty space to say good-bye to Jumbo. The barge floated downstream to the Isle of Dogs.

Jumbo took alarm again when the barge passed Dundee Docks. He rammed the bars of his crate. The bars were loosened. The engines were cut. Scotty comforted the frightened elephant. The trip was resumed. At the Millwall Docks, the box was lifted by crane about 3:45 p.m. to the quayside. It was here that Jumbo would spend the night.

The box was weighed as it was lifted. It weighed twelve and a half tons. It was known that the wood and iron of the box weighed six and a half tons. Jumbo therefore weighed six tons. Scotty and Bartlett had always thought Jumbo weighed six tons. But this was the first time Jumbo had actually been weighed mechanically. On Friday March 24, it took only eight minutes to lower Jumbo and his box to the Assyrian Monarch.

There were 600 passengers on the Assyrian Monarch. They were mostly Russian Jews going to the United States. There were 90 crew members. Food was brought on the ship for Jumbo's 13–14 day voyage. There were 65 bales of hay,  of ship's biscuits, 50 loaves of white bread, three sacks of oats, three sacks of bran, and two sacks of onions.

A lunch party was held on the ship for London Zoo officials, the Sheriff of London, businessmen, Barnum's agents, and others interested in the adventure. Barnum's agent Bill Newman was given the Zoological Society's Gold Medal for calmly and skillfully handling Jumbo. Scotty  the man who had given Jumbo devoted care and love for 18 years  was ignored. The ship left the next morning. Lady Angela Burdett-Coutts was Jumbo's great friend. She came from London to Gravesend with friends to feed the elephant his last English buns. When the visitors left, the ship put out to sea.

Scotty took off most of Jumbo's chains to make him comfortable. His head, body, and trunk were free. His feet were chained. The elephant leaned against the side of the box. He fell asleep for the first time in several days. Jumbo's box got plenty of fresh air. Passengers fed him bread and fruit. Barnum had news stories about Jumbo put in rubber bags then dropped into the sea. Weeks later, the first bag washed ashore in southern Ireland. A telegram was sent to London after passing the last point of British soil called the Lizard. It read, "Jumbo well; very quiet; unchained."

Jumbo arrives in America

The Assyrian Monarch arrived in the New York harbor about midnight on Easter Sunday April 9, 1882 after almost two weeks on the sea. A telegram was sent to the London Times telling the British that Jumbo had arrived safely in America and was in good health. Jumbo's crate was lifted from the hold of the Assyrian Monarch to a small steamer called Only Son. Jumbo was ferried across the Hudson River to the New York docks.

Barnum and his partners Bailey and Hutchinson went aboard the Only Son with several journalists to see Jumbo. The elephant had traveled well. He drank a bottle of whiskey. Barnum did not drink alcoholic beverages and protested. He looked at Scotty and said, "I do believe that elephant's growth has been stunted by the use of beer."

Some journalists were disappointed with Jumbo's height. They said he was just as big as the other elephants in Barnum's circus. Barnum told them there was a big difference between an elephant's actual height and his "museum" height. The journalists were satisfied with this explanation (whatever it meant). Barnum was thrilled with Jumbo. Everyone was talking about the animal, and this meant ticket sales.

Superintendent Hatfield of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children came aboard the Only Son. He had heard reports of Jumbo's bad temper, and boarded the ship to be certain Jumbo was not a threat to the children of New York City. Barnum told him Jumbo was "perfectly lamb-like". Hatfield took a long look at Jumbo, then left the ship with the sense that Jumbo was indeed a gentle animal.

A crowd of hundreds had gathered on shore to welcome Jumbo. By late afternoon, the crowd had grown to 10,000 impatient, noisy onlookers. Jumbo became frightened. His crate swayed as it was lifted and lowered to a waiting barge. Three cheers were raised. By 7:00 pm, Jumbo was ashore. His crate had been put on a strong wagon.

The crowd wanted Jumbo to walk up Broadway to Madison Square Garden where the circus was playing. Bailey would not allow it, fearing the animal might attack the crowd. Eight horses and 500 men could not move the wagon. Another eight horses were brought in as well as Gypsy and Chief, two Asian elephants from the circus. The eight additional horses were not needed. They were led behind the wagon as it started to move. The elephants were used as needed to push the wagon out of ruts.

When the procession arrived at Madison Square Garden, Jumbo's crate was too tall for the building's entrance. He was left on the sidewalk for the night, his crate covered with tarpaulins. In the morning, blacksmiths removed the iron bars of the crate. Jumbo was free, but he would not leave the crate. Scotty stood aside to let Jumbo take his time. The elephant finally stepped out, and went into the building. Floorboards shattered under his weight. When he reached the race track, he knelt and rolled over. Scotty assured everyone Jumbo was not dead but only resting after his long trip. He finally rose and was taken to his stall, after another rest period. Once in his stall, a heavy chain fastened to a stake was wrapped around his leg. He yanked the stake from the ground and tossed it aside. Meanwhile, the largest crowd in circus history was waiting for the afternoon performance to start.

Jumbo in America

Barnum bought Jumbo for $10,000. Jumbo's entire costs actually amounted to $30,000. Barnum later wrote that Jumbo earned his costs in his first two weeks with the circus at Madison Square Garden. Jumbo did no tricks, but 20,000 customers per day saw him in the circus zoo and the parade at the start of the show. The London Zoo had sent Jumbo's howdah to America. The great elephant gave rides to circus customers.

On a trip to England in late May 1882, Barnum met a crowd of children on the street who were still angry that the elephant had been taken away. Barnum made plans the same month to raise an iron building on the Thames Embankment for his circus shows. People in the neighborhood did not like the idea. They said they would go to court to stop the plan. Barnum dropped the idea.

Barnum had another publicity plan. The Brooklyn Bridge was finished in 1883. This was a long-awaited and exciting event.  Barnum offered the bridge company $5,000 to allow Jumbo to cross the bridge before the official opening. The company directors believed Barnum was using the bridge for circus publicity. They said "no" to his offer.

Jumbo travelled in luxury when he went on tour every year. He had his own railway boxcar. Barnum called it "Jumbo's Palace Car". It was a red and gold boxcar with huge double doors at the center for Jumbo to be able to go in and out easily. Scotty slept in a bunk in a little room near Jumbo's head. Jumbo would never let Scotty close the door to the little room. He loved his friend and wanted to be near him always.

Scotty and Jumbo always shared a bottle of beer before going to bed for the night. It was a little ritual Jumbo loved. One night Scotty drank the bottle of beer and fell asleep. Jumbo picked him up very carefully and set him down near the empty bottle. Scotty woke up and found the bottle. He "got the message". He never forgot to share a bottle of beer with Jumbo again.

In his four seasons as the top star of Barnum's circus, Jumbo never hurt anyone. Now and then though, he tested his strength by destroying parts of his winter Elephant House. Jumbo earned $1.5 million in his first year with the circus. It is likely 16 million adults and 4 million children saw him at the circus.

In his last years with the circus, Jumbo's health grew poor. He could not eat his food because his teeth were worn out. There was no treatment. Jumbo would sooner or later die of this trouble with his teeth. Barnum made plans to have Jumbo preserved after his death by a taxidermist. He arranged everything while Jumbo was still alive  just in case the elephant died suddenly.

Jumbo's death

Jumbo was 24 when he was killed on September 15, 1885, in the rail yards at St. Thomas, Ontario, Canada. It was about 9:30 pm. The circus had just finished a performance.  The elephants were being led along the main track in the rail yards to their boxcars. To their left was a steep bank; to their right was the circus train. An unscheduled freight train roared down upon them from the east. The engineer tried to stop the train, but failed.

Animal keepers got most of the elephants to safety down the bank. Jumbo and a dwarf elephant called Tom Thumb were the last act on the programme and the last to leave the Big Top. Tom Thumb was behind Jumbo. the little elephant was hit by the train and thrown into a ditch. His left leg was broken, but he lived. Jumbo ran down the track away from the oncoming train with Scotty beside him. The locomotive struck Jumbo from behind. He roared in pain as the train carried him  down the track. He was wedged partly above and partly below a flatcar.

