Belastok Region, also known as Belastok Voblasts or Belostok Oblast (; ; ) was a short-lived region (voblasts) of the Byelorussian SSR during World War II, lasting from September 1939 until Operation Barbarossa in 1941, and again for a short period in 1944. The administrative center of the region was the city of Białystok (Belastok), which was annexed from Poland in 1939.

History

Integration into the Soviet Union

From 23 September to October 1939, the secretary of the central committee of the Belarusian SSR lived in Bialystok due to the protracted procedures for the transfer of the territories west of Bialystok by German troops to Białystok.

While the leaders of provincial boards and were immediately established at the level of the Central Committee and the Military Front Council, the lower structures (poviat, gmina) were established "in consultation with the military authorities", which most often boiled down to providing these authorities with the right to choose the right people from a proven, inflowing party stream into these lands. As explained on 4 October 1939 at a meeting of the chairmen of the Provisional Boards and the secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Belarus, Panteleimon Ponomarenko, "Temporary local boards – these are the organs of military power and the war council of this or other unit that is stationed in this area, has the right to direct the activities of the temporary administration, has the right and should do so within the framework of the applicable directives of the Front War Council and the Central Committee of the Byelorussian Communist Party.

Reintegration to Belarusian SSR and disbandment
In April 1944 a special operational group was established, headed by D. K. Sukaczew, dismissed for this purpose from the oblast on 25 January 1944, which was to deal with reconstruction in triggered peripheral and district areas and municipal executive committees. Preparation also began operational groups from which activists of district committees were to be selected. Over 3,000 cadres who were selected underwent special training in Moscow and Gomel. On 18 April during the meeting of the Central Committee of the CP (b) B an action plan was approved Belostok Region for the coming months was approved. The office agreed to include a group of obek employees (operating in Moscow) together with the secretary of the Belostok Obkom Andrei P. Elman as part of the operational group of the Belarusian Headquarters of the Partisan Movement operating under the command of the 1st Belorussian Front. P. Z. Kalinin, commander of BSzRP, commander of the operational group of the staff at the 1st Belarusian Front, and Andrey Elman organized communication with underground party organs and partisan units operating in the territory of the Bialystok region and help them by providing weapons and organizing the dispatch of propaganda literature.

And so, In May 1944, after several months of absence, Sukaczew returned to BZP, already as the chairman of the Regional Executive Committee of the Council of Workers' Delegates in Bialystok. On 15 May 1944, the authorities of the Białystok underground obkom issued a decision to issue more local newspaper.

Upon the liberation of the district headquarters, the secretaries of the district of Communist Party of Byelorussia and representatives of the district executive committees were to install there. Immediately they were to start establishing local self-government and party structures. All actions were due inform the secretaries of the circuit committee without delay. The implementation of this plan from the beginning was very difficult, as many branches failed to reach the designated areas. The situation was complicated by the fact that the Red Army stopped at the end of September on the Narew – Biebrza – Augustow Canal – Czarna Hańcza rivers, which caused that part of the Augustów region and located on the left bank of the Narew, the areas of the Grajewski, Łomżyński and Ostrołęka regions remained under German control. In spite of the failures in other areas, successive ones began installing Soviet power. He informed about installation in a designated area.

On 3 July 1944, at the next meeting of the Białystok Obkom, it was decided to start publishing 4–6 times a month in Polish, with a circulation of 500 copies of the newsletter with political information. A week later, at the next meeting, a special resolution was adopted "on preparations for the entry of the Red Army and preparation of partisan units to cooperate with the city councilors". On 8 July Pyotr Ratajko was appointed the new chairman of the executive committee of the Białystok Obispolkom.

In the spring of 1944, meetings of the regional committee were held every two weeks, to respond to any changes on an ongoing basis. Based on the preparations, it seems nobody from Belarusian party activists at the central, and even more peripheral level, did not doubt that the Bialystok region was, is and will be inseparable part of the Belorussian SSR.

In the first days of August 1944, Soviet activists received an order to leave the Bialystok that became part of Poland and go further east, to Grodno. Despite the withdrawal of activists, the Belastok Region officially existed in the structures of the Belarusian SSR. Party activists in the Belostok Region then sent a letter to the secretary Panteleimon Ponomarenko of KC KP(b )B, in which they tried to persuade him that he should prevent the loss of Białystok and its surroundings, because, in their opinion, most of the inhabitants of the region were of Belorussian origin.

On 29 July 1944, the first secretary of the Bialystok Regional Committee of the Communist Party P. Elman, secretary of the Sokólki rajkom. Kolkhozes and Sovkhozes began to be restored in the Krynkowski region. Attempts to recreate Soviet power were also made in Brańsk.

Administrative units

Belastok Region was created immediately following the Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September 1939. It comprised part of the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union assigned by Joseph Stalin to BSSR in November 1939 (part of the modern-day West Belarus).

The Region consisted of 24 districts: Augustow, Bialystok, Belsky, Bryansk, Volkovysk, Grodno, Grajewo, Dombrowski, Zabludavski, Zambravski, Kolnavski, Krynkovsky, Lapski, Lomzhinsky, Monkavski (in the same year was renamed to Knyshynski), Porechsky (in the same year transferred to the Lithuanian SSR), Sakolkavski, Sapotskinsky, Skidelsky, Svislochsky, Snyadovski, Tsehanovetsky, Chyzhavski and Yadvabnavski.

According to Soviet statistical data, in the middle of 1940, the oblast had a population of 1,322,260, of whom 60.7% (802,770) were Poles, 22.7% (300,782) were Belarusians, 14.6% (193,510) were Jews, 0.63% (8,639) were Lithuanians, 0.09% (1,246) were Russians, and 1.15% (15,313) were "locals".

In the aftermath of the German attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941, this western portion of then-Belarus, which until 1939 belonged to the Polish state was placed under German Civil Administration (Zivilverwaltungsgebiet). As Bezirk Bialystok, the area was under German rule from 1941 to 1944/45, without ever formally being incorporated into the German Reich.

After the Soviet liberation of almost the whole territory of the Byelorussian SSR in July 1944, Belastok Region was disestablished on 20 September 1944 and 17 raions, together with 3 raions of the Brest Region were transferred to the Białystok Voivodeship of Poland. The remaining raions were transferred to the Grodno Region of the Byelorussian SSR. This was confirmed later by the Border Agreement between Poland and the USSR of 16 August 1945

Demographics
In the first months of the occupation, the new authorities used pre-war Polish studies. According to them, 54,907 Poles, 45,217 Jews, 6,460 Belarusians and 1,076 people of other nationalities lived in Bialystok. Similarly, in the Bialystok region: 37,577 Poles, 1,508 Jews, 8,573 Belarusians and 1,298 people of other nationalities. The data on the propaganda point of view were very unfavorable, as they undermined the basic thesis about the "Belarusian" of the seized lands. The estimates regarding the Łomża region were even more unfavorable. During the meeting of the Central Committee on 1 December 1939, Ponomarenko, speaking of Łomża, pointed out that this is a city inhabited by Poles and Jews, heavily damaged by military operations, where they are at peace with the new authorities. According to the authorities' estimates, on 1 January 1940, 18,105 Poles and 8,356 Jews lived in Łomża. The process of installing the new power ended in the first half of January 1940.

See also

 Polish population transfers (1944–1946)
 Curzon Line

Notes

References
 Text of 16 August 1945 Border Agreement between Poland and the USSR in the Polish language: "Umowa graniczna pomiędzy Polską a ZSRR z 16 sierpnia 1945 roku" at Wikisource.org

Former subdivisions of Belarus
Soviet occupation of Eastern Poland 1939–1941
Former administrative divisions of Poland
History of Białystok

Belastok Region


The Karabakh Khanate (also spelled Qarabagh; ) was a khanate under Iranian and later Russian suzerainty, which controlled the historical region of Karabakh, now divided between modern-day Armenia and Azerbaijan. In terms of structure, the Karabakh Khanate was a miniature version of Iranian kingship. The administrative and literary language in Karabakh until the end of the 19th century was Persian, with Arabic being used only for religious studies, despite the fact that most of the Muslims in the region spoke a Turkic dialect.

It was governed by members of the Javanshir, a Turkic tribe which lived in the lowlands of the region. In 1747, the Javanshir chieftain Panah Ali Khan capitalized on the turmoil that erupted after the death of the Iranian shah (king) Nader Shah () by seizing most of Karabakh. The following year he declared his allegiance to Nader Shah's son and successor Adel Shah (), who officially appointed him khan of Karabakh. Panah Ali Khan's tenure was marked by building activities (such as the castles of Bayat, Shah-Bulaghi, and Panahabad) and the subjugation of four of the melikdoms through the assistance of his new ally, Shahnazar II, the melik (prince) of Varanda.

In 1762, Panah Ali Khan acknowledged the authority of the Zand ruler Karim Khan Zand (), who had established his authority in most of Iran. The latter took Panah Ali Khan hostage to Shiraz and appointed his son Ibrahim Khalil Khan as the new khan. Following Karim Khan's death in 1779, Ibrahim Khalil Khan strived to maintain his autonomy by allying himself with the Georgian king Heraclius II and making contact with the Russian Empire, even briefly submitting to the latter. Because of his defiance, he was in 1797 ousted from Karabakh by Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, the new ruler of Iran. Following Agha Mohammad Khan's assassination in Shusha in the same year, Ibrahim Khalil Khan restored his authority in Karabakh. He established friendly relations with Agha Mohammad Khan's successor Fath-Ali Shah Qajar (), who married his daughter and confirmed him as the khan of Karabakh. In May 1805, he submitted to the Russians, signing the Treaty of Kurekchay, which granted them full authority over Karabakh's external affairs in exchange for a yearly payment.

