The Mala Compra Plantation Archeological Site is an archaeological site in Palm Coast, Florida, on the east bank of the Matanzas River. It is located west of the intersection of State Road A1A and Mala Compra Drive at Bings Landing County Park in Flagler County. On March 5, 2004, it was added to the United States National Register of Historic Places.

Mala Compra (Spanish for "bad bargain" or "bad purchase") was formerly part of one of northeastern Florida's largest plantation systems (totaling 2,265 acres). Situated on the coast, it belonged to Joseph Marion Hernández (1788–1857), and was worked primarily as a slave-based cotton plantation from 1816 through 1836, when the Seminoles burned it down near the beginning of the Second Seminole War.

Preliminary archaeological investigations were conducted at the Mala Compra site in 1999. The study identified the house where Hernández and his family resided when they were not at their home in St. Augustine, and the detached kitchen was also found. The land for the plantation was purchased by Hernández in 1816; cotton and corn were grown there until the settlement was destroyed by marauding Native Americans.

The main dwelling-house was described in historical accounts as a 1 1/2-story framed structure with a masonry foundation. Investigations revealed that the building had a coquina block foundation in the eastern part while masonry footers supported the western section. It was almost twice the size of the dimensions cited in the historical descriptions. Wooden floors had been described as well, and traces of them were found, but tabby concrete surfaces were also identified.

An account of the state of the plantation in 1836 given by Joseph S. Sanchez to the County Court of St. Johns County in 1837 says that his militia troops found a number of oxen, cattle, and horses; garden enclosures and cattle pens; and "an extensive and thriving sweet orange grove, said to contain 1,500 trees, and a variety of other fruit trees...".

Over 14,000 artifacts were recovered by archaeologists and their assistants, including fragments of ceramics and wine bottles, kitchen utensils, kaolin pipes, hinges, nails, and gun parts. The main house and kitchen have been interpreted to provide an interactive historical exhibit for public education and recreation, and plans developed for additional research and preservation of the valuable cultural resources.

History

In 1816, the Spanish government granted Hernández a large tract of land at the confluence of Graham's Swamp and what was then the headwaters of the southern end of the Matanzas River, on its western bank. There he cultivated about 700 acres of sugarcane, calling the place St. Joseph plantation. According to a deed dated March 11, 1816, for 1,500 pesos in cash Father Miguel Crosby sold Hernández 800 acres on the coastal barrier island, described as "800 acres with its adjoining marshes on the Matanzas River, bounded on the north by lands of John Bautista Ferreyra". The name "Mala Compra" had been given previously to the property by another owner. In 1818, Hernández bought from Ferreyra's son, Francis Ferreira (spelling of these names varied, often in the same document), another property of 375 acres adjoining Mala Compra called Bella Vista. Ferreira was a sea captain who trafficked enslaved African people in Florida. The soil of the cotton fields at Mala Compra was said to have been as white and sandy after some years as the Atlantic beach, yet still produced abundant crops of Sea Island cotton. This was high hammock land where the original growth was almost exclusively Southern live oak.

Hernández' country residence was the plantation house at Mala Compra, a 1 1/2-story frame structure built on a coquina block foundation measuring 18 by 30 feet and laid three feet deep; the side facing the river had a long, wide porch. The interior of the house had two fireplaces built of brick and coquina, plastered walls and paneled doors. The detached kitchen was also 18 by 30 feet, it had a terraced first floor and a loft used for curing tobacco. There was a wooden-framed warehouse for cotton on the property that could hold 200,000 pounds of seed and 200 bales of ginned cotton. Agricultural equipment included single- and double-horse gins and 24-foot-gins, in which the horses trod a path 24 feet in circumference. There were other buildings including a corn crib, a driver's house, and a privy, as well as cabins for people enslaved as forced laborers.

Hernández was Florida's first delegate to the U.S. Congress in 1822 and 1823 and the first Hispanic to serve in the United States Congress. He was a brigadier general commanding troops of the Florida Militia during the Second Seminole War, who while negotiating with Seminole leader Osceola under a white flag of truce in October 1837, took him captive by order of General Jesup.

It was from Mala Compra that Hernandez wrote a letter to Dr. William H. Simmons, dated April 15, 1830, on the cultivation of Cuban tobacco. Simmons and John Lee Williams of Pensacola were commissioned by the second Territorial Council of Florida to select a central point between St. Augustine and Pensacola to serve as capital of the territory in 1823. In 1831, John James Audubon spent ten days as a guest of Hernández at Mala Compra. There he shot dozens of American coots, one of which was a male from which he drew the figure for the plate which appeared in his book The Birds of America.

In 1832 the Legislative Council of the Territory of Florida incorporated a company to dig a canal from the head of Matanzas Lagoon to Smith's Creek, a tributary of the Halifax River. With this act a memorial was presented to Congress seeking financial assistance and land grants; subsequently five sections were appropriated for the proposed canal. The company intended to commence the canal at Mala Compra plantation and dig it southward a distance of about 11 or 12 miles through a rich wet savanna, parallel with the coast, to Smith's Creek, about four miles north of John Bulow's plantation.

In the early stages of the Second Seminole War, during the winter of 1835 and 1836, and in the spring of the latter year, both Mala Compra and St. Joseph plantations were taken into military possession by the United States, and the houses occupied and fortified as military posts. During that winter and spring, both places were occupied, evacuated, and reoccupied by various detachments and bodies of troops. The troops seized and ate the large quantities of corn, hay, sugarcane, and cattle stored on the farm.

In the spring, the Seminoles, taking advantage of a temporary evacuation, burned all the buildings of any consequence or value on the sugarcane plantation. At Mala Compra, they burned the cotton warehouse that had been prepared and used as a defensive fortification. They captured three of the 80 people enslaved on the plantation and drove the rest off.

References

External links
 Flagler County listings at National Register of Historic Places
 Florida's Office of Cultural and Historical Programs
 Flagler County listings
 Flagler County markers
 Mala Compra site in Flagler County, Flagler County Public Library

 Florida Seminole Wars Heritage Trail.

Geography of Flagler County, Florida
Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Florida
Sugar plantations in Florida
Palm Coast, Florida
Cotton plantations in Florida
Burned houses in the United States
National Register of Historic Places in Flagler County, Florida
Burned buildings and structures in the United States
Buildings and structures in Flagler County, Florida
Slave cabins and quarters in the United States
Forts in Florida
Ruins on the National Register of Historic Places
Second Seminole War fortifications


Aselefech Mergia Medessa (Oromo: Asallafach Margaa Mardaasaa; Amharic: አሰለፈች መርጊያ; born 23 January 1985) is an Ethiopian long-distance runner who competes in the marathon. She was a bronze medallist in the event at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics. She is a two-time winner of the Dubai Marathon and has finished in the top three at the Paris and London Marathons. She was retrospectively confirmed as the winner of the 2010 London Marathon after the top two were disqualified. Her personal best of 2:19:31 hours is a former Ethiopian record for the distance and places her within the top ten of all-time.

Career
She began taking part in professional road races in 2006, starting with a seventh-place finish at the Delhi Half Marathon. She won the Plymouth Half Marathon in 2007, finishing with a time of 1:14:50. She was second in the women's 10K in Glasgow, Scotland, finishing behind Vivian Cheruiyot but setting a personal best of 32:19 for the distance.

At the 2008 World Cross Country Championships she finished sixteenth in the senior race. With five Ethiopian runners ahead of her she missed out for a place on the victorious Ethiopian team. That year she won the Delhi Half Marathon with a personal best run of 1:08:17. She closed the year by winning a silver medal at the 2008 IAAF World Half Marathon Championships.