Jumbo's skull was fractured in several places. He had serious injuries inside his body. Blood poured from his mouth and trunk. Jumbo reached for and held Scotty's hand in his trunk. He died within minutes of the accident. The locomotive and the tender were thrown off the track. They were destroyed in the collision.

Neither Barnum or Bailey was on the scene of the accident. Hutchinson directed the clean up. One hundred men were needed to remove Jumbo's body from the tracks. Policemen were sent to the scene to drive away souvenir hunters. Scotty became hysterical when he discovered half of Jumbo's ear had been cut off by a collector.

Taxidermists from Rochester, New York, eventually arrived to take charge of the body. Jumbo's death was a serious loss for the circus. So much so that Barnum took the first steps in bankruptcy proceedings a few days after the tragedy.

Just before Jumbo's trip to America in 1882, Barnum had insured the elephant for $500,000. The policy expired once Jumbo stepped on American soil. The elephant was not insured at the time of his death. He had been brought into the United States as "breeding stock". No insurance company would cover livestock for accidents. Jumbo left no children  in spite of the fact that he had an elephant "wife" in the London Zoo named Alice. He had completely ignored her during the 18 years he had called London home. Alice was given black and a widow's cap to wear after the death of her "husband".

Barnum sues the railway

Barnum sued the Canadian Grand Trunk Railway for $100,000. The case was heard in April 1887. The company claimed it was not liable for Jumbo's death. They said the circus workers were responsible for the death of the elephant. The circus workers had cut down part of a fence so they could lead the elephants across the track. If they had used the regular crossing further down the track, the company stated, railway workers would have warned them of the approaching train. The accident could have been avoided.

The railway also claimed Jumbo was worthless. The London Zoo had sold him, the railway stated, because he was a dangerous animal. They also pointed out that they were not liable for losses above $15,000  as stated in their contract with the circus. The circus argued the contract was illegal, and presented statements from Scotty and other professional animal people who had worked with Jumbo. These statements said Jumbo was not dangerous.

Barnum finally withdrew the lawsuit. He needed the good will of the Grand Trunk Railway if he wanted to move his circus around Canada. He settled out of court for $5,000. He was also granted the right to use the Grand Trunk rails for free in the coming year. This was worth $5,000 in itself. Barnum left court with $10,000.

Conspiracy theories

Two weeks after Jumbo's death, a news reporter named C. F. Richtel of the Hartford, Connecticut, Sunday Globe suggested Barnum had killed the elephant "for advertising purposes". Richtel was an old enemy of Barnum's, and accused the showman of masterminding Jumbo's death because the elephant had tuberculosis. Barnum sued the newspaper for $50,000. He settled out of court.  The editor of the Globe learned the truth about Jumbo's death when he interviewed Scotty and others who had been present at the elephant's end. The editor fired Richtel and published a meek apology to Barnum.

A theory put forth in 1960 alleged that Jumbo's flatulence had created a nasty problem for Barnum and the circus, so the showman decided to get rid of the elephant. Under cover of darkness and amid the clamor of the rail yard, Barnum was said to have had an animal keeper fire a single shot from a powerful pistol into Jumbo's eye. The elephant staggered some distance, trampled the dwarf elephant, collapsed, and died beneath a railway car. No projectiles were found during examinations of Jumbo after his death or later examinations of his skull. The theory has been proven false.

Aftermath

Barnum tried to get as much publicity as possible from Jumbo's death. He called a publisher three days after the accident. He wanted a children's book printed at Christmas about the event. He also told news reporters a lie about Jumbo saving both the dwarf elephant and Scotty, then turning to face the train alone and head-on.

Jumbo's remains were sent far and wide across America. His tusks were broken into many pieces in the accident. These pieces were sold as souvenirs. Cornell University bought Jumbo's heart. The great elephant's bones toured America for a few years with the circus. They weighed . Then they were sent to the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. His skeleton was put on display now and then. As time passed though, children forgot him. The skeleton was put away. It was never displayed after 1977.

Jumbo's hide was stuffed in Rochester, New York. Barnum told the taxidermists that he wanted Jumbo to look like a mountain. They pulled the hide as much as possible without tearing it. After all the hard work, Jumbo stood a foot taller in death than he had in life. The stuffed hide toured with the circus for a few years. It was then sent to the Barnum Museum of Natural History at Tufts University. It weighed . At Tufts, Jumbo became the school mascot. His picture was put on school-related items like hats and flags.

On April 14, 1975, Jumbo's hide and many other museum pieces which could never be replaced were destroyed in a fire at Tufts.  Some of what was believed to be Jumbo's ashes was put in a Peter Pan Crunchy Peanut Butter jar. The jar was kept in the university's athletic department. School athletes rubbed it for good luck before games.

On the 100th anniversary of Jumbo's death in 1985, a monument by Winston Bronnum was built to the great elephant in St. Thomas. It stands on a bluff above the city. Not far away is a bright red caboose. It is a souvenir stand. There is also a museum at the site that displays a model of a small circus.

Legacy

Jumbo's legacy was the joy he gave millions of people just by being himself. His name however may be his greatest legacy. Before the big elephant, the word 'Jumbo' was not known in the English language. The word has entered the language to mean anything that is huge. People will always remember Jumbo because of this word.

Jumbo's enormous size caused scientists to think he was a separate species of elephant. He was the largest elephant ever known. He was named the type specimen for this new species. At a later time, it was learned that Jumbo was not a separate species, but a variant of a known species. He became then a subspecies.

After Jumbo's death, it was important that he be dissected by scientists. It was important that his skeleton be carefully kept for future scientists to study. The dissection was started in St. Thomas, and completed in Rochester, New York. Jumbo's stomach was cut open. Coins, keys, rivets, screws, and a policeman's whistle fell out.

Just before the stuffed Jumbo and his skeleton were put on display, Barnum asked newspaper people and high-society ladies to come to a fancy hotel for a party. He made speeches, then served his guests a gelatin dish made from Jumbo's ground tusks.

Notes

References

 New York Times. 16 September 1885. Great Jumbo Killed ...

Other websites

 1942 photo of the 'stuffed' Jumbo at the Barnum Museum
 Barnum Museum: Jumbo

1861 births
1885 deaths
American circus performers
Individual elephants

Jumbo


Break-even (or break even), often abbreviated as B/E in finance, (sometimes called point of equilibrium) is the point of balance making neither a profit nor a loss. Any number below the break-even point constitutes a loss while any number above it shows a profit. The term originates in finance but the concept has been applied in other fields.

In economics

In economics and business, specifically cost accounting, the break-even point (BEP) is the point at which cost or expenses and revenue are equal: there is no net loss or gain, and one has "broken even". A profit or loss has not been made, although opportunity costs have been "paid" and capital has received the risk-adjusted, expected return. In other words, it is the point at which the total revenue of a business exceeds its total costs, and the business begins to create wealth instead of consuming it. It is shown graphically as the point where the total revenue and total cost curves meet. In the linear case the break-even point is equal to the fixed costs divided by the contribution margin per unit.

The break-even point is achieved when the generated profits match the total costs accumulated until the date of profit generation. Establishing the break-even point helps businesses in setting plans for the levels of production it needs to maintain to be profitable.

In finance
The accounting method of calculating break-even point does not include cost of working capital. The financial method of calculating break-even, called value added break-even analysis, is used to assess the feasibility of a project. This method not only accounts for all costs, it also includes the opportunity costs of the capital required to develop a project.

In other fields
In nuclear fusion research, the term break-even refers to a fusion energy gain factor equal to unity; this is also known as the Lawson criterion. The notion can also be found in more general phenomena, such as percolation. In energy, the break-even point is the point where usable energy gotten from a process equals the input energy.

In computer science, the term (used infrequently) refers to a point in the life cycle of a programming language where the language can be used to code its own compiler or interpreter. This is also called self-hosting.

In medicine, it is a postulated state when the advances of medicine permit every year an increase of one year or more of the life expectancy of the living, therefore leading to medical immortality, barring accidental death.

In Association football, the break-even requirement was adopted by UEFA. It is known as UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations. Its purpose is to prohibit clubs from spending more money on transfers than they earn as businesses, i.e. revenue per each fiscal year excluding donations from sponsors or advertisers.