Soon finding himself in a difficult position, Ibrahim Khalil Khan rejoined the Iranians. However, he was shortly afterwards murdered by a group Russian soldiers under the instigation of his grandson Ja'far Qoli Agha and the Russian garrison leader. The Russians subsequently confirmed Ibrahim Khalil Khan's son Mehdi Qoli Khan as the khan, although real power was held by the Russians. By signing the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813, Iran officially ceded most of their Caucasian holdings (including Karabakh) to Russia. In 1822, Mehdi Qoli Khan fled to Iran as a result of the attempts by the Russian general Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov to abolish the khanates, which occurred afterwards.

Background

Karabakh is a historic region located in the Armenian highlands in the South Caucasus. The area was originally considered the southern part of Arran and was mostly inhabited by Armenians. However, due to Turkic and Mongol invasions, the Armenians there became a minority in the 11th century, and by the 14th century, the Turko-Persian name Karabakh ("Black Garden") started slowly replacing the name of the area. Many of the surviving Armenian nobles and their followers resettled in the highlands of Karabakh, where they continued to have authority. The population of the Armenians in the lowlands was further dwindled by Timur's conquests and invasions of Turkmen tribes in the 14th and 15th centuries. By the early 16th century, Armenia had become a focal point of the constant wars between the Ottoman Empire (–1922) and Safavid Iran (1501–1736), which further reduced the Armenian population.

The Safavids divided their Armenian territories into two provinces ruled by a beglarbegi (governor-general), Karabakh and Erivan. The Iranian-ruled part of Armenia was known as Iranian Armenia or Eastern Armenia, whilst the Ottoman part was known as Ottoman Armenia or Western Armenia. The lowlands of Karabakh were dominated by nomadic Turkic tribes, who moved to the hillsides in search of suitable pastures throughout the summer. The highlands of Karabakh were dominated by Armenian meliks (princes), who had established five melikdoms (Dizak, Gulistan, Jraberd, Khachen and Varanda) that ruled in Karabakh. These Armenian-ruled principalities, which upheld the notion of Armenian statehood, were used by the Safavids to fight the Ottoman Empire.

From 1554 and onwards, the governorship of both Karabakh and its capital Ganja was held by the Ziyadoghlu family of the Turkic Qajar tribe. Following the collapse of the Safavid regime in 1722, the governorship was divided into two distinct areas, each controlled by a local clan. It was during this period that Panah Ali Khan distinguished himself. He was the leader of the Turkic Javanshir tribe, which now dominated the lowlands of Karabakh, as well as the Otuziki and Kebirlu tribal federation. The Safavid-era historian Iskandar Beg Munshi (died ) reported that the Javanshir did not belong to the seven principal Qizilbash tribes, but instead a lower-ranking group referred to as the "gholam amirs". According to the Rowzat-al-Safa Naseri, the later leaders of the Javanshir belonged to the Sarijalu tribe as they had taken over the leadership of the Javanshir. For decades, the Javanshir had moved its sheep to Karabakh, where they had given the meliks an annual tax in exchange for access to summer pasturage. Karabakh thus held immense significance for the tribe.

In 1723, the Ottomans invaded Iran, conquering most of its northeastern part by 1724. Karabakh and Zangezur were the only parts of Iranian Armenia which managed to fend off the Ottomans, under the leadership of Davit Bek, who led the Armenian meliks. Although Davit Bek died between 1726 and 1728, his successors managed to maintain their control over most of the highlands until the resurgence of Iran, now led by Nader Khan Afshar, who repelled the Ottomans in 1735. The following year, he crowned himself as Nader Shah, marking the foundation of the Afsharid dynasty.

Nader Shah rewarded the meliks by acknowledging Karabakh and Zangezur as semi-autonomous regions. He had Iranian Armenia organized into four khanates; Erivan, Nakhchivan, Ganja, and Karabakh. A khanate was a type of administrative unit governed by a hereditary or appointed ruler subject to Iranian rule. The title of the ruler was either beglarbegi or khan, which was identical to the Ottoman rank of pasha. Nader Shah also forced several Turkic tribes (including the Javanshir) to mainland Iran in order to guarantee their allegiance. Panah Ali Khan's son Ibrahim Khalil Khan and the rest of the Javanshir tribe were forced to resettle in Khorasan. Panah Ali Khan was an exception, as he was kept hostage. However, following the execution of his brother Behbud Ali Beg in , Panah Ali Khan escaped to the Lezgins, where he concealed himself from Nader Shah.

History

Panah Ali Khan

Following Nader Shah's assassination in 1747, Iran fell into turmoil, especially in the South Caucasus. There the Georgians and local khans fought over land. Some Turkic tribes took advantage of his death by restoring their power in Iranian Armenia. The Qajars restored their power in Ganja, Erivan and Nakhchivan, while Panah Ali Khan seized control over all of Karabakh, with the exception of the five melikdoms. Ibrahim Khalil Khan and the rest of the Javanshir tribe had also returned to Karabakh. In 1748, Panah Ali Khan declared his allegiance to Nader Shah's son and successor Adel Shah (), who officially appointed him khan of Karabakh.

Shortly afterwards, Panah Ali Khan had the Bayat Castle constructed, in which he housed his entire family, his retinue, dignitaries, and numerous tribal leaders. Panah Ali Khan soon fell into a conflict with Haji Chalabi Khan, the khan of the Shaki Khanate. He occasionally attempted to form an alliance with Georgia in an effort to restrain Haji Chalabi Khan's goals, but his efforts were ineffective. In 1752, Panah Ali Khan relocated everyone from Bayat to the newly constructed Shah-Bulaghi stronghold, which brought him within close proximity of the highlands ruled by the five Armenian melikdoms. Panah Ali Khan made an alliance with Shahnazar II, the melik of Varanda, while he imposed his authority on the remaining meliks and made their subjects pay him taxes. Both Armenian sources and the Javanshir historian Mirza Jamal Javanshir agree that it was through the efforts of Shahnazar II (who was in conflict with the other meliks) that Panah Ali Khan gained access to the highlands and started attacking the meliks.

Together, Panah Ali Khan and Shahnazar II had the Panahabad fortress constructed in Shusha, a place in Varanda. Panah Ali Khan relocated the notables, dignitaries, and tribal leaders there. The power of the Javanshir became centered in that stronghold, which would withstand many sieges. The nature of the Javanshir khans' patron-client relationship with Shahnazar II is unclear, but it appears that their control of the fortress was restricted to its southern part, which was its Muslim sector. In 1757, the Qajar chieftain Mohammad Hasan Khan Qajar made an unsuccessful attempt at capturing Shusha. Panah Ali Khan afterwards captured the city of Ardabil and installed his clansman Dargah-Qoli Beg Javanshir its governor, though it is uncertain how long he held the post. Nazar Ali Khan Shahsevan is later recorded as its governor under the Zand ruler Karim Khan Zand (). In the spring or summer of 1761, the Afshar chieftain Fath-Ali Khan Afshar besieged Shusha. Panah Ali Khan made him lift the siege by giving Ibrahim Khalil Khan as hostage.

By 1762, Karim Khan had established his authority across most of Iran, and was eventually acknowledged by Georgia and the various khans of the South Caucasus as their suzerain. This included Panah Ali Khan, who along with some other khans was taken hostage to the city of Shiraz, where he died.

Ibrahim Khalil Khan

Consolidation of power
Karim Khan subsequently appointed Ibrahim Khalil Khan as the new khan of Karabakh. Following Karim Khan's death on 1 March 1779, however, a power struggle ensured amongst his kinsmen. Ibrahim Khalil Khan took advantage on the chaos that followed by pursuing his own goals. He enhanced his standing by forging an alliance with Heraclius II, the king of Eastern Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti). Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, the future shah of Iran, had been a nominal hostage of Karim Khan in Shiraz and was entirely preoccupied with establishing his authority and eliminating rivals in Iran. As they battled to preserve their autonomy at a time when the Iranians and Russians wanted to incorporate the eastern Caucasus under their own empires, Georgia and Karabakh's partnership turned out to be highly beneficial for both of them.

Capitalizing on the turmoil in Iran, as well as the Ottomans inability to confront Russia, a group of Russians politicians, led by the military leader and statesman Grigory Potemkin, convinced the Russian empress Catherine II () to agree to a bilateral treaty (the Treaty of Georgievsk) with Heraclius in 1783. Heraclius, who was worried of reinstatement of fidelty to Iran, agreed to the terms of the treaty, which was to renounce his loyalty to Iran in return for Russian protection. This treaty strained the relationship between Heraclius and Ibrahim Khalil Khan, who also attempted to get in contact with the Russians, but was ignored by Catherine II, as she did not want to get embroiled in the conflict between the khans.

Ibrahim Khalil Khan continued his fathers efforts to dominate all of Karabakh, succeeding in retaining Shahnazar II's support and also married his daughter. He also took Melik Bakhtam of Dizak hostage and had him sent to Ardabil in mainland Iran, which Dizak was incorporated into. Ibrahim Khalil also captured both Melik Abov of Gulistan and Melik Medjlum of Jraberd and granted their domains to others.