She made her marathon debut in April 2009 at the Paris Marathon, where she ran 2:25:02 for second place. She topped the podium at the World 10K Bangalore the following month, just holding off a charge from Mary Keitany to win the race in 32:08. Mergia won the bronze medal in the women's marathon at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics, recording a time of 2:25:32.

Aselefech improved her half marathon personal best to 1:07:22 at the 2010 Ras Al Khaimah Half Marathon. Despite the fast time, this was only enough for third place behind Elvan Abeylegesse and Mare Dibaba. More improvements came at the 2010 London Marathon: although initially finishing third with a run of 2:22:38, improving her best by over two and a half minutes, she was subsequently declared the winner after doping convictions nullified results of the first two runners. She returned to defend her Bangalore 10K title in May, but was beaten to the tape by compatriot Wude Ayalew and, finishing two seconds behind her, Mergia had to settle for the runner-up position. She regained her Delhi Half Marathon title in November: learning from the poor pacing which had left her in ninth place the previous year, she stuck to the front and won the race in a sprint finish ahead of Merima Mohammed.

She came close to her personal best with a win at the 2011 Dubai Marathon, just missed the course record mark, but gained the US$250,000 first place prize. She was chosen for the Ethiopian marathon team at the 2011 World Championships and was in twelfth at the 40 km point of the race, but dropped out in the final kilometres. In October she ran at the Great South Run and easily saw off a challenge from Doris Changeywo to win the 10-mile race. An attempt to defend her Delhi Half Marathon title ended in a third-place finish, although she improved her best time by a second.

In January 2012, Aselefech won the Dubai Marathon for the second time, setting an Ethiopian record of 2:19:31 hours to break the course record and become the seventh fastest woman ever over the distance.

In January 2015, Aselefech won the Dubai Marathon for the third time, 2:20:02.

Personal bests
1500 metres - 4:23.39 min (2007)
Half marathon 1:07:21 (2011)
Marathon - 2:19:31 (2012)

Competition record

Road race wins
Delhi Half Marathon: 2008, 2010
World 10K Bangalore: 2009
London Marathon: 2010
Dubai Marathon: 2011, 2012, 2015
Great South Run: 2011

References

External links

Marathon Info profile

1985 births
Living people
Ethiopian female marathon runners
Ethiopian female long-distance runners
Athletes (track and field) at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Olympic athletes for Ethiopia
World Athletics Championships medalists
London Marathon female winners
21st-century Ethiopian women
21st-century Ethiopian people

Aselefech Mergia


Bernard (797 – 17 April 818) was the King of Italy from 810 to 818. He plotted against his uncle, Emperor Louis the Pious, when the latter's Ordinatio Imperii made Bernard a vassal of his cousin Lothair. When his plot was discovered, Louis had him blinded, a procedure which killed him.

Life
Bernard was born in 797, the son of King Pepin of Italy, himself the son of the Emperor Charlemagne. In 810, Pepin died from an illness contracted at the siege of Venice. Bernard married a woman named Cunigunde, but the year of their marriage, and her origins, are obscure. Some sources refer to her as "of Laon". They had one son, Pepin, Count of Vermandois, who was born in 817.

In 817, Louis the Pious drew the Ordinatio Imperii, detailing the future of the Frankish Empire. Under this, the bulk of the Frankish territory went to Louis' eldest son, Lothair; Bernard received no further territory, and although his kingship of Italy was confirmed, he would be a vassal of Lothair, as he had been to Louis and to Charles. Certain of his counselors, including Count Eggideo, and his chamberlain Reginhard, persuaded Bernard that this arrangement threatened his position. Other names were Reginhar, the last being the grandson of a Thuringian rebel against Charlemagne, and Hardrad. Anshelm, Bishop of Milan and Theodulf, Bishop of Orléans, were also accused of being involved: there is no evidence either to support or contradict this in the case of Theodulf, whilst the case for Anshelm is murkier.

Prior to this, Bernard's relationship with his uncle appears to have been cooperative. Bernard's main complaint was the notion of his being a vassal of Lothair. In practical terms, his actual position had not been altered at all by the terms of the decree, and he could safely have continued to rule under such a system. Nonetheless, "partly true" reports came to Louis the Pious that his nephew was planning to set up an 'unlawful'—i.e. independent—regime in Italy.

Louis the Pious reacted swiftly to the plot, marching south to Chalon. Bernard and his associates were taken by surprise; Bernard travelled to Chalon in an attempt to negotiate terms, but he and the ringleaders were forced to surrender to Louis, who had them taken to Aachen where they were tried and condemned to death. Louis 'mercifully' commuted their sentences to blinding, which would neutralize Bernard as a threat without actually killing him; however, the process of blinding (carried out by means of pressing a red-hot stiletto to the eyeballs) proved so traumatic that Bernard died in agony two days after the procedure was carried out. At the same time, Louis also had his half-brothers Drogo, Hugh and Theoderic tonsured and confined to monasteries, to prevent other Carolingian offshoots challenging the main line. He also treated those guilty or suspected of conspiring with Bernard harshly: Theodulf of Orleans was imprisoned, and died soon afterwards; the lay conspirators were blinded, the clerics deposed and imprisoned; all lost lands and honours.

A text called The Vision of the Poor woman of Laon criticizes Louis for Bernard's death.

Legacy

His Kingdom of Italy was reabsorbed into the Frankish empire, and soon after bestowed upon Louis' eldest son Lothair. In 822, Louis made a display of public penance at Attigny, where he confessed before all the court to having sinfully slain his nephew; he also welcomed his half-brothers back into his favour. These actions possibly stemmed from guilt over his part in Bernard's death. It has been argued by some historians that his behaviour left him open to clerical domination, and reduced his prestige and respect amongst the Frankish nobility. Others, however, point out that Bernard's plot had been a serious threat to the stability of the kingdom, and the reaction no less a threat; Louis' display of penance, then, "was a well-judged gesture to restore harmony and re-establish his authority."

References

797 births
818 deaths
9th-century kings of Italy
Herbertien dynasty
Frankish warriors
Medieval child monarchs

Bernard of Italy


Hispar Pass (or Hispar La) (el. 5,128 m./16,824 ft.) is a high-altitude, non-technical mountain pass in the Karakoram Range in Pakistan.

At the pass, the Biafo Glacier (63 km. long) and Hispar Glacier (49 km long) meet to form the world's longest glacial traverse outside of the polar regions, 100 kilometers in length.

Mountain passes of Pakistan

Hispar Pass


The United Christian Church of Dubai (UCCD) is an evangelical church. It was first established in 1962 as a fellowship of expatriate workers in the Emirates. One thousand people from over 50 nationalities attended the weekly services.

History

1970-1990
In 1977, many expatriate Christians were arriving in Dubai. A small fellowship of Christians constituted itself as a church, called the International Evangelical Church of Dubai. A pastor was called, and a statement of doctrine was adopted. In the following year, the first constitution was accepted. At that time, the church met on Sundays in the Jumeirah American School (now the American School of Dubai), and Sunday School were held there in the afternoons.

Due to international tensions in the 1980s, the church was asked to leave the Jumeirah American School for security reasons. For a while, the church met in hired hotel rooms and later in an English School and The Cambridge High School, by arrangement with the school's owner, Mrs Varkey.

1990-2000
The church leased a villa in Jumeirah (the "Jumeirah Villa"), from 1990 to September 2003. The building continued to be used for Sunday evening services and other churches' meetings until the Dubai Municipality ordered the villa's closure in June 2006.