References

Profit
Pricing
Management accounting

Break-even


Thomas Christie (1761–1796) was a Scottish radical political writer during the late 18th century. He was one of the two original founders of the important liberal journal, the Analytical Review.

Life
Christie was born to Alexander Christie (brother of the Unitarian writer William Christie), a merchant in Montrose, Scotland in 1761. Christie attended a local grammar school and subsequently became a clerk in a bank. Deciding that he was more interested in literature and science, Christie studied medicine independently and then matriculated at the Westminster General Dispensary in London in 1784. At the same time, he began writing a series of articles on natural history for the Gentleman's Magazine and became friends with its editor, John Nichols. Although he attended the University of Edinburgh in 1785 and 1786 to earn his medical degree, he left the program to dedicate himself to a life of letters.

In 1787 Christie took a six-month tour of Britain, visiting almost every important town. He met and began a correspondence with Anna Seward, a poet living in Lichfield; he also made the acquaintance of the naturalist and poet Erasmus Darwin, the naturalist and antiquary Thomas Pennant and the Dissenting minister and scientist Joseph Priestley.

In 1788 Christie and Joseph Johnson founded the highly influential Analytical Review, a periodical dedicated to open inquiry. It became the mouthpiece for reformers during the 1790s. A year later, he published the first part of Miscellanies, Philosophical, Medical, and Moral, the work for he which is best known. It discusses topics ranging from theology to public education to history.

During 1790 Christie spent six months in Paris, meeting many important French revolutionaries such as Mirabeau, Sieyès and Necker. Upon his return to Britain, he became a loyal supporter of the revolution and published A Sketch of the New Constitution of France. In 1791, he was one of the many who participated in the Revolution Controversy begun by Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790). His reply, Letters on the Revolution in France and the New Constitution, described his impressions of Paris and provided a contrast to Burke's depiction of it as lawless and violent. In 1792 he returned to Paris and was asked by the National Assembly to help translate a polyglot edition of the constitution.

On 9 September 1792 Christie married a Miss Thomson and entered into a partnership with her grandfather's successful London carpet manufacturing business. In 1796 he traveled to Suriname on business and died there.

Notes

1761 births
1796 deaths
18th-century Scottish writers
British magazine writers
People from Montrose, Angus
Scottish political writers
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh

Thomas Christie


LaTroy Hawkins (born December 21, 1972) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. In his 21-year Major League Baseball (MLB) career, he played for the Minnesota Twins, Chicago Cubs, San Francisco Giants, Baltimore Orioles, Colorado Rockies, New York Yankees, Houston Astros, Milwaukee Brewers, Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, New York Mets, and Toronto Blue Jays. Through the 2020 season, his 1,042 games pitched were the 10th-most of any major league player. He has also registered saves against all 30 MLB teams.

Born and raised in Gary, Indiana, Hawkins was a seventh-round draft pick of the Twins out of high school. He debuted with the team in 1995 and reached the major leagues for good in 1997. After posting some of the worst earned run averages (ERA) in the American League (AL) in 1998 and 1999, Hawkins was moved to the bullpen in 2000. He struggled as the Twins' closer in 2001 but found better success thereafter in a setup role, posting a career-low 1.86 ERA in 2003 and reaching the playoffs in 2002 and 2003 with Minnesota.

In 2004, the Cubs signed Hawkins to setup for closer Joe Borowski, but he blew several saves and became unpopular with the team's fans. He was traded to the Giants in 2005 and served as a setup man again for various teams for the next few seasons. He reached the World Series with the Rockies in 2007, though the team was swept by the Boston Red Sox in four games. Hawkins joined the Yankees in 2008, struggled, and was traded to the Astros, where he was very effective. In 2009, he filled in for an injured José Valverde as the Astros' closer and posted a 2.13 ERA. He signed a two-year contract with the Brewers after the season and reached the playoffs with Milwaukee again in 2011.

After spending a year with the Angels in 2012, Hawkins had to sign a minor league contract with the Mets in 2013. He made their roster and had become their closer by the end of the year. In 2014, as the oldest player in the NL, he served as Colorado's closer. In 2015, he reached the playoffs with the Blue Jays before retiring at the end of the year.

Amateur career
Hawkins was born and raised in Gary, Indiana. Hawkins' father was absent, and he was raised primarily by his mother, Debra, and his maternal grandparents. Growing up, he played baseball with broom handles, not getting to use a glove until he started playing Little League Baseball. Hawkins attended West Side High School. At West Side, he competed in basketball against Glenn Robinson and received a full scholarship offer to play college basketball at Indiana State. Hawkins also participated in track and field and the 1600 meters relay while in high school. Initially, he favored basketball over baseball, but Hawkins chose to pursue a baseball career after his grandfather told him that the latter was his better sport.

Professional career

Minnesota Twins (1995–2003)
Hawkins was drafted straight out of high school by the Minnesota Twins in the seventh round of the 1991 Major League Baseball (MLB) draft and received a $47,500 signing bonus. He spent the next four years in the Twins' minor league system before making the team's starting rotation out of spring training in 1995. His MLB debut on April 29, 1995, was a disastrous start against the Baltimore Orioles, where he gave up seven earned runs on seven hits in only  innings of work. After losing his first three starts, Hawkins was demoted to the Salt Lake Buzz of the Triple-A Pacific Coast League in May when the Twins had to shrink their roster. Promoted again in September, he won for the first time in the second game of a doubleheader against the Kansas City Royals on September 18. Altogether, Hawkins made six starts with a 2–3 record and an 8.67 earned run average (ERA). He began 1996 in the Twins' rotation as well, and struck out 10 batters in a win over the Detroit Tigers on April 25. However, he was demoted to the Buzz in May after posting an 8.20 ERA in seven starts for the Twins. This time, he was not promoted in September.

For the 1997 season, Hawkins started out pitching in Salt Lake City. Though his ERA with the Buzz was 5.45, his record was 9–4. He was promoted to the Twins in June, spending the rest of the season in their rotation. In 20 starts, he compiled a 6–12 record and a 5.84 ERA. Though his first start had not come until June 17, his 12 losses tied him with 11 other pitchers for 10th in the American League (AL).

1998 was the first year that Hawkins spent an entire season in the Twins' rotation. On May 17, he was the opposing starting pitcher during David Wells' perfect game. Hawkins led the team with 33 starts but sported a 7–14 record, leading the team in most runs allowed (126) and walks (70). He had the worst walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP) figure among Twins starters, with a 1.53 mark. His 5.25 ERA ranked him 88th out of 97 pitchers who threw enough innings to qualify for the MLB ERA title, and his 14 losses tied him with four other pitchers for eighth in the AL.

In 1999, for the second year in a row, Hawkins made 33 starts. He won 10 games this time but lost 14 again, and his 6.66 ERA was the worst among MLB starters who pitched enough innings to qualify for the ERA title. Hawkins led the AL in earned runs allowed (129), and his 14 losses were tied with four other pitchers for fourth in the AL.

Hawkins was moved to the bullpen in 2000. Twins manager Tom Kelly, unable to decide who he wanted as his full-time closer, used both Hawkins and Bob Wells in the role throughout the year. Hawkins appeared in 66 games, posting a 2–5 record and an ERA of 3.39. After never having recorded a save before, he converted 14 without blowing any chances.

By 2001, Hawkins was the everyday closer. He converted his first nine save opportunities, stretching his streak of consecutive saves recorded to 23 before he finally blew a save on May 5, against the Royals. As the season wore on, however, his ERA climbed to almost 6.00, and he was replaced as the closer by Eddie Guardado. He led the Twins in saves (28) but recorded a 5.96 ERA and a 1.91 WHIP in 61 games.