First conflict with Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar

The Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792 caused the Russian troops to abandon the city of Tiflis at the same time as Agha Mohammad Khan's authority in Iran was growing. Since the time of the first Safavid shah (king) Ismail I (), the Iranian shahs had declared rulership over parts of the Caucasus. This included Nader Shah, Karim Khan and now Agha Mohammad Khan. The neighboring khanates were still seen as Iranian dependencies even when the shahs in mainland Iran lacked the power to enforce their rule in the area. Likewise, Agha Mohammad Khan also considered Georgia to be an Iranian province. He issued threatening letters to the khans who had established connections with Russia in an effort to reestablish Iranian dominance over the border districts. In 1792/93, Agha Mohammad Khan assigned his lieutenant Soleyman Khan Qajar with the task of putting an end to any opposition against his authority.

Instead of going in person, Ibrahim Khalil Khan dispatched his nephew Abd al-Samad Beg to deliver presents and offerings to Soleyman Khan in the city of Tabriz. He also asked for a deadline of the summer to prepare to make the trip himself. Soleyman Khan took Abd al-Samad as his captive, and by the end of November 1793 went to the Mazandaran region before making his way to the city of Tehran. Abd al-Samad was later part of the retinue that accompanied Agha Mohammad Khan during his siege of the city of Kerman. During the siege, Abd al-Samad made an attempt to escape to Karabakh, but was captured and killed near Tehran. This incident upset Ibrahim Khalil, who continued to make excuses to avoid meeting Agha Mohammad Khan.

Agha Mohammad Khan was prepared to reinstate Iranian rule in the southeastern Caucasus by the summer of 1795. He was unafraid to engage the Russians, a trait he retained throughout, and neither the Treaty of Georgievsk nor Russian activity in the southeastern Caucasus seemed to discourage him. His 60,000 soldiers, which was primarily made up of cavalry, advanced into the area in the summer of that year. The first few months were spent by Agha Mohammad Khan winning the Muslim rulers' compliance. Ibrahim Khalil Khan and two other khans (Mir-Mostafa Khan of Talesh and Mohammad Khan Qajar of Erivan) entered into correspondence with the Russians, who gave them hope that they could defeat the Iranian forces. Heraclius also contacted the Russians, asking them for assistance against the impending invasion.

10,000 of Agha Mohammad Khan's forces first marched towards Talesh, which quickly submitted. Meanwhile, Ibrahim Khalil Khan had the Khudafarin bridge demolished to stop the Iranian army from crossing the Aras river. The bridge served as the main route from the Azerbaijan region into Karabakh and the rest of Caucasus. Despite this, the Iranian forces succeeded in getting to the other side of the river by using boats, and also rebuilt the bridge. Ibrahim Khalil Khan's forces were defeated and withdrew to Shusha, which was then besieged by Agha Mohammad Khan for 43 days.

Due to the capture of his two nephews and the worsening conditions of the siege, Ibrahim Khalil Khan petitioned for peace and promised that he would acknowledge Agha Mohammad Khan's suzerainty. He sent one of his sons to act as a hostage in his stead, claiming that his age-related ailments prevented him from meeting Agha Mohammad Khan directly. However, he still refused to give entry into Shusha. Agha Mohammad Khan was willing to compromise in order to clear a path to Tiflis due to the campaign's primary goal being the subjugation of Georgia.

Dispute over Karabakh between Iran and Russia

As a result of Heraclius' refusal to submit, Agha Mohammad Khan marched to Tiflis and had it ravaged in September 1795. Catherine II, viewing the attack on Tiflis as an offense to Russia, used it as a reason to invade the South Caucasus. In March 1796, she sent a public declaration, written in Persian and Armenian, to all the khans and important figures of the region. The letter explained her reason behind the invasion as a way to protect Georgia and the rest of the South Caucasus from the "usurper" Agha Mohammad Khan.

Ibrahim Khalil Khan submitted to the Russians, as he feared them more than the Iranians. Although neither a treaty nor a Russian garrison was established in Karabakh, this event established a model for eventual Russian assertions of sovereignty over Karabakh and other khanates. However, Catherine II's death on 17 November 1796 led to the withdrawal of the Russian forces under the orders of her son and successor Paul I (), and thus an end to the campaign. By January 1797, all the Russian troops had withdrawn to Kizlyar.

In order to exact revenge on the khans who had acknowledged the authority of Russia, Agha Mohammad Khan went back to the Caucasus. Ibrahim Khalil Khan escaped this time to his relative Umma Khan V in Daghestan, but his family was reinstated following Agha Mohammad Khan's assassination in Shusha on 17 June 1797. Ibrahim Khalil Khan's nephew Mohammad Beg briefly assumed charge of the khanate, but not long after Ibrahim Khalil Khan came back and re-established his authority. He quickly established friendly relations with Agha Mohammad Khan's successor Fath-Ali Shah Qajar (), who married his daughter and confirmed him as the khan of Karabakh.

Fath-Ali Shah was later convinced of Ibrahim Khalil Khan's lack of reliability by his unwillingness to help Javad Khan against the Russian siege of Ganja in 1804. Thus, Ibrahim Khalil Khan's son Abu'l-Fath Khan Javanshir was appointed as the new khan. Despite this, Ibrahim Khalil Khan continued to rule as the khan of Karabakh. Multiple clashes took place in 1804 between the Iranian and Russian armies, but they had no significant impact on the situation. The Georgian nobleman Pavel Tsitsianov, who led the Russian campaign and led the siege of Ganja, soon forced Ibrahim Khalil Khan to yield and accept a Russian garrison in Shusha. In May 1805, Ibrahim Khalil Khan signed the Treaty of Kurekchay, which granted Russia full authority over Karabakh's external affairs in exchange for a yearly payment. Russia also recognized Ibrahim Khalil and his lineage through his eldest son as the rulers of Karabakh.

In the same year, Fath-Ali Shah led a large force to the Aras river, while the crown prince Abbas Mirza was assigned with the task of handling Ibrahim Khalil Khan. The Russians were temporarily interrupted by the murder of Tsitsianov in February 1806. During this period, Ibrahim Khalil Khan sent a letter to Fath-Ali Shah, in which he apologized for yielding to the Russians, declared his willingness to side with Iran, and requested assistance in regaining control of the castle at Shusha. Ibrahim Khalil Khan's change of heart had been caused by the recent death of his eldest son and heir Mohammad Hasan Agha, who was a prominent major-general in the Russian army, and the Russians not seeming to be in a position to defend effectively against the larger Iranian army that was drawing near. Fath-Ali Shah pardoned Ibrahim Khalil Khan, who moved to an adjacent hill outside Shusha so that the Iranian forces could assault its garrison.

One of Ibrahim Khalil Khan's grandchildren, Ja'far Qoli Agha, the son of Mohammad Hasan Agha, whose succession was meant to be assured by the Treaty of Kurekchay and who had his own plans for ruling Karabakh, was frightened and angered by this action. On 2 June 1806, Ibrahim Khalil Khan along with some of his relatives and 30 members of his retinue were killed by a group Russian soldiers under the instigation of Ja'far Qoli Agha and the commander of the Russian garrison. Although Ja'far Qoli Agha had hoped to become the new khan for helping the Russians against his grandfather's "betrayal", they ultimately appointed Ibrahim Khalil Khan's 30-year-old son Mehdi Qoli Khan Javanshir, due to the support he enjoyed amongst the distinguished figures of Karabakh.

Mehdi Qoli Khan

Mehdi Qoli Khan consented to abide by the Treaty of Kurekchay on September 22, 1806, when tsar Alexander I () officially confirmed him as khan. Kotliarevskii, the new commander of the Russian garrison in Shusha, was forbidden by the Russian commander Ivan Gudovich to meddle in the internal affairs of the khanate because of his high regard for Mehdi Qoli Khan. Although Mehdi Qoli Khan held the title of khan of Karabakh, he was in reality a figurehead, the real authority being held by the Russians. In 1807, southern Karabakh had a sizable Iranian military presence.

In June 1812, Mehdi Qoli Khan received a farman (royal decree) from Fath-Ali Shah, asking him to reaffirm his loyalty and work with him to expel the Russians from Karabakh. In addition to forgiving Mehdi Qoli Khan for his earlier transgressions, Fath-Ali Shah would also install him as Karabakh's governor and work with him to bring back the tribes of Karabakh who had sought asylum in Azerbaijan. Mehdi Qoli Khan, who changed his alliance between Iran and Russia to his greatest advantage like the majority of the khans in the South Caucasus, made the decision to stick by Russia. In an effort to reassure his continuous allegiance to the Russian Empire, he sent Kotliarevskii the farman.

The Russo-Iranian War of 1804–1813 ended with the Treaty of Gulistan, in which Iran agreed to cede the majority of their holdings in the eastern Caucasus to Russia, including Karabakh. The treaty was signed in Gulistan, a village in Karabakh. The Iranians were disillusioned by the treaty, and officials like Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam vehemently opposed it. In 1822, Mehdi Qoli Khan fled to Iran as a result of the attempts by the Russian general Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov to abolish the khanates, which occurred afterwards.

In Iran, Mehdi Qoli Khan was amongst the members of the "war party" or the "hawks", who advocated for war against the Russians. He was later amongst the Iranian soldiers during the Russo-Iranian War of 1826–1828. He was finally given permission to go back to Karabakh in 1836, where he retired. He died 1845 and was buried in Aghdam.