With the Villa as a permanent place of worship, the church grew significantly.  In 1990, a Friday morning service was started by 4 families. This grew to become the main gathering of the church. The Villa was also used by other Christian groups, including the Arabic Evangelical Church of Dubai (AECD).  In 1994, an informal group composed of UCCD, AECD, and others applied for a grant of land from the Ruler of Dubai on which to construct a church building. In 1998, the Ruler of Dubai granted a piece of land to these churches, and fundraising commenced for a building.

2000-present
In September 2003, Friday services commenced at the new Dubai Evangelical Church Centre ("DECC") in Maranatha Hall at the Churches Complex in Jebel Ali Village. It is located within the complex alongside church buildings of other denominations. By 2009 the total cost of construction had been covered (primarily by members of UCCD) and all loans repaid.

In 2010, UCCD sent out a number of members and staff to establish a sister church, Redeemer Church of Dubai, on the opposite side of Dubai. UCCD continued to support RCD financially until 2012, by which time it had grown into a self-supporting church.

Although licences to hold Christian worship or build churches in Dubai are restricted, UCCD's pastor joined other Christian leaders in 2011 to express their gratitude to the Government for their freedom to meet.

See also
 Churches Complex
 Christianity in the United Arab Emirates
 Religion in the United Arab Emirates

References

Churches in Dubai
Evangelical churches in the United Arab Emirates
Christian organizations established in 1962
Evangelical denominations in Asia
Religion in Dubai

United Christian Church of Dubai


Alfred Thangarajah Duraiappah (15 June 1926 – 27 July 1975) was a Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, who served as Mayor of Jaffna and Member of Parliament.

Early life and family
Duraiappah was born on 15 June 1926. He was the son of an ice and aerated water manufacturer from Vannarpannai in northern Ceylon. He was educated at St. John's College, Jaffna. After school he joined Ceylon Law College, graduating as a proctor.

Duraiappah married Parameswary, daughter of Cumaraswamy. They had a daughter Rochana (Eesha). Duraiappah was a Christian.

Duraiappah's nephew Nishan Duraiappah is the chief of Peel Regional Police in Ontario, Canada.

Career
Duraiappah was elected to Jaffna Municipal Council and became its deputy mayor at the age of 23. He served as mayor from 1970 to 1975.

Duraiappah stood as an independent candidate in Jaffna at the March 1960 parliamentary election. He won the election and entered Parliament. He was re-elected at the July 1960 parliamentary election but lost out to the All Ceylon Tamil Congress candidate G. G. Ponnambalam at the 1965 parliamentary election. He tried to re-gain his seat at the 1970 parliamentary election but was defeated by the Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi candidate C. X. Martyn.

Duraiappah was a member of the governing Sri Lanka Freedom Party and its chief organiser in Jaffna District. Tamil militants considered Duraiappah to be a traitor and government collaborator. In February 1971 Tamil militant Pon Sivakumaran tried to assassinate Duraiappah by throwing a hand grenade on to Duraiappah's car which was parked on Second Cross Road in Jaffna. Duraiappah was not inside the car at the time.

Duraiappah was criticised for his handling of the 1974 Tamil conference incident in which 11 people were killed.

Death
On 27 July 1975 Duraiappah and his daughter Eesha went to the Varadaraja Perumal Temple (Maha Vishnu Temple) in Ponnalai for their weekly worship in the Peugeot 404 which had been given to Duraiappah by his supporters. As they arrived at the temple, Duraiappah was shot dead by masked men. Some members of his family believed that Posts and Telecommunications Minister Chelliah Kumarasuriar, Duraiappah's political rival, was behind the assassination. However, his assassination was widely blamed on the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and its leader V. Prabhakaran. On 25 April 1978 the LTTE issued an open letter, which was published in the Virakesari, claiming responsibility for the assassination of eleven people including Duraiappah.

The Duraiappah Stadium in Jaffna was named after him.

Further reading

References

External links

1926 births
1975 deaths
Alumni of Ceylon Law College
Alumni of St. John's College, Jaffna
Assassinated mayors
Assassinated Sri Lankan politicians
Ceylonese proctors
Mayors of Jaffna
Members of the 4th Parliament of Ceylon
Members of the 5th Parliament of Ceylon
People from British Ceylon
Sri Lanka Freedom Party politicians
Sri Lankan Christians
Sri Lankan Tamil people
Sri Lankan lawyers
Tamil politicians
Sri Lankan terrorism victims
Terrorism deaths in Sri Lanka
1970s assassinated politicians in Asia

Alfred Duraiappah


Collard is a group of certain loose-leafed cultivars of Brassica oleracea, the same species as many common vegetables including cabbage and broccoli. Collard is generally described as part of the Acephala (kale) cultivar group, but gets its own variety as Brassica oleracea var. viridis. The name "collard" comes from the word "colewort" (a medieval term for non-heading brassica crops).

The plants are grown as a food crop for their large, dark-green, edible leaves, which are cooked and eaten as vegetables. Collard greens have been eaten over centuries, with evidence showing that the ancient Greeks cultivated the plant.

Description
The term collard has been used to include many non-heading Brassica oleracea crops. While American collards are best placed in the Viridis crop group, the Acephala cultivar group is also used ("without a head" in Greek) referring to a lack of close-knit core of leaves (a "head") like cabbage does, making collards more tolerant of high humidity levels and less susceptible to fungal diseases. The plant is a biennial where winter frost occurs; some varieties may be perennial in warmer regions. It has an upright stalk, often growing over two feet tall and up to six feet for the Portuguese cultivars. Popular cultivars of collard greens include 'Georgia Southern', 'Vates', 'Morris Heading', 'Blue Max', 'Top Bunch', 'Butter Collard' (couve manteiga), couve tronchuda, and Groninger Blauw. In Africa it is commonly known as sukuma (East Africa), muriwo or umBhida (Southern Africa).

Cultivation

The plant is commercially cultivated for its thick, slightly bitter, edible leaves. They are available year-round, but are tastier and more nutritious in the cold months, after the first frost. For best texture, the leaves are picked before they reach their maximum size, at which stage they are thicker and are cooked differently from the new leaves. Age does not affect flavor.

Flavor and texture also depend on the cultivar; the couve manteiga and couve tronchuda are especially appreciated in Brazil and Portugal. The large number of varieties grown in the United States decreased as people moved to towns after World War II, leaving only five varieties commonly in cultivation. However, seeds of many varieties remained in use by individual farmers, growers and seed savers as well as within US government seed collections. In the Appalachian region, cabbage collards, characterized by yellow-green leaves and a partially heading structure are more popular than the dark-green non-heading types in the coastal South. There have been projects from the early 2000s to both preserve seeds of uncommon varieties and also enable more varieties to return to cultivation.

Nutritional information

Raw collard greens are 90% water, 6% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and contain negligible fat (table). Like kale, collard greens contain substantial amounts of vitamin K (388% of the Daily Value, DV) in a  serving. Collard greens are rich sources (20% or more of DV) of vitamin A, vitamin C, and manganese, and moderate sources of calcium and vitamin B6. A  reference serving of cooked collard greens provides  of food energy. Some collard cultivars may be abundant sources of aliphatic glucosinolates, such as glucoraphanin.

Culinary use

East Africa
Collard greens are known as sukuma in Swahilli and are one of the most common vegetables in East Africa. Sukuma is mainly lightly sauteed in oil until tender, flavoured with onions and seasoned with salt, and served either as the main accompaniment or as a side dish with meat or fish. In Congo, Tanzania and Kenya (East Africa), thinly sliced collard greens are the main accompaniments of a popular dish known as sima or ugali (a maize flour cake).