Over the next two seasons, Hawkins served as a setup man for Guardado. In 2002, Hawkins was used mainly in the seventh and eighth innings. He appeared in 65 games, winning all six of his decisions, posting a 2.13 ERA, and striking out 63 hitters in  innings pitched. The Twins won the AL Central Division title, and Hawkins made three appearances in the AL Division Series (ALDS) against the Oakland Athletics, striking out five batters in  scoreless innings as the Twins defeated Oakland in five games. He appeared in four games in the AL Championship Series (ALCS) against the Anaheim Angels as well, but his ERA was 20.25 this time, and the Angels defeated the Twins in four games. The next season, he was primarily used in the eighth inning. He posted a 9–3 record and struck out 75 hitters in  innings. His 1.86 ERA was fifth-lowest among AL pitchers who threw at least 60 innings, and his 74 appearances were fifth-highest among AL pitchers. For the second year in a row, the Twins won the AL Central Division title, this time facing the New York Yankees in the ALDS. In Game 1, Hawkins was awarded the win after pitching a scoreless seventh and eighth innings. However, he would post a 6.00 ERA in three appearances in the series, which the Yankees won three games to one. Hawkins became a free agent after the 2003 season.

Chicago Cubs (2004–2005)
In December 2003, Hawkins signed a three-year, $11.2 million contract with the Chicago Cubs. He began the year as the eighth-inning setup man for Cubs closer Joe Borowski, but Borowski was sidelined with an injury in early June, and Hawkins took over closing duties. On September 11, Hawkins threw an immaculate inning, striking out the side on only nine pitches in a game against the Florida Marlins. He posted an ERA of 2.63 and recorded 25 saves in 75 games for the Cubs in 2004. However, Hawkins also blew nine saves, including two (against the New York Mets on September 25 and the Cincinnati Reds on September 29) during a late-season losing streak that cost the Cubs the wild card. The blown saves earned him the ire of Cubs fans, who made a habit of booing him loudly at Wrigley Field when he came on in relief. Hawkins feuded with fans and media, and his relationship with both deteriorated.

Hawkins converted four saves early in the 2005 season but blew an equal number of opportunities. In early May, the Cubs replaced him as closer with Ryan Dempster, who was moved out of the starting rotation. Through 21 games with the team that season, Hawkins had a 1–4 record and a 3.32 ERA. On May 28, the Cubs traded Hawkins to the San Francisco Giants in exchange for pitchers Jerome Williams and David Aardsma.

San Francisco Giants (2005)
With the Giants, Hawkins assumed an eighth inning setup role, frequently preceding closer Tyler Walker. When Hawkins returned to Wrigley Field in late July, he was booed again by the Cubs fans. He suffered another blown save during the series on July 26, but the Giants won the game 3–2. In 45 games with the Giants, Hawkins had a 1–4 record and a 4.10 ERA. Between the Cubs and Giants, Hawkins's record was 2–8 in 66 games, with an ERA of 3.83. He allowed 58 hits in  innings pitched and posted a WHIP of 1.46. On December 6, Hawkins was traded along with cash considerations to the Baltimore Orioles for left-handed reliever Steve Kline.

Baltimore Orioles (2006)

With the Orioles in 2006, Hawkins served as the eighth inning setup man for closer Chris Ray. He spent one season with the Orioles, going 3–2 with a 4.48 ERA and no saves in 60 games. After the season, he became a free agent. Following his departure from Baltimore, he criticized the negative atmosphere that plagued the losing team's clubhouse. "Yeah, it was bad," he stated. "I don't want to knock the Orioles, but it was just bad. Bad."

Colorado Rockies (2007)
On December 5, 2006, Hawkins signed a one-year, $3.25 million contract with the Colorado Rockies, who wanted him to serve as the eighth inning setup man in 2007 for closer Brian Fuentes. From April 24 to May 22, Hawkins was on the disabled list due to right elbow inflammation. On July 8, when the Philadelphia Phillies helped the Coors Field groundskeepers get the tarp placed on the field during a heavy storm, Hawkins was the only member of the home team to join them in assisting. In 62 games, Hawkins had a 2–5 record, a 3.42 ERA, and zero saves. At the end of the regular season, the Rockies forced a tie-breaker game against the San Diego Padres to determine the NL wild card team. Hawkins pitched a scoreless seventh inning, and the Rockies eventually won the game 9–8 in 13 innings to reach the playoffs for the first time in their history. He made three appearances for the Rockies in the NLDS (Game 1) and NLCS (Games 2 and 4), pitching a scoreless seventh inning each time as the Rockies won seven straight games to earn a trip to the World Series. There, he pitched the last inning of Games 1 and 3 against the Boston Red Sox, allowing Mike Lowell to score on a sacrifice fly hit by Jason Varitek in the latter as Colorado lost four straight games. After the season, he became a free agent.

New York Yankees (2008)
On December 9, 2007, Hawkins signed a one-year, $3.75 million contract with the New York Yankees. Previously, he had worn uniform No. 32 with the Rockies. However, since the Yankees had retired that number in honor of Elston Howard, Hawkins switched to No. 21 in 2008. He became the first Yankee to wear that number since outfielder Paul O'Neill in 2001. However, after returning from a road trip on April 16, Hawkins switched to No. 22 in response to the fans' booing, yelling, and calling O'Neill's name when he took the field.

On May 20, during a game against the Baltimore Orioles, Hawkins threw a head-high pitch over left fielder Luke Scott. Hawkins was ejected by home plate umpire Chuck Meriwether, and Scott accused him of deliberately throwing the ball over his head, though Hawkins said he was just pitching inside. Hawkins was suspended by MLB for three games and fined an undisclosed amount.

Hawkins pitched unimpressively with the Yankees in 2008, going 1–1 with a 5.71 ERA in 33 relief appearances. On July 26, he was designated for assignment.

Houston Astros (2008–2009)
On July 30, 2008, the Houston Astros acquired Hawkins from the Yankees for minor leaguer Matt Cusick. The trade was made because the Astros needed someone to help Doug Brocail in late-inning setup situations. Hawkins pitched 21 innings out of the bullpen and allowing just one earned run over that span (good for an ERA of 0.43). "No one could have imagined Hawkins would respond with a nearly perfect two-month run with his new team," praised Alyson Footer of MLB.com. Hawkins signed a one-year deal with the Astros to return for the 2009 season.

Just before the 2009 World Baseball Classic began in March, Hawkins was added to the roster for the United States national baseball team when Joe Nathan had to drop out because of a sore shoulder. He pitched in four games in the tournament, winning one and posting a 7.36 ERA. The United States was eliminated by Japan in the semifinals.

From late April through the middle of June 2009, Hawkins served as Houston's closer, as regular closer José Valverde was sidelined with a calf injury. While Valverde was out, Hawkins was 9-for-11 in save opportunities. When Valverde returned, Hawkins again assumed an eighth-inning setup role. From July 28 through August 12, 2009, Hawkins was on the disabled list because of back pain caused by shingles. "Hugs were completely out of the question," he described the pain. In 65 games, Hawkins sported an ERA of 2.13 in 65 games, the lowest ERA he had since 2003. He had a 1–4 record and saved 11 games. After the 2009 season, Hawkins became a free agent.

Milwaukee Brewers (2010–2011)
On December 16, 2009, Hawkins signed a two-year contract with the Milwaukee Brewers that was worth $7.5 million. Shoulder soreness prevented him from pitching for Milwaukee from May 6 through July 30, and after appearing in only five further games through August 10, he was placed back on the disabled list with shoulder weakness, never to pitch again that season. All told, the injuries limited him to 18 games in 2010. He was 0–3 with an 8.44 ERA.

Hawkins served as the eighth-inning setup man for John Axford in 2011. From April 25 through July 1, he did not allow a run in 22 straight games (20 innings pitched). He was 3–1 with a 2.42 ERA in 52 games as the Brewers won the NL Central. Facing the Arizona Diamondbacks in the NLDS, he pitched a scoreless inning in Game 2. The Brewers won that series in five games. In the NLCS against the Cardinals, he was not charged with a run in three appearances, but he did allow two inherited runners to score in Milwaukee's 12–6 loss in Game 6. The Cardinals defeated the Brewers in six games. After the season, he became a free agent.

Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim (2012)
On January 6, 2012, Hawkins agreed to a one-year, $3 million contract with the Los Angeles Angels for the 2012 season. From May 7 through June 9, he was on the disabled list with a broken right pinkie finger. He led Angel relievers with a 1.63 ERA through August 2 but posted a 7.71 ERA thereafter, losing the distinction to Ernesto Frieri by season's end. Frieri posted a 2.32 ERA, compared to Hawkins's 3.64. Hawkins appeared in 48 games, going 2–3. After the season, he became a free agent.