Building activity
According to Mirza Jamal Javanshir, Bayat received many new settlers (including artisans) from nearby areas, including Ardabil and Tabriz. The Iranian American historian George Bournoutian stated this passage shows that Javanshirs tribal dominion included more than just pastoral or migratory land. Their forts, which resembled small cities, served as the hubs of the khanate. The strongholds of Bayat, Shah-Bulaghi, and Shusha required a large number of craftsmen and laborers to construct and maintain them.

A common method in a large fortress-town was to have it centered around a maidan (square), which was next to the bazaar, the principal mosque, and hammams (baths).

Coinage

Following the establishment of the Iranian rial currency in 1790, the ten- stopped being used. It was later re-established by Ibrahim Khalil Khan, being minted in silver at Shusha under the name of  in honor of Panah Ali Khan. This was the first time silver coins were minted by the khans of Karabakh, a late development compared to other khanates. This was because Panah Ali Khan and Shahnazar II shared control over Shusha, with the minting of silver coins only being a possibility following the death of Shahnazar II in 1792. The  was modeled after a silver coin variant minted by the Ganja Khanate. The khans of Karabakh never issued coins under their own name, due to lacking the legitimacy of an sovereign monarch and any claims to independence.

Two types of  have been discovered, one of light weight, which corresponded to one eighth of Iranian , and a heavier one, which almost weighted the same as that of 10 kopecks of the Russian empress Catherine II. According to the numismatists Alexander Akopyan and Pavel Petrov, this was not unusual, as Ibrahim Khalil displayed pro-Russian sentiment and engaged in negotiations with Russian officials, but was also under Iranian influence and tried to have his coins easily spread in Iran.

The  was still in circulation in some regions of South Caucasus and Iran up until the early 19th century. The inscription on the obverse side read "There is one God, His name is Allah, and Mohammad was His Prophet", whilst its reverse side read "minted in Panahabad." "Panahabad" was a  (honorific) used to refer to Shusha, albeit it was only employed in official, bureaucratic language and not as a toponym, as the word is missing from Turkic texts that date back to the fortress' construction. The  seemingly only had its own name as a result of these coins' weights being different from earlier Iranian  as well as from the rial and  later weight systems.

Another coin type, called the , was first minted 1800/01 in the name of Fath-Ali Shah. A unique variant of the  is engraved with a Persian poem; be-nām muhrum ṣāḥib az-zamānī, mukram sikke ṣāḥibqirānī ("in the name of the stamp of Sahib al-Zamani, this  minted with honor").

The majority of the known coins minted by the Karabakh Khanate were issued during their association with Russia.

Demographics

In the mahals
According to a survey conducted by the Russian Empire in 1823, the mahals (districts) of Karabakh was composed of 17,101 families of villagers and nomads. Its inhabitants were either classified as Tatars, Armenians, or nomads. There were 8,445 nomadic families, 4,654 Armenian families, and 4,002 Tatar families, which means that the nomads comprised 49.38% of the population, followed by Armenians (27.22%) and then the Tatars (23.40%). The survey adds that by including Shusha, the entire population of Karabakh consisted of 18,563 families.

There were roughly 300 settlements in Karabakh, equally split between the Armenians and Tatars. There were a few more people living in Armenian villages than in Tatar ones. The number of nomad pastures was about 375. Accordingly, there were 30 families per settlement and approximately 25 families every nomad pasture. Karabakh's overall population is estimated to have been between 113,000 and 115,000 people, taking into account the estimated 5.5–6.5 person average family size in the area throughout the 19th century.

In the five mahals (Gulistan, Khachen, Jraberd, Varanda and Dizak) that later came to be known as Nagorno-Karabakh, the Armenians made up the vast majority of the population. In all the villages in the mahals of Gulistan, Khachen, and Jraberd, they were the only people there. Only one Tatar village each existed in the mahals of Varanda and Dizak, while the rest of the villages were populated by Armenians. Overall, there were 1,536 Armenian families and 53 Tatar families in the five mahals, which means that in 1822, 96.67% of Nagorno-Karabakhs inhabitants were Armenians, with the remaining 3.33% being Tatars.

Shusha
According to the 1823 Russian survey, 371 families were registered as living in Shusha's three-quarters. The Kazanchi and Ahlisi quarters were fully made up of people with Armenian names, whilst the Tabrizi quarter was totally made up of people with Muslim names. In the Tabrizi sector of Shusha, there were 162 Muslim families, whereas the other two-quarters of Shusha were home to 209 Armenian families. The survey also includes a list of Muslim (numbering 765) and Armenian (numbering 326) families who were listed as inhabiting Shusha and its surroundings, originating from several settlements and nomadic fields in Karabakh. They either belonged to the khan's family, the clergy, the government, or the subjects of different officials. Instead of paying taxes, they provided a range of services to the monarch, the mulkdars, or the tiyuldars.

This means that in 1823, there were a total of 1,462 families living in Shusha and its surroundings, with 921 families (63.41%) of them being Muslims and 535 (36.59%) of them being Armenian.

Revenue
Taxes were paid yearly in one single payment by the inhabitants of Shusha. The Armenian quarters were required to pay the most, providing 590 gold rubles and 200 kharvars ("donkey's load") of firewood every year. The Muslim quarter were required to pay 200 gold rubles and 60 kharvars of firewood.

Administration
Karabakh was a province of an imperial structure that was entirely Iranian, in the same fashion as other provinces such as Lorestan and Khorasan. In terms of structure, the Karabakh Khanate was a miniature version of Iranian kingship. In the same pattern as Afsharid and Zand rulers, Panah Ali Khan's family were all distinguished figures and served as officials. He used minbashis, yuzbashis, monshis, eshiq-aghasis, keshikchis, yasavols, nazers, and other personnel in the administration of his court and province. In exchange for tax exemption, every Karabakhi tribesman who appeared on the records enrolled the cavalry. Even tax-exempt tribes contributed financially and in kind when mercenaries were needed, but the khan covered the expenses of their equipment and horse fodder when they joined the army. The Iranologist Willem Floor uses the example of Panah Ali Khan as an argument that the character and design of Iran's political system were unaffected by increased tribal activity.

Qajar Iran contains instances that are similar to those of the iqta' (land grants) made to women in the Seljuk and Ilkhanate eras. A portion from Qom's earnings was provided to Ibrahim Khalil Khan's daughter Agha Baji and her 200 personal attendants from Karabakh after she joined the harem of Fath-Ali Shah. A lot of crown land was also given out; Abu'l-Fath Khan Javanshir, one of Ibrahim Khalil Khan's sons, was given much of the land of the Shahsevan tribe in Azerbaijan.

The administrative and literary language in Karabakh until the end of the 19th century was Persian, with Arabic being used only for religious studies, despite the fact that most of the Muslims in the region spoke a Turkic dialect. Persian was also spoken in the judiciary.

Historiography

In contemporary historiography
The political history of Iran under the Safavid, Afsharid, Zand, or Qajar dynasties is the main subject of the majority of Iranian primary sources. Events taking place in remote areas like Karabakh are typically given a brief paragraph in these texts, unless the shah felt it important to visit such areas. Karabakh is the only the main subject of a few chronicles, which were written by Turks of the South Caucasus, later known as Azerbaijanis. All of them, with one exception, wrote in Persian.

The Tarikh-e Qarabagh of Mirza Jamal Javanshir (died 1853) is the earliest written source that focuses on Karabakh. It focuses on political and, to a lesser extent, social and economic circumstances in Karabakh from the 1740s until 1806.

In Azerbaijani historiography
The khanates, which were marginalized in Soviet historiography as remnants of an archaic feudal institution, have been revived in post-Soviet Azerbaijani historiography. They are difficult foundational pieces for a national narrative because of their briefness, diversity, and constant factional strife. Modern Azerbaijani academia and history books refer to all of the khanates north and south of the Aras as "Azerbaijani khanates," reinventing them as the forerunners of the Azerbaijani nation. This includes the Karabakh Khanate, whose Javanshir khans are portrayed as "founding fathers". Additionally, the ethnic heritage of the nomads that lived in Karabakh, which included Turkic, Kurdish, and other Caucasian tribes, is disregarded by Azerbaijani historians, who groups them together with the Tatars, considering them all to be "Azerbaijanis." However, before the 20th century, the Azerbaijanis barely constituted as an ethnic group, much less a nation. The people who lived in the present-day country of Azerbaijan identified as either Muslims of the ummah (community), or Turks, who shared a language family spread out throughout a considerable portion of Central Asia, or as Persians.

Before 1988, Azerbaijani experts did not dispute the historical Armenian presence in Nagorno-Karabakh, which changed when the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh demanded that their region break way from Azerbaijan. In order to defend their government's anti-Armenian policies in Nagorno-Karabakh, Azerbaijani politicians, journalists, and academics asserted that the region had never been a part of historical Armenia and that the region's Armenian residents were immigrants who had slowly relocated there after 1828. The 2003 Azerbaijani edition of the Russian survey of 1823 is an altered version of the original work; in addition to having several typographical errors, it also frequently omits key information, such as the word "Armenian," either mistakenly or on purpose.

Modern Azerbaijani scholars and historians claim that the present-day country of Azerbaijan and the Azerbaijan region in present-day northwestern Iran used to be one entity, based on arguments such as Nakhchivan and southern Karabakh being temporarily part of the administrative division of the Iranian province of Azerbaijan, the linguistical similarities between the two places, and so on. However, the vast majority of current European historians, as well as 19th century Russian and Iranian sources, consider them to have been two distinct geographical and political areas. Prior to 1918 the word "Azerbaijan" referred to the Iranian region of Azerbaijan.