Southern and Eastern Europe
Collards have been cultivated in Europe for thousands of years with references to the Greeks and Romans back to the 1st Century. In Montenegro, Dalmatia and Herzegovina, collard greens, locally known as raštika or raštan, were traditionally one of the staple vegetables. It is particularly popular in the winter, stewed with smoked mutton (kaštradina) or cured pork, root vegetables and potatoes. Known in Turkey as kara lahana ("dark cabbage"), it is a staple in the Black Sea area.

United States
Collard greens are a staple vegetable in Southern U.S. cuisine. They are often prepared with other similar green leaf vegetables, such as spinach, kale, turnip greens, and mustard greens in the dish called "mixed greens". Typically used in combination with collard greens are smoked and salted meats (ham hocks, smoked turkey drumsticks, smoked turkey necks, pork neckbones, fatback or other fatty meat), diced onions, vinegar, salt, and black pepper, white pepper, or crushed red pepper, and some cooks add a small amount of sugar. Traditionally, collards are eaten on New Year's Day, along with black-eyed peas or field peas and cornbread, to ensure wealth in the coming year. Cornbread is used to soak up the "pot liquor", a nutrient-rich collard broth. Collard greens may also be thinly sliced and fermented to make a collard sauerkraut that is often cooked with flat dumplings. Landrace collard in-situ genetic diversity and ethnobotany are subjects of research for citizen-science groups.

During slavery, collards were one of the most common plants grown in kitchen gardens and were used to supplement the rations provided by plantation owners. Greens were widely used because the plants could last through the winter weather and could withstand the heat of a southern summer even more so than spinach or lettuce.

Broadly, collard greens symbolize Southern culture and African-American culture and identity. For example, jazz composer and pianist, Thelonious Monk, sported a collard leaf in his lapel to represent his African-American heritage. In President Barack Obama's first state dinner, collard greens were included on the menu. Novelist and poet Alice Walker used collards to reference the intersection of African-American heritage and black women. There have been many collard festivals that celebrate African-American identity, including those in Port Wentworth, Georgia (since 1997), East Palo Alto, California (since 1998), Columbus, Ohio (since 2010), and Atlanta, Georgia (since 2011). In 2010, the Latibah Collard Greens Museum opened in Charlotte, North Carolina.

Many explorers in the late nineteenth century have written about the pervasiveness of collards in Southern cooking particularly among black Americans. In 1869, Hyacinth, a traveler during the Civil War, for example, observed that collards could be found anywhere in the south. In 1972, another observer, Stearns, echoed that sentiment claiming that collards were present in every black Southerner's garden. In 1883, a writer commented on the fact that there is no word or dish more popular among poorer whites and blacks than collard greens. The collard sandwich—consisting of fried cornbread, collard greens, and fatback—is a popular dish among the Lumbee people in Robeson County, North Carolina.

Brazil and Portugal

In Portuguese and Brazilian cuisine, collard greens (or couve) are a common accompaniment to fish and meat dishes. They make up a standard side dish for feijoada, a popular pork and beans-style stew. These Brazilian and Portuguese cultivars are likely members of a distinct non-heading cultivar group of Brassica oleracea, specifically the Tronchuda Group.

Thinly-sliced collard greens are also a main ingredient of a popular Portuguese soup, the caldo verde ("green broth"). For this broth, the leaves are sliced into strips,  wide (sometimes by a grocer or market vendor using a special hand-cranked slicer) and added to the other ingredients 15 minutes before it is served.

Kashmir Valley

In Kashmir, collard greens (haakh) are included in most meals. Leaves are harvested by pinching in early spring when the dormant buds sprout and give out tender leaves known as kaanyil haakh. When the extending stem bears alternate leaves in quick succession during the growing season, older leaves are harvested periodically. In late autumn, the apical portion of the stem is removed along with the whorled leaves.
There are several dishes made with haakh. A common dish eaten with rice is haak rus, a soup of whole collard leaves cooked simply with water, oil, salt, green chilies and spices.

Zimbabwe
In Zimbabwe, collard greens are known as  in Ndebele and  in Shona. Due to the climate, the plant thrives under almost all conditions, with most people growing it in their gardens. It is commonly eaten with sadza (ugali in East Africa, pap in South Africa, and polenta in Italy) as part of the staple food.  is normally wilted in boiling water before being fried and combined with sautéed onions or tomato. Some (more traditionally, the Shona people) add beef, pork and other meat to the  mix for a type of stew. Most people eat  on a regular basis in Zimbabwe, as it is economical and can be grown with little effort in home gardens.

Pests
The sting nematode, Belonolaimus gracilis and the awl nematode, Dolichodorus spp. are both ectoparasites that can injure collard. Root symptoms include stubby or coarse roots that are dark at the tips. Shoot symptoms include stunted growth, premature wilting, and chlorosis (Nguyen and Smart, 1975). Another species of the sting worm, Belonolaimus longicaudatus, is a pest of collards in Georgia and North Carolina (Robbins and Barker, 1973). B. longicaudatus is devastating to seedlings and transplants. As few as three nematodes per  of soil when transplanting can cause significant yield losses on susceptible plants. They are most common in sandy soils (Noling, 2012).

The stubby root nematodes Trichodorus and Paratrichodorus attach and feed near the tip of collard's taproots. The damage caused prevents proper root elongation leading to tight mats that could appear swollen, therefore resulting in a "stubby root" (Noling, 2012).

Several species of the root knot nematode Meloidogyne spp. infest collards. These include: M. javanica, M. incognita and M. arenaria. Second-stage juveniles attack the plant and settle in the roots. However, infestation seems to occur at lower populations compared to other cruciferous plants. Root symptoms include deformation (galls) and injury that prevent proper water and nutrient uptake. This could eventually lead to stunting, wilting and chlorosis of the shoots (Crow and Dunn, 2012).

The false root knot nematode Nacobbus aberrans has a wide host range of up to 84 species including many weeds. On Brassicas it has been reported in several states, including Nebraska, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, Montana, South Dakota, and Kansas (Manzanilla-López et al., 2002). As a pest of collards, the degree of damage is dependent upon the nematode population in the soil.

Some collard cultivars exhibit resistance to bacterial leaf blight incited by Pseudomonas cannabina pv. alisalensis (Pca).

See also
 Collard liquor

References

External links

Brassica
Leaf vegetables
Cuisine of the Southern United States
Ethiopian cuisine
African cuisine

Collard (plant)


Claude Henry K. "Buddy" Young (January 5, 1926 – September 4, 1983) was an American professional football player and executive in the National Football League (NFL). A native of Chicago, he was Illinois state champ in track and field in the 100-yard dash. The 5'4" Young, also known as the "Bronze Bullet", had exceptional quickness and acceleration. He is one of the shortest men ever to play in the NFL, he was drafted in the 1947 AAFC Draft in the Special Draft by the New York Yankees. As a track star at the University of Illinois, he won the National Collegiate Championships in the 100 and 220-yard dash, tied the world record for the 45 and 60-yard dashes (6.1 in the latter event), and was the Amateur Athletic Union's 100-meter champion.

Early years
Young was as impressive on the gridiron as on the track. He received scholarship offers from several schools, including the University of Michigan, Drake University, Marquette University and the University of Illinois.  He chose Illinois and established himself as a star immediately.  In his first game for the Illini, he scampered 64 yards for a touchdown on the first play from scrimmage. On his second carry, he ran for a 30-yard touchdown. In all, in his debut he gained 139 yards on 7 carries, an average of 19.7 yards. Before the season concluded, he scored 10 touchdowns equaling the Big Ten Conference record established by the immortal Red Grange in 1924.