New York Mets (2013)

Unable to get a major league contract in 2013, Hawkins signed a minor league deal with invitation to spring training with the Mets on January 31. He considered retiring rather than accepting the minor league contract, but his agent told him to reconsider for 24 hours, and Hawkins decided ""Next time I leave this game, I'm gonna leave on my own terms." At the end of spring training, he earned a spot on the Mets roster. In August, he became the team's closer after Bobby Parnell was shut down for the season with a herniated disc in his back. After blowing a save against the Padres on August 14, he converted 10 straight save opportunities to end the year. Hawkins appeared in 72 games, amassing a 3–2 record and 13 saves (his most since the 2004 season with the Cubs) while posting a 2.93 ERA. After the season, he became a free agent.

Second stint with the Colorado Rockies (2014–2015)
In November 2013, Hawkins signed a one-year, $2.5 million contract to return to the Colorado Rockies. By 2014, the 41-year-old Hawkins was the oldest active player in the NL and the oldest active MLB pitcher.

Hawkins served as the Rockies' closer for the 2014 season. He converted his first 10 save opportunities of the year before blowing one on May 18 against the Padres. The streak of 20 (dating back to 2013) was his longest since he converted 23 straight saves from 2000 to 2001. He finished the year with a 3.31 ERA. On September 27, Hawkins made his 1,000th career appearance in a game against the Los Angeles Dodgers and promptly got Darwin Barney to fly out to right field. Though he converted only 23 saves, he only blew three opportunities and served as Colorado's closer for the entire season. Adam Ottavino was the only other Rockie to record a save in 2014; Colorado's 24 saves were the lowest total among the 15 NL teams.

On December 12, 2014, during an interview on MLB Network, Hawkins announced that 2015 would be his last MLB season. He opened 2015 as the closer but was removed from the role on April 13 after blowing saves in two of his first three appearances. From April 22 through June 15, he was on the disabled list with right biceps tendinitis. After posting a 2–1 record, two saves, and a 3.63 ERA in 24 games, he and teammate Troy Tulowitzki were traded to the Toronto Blue Jays for José Reyes, Jeff Hoffman, Miguel Castro, and Jesús Tinoco on July 28.

Toronto Blue Jays (2015)
On August 5, Hawkins became the 13th player in MLB history to record a save against all 30 teams, closing out a 9–7 win over the Minnesota Twins, the team he started his professional career with. He also surpassed Darren Oliver as the oldest Blue Jay to record a save. He finished the game against the Orioles on September 30 that clinched the AL East division championship, pitching an inning and striking out Ryan Flaherty to end the game and give Toronto its first AL East championship since 1993. Hawkins made 18 regular season appearances for the Blue Jays, pitching to a 1–0 record, 2.76 ERA, and 14 strikeouts in 16 innings.

In Game 2 of the ALDS, Hawkins entered the game at the beginning of the 14th inning, retiring the first two hitters for the Texas Rangers before allowing three straight singles. Two runners scored, and Hawkins took the loss in the 6–4 defeat. It was his only appearance of the series, but Toronto rallied from a 2–0 deficit to win the series in five games. He made two appearances in the ALCS but allowed five runs in one inning pitched as the Blue Jays were eliminated in five games by the Royals.

Through the 2020 season, his 1,042 games pitched were the 10th highest in all-time MLB history. Bob Nightengale of USA Today voted for Hawkins in the 2021 Baseball Hall of Fame balloting. In an article addressing critics of the vote, Nightengale explained that he was so distraught when Hal McRae, a player he greatly admired, failed to get any votes, that he vowed to cast his ballot for anyone else he greatly admired again, even if their statistics did not seem Hall-of-Fame worthy. "Really, Hawkins epitomizes the character clause for the Baseball Writers' Association of America," Nightengale pointed out. The clause reads, "Voting shall be based upon the player's record, playing ability, integrity, sportsmanship, character and contribution to the team(s) on which the player played." Though Nightengale was unaware of it at the time, Hawkins garnered a second Hall of Fame vote from someone else, but this was not enough for him to be eligible for future ballots.

Pitching style
In a 1995 scouting report for the Chicago White Sox, Ed Pebley wrote that Hawkins had just an average fastball which travelled only –. He also threw a curveball, a slider, and a changeup, all of which travelled in the  range. However, his fastball velocity improved, averaging around  later in the decade. Eventual Hall of Famer Ken Griffey Jr. was so impressed with the pitch, he asked to see Hawkins once when the Seattle Mariners were playing the Twins at the Metrodome. Griffey asked Hawkins why, with a fastball as good as the one he had, he would ever bother throwing a slow changeup. "I learned a lot by him telling me that," Hawkins said. "I used it to my advantage after that, that's for sure." Later in his career, he relied more on the slider and a split-finger fastball.

Personal life
Hawkins and his wife Anita have two children, a son named Dakari and a daughter named Troi. They live in Prosper, Texas, a suburb of Dallas. Hawkins' half-brother, Ronald Sewood, was sentenced to prison in 1996 at the Federal Correctional Institution, Milan. Hawkins visited Sewood whenever he played against the nearby Detroit Tigers. As of 2013, Hawkins estimated he spent $10,000 on books and magazine subscriptions for Sewood. Hawkins is the godfather of his Minnesota Twins teammate Pat Mahomes' son, Patrick II who is a quarterback for the Kansas City Chiefs. Hawkins is good friends with Torii Hunter, his teammate for several years with the Twins. Another godson of Hawkins's, Elijah Johnson, played college basketball for the University of Kansas Jayhawks.

After the 2016 season, Hawkins was hired as a special assistant to the Minnesota Twins organization. The team announced that he would, among other things, be "contributing to the development of our organizational pitching philosophies used in the selection and development of all players. Additionally, he will contribute to the amateur scouting process and trade deadline preparation meetings."

On a number of occasions, Hawkins has contributed to charitable efforts. After Hurricane Katrina, Hawkins went to Mississippi and Alabama, working in trailer park hospitals and helping with house rebuilding efforts as part of the Major League Baseball Players Association's relief efforts. He also offered financial help to a young mother with two children whose home had been ruined by the hurricane. Hawkins has given nearly $30,000 to Gary Youth Baseball, which runs the city's Little League teams. In January 2021, Hawkins and his wife paid for a woman who caught a home invasion on TikTok to move into an apartment with better security.

Notes

References

External links

, or Retrosheet
Pelota Binaria (Venezuelan Winter League)

1972 births
Living people
African-American baseball players
Albuquerque Isotopes players
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
Arizona League Brewers players
Baltimore Orioles players
Baseball coaches from Indiana
Baseball in Brazil
Baseball players from Gary, Indiana
Baseball players from Chicago
Brevard County Manatees players
Chicago Cubs players
Colorado Rockies players
Colorado Springs Sky Sox players
Elizabethton Twins players
Fort Myers Miracle players
Fort Wayne Wizards players
Fresno Grizzlies players
Gulf Coast Twins players
Houston Astros players
Inland Empire 66ers players
Los Angeles Angels players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Milwaukee Brewers players
Minnesota Twins executives
Minnesota Twins players
Nashville Xpress players
Nashville Sounds players
Navegantes del Magallanes players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
New York Mets players
New York Yankees players
Salt Lake Bees players
Salt Lake Buzz players
San Francisco Giants players
Toronto Blue Jays players
World Baseball Classic players of the United States
2009 World Baseball Classic players
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American sportspeople

LaTroy Hawkins


Defense in Depth (also known as layered security and layered defense) is an information assurance (IA) concept. It uses multiple layers of security controls (defenses) placed throughout an information technology (IT) system. The multiple layers are not of the same security tool. It uses several different kinds of security with each protecting against a different security attack.

Background
Defense in depth is originally a military strategy. It seeks to delay rather than prevent the advance of an attacker by yielding space to buy time.  The National Security Agency (NSA) changed the concept to be a comprehensive approach to information and electronic security.