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

Karabakh
States and territories disestablished in 1822
States and territories established in 1748

Karabakh Khanate


Jair Rodrigues de Oliveira (February 6, 1939 – May 8, 2014) was a Brazilian musician and singer. His career began during the 1950s. He was known for his many albums such as O Menino da Porteira, Boi da Cara Preta and Majestade o Sabiá. He sang funk and samba music.

Rodrigues was born in Igarapava, Brazil. He died in Cotia, Brazil, aged 75.

References

1939 births
2014 deaths
Brazilian singers
Brazilian musicians

Jair Rodrigues


Labichthys carinatus is an eel in the family Nemichthyidae (snipe eels). It was described by Theodore Gill and John Adam Ryder in 1883. It is a marine, deep water-dwelling eel which is known from the western Indian Ocean, eastern and western Atlantic and eastern Pacific Ocean, including the Canary Islands, the United States (including Hawaii), Brazil, and Madagascar. It is known to dwell at a depth range of . Males can reach a maximum total length of .

References

Nemichthyidae
Fish described in 1883
Taxa named by Theodore Gill
Taxa named by John A. Ryder

Labichthys carinatus


Loharda is a town and a nagar panchayat in Dewas district in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh.

Demographics
 India census, Loharda had a population of 8,101. Males constitute 52% of the population and females 48%. Loharda has an average literacy rate of 48%, lower than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 60%, and female literacy is 35%. In Loharda, 18% of the population is under 6 years of age.

References

Cities and towns in Dewas district

Loharda


Huang's algorithm is an algorithm for detecting termination in a distributed system. The algorithm was proposed by Shing-Tsaan Huang in 1989 in the Journal of Computers.

Termination detection
The basis of termination detection is in the concept of a distributed system process' state. At any time, a process in a distributed system is either in an active state or in an idle state. An active process may become idle at any time but an idle process may only become active again upon receiving a computational message.

Termination occurs when all processes in the distributed system become idle and there are no computational messages in transit.

Algorithm
Huang's algorithm can be described by the following:
 Initially all processes are idle.
 A distributed task is started by a process sending a computational message to another process. This initial process to send the message is the "controlling agent".
 The initial weight of the controlling agent is  (usually 1).
 The following rules are applied throughout the computation:
 A process sending a message splits its current weight between itself and the message.
 A process receiving a message adds the weight of the message to itself.
 Upon becoming idle, a process sends a message containing its entire weight back to the controlling agent and it goes idle.
 Termination occurs when the controlling agent has a weight of  and is in the idle state.

Some weaknesses to Huang's algorithm are that it is unable to detect termination if a message is lost in transit or if a process fails while in an active state.

See also
 Dijkstra–Scholten algorithm

Notes

Termination algorithms

Huang's algorithm


The Senate Committee on Pacific Railroads is a defunct committee of the United States Senate. It was first established as a select committee in 1889 and became a standing committee on March 15, 1893. The committee is not to be confused with the Committee on the Pacific Railroad, which existed from 1861 to 1873.

The committee was appointed following an investigation into the finances of the Union Pacific Railroad, which was heavily indebted to the United States Government. The committee was terminated on April 18, 1921.

Chairmen 1863-1921
1893-1895: Calvin S. Brice, D-Ohio
1895-1900: John H. Gear, R-Iowa
1901-1905: Jonathan Dolliver, R-Iowa
1905-1907: Russell A. Alger, R-Michigan
1907-1911: Elmer J. Burkett, R-Nebraska
1911-1913: Robert L. Owen, D-Oklahoma
1913-1919: Frank B. Brandegee, R-Connecticut
1919-1921: Charles S. Thomas, D-Colorado

References

Pacific Railroads
1889 establishments in the United States
1921 disestablishments
History of rail transportation in the United States

United States Senate Committee on Pacific Railroads


Alan Peter Pascoe  (born 11 October 1947) is a British former athlete who gained success in hurdles. After his athletics career, he has been successful in events marketing and consulting.

Early life and education
Pascoe was born in Portsmouth, and lived in the Paulsgrove area of the city. He was educated at Portsmouth Southern Grammar School for Boys. He undertook higher education at Borough Road College, Isleworth, where he received a Certificate in Education, and the University of London, where he received an Honours degree in Education. He married sprinter Della James (1949-2023) in 1970. The couple had one son and one daughter.

Achievements as a competitor

Medals
Pascoe won medals in the Olympic Games, the European Championships, and the Commonwealth Games., also the European Indoor Games.

After the 1974 Commonwealth Games victory Pascoe achieved a major distinction, in celebration he performed one of the great televised sporting bloopers.  While doing his victory lap in reverse, Pascoe attempted to leap the last hurdle still remaining from the race and badly missed the hurdle, falling onto his back and denting the hurdle.  Trying to regain his dignity, he circled around to attempt the jump the hurdle in another lane and fell identically.  Laughing it off, he got up again and started turning over the other hurdles.  . In winning the race he also achieved the minor distinction of running the seventh fastest 400-metre hurdle time, third fastest time by a British athlete, to that date (behind Jim Seymour, Ralph Mann, David Hemery and the then world record holder John Akii-Bua) at 48.8, despite running in the outside lane.

Olympics:
 Silver, 4 × 400 m Relay, 1972

European Athletics Championships:
 Bronze, 110 m Hurdles, 1969
 Silver, 110 m Hurdles, 1971
 Gold, 400 m Hurdles, 1974
 Gold, 4 × 400 m Relay, 1974

Commonwealth Games:
 Gold, 400 m Hurdles, 1974
 Silver, 4 × 400 m Relay, 1974
 Bronze, 400 m Hurdles, 1978

European Indoor Games:
 Gold, 50 m Hurdles, 1969

Personal bests
Pascoe's personal best times are:

 200 m, 15 July 1972, London, 20.92
 110 m Hurdles, 17 June 1972, Edinburgh, 13.79
 400 m Hurdles, 30 June 1975, Stockholm, 48.59

Career outside competitive athletics
Pascoe competed in athletics at a time when it was supposed to be an amateur activity. He thus needed paid employment during his athletics career. He was a teacher at Dulwich College (1971–1974), and a lecturer in physical education at Borough Road College, Isleworth (1974–1980).

Pascoe was also able to get financial support during the 1970s from membership of several QUANGOs; the Sports Council (1974–1980), the Minister for Sports' Working Party on Centres of Sporting Excellence (1975–1979), and the BBC Advisory Council (1975–1979).

After competitive athletics, Pascoe became involved in events marketing and consulting. He set up Alan Pascoe Associates Ltd. (later named API), of which he was Director (1976–1983), managing director (1983), Chairman (1985–1988) and CEO (1994–1998). Pascoe sold API in 1998, then started another company, Fast Track Events Ltd., of which he is the chairman.

Pascoe was a summarizer with main commentator Adrian Metcalfe of ITV coverage of athletics during the mid/late 1970s and early 1980s.

Other business appointments were as a Director of the Aegis Group (later named WCRS) (1986–1992) and Chairman of Carat Sponsorship (1987–1992).

Pascoe criticised the British government for withdrawing from hosting the World Athletics Championships in 2001. He claimed that the Prime Minister, Tony Blair, had broken a written undertaking to host the games. Pascoe believed that the decision amounted to the sport being cold-bloodedly "stabbed in the back". He believed that Blair had damaged Britain, by making the nation look foolish, and by causing the loss of both GBP 15–20 million in revenue, and a stadium suitable for top-class athletics. Such a stadium, he believed, was essential for developing home talent into world-class athletes.

In September 2003, Pascoe was appointed vice-chairman of the London bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics, which was ultimately successful.

Honours
Pascoe was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 1975 New Year Honours for services to athletics, and received an honorary doctorate from Brunel University in 1997.

See also
 Olympic medalists in athletics (men)
 Great Britain and Northern Ireland at the 1972 Summer Olympics
 Great Britain and Northern Ireland at the 1976 Summer Olympics
 1969 European Championships in Athletics
 1971 European Championships in Athletics
 1974 European Championships in Athletics
 1974 British Commonwealth Games
 1978 Commonwealth Games

References

External links
 Photograph of Alan Pascoe, from the BBC website

 Fast Track Events Ltd. , website of Pascoe's sports events marketing company

1947 births
Living people
English male hurdlers
Olympic athletes for Great Britain
Olympic silver medallists for Great Britain
Commonwealth Games medallists in athletics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1968 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1972 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1976 Summer Olympics
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for England
Commonwealth Games silver medallists for England
Commonwealth Games bronze medallists for England
Athletes (track and field) at the 1970 British Commonwealth Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 1974 British Commonwealth Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 1978 Commonwealth Games
European Athletics Championships medalists
English businesspeople
Sportspeople from Portsmouth
Medalists at the 1972 Summer Olympics
Members of the Order of the British Empire
People associated with Brunel University London
Olympic silver medalists in athletics (track and field)
People from Paulsgrove
Medallists at the 1974 British Commonwealth Games
Medallists at the 1978 Commonwealth Games

Alan Pascoe


Compulsory sterilization is a term used for laws that force certain groups of people to be sterilized so that they can no longer make babies. International Criminal Court considers compulsory sterilization for a "crime against humanity". Transgender persons are often obliged to undergo sterilization for legal rocognition of legal status depite the Principle 3 of the Yogyakarta Principles.