These unusual early successes brought the freshman running back national attention. "Not since the days when Red Grange was ripping up the sod...for Bob Zuppke and the Illini has there been so much pigskin excitement on the University of Illinois Campus." Sportscaster Bill Stern called him "The fastest thing in cleats and the runner of the year." Ray Eliot, Young's coach, referred to him as "The best running back I have ever seen." Only a freshman, Young was named to several All-America teams.

Military service
Football, like other aspects of American life, had to endure wartime hardships. Manpower difficulties forced NFL teams to reduce their rosters from 33 to 25. Some colleges ended football programs for the duration. And most college players had their education and playing days interrupted by wartime commitments.  Young was no different.  In late January 1945, Young was drafted by the Navy. Initially he reported to the Great Lakes Naval Training Station, but was eventually transferred to the US Naval Training and Distribution Center, Shoemaker, California (also known as Fleet City), near what is now Dublin, California. Like many star athletes, Young played football for a service team. Coast service teams, one writer claimed, "unquestionably played the toughest football extant during the war. The personnel of the league were 30 percent All-American, 30 percent professional and 40 percent better than the average college squad."

In mid-December, the top two coast service teams met for the championship. In an earlier contest the Fleet City Bluejackets, Buddy's team, had prevailed 7–0. The championship game was played in Los Angeles at Memorial Stadium before 65,000 fans. It was one of Buddy Young's greatest games. After a scoreless first quarter, Young returned a kickoff for a 94-yard touchdown, he ran back another kickoff for an 88-yard touchdown, and took a hand-off from O'Rourke and scampered 30 yards for a third. The Bluejackets won the game 45–28 to complete an unbeaten season. They challenged the unbeaten West Point team, but the cadets refused the invitation.

Young's performance won accolades from players, coaches, writers, and fans. Charlie O'Rourke still talks excitedly about the game and Young's ability. An opponent stated that he had "never seen his equal" and Aldo Forte remarked: "I've seen the greatest in pro football. None can compare with Young." El Toro coach Dick Hanley, who had coached Northwestern, called Young "the greatest college back I've ever seen." Bluejackets Coach Bill Reinhart declared that he had "never seen anything like Buddy Young." Sports columnist Slip Madigan also considered Young superior to Blanchard and Davis. And comedian Bob Hope observed: "I'd heard of black magic...now I've seen it!"

Rumors circulated that once Young fulfilled his service obligation he would be drafted by the NFL or lured to the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) to play for the Bruins. Neither proved true. Young returned to the University of Illinois and helped the Illini in the 1947 Rose Bowl, where he was named Co-Player of the Game, after Illinois hammered UCLA, 45–14.

World War II proved a major boon to sports integration. Not only did the war promote the ideals of democracy and fair play, it also gave blacks a chance to showcase their talents on college, semi-professional and service teams. In football, three of the most talented minority athletes during the war years were Bill Willis, Marion Motley and Young. Buddy was one of the first black men to play pro football; he played on teams where he was typically one of two or three black players, and undoubtedly he had his rough spots, but his warm, bubbling personality carried him through, and made him immensely popular.

Professional career

New York Yankees (AAFC)
Young played ten years in pro football. He was one of the special selections awarded to the New York Yankees in the 1947 AAFC Draft. In 1950, Young, along with many of the other Yankee players, joined the New York Yanks of the National Football League when the AAFC folded.

New York Yanks / Baltimore Colts
The Yanks moved to Dallas after the 1951 NFL season, and the franchise lasted one season there. The holdings and the players of the Texans franchise were moved to Baltimore. Young came with the franchise to Dallas and then was one of 11 Texans players who subsequently played for the Colts. Young retired from football after the 1955 season.

Young was a threat at several positions: five times in his professional career, he eclipsed 1,000 all purpose yards, and in 1954, he was selected to the NFL Pro Bowl team.  Over his nine-year professional career, NFL and AAFL, Young averaged 4.6 yards per carry as a running back, over 15 yards per reception as a receiver, and almost 28 yards per kickoff return, peaking at a remarkable 34.4 yards per return for the Colts in 1953. In a 1953 game against the Philadelphia Eagles, Young returned the opening kickoff 104 yards for a touchdown; at the time, this was the second longest kickoff return in NFL history.

Later life and honors
Young was the first Colt to have his number retired. In 1964, he was hired by the NFL, joining their scouting and public relations department and becoming the first African-American executive hired by the a major sports league. He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1968.

In 1970, Young received the American Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award, which was presented to him at an awards ceremony in Dallas, Texas.

On September 4, 1983, Young died in a car accident at age 57. At the time, he was living in Hartsdale, New York, and was director of player relations for the NFL.

References

External links

 Part of his life is retold in the radio drama "The Buddy Young Story", a presentation from Destination Freedom

1926 births
1983 deaths
20th-century American businesspeople
American football halfbacks
Baltimore Colts players
Dallas Texans (NFL) players
Fleet City Bluejackets football players
Illinois Fighting Illini men's track and field athletes
Illinois Fighting Illini football players
National Football League executives
New York Yankees (AAFC) players
New York Yanks players
College Football Hall of Fame inductees
National Football League players with retired numbers
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships winners
Western Conference Pro Bowl players
United States Navy personnel of World War II
People from Hartsdale, New York
Sportspeople from Westchester County, New York
Track and field athletes from Chicago
Players of American football from Chicago
African-American players of American football
African-American male track and field athletes
Road incident deaths in Texas
20th-century African-American sportspeople

Buddy Young


Mystery Submarine is a 1963 British war film directed by C. M. Pennington-Richards and starring Edward Judd, James Robertson Justice and Laurence Payne. A captured German submarine is used by the Royal Navy to trick a German force aiming to intercept a supply convoy. The film is based on a play by Jon Manchip White.

Plot

U-153 is damaged during air attack in the Atlantic, and its crew abandon ship to escape chlorine gas now leaking from its battery cells. Her commanding officer is overcome by fumes before he can jettison the ship's papers. Due to the intelligence windfall that this represents, the submarine is taken by a British prize crew to be examined and inspected (in much the same manner that befell the real German U-boat later renamed HMS Graph ).

It is not long before British intelligence suggest a new use for the submarine as a Trojan Horse. A picked crew of volunteers led by Commander Tarlton (Edward Judd) take the U-153 back to war, to intercept and disable a German Wolf-pack; in this they succeed, even sinking the Wolf-pack leader in their subsequent escape.

Her mission accomplished the U-153 is attacked and sunk by a British Frigate whose crew is oblivious to the submarine's mission or identity. Commander Tarlton orders his men to abandon ship, getting his crew off intact before she goes down. Their rescuers are astonished to learn that not only are the men they recover from the sea all British, but by attacking they have just sunk one of 'His Majesty's submarines…'

Cast
 Edward Judd - Lieutenant Commander Tarlton
 James Robertson Justice - Rear Admiral Rainbird
 Laurence Payne - Lieutenant Seaton
 Joachim Fuchsberger - Commander Scheffler
 Arthur O'Sullivan - Mike Fitzgerald
 Albert Lieven - Captain Neymarck
 Robert Flemyng - Vice Admiral Sir James Carver
 Richard Carpenter - Lieutenant Haskins
 Richard Thorp - Lieutenant Chatterton
 Jeremy Hawk - Admiral Saintsbury
 Robert Brown - Coxswain Drage
 Frederick Jaeger - Lieutenant Hence
 George Mikell - Lieutenant Remer
 Peter Myers - Telegraphist Packshaw
 Leslie Randall - Leading Seaman Donnithorne
 Ewen Solon - Lieutenant Commander Kirklees
 Nigel Green - Chief Lovejoy

References

External links

1963 films
British war drama films
World War II submarine films
Royal Navy in World War II films
British films based on plays
British Lion Films films
Films directed by C. M. Pennington-Richards
Films scored by Clifton Parker
1960s English-language films
British World War II films
1960s British films

Mystery Submarine (1963 film)


Nomenclature codes or codes of nomenclature are the various rulebooks that govern biological taxonomic nomenclature, each in their own broad field of organisms. To an end-user who only deals with names of species, with some awareness that species are assignable to genera, families, and other taxa of higher ranks, it may not be noticeable that there is more than one code, but beyond this basic level these are rather different in the way they work.