The placement of protection mechanisms, procedures and policies is intended to increase the dependability of an IT system. Multiple layers of defense can prevent espionage. They also prevent direct attacks against critical systems. In terms of computer network defense, defense in depth measures should not only prevent security breaches but also buy an organization time to detect and respond to an attack.

Onion model
Defense in depth has long been explained by using the onion as an example of the various layers of security. The outer layer contains the firewall. Middle layers contain various controls. The data is in the center protected by the other defenses.

A newer concept is the kill chain. Borrowed from the military it is a method of detecting and breaking an opponent's kill chain. Lockheed Martin adapted this concept to information security, using it as a method for modeling intrusions on a computer network.

Related pages
Using more than one of the following layers constitutes defense in depth.

 Antivirus software
 Authentication and password security
 Biometrics
 Encryption
 Firewall (networking)
 Hashing passwords
 Intrusion detection systems (IDS)
 Logging and auditing
 Multi-factor authentication
 Vulnerability scanners
 Physical security (e.g. deadbolt locks)
 Internet Security Awareness Training
 Virtual private network (VPN)
 Sandboxing
 Intrusion Protection System (IPS)

References

Other websites
Defense in Depth has Always Been a Valid Concept

Networks
Computer security

Defense in depth (computing)


Jury duty or jury service is service as a juror in a legal proceeding.  Different countries have different approaches to juries. Variations include the kinds of cases tried before a jury, how many jurors hear a trial, and whether the lay person is involved in a single trial or holds a paid job similar to a judge, but without legal training.

Juror selection process

In the English model, potential jurors are generally summoned for duty, and then interviewed for their suitability to serve on the jury for a particular trial.  The prosecutor and defense can dismiss potential jurors for various reasons, which can vary from one state to another, and they can have a specific number of arbitrary dismissals, or unconditional peremptory challenge, which does not require specific reasons. The judge can also dismiss potential jurors.

Some courts had been sympathetic to jurors' privacy concerns and refer to jurors by number, and conduct voir dire in camera (i.e., in private). In the United States, there have also been objections to requiring jurors to publicly give private information about themselves, such as medical conditions or whether they have used illegal drugs, even though this personal information might be relevant, for example, in a case about medical malpractice or drug trafficking.

Juries based on English model
The English model of a jury draws jurors from among the citizens.  This approach is based on the traditions of English common law.  This approach uses an adversarial system, and the jury is separate from the court.  Generally the point of the jury is to determine whether the prosecution has proven the defendant to be guilty.  The jury generally does not choose the penalty.  This model is used in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States, and many former British colonies, as well as Austria and Spain.

Australia
Potential jurors in Australia are randomly selected from an electoral roll.

Jurors receive a small payment for each day of attendance. Employers are also required to pay their employees "make-up pay", that is, the usual pay the employee would have earned from working, less the jury duty payment received from the state. Under the National Employment Standards, make-up pay is required only for the first ten days of jury service; however, the laws of Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia extend the make-up pay requirement for the entire duration of the jury service.

New South Wales
The jury system in New South Wales is administered by the Jury Services Branch of the Office of the Sheriff of New South Wales, an office in the New South Wales Department of Attorney General and Justice, and operates in accordance with the Jury Act 1977 and Jury Amendment Act 2010. These laws detail persons who are disqualified, ineligible, or may be excused from jury service. In addition, the Jury Exemption Act 1965 and section 7, "Excuse for cause", of LRC Report 117 (2007) details other persons who can or may not serve as jurors or otherwise claim exemption.

Individuals who are blind and/or deaf may be excluded from jury service.

During the juror selection process, both parties can object to up to three potential jurors without providing reasons.

The Office of the Sheriff of NSW disseminates resources for jurors. Jurors may be compensated for their service.

United Kingdom

According to 2016 figures from the Ministry of Justice, there is about a 35% chance of people in England and Wales being summoned for jury service over the course of their lifetime. In Scotland, the percentage is much higher due to having a lower population as well having juries made up of 15 people (as opposed to 12 people in England and Wales).

United States

When a person is called for jury duty in the United States, that service is mandatory, and the person summoned for jury duty must attend. Failing to report for jury duty can result in a wide range of penalties, from simply being placed back into the selection pool to immediate criminal prosecution and having a bench warrant issued for contempt of court. Employers are not allowed to fire an employee for being called to jury duty, but they are typically not required to pay salaries during this time. Jury duty reimbursement is as little as $5 per day, although a juror can plead to be excused for financial hardship. An individual who reports to jury duty may be asked to serve as a juror in a trial or as an alternate juror, or they may be dismissed.

In the United States, government employees are in a paid status of leave (in accordance with ) for the duration of time spent serving as a juror (also known as court duty or court leave by some organizations). Many quasi-governmental organizations have adopted this provision into their contract manuals. Accordingly, government employees are in a paid status as long as they have received a summons in connection with a judicial proceeding, by a court or authority responsible for the conduct of that proceeding to serve as a juror (or witness) in the District of Columbia or a state, territory, or possession of the United States, Puerto Rico, or the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.

The US Supreme Court has held, in Butler v. Perry, 240 U.S. 328 (1916), that the Thirteenth Amendment, which prohibits "slavery [and] involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime," does not prohibit "enforcement of those duties which individuals owe to the state, such as services in the army, militia, on the jury, etc."

In both the United States and Canada, jurors having conscientious objection to service are generally excused from service. This chiefly includes religious groups such as the Amish, Conservative Mennonites, and Old Order Mennonites.

in the United States
Since 2012, some US citizens have been targets of a "jury scam", wherein they are called by persons posing as officers from a court, claiming that the person did not show up for jury duty and that charges will be pressed. Potential victims of identity theft or identity fraud, these individuals are then told that the matter can be resolved if personal information is given. The US Department of Justice recommends that recipients of these calls contact the court directly to avoid falling victim to this scam.

Federal courts mostly use the United States Postal Service in their communications with prospective jurors, and any calls that are made will never ask for personal information.

Mixed tribunal
A mixed tribunal is one in which the case is tried collaboratively by a combination of trained judges and lay jurors. The judges and the jurors are officially considered equal but have distinct roles. The judges and jurors tend, in most cases, to agree with each other, though in a few cases, they take different perspectives. Compared to the English model, mixed tribunals are more likely to result in agreement between the judge and the jury.

In the German Schöffen model, a trained judge and two lay jurors collaborate to determine whether a defendant is guilty. The jurors are considered part of the court, and work with the judge throughout a trial. The jurors are allowed to ask questions of the prosecution and defense during the trial.

In France, judges and lay jurors similarly work together, but the number of lay people involved is much larger, ranging from 9 to 12 jurors plus a panel of three professional judges. French jurors are selected at random and work with the judges only during the final deliberations.

In a third model of collaborative juries, the court includes jurors with relevant expertise in certain trials. For example, in Croatia, juvenile court cases are required to have jurors with experience in juvenile education, such as teachers.

Russia used a mixed tribunal system until 1993, and then converted to an adversarial model that requires juries to answer specific questions about facts, rather than producing a verdict of guilty or not guilty.

In the state of Vermont in the United States in certain lower courts the verdict is decided by two elected lay people known as side judges along with the professional judge.

Lay judges

In some systems, minor cases are decided by an individual who does not have legal training.  This can be considered a form of jury service in the sense that the verdict is decided by a citizen with no legal training.

References

External links

Judiciaries
Criminal procedure
Juries
Local government

Jury duty


A bowl is a typically round dish or container generally used for preparing, serving, or consuming food. The interior of a bowl is characteristically shaped like a spherical cap, with the edges and the bottom forming a seamless curve. This makes bowls especially suited for holding liquids and loose food, as the contents of the bowl are naturally concentrated in its center by the force of gravity. The exterior of a bowl is most often round, but can be of any shape, including rectangular.

The size of bowls varies from small bowls used to hold a single serving of food to large bowls, such as punch bowls or salad bowls, that are often used to hold or store more than one portion of food. There is some overlap between bowls, cups, and plates. Very small bowls, such as the tea bowl, are often called cups, while plates with especially deep wells are often called bowls.

In many cultures, bowls are the most common kind of vessel used for serving and eating food. Historically, small bowls were also used for serving both tea and alcoholic drinks. In Western culture plates and cups are more commonly used.