Such laws were mainly introduced because of Eugenic views of the start of the 20th century. Today, most compulsory sterilizations are done to mentally ill people who are not able to handle a pregnancy on their own. In China, compulsory sterilization is part of family planning.

Note

Contraception
Human rights abuses

Compulsory sterilization


A legal clinic or law clinic is a place where people get legal help.  They are non-profit organizations.  Clinics can be found in many countries.

When legal clinics were first started, they were a way for law students to get practical experience.  Many legal clinics offer pro bono work.

Law

Legal clinic


Bunny Te Kokiri Miha Waahi Walters (31 May 1953 – 14 December 2016) was a New Zealand singer who had a number of New Zealand hits during the 1970s. He is best known for the hits "Brandy" and "Take the Money and Run".

Background
Of Ngāi Te Rangi descent, Walters was born and raised in Katikati, a town on the North Island of New Zealand.

Career
In 1969, he competed against Tui Fox at Joe Brown's at the Rotorua Soundshell during the Search for Stars event held there. Fox was singing similar material to Walters. Fox won the final with Walters coming in second. His first single, titled "Just Out of Reach", was released in 1969. He then released "It's Been Too Long" and "Can't Keep You Out of My Heart". During one of the talent quests, held at the Opera House in Palmerston North, he was beaten by singer Richard Turei, whose daughter Metiria Turei would later serve as co-leader of the Green Party in New Zealand.

Walters made his first television appearance on Happen-Inn, a New Zealand television show.

After performing at Expo 70 in Osaka, Japan, he received contracts to return to Japan. He gained considerable exposure. The New Zealand Herald reported that he may have also appeared on the Rolf Harris show in London.

In 1971, he replaced Vaughan Lawrence as the resident singer on Happen-Inn.

In 1972, he recorded "Brandy" (which reached No. 4 on the pop charts). It was reported in the edition of 4 May of The New Zealand Herald that due to the big success Walters had with "Brandy" that the song was to be produced in sheet music form. That same year he had a hit with Take The Money And Run" (which reached #2).

In 1973 he had a hit with "Home Isn't Home Anymore" (which reached #18). Also that year he had a gold disc entry with the Bernie Allen arranged "Helena", a Tat Meager composition also recorded that year by Leapy Lee.

1974
In 1974, Walters had a hit with a song originally recorded by Ben Thomas, written by Gary Sulsh, Stuart Leathwood, and Tony Macaulay. His version of "The Nearest Thing To Heaven", produced by Alan Galbraith reached No. 10 that year.

In June he had toured with the Supremes. Another singer from New Zealand, Erana Clark was announced earlier to be on the same tour with Walters. That year he won two awards at the RATA awards. One was for best male vocalist and the other for best recording artist.
Damage to career
In October 1974 he was convicted of possessing a very small amount of marijuana and fined convicted and fined $100 for possession. This had a catastrophic effect on his career. Prior to the conviction, he was always in demand. He was getting work, being hired to perform in pubs, clubs and for certain organisations. Then as a result of falling foul of influential people he was virtually blacklisted from TV and radio. He disappeared from the spotlight almost immediately.

Mid 70s onwards
In 1978, he recorded a promotional record for the New Zealand Labour Party. The single was titled "To Be Free with Labour" and was the B side of a song titled "To Be Free", written by Robinson-Bretnall.

During the 1980s he was also singing jingles and getting a lot of work in that area. According to an article in AudioCulture by Steven Shaw, The New Zealand Herald  reported in August 1986 that 80% of the advertising jingles heard in New Zealand, featuring male and female voices were by Walters and singer Annie Crummer. Among these projects was a verse from a version of the New Zealand national anthem that was recorded for World Expo 88, which also aired during TVNZ's daily opening transmission during the late 1980s and early 1990s.

In June 1991, he was appearing on stage in a production of Porgy and Bess.

In 2013, Walters was the profile in episode 9 of The Untold Stories of New Zealand Music History.

Film and television
Drama
Walters appeared in the 1978 film Skin Deep.

The song "Never Say Die" from single the "Never Say Die" / "Gotta Get Outta Here" WEA Records Limited Z10002 was composed and performed by Billy Kristian. It is featured during the closing credits of the 1988 film Never Say Die which starred Temuera Morrison and Lisa Eilbacher. He appeared in an episode of the New Zealand prime-time soap opera, Shortland Street.

Ministry
Walters became a Christian in or around 1995/1997. In a 1999 interview, he told The Sunday Star-Times that his conversion came about as a result of a pastor inviting him to church. Because he didn't have much else going on, he was looking forward to attending. He was living in Queensland, Australia from around 2004, moving around before settling on one of the Islands in Queensland. While living in Queensland, the main amount of singing he did was in church. In his quest to evangelise, he was in Canada at one stage for a month. While there he preached to an Inuit community.

Illness and death
Walters died in Waikato Hospital, Hamilton, on 14 December 2016 after a short illness.

Funeral service
He had been lying in state at Tokoroa's Papa o te Aroha Marae. The funeral service was at Elim Christian Church, with a private cremation to follow.

Tribute concert
It was announced in Stuff that a tribute concert for Walters was to be held at the Tokoroa Cosmopolitan Club on 4 February 2017. Artists scheduled to appear were Tom Sharplin, Dennis Marsh, Ray Solomon, Larry Morris, Dennis August and Craven Noble.

Releases

Film and television appearances

References

External links
 The Beat Goes On: Shane Hales Honours Bunny Walters
 Te Karere TVNZ: Iconic Bunny Walters gone but not forgotten

1953 births
2016 deaths
20th-century New Zealand male singers
People from Katikati
Ngāi Te Rangi people
New Zealand male film actors
New Zealand male television actors
New Zealand Māori male singers

Bunny Walters


Sisal (, ; Agave sisalana) is a species of flowering plant native to southern Mexico, but widely cultivated and naturalized in many other countries. It yields a stiff fibre used in making rope and various other products. The sisal fibre is traditionally used for rope and twine, and has many other uses, including paper, cloth, footwear, hats, bags, carpets, geotextiles, and dartboards. It is also used as fibre reinforcements for composite fibreglass, rubber, and concrete products. It can also be fermented and distilled to make mezcal.

Sisal has an uncertain native origin, but is thought to have originated in the Mexican state of Chiapas. Sisal plants have a lifespan of 7–10 years, producing 200–250 usable leaves containing fibers used in various applications. Sisal is a tropical and subtropical plant, thriving in temperatures above 25 °C and sunshine.

Historically, sisal was used by the Aztecs and Mayans for fabric and paper. It spread to other parts of the world in the 19th century, with Brazil becoming the major producer. Sisal is propagated using bulbils or suckers and can be improved genetically through tissue culture. Fibers are extracted through decortication and then dried, brushed, and baled for export.

Sisal farming initially led to environmental degradation, but it is now considered less damaging than other farming types. It is an invasive species in Hawaii and Florida.

Global sisal production in 2020 was 210,000 tonnes, with Brazil being the largest producer, followed by Tanzania, Kenya, Madagascar, China, and Mexico.

Taxonomy
The native origin of Agave sisalana is uncertain. Traditionally, it was deemed to be a native of the Yucatán Peninsula, but no records exist of botanical collections from there. They were originally shipped from the Spanish colonial port of Sisal in Yucatán (thus the name). The Yucatán plantations now cultivate henequen (Agave fourcroydes).

H.S. Gentry hypothesized a Chiapas origin, on the strength of traditional local usage. Evidence of an indigenous cottage industry there suggests it as the original habitat location, possibly as a cross of Agave angustifolia and Agave kewensis. The species is now naturalized in other parts of Mexico, as well as in Spain, the Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Madagascar, Réunion, Seychelles, many parts of Africa,  China, India, Pakistan, Nepal, Burma, Cambodia, Thailand, the Solomon Islands, Queensland, Fiji, Hawaii, Florida, Central America, Ecuador, and the West Indies.

Plant description
Sisal plants consist of a rosette of sword-shaped leaves about  tall. Young leaves may have a few minute teeth along their margins, but lose them as they mature.

The sisal plant has a 7- to 10-year lifespan and typically produces 200–250 commercially usable leaves.  Each leaf contains around 1000 fibres.  The fibres account for only about 4% of the plant by weight. Sisal is considered a plant of the tropics and subtropics, since production benefits from temperatures above  and sunshine.

Cultivation
Sisal was used by the Aztecs and the Mayans to make fabrics and paper.

In the 19th century, sisal cultivation spread to Florida, the Caribbean islands, and Brazil (Paraiba and Bahia), as well as to countries in Africa, notably Tanzania and Kenya, and Asia. Sisal reportedly "came to Africa from Florida, through the mechanism of a remarkable German botanist, by the name of Hindorf."

In Cuba, its cultivation was introduced in 1880, by Fernando Heydrich in Matanzas.

The first commercial plantings in Brazil were made in the late 1930s, and the first sisal fibre exports from there were made in 1948.   Brazilian production did not accelerate until the 1960s, and the first of many spinning mills was established.  Today, Brazil is the major world producer of sisal. Both positive and negative environmental impacts arise from sisal growing.

Propagation
Propagation of sisal is generally by using bulbils produced from buds in the flower stalk or by suckers growing around the base of the plant, which are grown in nursery fields until large enough to be transplanted to their final positions. These methods offer no potential for genetic improvement. In vitro multiplication of selected genetic material using meristematic tissue culture offers considerable potential for the development of improved genetic material.