The introduction of two-part names (binominal nomenclature) for species by Linnaeus was a welcome simplification because as our knowledge of biodiversity expanded, so did the length of the names, many of which had become unwieldy. With all naturalists worldwide adopting binominal nomenclature, there arose several schools of thought about the details. It became ever more apparent that a detailed body of rules was necessary to govern scientific names. From the mid-19th century onwards, there were several initiatives to arrive at worldwide-accepted sets of rules. Presently nomenclature codes govern the naming of:
 Algae, Fungi and Plants – International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), which in July 2011 replaced the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) and the earlier International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature.
 Animals – International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)
 Bacteria and Archaea – International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes (ICNP), which in 2008 replaced the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB)
 Bacteria and Archaea described from sequence data – Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes Described from Sequence Data (SeqCode)
 Cultivated plants – International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
 Plant associations – International Code of Phytosociological Nomenclature (ICPN)
 Viruses – The International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature (ICVCN); see also virus classification

Differences between codes

Starting point
The starting point, that is the time from which these codes are in effect (usually retroactively), varies from group to group, and sometimes from rank to rank. In botany and mycology, the starting point is often 1 May 1753 (Linnaeus, Species plantarum). In zoology, it is 1 January 1758 (Linnaeus, Systema Naturae, 10th Edition). On the other hand, bacteriology started anew, making a clean sweep in 1980 (Skerman et al., "Approved Lists of Bacterial Names"), although maintaining the original authors and dates of publication.

Exceptions in botany:
 Spermatophyta and Pteridophyta, suprageneric names: 4 August 1789 (Jussieu, Genera plantarum);
 Musci (except Sphagnaceae): 1 January 1801 (Hedwig, Species muscorum);
 Sphagnaceae and Hepaticae (including Anthocerotae), suprageneric names: 4 August 1789 (Jussieu, Genera plantarum);
 (Fungi:) Microsporidia are governed by the ICZN (treated as animals), and see below for fossil fungi;
 (Algae:)
 Nostocaceae homocysteae: 1 January 1892 (Gomont, "Monographie des Oscillariées");
 Nostocaceae heterocysteae: 1 January 1886 (Bornet & Flahault, "Révision des Nostocacées hétérocystées");
 Desmidiaceae: 1  January 1848 (Ralfs, British Desmidieae);
 Oedogoniaceae: 1 January 1900 (Hirn, "Monographie und Iconographie der Oedogoniaceen");
 Fossil plants, algae (diatoms excepted) and fungi: 31 December 1820 (Sternberg, Flora der Vorwelt).

Exceptions in zoology:
 Spiders: 1757 (Clerck, Aranei Svecici).

Workings
There are also differences in the way codes work. For example, the ICN (the code for algae, fungi and plants) forbids tautonyms, while the ICZN, (the animal code) allows them.

Terminology
These codes differ in terminology, and there is a long-term project to "harmonize" this. For instance, the ICN uses "valid" in "valid publication of a name" (=the act of publishing a formal name), with "establishing a name" as the ICZN equivalent. The ICZN uses "valid" in "valid name" (="correct name"), with "correct name" as the ICN equivalent. Harmonization is making very limited progress.

Types
There are differences in respect of what kinds of types are used. The bacteriological code prefers living type cultures, but allows other kinds. There has been ongoing debate regarding which kind of type is more useful in a case like cyanobacteria.

Other codes

BioCode
A more radical approach was made in 1997 when the IUBS/IUMS International Committee on Bionomenclature (ICB) presented the long debated Draft BioCode, proposed to replace all existing Codes with an harmonization of them. The originally planned implementation date for the BioCode draft was January 1, 2000, but agreement to replace the existing Codes was not reached.

In 2011 a revised BioCode was proposed that, instead of replacing the existing Codes, would provide a unified context for them, referring to them when necessary. Changes in the existing codes are slowly being made in the proposed directions. However, participants of the last serious discussion of the draft Biocode concluded that it would probably not be implemented in their lifetimes.

PhyloCode

Many authors encountered problems in using the Linnean system in phylogenetic classification. In fact, early proponents of rank-based nomenclature, such as Alphonse de Candolle and the authors of the 1886 version of the American Ornithologists' Union code of nomenclature already envisioned that in the future, rank-based nomenclature would have to be abandoned. Another Code that was developed since 1998 is the PhyloCode, which now regulates names defined under phylogenetic nomenclature instead of the traditional Linnaean nomenclature. This new approach requires using phylogenetic definitions that refer to "specifiers", analogous to "type" under rank-based nomenclature. Such definitions delimit taxa under a given phylogeny, and this kind of nomenclature does not require use of absolute ranks. The Code took effect in 2020, with the publication of Phylonyms, a monograph that includes a list of the first names established under that code.

Ambiregnal protists
Some protists, sometimes called ambiregnal protists, have been considered to be both protozoa and algae, or protozoa and fungi, and names for these have been published under either or both of the ICZN and the ICN. The resulting double language throughout protist classification schemes resulted in confusion.

Groups claimed by both protozoologists and phycologists include euglenids, dinoflagellates, cryptomonads, haptophytes, glaucophytes, many heterokonts (e.g., chrysophytes, raphidophytes, silicoflagellates, some xanthophytes, proteromonads), some monadoid green algae (volvocaleans and prasinophytes), choanoflagellates, bicosoecids, ebriids and chlorarachniophytes.

Slime molds, plasmodial forms and other "fungus-like" organisms claimed by both protozoologists and mycologists include mycetozoans, plasmodiophorids, acrasids, and labyrinthulomycetess. Fungi claimed by both protozoologists and mycologists include chytrids, blastoclads, and the gut fungi.

Other problematic groups are the Cyanobacteria (ICNP/ICN) and Microsporidia (ICZN/ICN).

Unregulated taxa
The zoological code does not regulate names of taxa lower than subspecies or higher than superfamily. There are many attempts to introduce some order on the nomenclature of these taxa, including the  PhyloCode, the Duplostensional Nomenclatural System, and circumscriptional nomenclature.

The botanical code is applied primarily to the ranks of superfamily and below. There are some rules for names above the rank of superfamily, but the principle of priority does not apply to them, and the principle of typification is optional. These names may be either automatically typified names or be descriptive names. In some circumstances, a taxon has two possible names (e.g., Chrysophyceae Pascher, 1914, nom. descrip.; Hibberd, 1976, nom. typificatum). Descriptive names are problematic, once that, if a taxon is split, it is not obvious which new group takes the existing name. Meanwhile, with typified names, the existing name is taken by the new group that still bears the type of this name. However, typified names present special problems for microorganisms.