Background

Modern bowls can be made of ceramic, metal, wood, plastic, and other materials. Bowls have been made for thousands of years. Very early bowls have been found in China, Ancient Greece, Crete and in certain Native American cultures.

In Ancient Greek pottery, small bowls, including phiales and pateras, and bowl-shaped cups called kylices were used.  Phiales were used for libations and included a small dent in the center for the bowl to be held with a finger, although one source indicates that these were used to hold perfume rather than wine. Some Mediterranean examples from the Bronze Age manifest elaborate decoration and sophistication of design. For example, the bridge spouted vessel design appeared at the Minoan site of Phaistos. In the 4th millennium BC, evidence exists that the Uruk culture of ancient Mesopotamia mass-produced beveled rim bowls of standardized sizes. Moreover, in Chinese pottery, there are many elaborately painted bowls and other vessels dating to the Neolithic period. , the oldest bowl found is 18,000 years old.

In examining bowls found during an archaeological dig in North America, the anthropologist Vincas Steponaitis defines a bowl by its dimensions, writing that a bowl's diameter rarely falls under half its height and that historic bowls can be classified by their edge, or lip, and shape.

Communal bowl

In many cultures, food and drink are shared in a communal bowl or cup.  In Mali, the name of the town of Bandiagara () refers to the communal bowl meals are served in. The name translates roughly to "large eating bowl." In Zimbabwe, sadza is traditionally eaten from a communal bowl, a tradition that is still maintained by some families, mainly in rural areas. It is generally eaten with the right hand without the aid of cutlery and often rolled into a ball before being dipped into a variety of condiments such as sauce/gravy, sour milk, or stewed vegetables. Lakh is a popular boiled porridge made with rolled millet flour pellets (araw/arraw) typically topped at serving with sweetened fermented milk. It is usually served in a communal bowl or platter in Senegal.

In China, it is considered rude and unhygienic for a diner to use his or her own chopsticks to pick up food from communal bowls and plates when such utensils are present. Other potentially rude behaviors with chopsticks include playing with them, separating them in any way (such as holding one in each hand), piercing food with them, or standing them vertically in a plate of food. (The latter is especially rude, evoking images of incense or joss sticks used ceremoniously at funerals.)

In some cultures, the communal bowl has a set of social strictures, as evidenced by the Spanish idiom, "¿Cuándo hemos comido en el mismo plato?" (English: When have we eaten from the same dish?).

Gallery

See also
 Bridge spouted vessel
 Buffet
 Dishware
 List of eating utensils

Notes

References

External links

Containers
Crockery
Kitchenware
Serving vessels
Utility vessels

Bowl


A lead sheet or fake sheet is a form of musical notation that specifies the essential elements of a popular song: the melody, lyrics and harmony. The melody is written in modern Western music notation, the lyric is written as text below the staff and the harmony is specified with chord symbols above the staff.

The lead sheet does not describe the chord voicings, voice leading, bass line or other aspects of the accompaniment. These are specified later by an arranger or improvised by the performers, and are considered aspects of the arrangement or performance of a song, rather than a part of the song itself. "Lead" refers to a song's lead part, the most important melody line or voice.

A lead sheet may also specify an instrumental part or theme, if this is considered essential to the song's identity. For example, the opening guitar riff from Deep Purple's "Smoke on the Water" is a part of the song; any performance of the song should include the guitar riff, and any imitation of that guitar riff is an imitation of the song. Thus the riff belongs on the lead sheet.

A collected volume of lead sheets may be known as a fake book, due to the improvisational nature of its use: when presented with a lead sheet, proficient musicians may be able to "fake it" by performing the song adequately without a full score.  This is in contrast to a full score, in which every note to be played in a piece is written out.  Since fake books and lead sheets only give a rough outline of the melody and harmony, the performer or arranger is expected to improvise significantly.

Use in performance

A lead sheet is often the only form of written music used by a small jazz ensemble. One or more musicians will play the melody while the rest of the group improvises an appropriate accompaniment based on the chord progression given in the chord symbols, followed by an improvised solo also based on the chord progression. Similarly, a sufficiently skilled harmony player (e.g. a jazz pianist or a jazz guitarist) is able to accompany a singer or perform a song by themselves using only a lead sheet.

Lead sheets are not intended for novices. Sometimes, melodies with syncopation are written with the syncopation omitted, so the reader must be familiar with the songs "by ear" to play the melodies correctly. Some 32 bar forms do not have a printed melody during the "B" section, as the lead instrumentalist is expected to improvise one. Similarly, the chord progressions for some blues tunes omit the turnaround (often simply indicating two bars on the tonic), as it is expected that an experienced jazz player will know the appropriate turnarounds to insert (e.g., (I–VI7–ii–V7). The reader needs to have thorough familiarity with extended chords (e.g., C13) and altered chords (e.g., C711). Introductions and codas are often omitted, as it is expected that players will know the familiar intros and codas used on specific songs. Lead sheets are often bound together in a fake book.

Chord chart

Sheets containing only the chord progressions to the song are often called chord charts or chord sheets, to distinguish them from lead sheets. These sheets could be used by the rhythm section instruments to guide their improvised accompaniment and by lead instruments for their improvised solo sections, but since they do not contain the melody, they can be used in performances only by players who have the melodies memorized. Lead sheets are commonly used at informal "jam sessions" and at jazz shows at small nightclubs and bars.

As legal definition of a song
The melody, lyrics, and harmony define what a song is. In the music industry and entertainment law, a lead sheet is the document used to describe a song for legal purposes. For example, a lead sheet is the form of a song to which copyright is applied—if a songwriter sues someone for copyright violation, the court will compare lead sheets to determine how much of the song has been copied. Or if a song is considered for an Academy Award or a Grammy, the song is submitted for consideration in the form of a lead sheet.

History
A predecessor to lead sheets was created in May 1942 when George Goodwin, a radio station director, released the first Tune-Dex cards. Printing on  index cards that had the same size as library catalog cards, Goodwin provided lyrics, melody and chord symbols as well as copyright information. Goodwin also promoted the cards to professional musicians until 1963, when poor health forced his retirement. For many years the "standard" fake books were called simply "Fake Books". All were composed of songs illegally printed, with no royalties paid to the copyright owners. In 1964, the FBI's Cleveland, Ohio, office observed that "practically every professional musician in the country owns at least one of these fake music books as they constitute probably the single most useful document available".

The first two volumes, Fake Book Volume 1 and Fake Book Volume 2, issued in the late 1940s and 1950s, together comprised about 2000 songs dating from the turn of the 20th century through the late 1950s. In the 1950s the Modern Jazz Fake Book, Volumes 1 and 2 was issued, and Fake Book Volume 3, containing about 500 songs, came out in 1961. The music in Fake Books 1, 2, and 3 was photocopied or reset with a musical typewriter from the melody lines of the original sheet music. Usually chord symbols, titles, composer names, and lyrics were typewritten, but for a number of songs these were all photocopied along with the melody line.

The three Fake Books were well indexed, alphabetically as well as by musical genre and Broadway show. Although the tunes in the Fake Books were compiled illegally, the creators printed copyright information under every song — perhaps to give the false impression that the Fake Books were legal, or to show respect for the creators. The Modern Jazz Fake Book was divided into two sections, each indexed separately as Volume One and Volume Two. The music was transcribed by hand from recordings, and each transcription included performer name, record label, and catalog number. Unlike today's fake and "real" books that have "jazz" in their titles, the Modern Jazz Fake Book included no standards, but only original tunes written and recorded by jazz musicians. All these books have been long out of print, though music students have photocopied the books from other musicians. Fake books originally infringed copyrights, and their circulation was primarily underground.

During the school year of 1974–75, an unidentified group of musicians based at the Berklee College of Music in Boston published the Real Book. Bass guitarist Steve Swallow, who was teaching at Berklee at that time, said the students who edited the book intended "to make a book that contained a hipper repertoire, more contemporary repertoire". It was popular and in its turn spawned a number of "fake Real Books". Swallow's 1994 album Real Book features his original compositions, but the cover art mimics a spiral-bound, coffee-stained fake book used by jazz musicians.