Fibre extraction
Fibre is extracted by a process known as decortication, where leaves are crushed, beaten, and brushed away by a rotating wheel set with blunt knives, so that only fibres remain. Alternatively, in East Africa, where production is typically on large estates, the leaves are transported to a central decortication plant, where water is used to wash away the waste parts of the leaves.

The fibre is then dried, brushed, and baled for export. Proper drying is important, as fibre quality depends largely on moisture content. Artificial drying has been found to result in generally better grades of fibre than sun drying, but is not always feasible in the less industrialised countries where sisal is produced. In the drier climate of north-east Brazil, sisal is mainly grown by smallholders and the fibre is extracted by teams using portable raspadors, which do not use water.

Fibre is subsequently cleaned by brushing. Dry fibres are machine combed and sorted into various grades, largely on the basis of the previous in-field separation of leaves into size groups.

Environmental impacts
Sisal farming initially caused environmental degradation, because sisal plantations replaced native forests, but is still considered less damaging than many types of farming.  No chemical fertilizers are used in sisal production, and although herbicides are occasionally used, even this impact may be eliminated, since most weeding is done by hand. The effluent from the decortication process causes serious pollution when it is allowed to flow into watercourses.

Sisal is considered to be an invasive species in Hawaii and Florida.

Uses
Traditionally, sisal has been the leading material for agricultural twine (binder twine and baler twine) because of its strength, durability, ability to stretch, affinity for certain dyestuffs, and resistance to deterioration in saltwater. The importance of this traditional use is diminishing with competition from polypropylene and the development of other haymaking techniques, while new higher-valued sisal products have been developed.

Apart from ropes, twines, and general cordage, sisal is used in low-cost and specialty paper, dartboards, buffing cloth, filters, geotextiles, mattresses, carpets, handicrafts, wire rope cores, and macramé. Sisal has been used as an environmentally friendly strengthening agent to replace asbestos and fibreglass in composite materials in various uses including the automobile industry. The lower-grade fibre is processed by the paper industry because of its high content of cellulose and hemicelluloses. The medium-grade fibre is used in the cordage industry for making ropes and baler and binder twine. Ropes and twines are widely employed for marine, agricultural, and general industrial use. The higher-grade fibre after treatment is converted into yarns and used by the carpet industry.

Other products developed from sisal fibre include spa products, cat-scratching posts, lumbar support belts, rugs, slippers, cloths, and disc buffers. Sisal wall covering meets the abrasion and tearing resistance standards of the American Society for Testing and Materials and of the National Fire Protection Association.

As extraction of fibre uses only a small percentage of the plant, some attempts to improve economic viability have focused on using the waste material for production of biogas, for stockfeed, or the extraction of pharmaceutical materials.

Sisal is a valuable forage for honeybees because of its long flowering period. It is particularly attractive to them during pollen shortage. The honey produced, however, is dark and has a strong and unpleasant flavour.

Because sisal is an agave, it can be fermented and distilled to make mezcal. In India, it may be an ingredient in some street snacks.

Carpets
Despite the yarn durability for which sisal is known, slight matting of sisal carpeting may occur in high-traffic areas. Sisal carpet does not build up static nor does it trap dust, so vacuuming is the only maintenance required. High-spill areas should be treated with a fibre sealer and for spot removal, a dry-cleaning powder is recommended. Depending on climatic conditions, sisal absorbs air humidity or releases it, causing expansion or contraction. Sisal is not recommended for areas that receive wet spills or rain or snow. Sisal is used by itself in carpets or in blends with wool and acrylic for a softer hand.

Global production and trade patterns

Global production of sisal fibre in 2020 amounted to 210 thousand tonnes, of which Brazil, the largest producing country, produced 86,061 tonnes.

Tanzania produced about 36,379 tons, Kenya produced 22,768 tonnes, Madagascar 17,578 tonnes, and 14,006 tonnes were produced in China.  Mexico contributed 13,107 tons with smaller amounts coming from Haiti, Morocco, Venezuela, and South Africa. Sisal occupies sixth place among fibre plants, representing 2% of the world's production of plant fibre (plant fibres provide 65% of the world's fibre).

Heraldry
The sisal plant appears in the coat of arms of Barquisimeto, Venezuela.

An unofficial coat of arms for the Mexican state of Yucatán features a deer bounding over a sisal plant.

In literature
Journalist John Gunther wrote of sisal in 1953, "if it had not been for the fact that sisal is a difficult crop, there might not have been a Munich in 1939. Neville Chamberlain started out life as a sisal planter in the Bahamas, and only returned to Britain and entered politics when he found that this obdurate vegetable was too hard to grow."

See also
Fiber plants
Fiber rope
Henequen
International Year of Natural Fibres
Sisal production in Tanzania

References

Further reading
 G. W. Lock, Sisal – Longmans Green & Co., 1969.

External links

Agave
Fiber plants
Endemic flora of Mexico
Crops originating from Mexico
Non-food crops
Plants described in 1838
Flora naturalised in Australia
Introduced plants of South America

Sisal


Philippe Henri, comte de Grimoard (1753–1815) was a French soldier and military writer.

He entered the royal army at the age of sixteen, and in 1775 published his Essai théorique et practique sur les batailles. Shortly afterwards Louis XVI placed him in his own military cabinet and employed him especially in connection with schemes of army reform. By the start of the Revolution he had become one of Louis's most valued counsellors, in political as well as military matters, and was marked out, though only a colonel, as the next Minister of War.

In 1791 Grimoard was entrusted with the preparation of the scheme of defence for France, which proved two years later of great assistance to the Committee of Public Safety. The events of 1792 put an end to his military career, and the remainder of his life was spent in writing military books.

The following works by him, besides his first essay, have retained some importance:
Histoire des dernières campagnes de Turenne (Paris, 1780)
Lettres et mémoires de Turenne (Paris, 1780)
Troupes legeres et leur emploi (Paris, 1782)
Conquétes de Gustave-Adolphe (Stockholm and Neufchatel, 1782–1791)
Memoires de Gustave-Adolphe (Paris, 1790)
Correspondence of Marshal Richelieu (Paris, 1789)
St Germain (1789)
cand Bernis (1790)
Vie et régne de Frédéric le Grand (London, 1788)
Lettres et mémoires du maréchal de Saxe (Paris, 1794)L'Expédition de Minorque en 1756 (Paris, 1798)Recherches sur la force de l'armée française depuis Henri IV jusqu'en 1805 (Paris, 1806)Mémoires du maréchal de Tess (Paris, 1806)Lettres de Bolingbroke (Paris, 1808)Traité sur le service d'état-major (Paris, 1809)
(with Servan) Tableau historique de la guerre de la Revolution 1792-1794'' (Paris, 1808).

1753 births
1815 deaths
French Army soldiers
French military writers
French male non-fiction writers

Philippe Henri, Comte de Grimoard


Meyer (1908–1931), Irving (1904–1931) and William Shapiro (1911–1934), collectively known as the Shapiro Brothers were the leaders of a group of Jewish-American mobsters from New York City and based in Williamsburg. Well established in the local garment industry, long dominated by Jacob "Gurrah" Shapiro and Louis "Lepke" Buchalter since the 1927 death of Jacob "Little Augie" Orgen, the two began to move against them in the summer of 1931. As the two sides battled for the garment industry in Brooklyn, Irving and Meyer Shapiro were killed by Joseph and Louis Amberg; Irving was gunned down near his apartment on July 11, and Meyer was found shot to death in the basement of a tenement building on Manhattan's Lower East Side on September 17, 1931. Three years later, on orders from Buchalter, Willie Shapiro was finally killed by Murder, Inc. members Martin "Bugsy" Goldstein and Abe "Kid Twist" Reles, supposedly being buried alive in a sandpit in the marshland of Canarsie by Reles, the Amberg brothers, and Frank Abbandando and Harry Maione on the night of July 20, 1934.

Reles would implicate Buchalter in the murders during talks with District Attorney William O'Dwyer after agreeing to become a government informant in 1941. His later testimony would result in the conviction of Buchalter and the rest of Murder, Inc., who were all eventually sentenced to death.

References
Sifakis, Carl. The Encyclopedia of American Crime: Second Edition Vol. II (K–Z). New York: Facts On File Inc., 2001.

Further reading
Downey, Patrick. Gangster City: The History of the New York Underworld 1900–1935, Barricade Books 2004, 2009

External links

Murdered Jewish American gangsters
People murdered by Murder, Inc.

Deaths by firearm in Manhattan
Premature burials
People murdered in New York City
Male murder victims
20th-century American Jews

Shapiro Brothers


Sheila MacVicar is a Canadian television journalist most recently with Al Jazeera America as  the host of Compass With Sheila MacVicar and a correspondent for America Tonight.

A native of Montreal, she worked for CBS News from June 2004 until 2013 as the network's London correspondent. She has also worked as a reporter for CBC Television (1981–1990), ABC News (1990–2001) and CNN (2001–2004). From 1977 she worked at CBC affiliated stations in Calgary and Montreal.

She graduated from Carleton University in 1977 with a Bachelor of Journalism.

Awards and recognition
 Emmy Awards (3 awards)
 Peabody Award (1 award)
 One World Broadcasting Trust (media award; 1998)

Noted stories
MacVicar reported on a connection between Osama Bin Laden and Saddam Hussein on January 14, 1999 on ABC News.