See also
 Binomial nomenclature
 Botanical nomenclature
 Chemical nomenclature
 Common name
 Gene nomenclature
 Glossary of scientific naming
 List of taxa named by anagrams
 Zoological nomenclature
 Tree of life (biology)

References

Bibliography

External links

Biocode in Action at the Smithsonian Ocean Portal
ICN: Shenzhen Code (2018)
ICZN : the "green book" (1999)
List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (1997), by J.P. Euzéby
BioCode introduction (2011)
PhyloCode

Virology

Nomenclature codes


AS2 (Applicability Statement 2) is a specification on how to transport structured business-to-business data securely and reliably over the Internet. Security is achieved by using digital certificates and encryption.

Background
AS2 was created in 2002 by the IETF to replace AS1, which they created in the early 1990s.

The adoption of AS2 grew rapidly throughout the early 2000s because major players in the retail and fast-moving consumer goods industries championed AS2. Walmart was the first major retailer to require its suppliers to use the AS2 protocol instead of relying on dial-up modems for ordering goods. Amazon, Target, Lowe's, Bed, Bath, & Beyond and thousands of others followed suit. Many other industries use the AS2 protocol, including healthcare, as AS2 meets legal HIPAA requirements.

In some cases, AS2 is a way to bypass expensive value-added networks previously used for data interchange.

Technical overview
AS2 is specified in RFC 4130, and is based on HTTP and S/MIME. It was the second AS protocol developed and uses the same signing, encryption and MDN (as defined by RFC3798) conventions used in the original AS1 protocol introduced in the late 1990s by IETF . In other words:
 Files are encoded as "attachments" in a standardized S/MIME message (an AS2 message). AS2 does not specify the contents of the files. Usually, the file contents are in a standardized format that is separately agreed upon, such as XML or EDIFACT.
 AS2 messages are always sent using the HTTP or HTTPS protocol (Secure Sockets Layer — also known as SSL — is implied by HTTPS) and usually use the "POST" method (use of "GET" is rare).
 Messages can be signed, but do not have to be.
 Messages can be encrypted, but do not have to be.
 Messages may request a Message Disposition Notification (MDN) back if all went well, but do not have to request such a message.
 If the original AS2 message requested an MDN:
 Upon the receipt of the message and its successful decryption or signature validation (as necessary) a "success" MDN will be sent back to the original sender. This MDN is typically signed but never encrypted (unless temporarily encrypted in transit via HTTPS).
 Upon the receipt and successful verification of the signature on the MDN, the original sender will "know" that the recipient got their message (this provides the "Non-repudiation" element of AS2).
 If there are any problems receiving or interpreting the original AS2 message, a "failed" MDN may be sent back. However, part of the AS2 protocol states that the client must treat a lack of an MDN as a failure as well, so some AS2 receivers will not return an MDN in this case.

Like any other AS file transfer, AS2 file transfers typically require both sides of the exchange to trade X.509 certificates and specific "trading partner" names before any transfers can take place. AS2 trading partner names can usually be any valid phrase.

MDN options

Unlike AS1 or AS3 file transfers, AS2 file transfers offer several "MDN return" options instead of the traditional options of "yes" or "no". Specifically, the choices are:

AS2 w/ "Sync" MDNs
Return Synchronous MDN via HTTP(S) ("AS2 Sync") - This popular option allows AS2 MDNs to be returned to AS2 message sender clients over the same HTTP connection they used to send the original message. This "MDN while you wait" capability makes "AS2 Sync" transfers the fastest of any type of AS file transfer, but it also keeps this flavor of MDN requests from being used with large files (which may time out in low-bandwidth situations).

AS2 w/ "ASync" MDNs
Return Asynchronous MDN via HTTP(S) (a.k.a. "AS2 Async") - This popular option allows AS2 MDNs to be returned to the AS2 message sender's server later over a different HTTP connection. This flavor of MDN request is usually used if large files are involved or if your trading partner's AS2 server has poor Internet service.

AS2 w/ "Email" MDNs
Return (Asynchronous) MDN via Email - This rarely used option allows AS2 MDNs to be returned to AS2 message senders via email rather than HTTP. Otherwise, it is similar to "AS2 Async (HTTP)".

AS2 w/ No MDNs
Do not return MDN - This option works like it does in any other AS protocol: the receiver of an AS2 message with this option set simply does not try to return an MDN to the AS2 message sender.

Filename preservation

AS2 filename preservation feature will be used to communicate the filename to the trading partner. The banking industry relies on filenames being communicated between trading partners. AS2 vendors are currently certifying that implementation of filename communication conforms to the standard and is interoperable.
There are two profiles for filename preservation being optionally tested under AS2 testing:
Filename preservation without MDN responses
Filename preservation with an associated MDN response certification

Benefits

For many businesses, the use of AS2 and electronic data interchange (EDI) is not a choice so much as it is a requirement of doing business with a large customer or partner. That said, AS2 is a universal protocol that has benefits, from both business and technology vantage points.

Business case

 Cut costs by using the web for EDI file transfers, AS2 reduces the cost of transactions from expensive VANs.
 Extend EDI to more partners; with lower costs and universal web connectivity, AS2 allows organizations to implement EDI with partners worldwide that have little EDI infrastructure.
 Save time by eliminating the need to manually process orders.
 Eliminate errors by turning manual processes into automated processes.
 Universal solution — AS2 is established and tested, so no one has to re-invent the wheel.

Technological advantages

 Leverage the web: if an organization can share data securely via the web, they already have much of the infrastructure for AS2.
 Unlimited EDI data — there are no practical limitations on transaction sizes via the web, and AS2 includes features for managing large transfers.
 Payload Agnostic — AS2 can be used to transport any type of document. While EDI X12, EDIFACT and XML are common, any mutually agreed-upon format may be transferred.

See also
 AS1
 AS3
 AS4

References

External links
  - AS2 specification
 AS2: Part 1 - What Is It? AS2 series by Loren Data Corp.
 AS2: Part 2 - Best Practices AS2 series by Loren Data Corp.
 AS2: Part 3 - Certificates AS2 series by Loren Data Corp.

Computer networks
Cryptographic protocols
Internet Standards

AS2


A fortepiano , sometimes referred to as a pianoforte, is an early piano. In principle, the word "fortepiano" can designate any piano dating from the invention of the instrument by Bartolomeo Cristofori in 1698 up to the early 19th century. Most typically, however, it is used to refer to the mid-18th to early-19th century instruments, for which composers of the Classical era, especially Haydn, Mozart, and the younger Beethoven and Hummel, wrote their piano music.

Starting in Beethoven's time, the fortepiano began a period of steady evolution, culminating in the late 19th century with the modern grand. The earlier fortepiano became obsolete and was absent from the musical scene for many decades. In the later 20th century, the fortepiano was revived, following the rise of interest in historically informed performance. Fortepianos are built for that purpose, in specialist workshops.

Construction
The fortepiano has leather-covered hammers and thin, harpsichord-like strings.  It has a much lighter case construction than the modern piano and, except for later examples of the early nineteenth century (already evolving towards the modern piano), it has no metal frame or bracing.  The action and hammers are lighter, giving rise to a much lighter touch, which in well-constructed fortepianos is also very expressive.

The range of the fortepiano was about four octaves at the time of its invention and gradually increased. Mozart wrote his piano music for instruments of about five octaves.  The piano works of Beethoven reflect a gradually expanding range; his last piano compositions are for an instrument of about six and a half octaves.  The range of most modern pianos, attained in the 19th century, is 7⅓ octaves.

Fortepianos from the start often had devices similar to the pedals of modern pianos, but they were not always pedals; sometimes hand stops or knee levers were used instead.