In the 2000s, some types of "real books" have been published which fully respect copyright laws. In the same period, some electronic "fake books" became available, which offer instant transposition. This facilitates the performance of music at shows where some performers have transposing instruments, or in shows with a singer who wants the band to play in a different key to accommodate their vocal range.

See also
 Chord chart
 Head (music)
 Chord letters and Roman numeral analysis

 Jazz standard
 Ralph Patt, author of The Vanilla Book of 400 chord progressions for jazz standards
 Real Book
 Rise Up Singing
 The Fiddler's Fakebook
 Chas. H. Hansen Music Corp., pioneer publisher of legitimate fake books

References

Musical notation
Jazz techniques
Music industry
Jazz terminology
Music performance

Lead sheet


Panzerfaust is the fifth studio album by Norwegian black metal band Darkthrone, released in June 1995 by Moonfog Productions (Europe) and The End Records (North America). The track "Quintessence" featured lyrics by Varg Vikernes, their second and final album to do so. As with the previous album Transilvanian Hunger, all instruments on Panzerfaust were recorded solely by Fenriz on a 4-track recorder set up in his bedroom (dubbed "Necrohell Studios" by the band); with Nocturno Culto performing vocals on all songs except for the outro.

In October 2010, Panzerfaust was reissued by Peaceville Records as a two-disc edition, with the second disc featuring Fenriz discussing the making of the album and the subject matter of the songs. In this commentary, Fenriz cited Celtic Frost's Morbid Tales (1984), Bathory's Under the Sign of the Black Mark (1987), and Vader's Necrolust (1989) as key riff inspirations.

Track listing

Personnel
 Nocturno Culto – lead vocals
 Fenriz – guitar, bass, drums, synths, spoken word vocals

References

Darkthrone albums
1995 albums
Norwegian-language albums

Panzerfaust (album)


Eden is a 1958 social science fiction novel by Polish writer Stanisław Lem. It was first published in 1958 in issues 211-271 of the newspaper Trybuna Robotnicza. The first book edition was in 1959.  It was first published in English in 1989 ().

Plot
A starship crew—Captain (in the original, Coordinator), Doctor, Engineer, Chemist, Physicist and Cyberneticist (robotics expert)—crash land on an alien world they call Eden. After escaping their wrecked ship they set out to explore the planet, first traveling through an unsettling wilderness and coming upon an abandoned automated factory. There they find a constant cycle of materials being produced and then destroyed and recycled. Perplexed, they return to their ship. At the crash site they find a local sentient alien has entered their vessel. They name these large creatures, with small torsos retractable into their large bodies, doublers (a translation of Lem's neologism dubelt, to mean "double-bodied").

The next day the expedition begins to come into contact with the local civilization, and their strange, wheel-like vehicles. Eventually they come into conflict with a vehicle's pilot, who is a doubler. Killing the pilot and fleeing in his vehicle, they return to the ship and prepare defenses. After an attack never comes, they assemble their jeep and half the team sets out to explore further, the other half remaining behind to repair the ship.

The jeep team eventually discovers structures resembling graves and hundreds of preserved skeletons, and adjacent to it, a settlement. Two expedition members exploring the settlement become caught in a stampede of doublers, who seem totally indifferent to the presence of the alien expedition. One doubler however, comes to the jeep and refuses to return to the settlement, and is brought back to the ship. While the expedition explored the settlement, a large group of doubler vehicles had reconnoitered the crash site and then fled.

After a while the crew learns that the local civilization is planning to act against them. Shortly thereafter the area around the ship is bombarded for several hours, with all hits falling into a circular ditch made earlier. It turns out they were bombarded  with "micromechanical devices", from which a wall of glass begins to grow and eventually assembles into a dome, an attempt to isolate the ship.

The doubler that has joined the group proves to be uncommunicative, leading some of the crew to suggest that it has some sort of intellectual disability. The crew also begins to postulate that the "naked" doublers they have seen are the victims of genocide. Choosing to explore further, the crew activates "Defender", a large tank which they have managed to repair. Blasting through the glass dome they travel far southwest, observing from a distance, for the first time, everyday doubler life.

Returning to the ship in the night, the crew encounters a group of doublers being gassed to death, and act in self defense with their antimatter weapons, killing an indeterminate number of both "naked" and "soldier" doublers. When the Defender team returns to the ship, they find that most of the glass wall has repaired itself, and blast another hole. Returning to the ship until the radioactivity dies down, the expedition plans its next move. In the middle of the meeting a dressed doubler suddenly enters, and the crew makes contact, discovering the doubler to have knowledge of astronomy.

The first contact however, is soon turned into a bitter victory, as the crew learns that this doubler has unwittingly exposed himself to radiation by entering the hole made by Defender. Informing the doubler of his impending death, both parties struggle to learn as much as they can. Through a developed computer translator, the crew and the doubler can speak to one another and begin to gain an understanding of the other's species.

An indistinct image emerges of doublers' Orwellian information-controlled civilization that is almost self-regulating, with a special kind of system of government—one that officially does not exist and is thus impossible to destroy. The society is controlled through a fictitious advanced branch of information science Lem dubs procrustics, based on the control and stratification of information flows within the society. It is used for molding groups within a society and ultimately a society as a whole to behave as designed by secret hidden rulers. One example described in the novel is the above-mentioned settlement, kind of a "concentration camp" without any guards, designed so that the prisoners stay inside apparently of their own "free" will.

Although the doublers know almost nothing of nuclear science, they once conducted a massive genetic experiment to enhance the species. This attempt failed miserably, resulting in deformed doublers who, if they survive, are often driven to the fringes of society. Much like the government, the very existence of this experiment, and the factories created for it, are denied, and anyone with the knowledge of them is eliminated. The doubler explains that the information disseminated to the higher echelons of doubler society was that humans, having been subjected to the effects of cosmic rays throughout their space journey, were mutant monsters that were being quarantined, but he had seen it as a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity and chose to pursue it, a choice the humans greatly empathize with.

Finally the ship is repaired and the crew is ready to leave Eden. The astronomer doubler, although recovering fully from his radiation exposure, decides to stay behind, and as the starship takes off, much to the crew's sadness, the two doublers stand by the ship's exhaust, choosing to die rather than return to their oppressive society.

The planet is seen from the distance once again, a beautiful violet sphere, whose beauty, they now recall, was the very reason they crashed while attempting too close a fly-by and hitting the atmosphere by mistake. It was because of its beauty that they called it, when first seeing it, Eden.

Literary criticism

Lem's own opinion about the book was unflattering. He wrote "From today's perspective Eden is neutral in my eyes.  It is so-so.  From the point of view of literature it is a rather unsuccessful book;  its characters tend to be schematic and the pictured universe is a bit "flat" and one-dimensional."

Marek Oramus in his essay Doktryna nieingerencji ("Doctrine of Noninterfence") writes that the novel marks the beginning of the full maturity of Lem as a writer. He also notes that although the technology in the novel overall is rather archaic from today's point of view, the novel describes something that is called nanotechnology today. He also remarks that Eden is the first of Lem's stories about failed "first contact". Later Lems's writing of this type are much more skeptical, the best known case being Solaris.<ref>Doktryna nieingerencji, In: Marek Oramus, Bogowie Lema</ref>

Background
The book was written in Poland while under Soviet-style regime, which in all Soviet bloc countries had a system of all-pervasive censorship and information control and stratification.

See also
 Double bind
 Some other novels in which information manipulation is a major part of the plot
 The Bull's Hour (planet-wide totalitarian state through information control and stratification)
 Prisoners of Power (anonymous totalitarian oligarchy through propaganda and mind control)
 The Lucifer Principle (society as memes carrier, shaped by them in return)
 Nineteen Eighty-Four
 Brave New World'' (hedonistic caste-based society with everyone conditioned to be non-curious, content with their place; full information available to a select few "World Controllers")

References

Sources
 Harvest Books; Reprint edition. (1991)

External links

1958 science fiction novels
Space exploration novels
Novels by Stanisław Lem
Nanotechnology in fiction
Polish novels
Polish science fiction novels

Eden (Lem novel)