External links
CBS News: Sheila MacVicar bio
Carleton University: "Carleton Grads on the Frontlines" (Spring 2002)
ABC News January 14th 1999 "Osama Bin Laden & Saddam Hussein connection"

References

Living people
Carleton University alumni
Canadian television reporters and correspondents
Canadian expatriates in England
Canadian expatriate journalists in the United States
Journalists from Montreal
Canadian women television journalists
Al Jazeera people
CBS News people
20th-century Canadian journalists
21st-century Canadian journalists
Year of birth missing (living people)
20th-century Canadian women

Sheila MacVicar


You Are What You Eat is a British dieting programme presented by Trisha Goddard and Amir Khan that broadcasts on Channel 5. The show was originally broadcast on Channel 4, before moving to Channel 5 in 2022 for its revived series. Both the Channel 4 and Channel 5 versions of the show were produced by CPL Productions (formerly Celador).

The show originally ran from 2004 until 2006 on Channel 4 with controversial host Gillian McKeith. On 5 March 2021 it was confirmed the show would be revived with Goddard and Khan replacing McKeith as host, with the first episode of the new series broadcast back-to-back on Channel 5 with Dr Amir's How To Give Up Sugar (and Lose Weight) (also known as Dr Amir's Sugar Crash) on 5 January 2022.

You Are What You Eat was also the title of an American film from 1968. The phrase "You are what you eat" was first expressed by Ludwig Feuerbach in 1863 (German: .).

Original run
The show originally ran for four seasons on Channel 4 with Gillian McKeith as host from 2004 until its cancellation in 2006.

The show often uses shock tactics to get the participants to lose weight. In each episode, all food eaten in one week by the person(s) taking part is placed on a table to highlight problem areas of their diet. Another technique is the analysis of the participant's faeces by McKeith to detect certain problems and make them known to the person involved. This aspect of the show gained McKeith the nickname "The Awful Poo Lady". Emphasising the possibility of the participant's death is sometimes used, with references to children they might not see growing up or a mock grave being prepared. Generally, editions would have these scenes in the first part of the show followed by the participant's attempts to follow McKeith's diet and exercise regimes in the second. The fourth series was expanded from half to one hour programmes, with the contestants moving to McKeith's London house and being visited overnight at their homes for inspection.

Controversy
In the first series of the show, McKeith was sometimes referred to as "Doctor", and she has continued to use the title in some media, although the later series referred to her as a "holistic nutritionist", using the title "Ms. Gillian McKeith" at some points. It emerged in December 2005 that Gillian McKeith has no accredited doctorate. McKeith received her PhD via a distance learning programme from the American Holistic College of Nutrition, Alabama, which later became the Clayton College of Natural Health before closing in 2011. The Clayton College of Natural Health stated that it was "accredited by the American Association of Drugless Practitioners and the American Naturopathic Medical Accreditation Board".  However, this accreditation was never recognised by the U.S. Secretary of Education.

McKeith is also a member of the American Association of Nutritional Consultants, a controversial organisation which seeks to enhance the reputation of Nutritional and Dietary Consultants by consolidating them into a professional organisation. It offers examination and certification, or association membership which does not require an examination but requires the payment of the $60 membership fee.

Revived series
On 5 March 2021, it was confirmed that the series would be revived on Channel 5, starting on 5 January 2022 with a 6-episode run with Trisha Goddard and Dr Amir Khan taking over from Gillian McKeith, who presented the original series on Channel 4. On the announcement of the revived series Goddard said "I never looked at any of the previous shows. I'm more into understanding people. TV's moved on since then. We are more aware now that if someone's got a problem with food it's usually a demonstration of something deeper".

Khan also added in regards to previous host McKeith: "I try to avoid anything she tweets really because we are on very different paths. I didn't watch her shows much. I remember her going into people's houses with a Tupperware of poo and sifting through it and thinking, 'This is gross'. It's a different kind of show this time, I think most people will see that. It's a far more scientific approach. I know through my job that shock tactics don't work. It's about understanding people's lifestyle. One of the approaches Trisha and I had is that a lot of diets and exercise regimes are based on people of a Caucasian background. So this time we had people on from a black [or] South Asian background".

Transmissions

International versions
Localized versions of You Are What You Eat were produced by Viasat and aired in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Hungary and the Czech Republic. Viasat was the first company in the world to adapt the format locally. MTV3 also produced a local version of the show in Finland. The show was a success and it was the frequently most viewed show in Finland. A local version as well as the original one was also aired in Belgium.

Spin-offs
In 2004 Celador International (now CPL) arranged a deal with the publisher of the A Place In the Sun magazine, Brooklands Group, to publish a spin-off magazine for You Are What You Eat with the publication featuring advice from Dr Gillian McKeith, tips on healthy eating, recipes and exercise. The cover price was £2.60, with the first issue being published in January 2005 to accompany the new series of the show, then broadcast by Channel 4.

McKeith also contributed a number of recipes to You Are What You Eat Cookbook published by Penguin, the follow-up to the original You Are What You Eat book which was at number one in the UK bestselling books chart for 10 weeks. On 27 December 2004, a spin-off video of You Are What You Eat was issued on DVD and VHS by Lace International.

Bibliography
 You Are What You Eat - 80 Simple, Healthy Recipes (2022)

References

External links

2000s British documentary television series
2020s British documentary television series
2004 British television series debuts
Channel 4 documentary series
Channel 5 documentary series
Television series by Seven.One Studios
Television series by Sony Pictures Television
British television series revived after cancellation
English-language television shows
Weight loss

You Are What You Eat


Jesse Howard Swick (August 6, 1879 – November 17, 1952) was a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania.

J. Howard Swick was born near New Brighton, Pennsylvania. He attended Geneva College in nearby Beaver Falls, where he taught from 1895 to 1900. He graduated from Hahnemann Medical College of Philadelphia in 1900. He moved to Beaver Falls in 1906 and commenced the practice of medicine.

He served as president of the Beaver Falls Bureau of Health from 1907 to 1914. During the First World War, Swick served as a first lieutenant and later as a captain in the Medical Corps of the United States Army, with overseas service, from August 31, 1917 to May 9, 1919.

After his time in the service, he resumed the practice of medicine in Beaver Falls. He was also interested in banking and the manufacturing of steel products. He served as a member of the Beaver Falls City Council from 1925 to 1927.

Swick was elected as a Republican to the Seventieth and to the three succeeding Congresses. He was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1934. He resumed the practice of medicine until August 1945, when he retired.

He died in Beaver Falls, aged 73, and is buried in Concord Cemetery in North Sewickley Township, Beaver County, Pennsylvania.

References
 Retrieved on 2008-02-10
The Political Graveyard

External links

1879 births
1952 deaths
United States Army personnel of World War I
People from Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania
United States Army Medical Corps officers
Geneva College alumni
Pennsylvania city council members
Drexel University alumni
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania

J. Howard Swick


Ocean Drive is a major thoroughfare in the South Beach neighborhood of Miami Beach, Florida.

Route description
The road starts at South Pointe just south of 1st Street, near the southernmost end of the main barrier island of Miami Beach, about a quarter mile west of the Atlantic Ocean. Ocean Drive continues north to 15th Street, immediately southeast of Lincoln Road.

Attractions
Ocean Drive is known mostly for its Art Deco hotels and restaurants/bars, many of which have been prominently featured in numerous movies and media.  Among the most popular is the 1939 Colony Hotel, known as the most photographed art deco hotel. Renovated as a boutique hotel, it has been featured in cameos in scores of movies and TV shows, including the series Dexter. Another popular art deco hotel is the Clevelander Hotel; in addition to its standard hotel services, it has an indoor sports lounge, a dance floor and pool area on the ground floor, and a complementary roof-top lounge. The exterior of the Carlyle Hotel was used for the Birdcage drag club in the 1996 comedy The Birdcage.

The Sunray Apartments were featured in the movie Scarface (1983).

Ocean Drive is also the location of the famed Casa Casuarina, the residence of the late Italian fashion designer Gianni Versace. Since his death, the house was sold and adapted for use as a boutique hotel. It is one of the most photographed houses in North America.

Culture
Developed in the 1920s and 1930s, the street is the center of the Miami Art Deco District, which contains about 900 preserved, contributing buildings. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Streamline Moderne evolved from the Art Deco style, and dominates the street.

Ocean Drive magazine is named after the street. British easy-listening duo The Lighthouse Family released a single entitled "Ocean Drive" in 1995 (although this is based on a road in the UK), which reached #11 on the UK Singles Chart.

A street in the 2002 video game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City is based on the street.

Restaurants and cabaret
One of the most famous restaurants on this strip is Mango's Tropical Café, a Caribbean-inspired restaurant that also has live performances by dancers and singers.

Known for its cabaret and drag queen shows, the Palace Bar is dedicated to the LGBTQ community.

Cars
In July 2020, Miami Beach Commission passed a resolution that banned cars on Ocean Drive in light of the COVID-19 pandemic to create a pedestrian thoroughfare and increased sidewalk seating.
Ocean Drive reopened to traffic in January 2022.

Gallery

References

Florida, DK Eyewitness Travel Guides, 2004, pgs. 58 & 59

External links
Google historical timeline of Ocean Drive, South Beach, Miami

Roads in Miami Beach, Florida
Roads in Miami-Dade County, Florida
Shopping districts and streets in the United States
Tourist attractions in Miami-Dade County, Florida

Ocean Drive (South Beach)