Sound

Like the modern piano, the fortepiano can vary the sound volume of each note, depending on the player's touch.  The tone of the fortepiano is quite different from that of the modern piano, however, being softer, with less sustain. Sforzando accents tend to stand out more than on the modern piano, because they differ from softer notes in timbre as well as volume, and decay rapidly.

Fortepianos also tend to have quite different tone quality in their different registers – slightly buzzing in the bass, "tinkling" in the high treble, and more rounded (closest to the modern piano) in the mid range. In comparison, modern pianos are rather more uniform in tone through their range.

History

Cristofori

The piano was invented in 1698 by harpsichord maker Bartolomeo Cristofori in Florence.  The first reliable record of a piano appears in the inventory of the Medici family (who were Cristofori's patrons), dated 1700.  Cristofori continued to develop the instrument until the 1720s, the time from which the surviving three Cristofori instruments date.

Cristofori is perhaps best admired today for his ingenious piano action, which in some ways was more subtle and effective than that of many later instruments.  However, other innovations were also needed to make the piano possible.  Merely attaching the Cristofori action to a harpsichord would have produced a very weak tone. Cristofori's instruments instead used thicker, tenser strings, mounted on a frame considerably more robust than that of contemporary harpsichords. As with virtually all later pianos, in Cristofori's instruments the hammers struck more than one string at a time; Cristofori used pairs of strings throughout the range.

Cristofori was also the first to incorporate a form of soft pedal into a piano, the mechanism by which the hammers are made to strike fewer than the maximum number of strings, for which Cristofori used a hand stop. It is not clear whether the modern soft pedal descends directly from Cristofori's work or arose independently.

Cristofori's invention attracted public attention as the result of a journal article written by Scipione Maffei and published 1711 in Giornale de'letterati d'Italia of Venice.  The article included a diagram of the action, the core of Cristofori's invention. That article was republished 1719 in a volume of Maffei's work, and then in a German translation (1725) in Johann Mattheson's Critica Musica. The latter publication was perhaps the triggering event in the spread of the fortepiano to German-speaking countries (see below).

Cristofori's instrument spread quite slowly at first, probably because, being more elaborate and harder to build than a harpsichord, it was very expensive.  For a time, the piano was the instrument of royalty, with Cristofori-built or -styled instruments played in the courts of Portugal and Spain.  Several were owned by Queen Maria Barbara of Spain, who was the pupil of the composer Domenico Scarlatti.  One of the first private individuals to own a piano was the castrato Farinelli, who inherited one from Maria Barbara on her death.

The first music specifically written for piano dates from this period: the Sonate da cimbalo di piano (1732) by Lodovico Giustini. That publication was an isolated phenomenon, and James Parakilas conjectures that the publication was meant as an honor for the composer on the part of his royal patrons. Certainly there could have been no commercial market for fortepiano music while the instrument continued to be an exotic specimen.

It appears that the fortepiano did not achieve full popularity until the 1760s, from which time the first records of public performances on the instrument are dated, and when music described as being for the fortepiano was first widely published.

Silbermann fortepianos
It was Gottfried Silbermann who brought the construction of fortepianos to the German-speaking nations.  Silbermann, who worked in Freiberg in Germany, began to make pianos based on Cristofori's design around 1730.  (His previous experience had been in building organs, harpsichords, and clavichords.) Like Cristofori, Silbermann had royal support, in his case from Frederick the Great of Prussia, who bought many of his instruments.

Silbermann's instruments were famously criticized by Johann Sebastian Bach around 1736, but later instruments encountered by Bach in his Berlin visit of 1747 apparently met with the composer's approval. It has been conjectured that the improvement in Silbermann's instruments resulted from his having seen an actual Cristofori piano, rather than merely reading Scipione Maffei's article. The piano action Maffei described does not match that found in surviving Cristofori instruments, suggesting that Maffei either erred in his diagram (he admitted having made it from memory) or that Cristofori improved his action during the period following Maffei's article.

Silbermann is credited with the invention of the forerunner of the sustain pedal, which removes the dampers from all the strings at once, permitting them to vibrate freely.  Silbermann's device was only a hand stop, and so could only be changed during a pause in the music.  Throughout the Classical era, even when the more flexible knee levers or pedals had been installed, the lifting of all the dampers was used primarily as a coloristic device.

Viennese school of builders

The fortepiano builders who followed Silbermann introduced actions that were simpler than the Cristofori action, even to the point of lacking an escapement, the device that permits the hammer to fall to rest position even when the key has been depressed.  Such instruments were the subject of criticism, particularly in a widely quoted 1777 letter from Mozart to his father, but were simple to make and were widely incorporated into square pianos.

Stein

One of the most distinguished fortepiano builders in the era following Silbermann was one of his pupils, Johann Andreas Stein, who worked in Augsburg, Germany. Stein's fortepianos had (what we, or Cristofori, would call) "backwards" hammers, with the striking end closer to the player than the hinged end.  This action came to be called the "Viennese" action, and was widely used in Vienna, even on pianos up to the mid 19th century.  The Viennese action was simpler than the Cristofori action, and very sensitive to the player's touch.  According to Edwin M. Ripin (see references below), the force needed to depress a key on a Viennese fortepiano was only about a fourth of what it is on a modern piano, and the descent of the key only about half as much.  Thus playing the Viennese fortepiano involved nothing like the athleticism exercised by modern piano virtuosos, but did require exquisite sensitivity of touch.

Stein put the wood used in his instruments through a very severe weathering process, generating cracks in the wood, into which he would insert wedges. That gave his instruments a considerable longevity, on which Mozart commented, and several instruments survive today.

Other builders
Stein's fortepiano business was carried on in Vienna with distinction by his daughter Nannette Streicher, along with her husband Johann Andreas Streicher. The two were friends of Beethoven, and one of the composer's pianos was a Streicher. Later on, in the early 19th century, more robust instruments, with greater range, were built in Vienna, by (for example) the Streicher firm, which continued through two more generations of Streichers. Composer Johannes Brahms also preferred pianos by Streicher.

Another important Viennese builder was Anton Walter, a friend of Mozart, who built instruments with a somewhat more powerful sound than Stein's. Although Mozart very much admired the Stein fortepianos, as the 1777 letter mentioned above makes clear, his own piano was a Walter. Haydn also owned Walter piano, and even Beethoven expressed a wish to buy one. The fortepianos of Stein and Walter are widely used today as models for the construction of new instruments, discussed below. Still another important builder in that period was Conrad Graf (1782–1851), who made Beethoven's last piano. Graf was one of the first Viennese makers to build pianos in quantity, as a large business enterprise. His instruments were played by Chopin, Mendelssohn and Schumann.

Prominent piano makers among the French during the era of the fortepiano included Erard, Pleyel (Chopin's favorite maker) and Boisselot (Liszt's favorite).

English builders

Zumpe/Shudi

The English fortepiano had a humble origin in the work of Johannes Zumpe, a maker who had immigrated from Germany and worked for a while in the workshop of the great harpsichord maker Burkat Shudi.  Starting in the middle to late 1760s, Zumpe made inexpensive square pianos that had a very simple action, lacking an escapement, (sometimes known as the "old man's head").  Although hardly a technological advancement in the fortepiano, Zumpe's instruments proved very popular, being imitated outside England, and playing a major role in the displacement of the harpsichord by the fortepiano. The square pianos were also the medium of the first public performances on the instrument in the 1760s, notably by Johann Christian Bach.

Backers/Broadwood/Stodart
Americus Backers, with John Broadwood and Robert Stodart, two of Shudi's workmen, produced a more advanced action than Zumpe's. That English grand action, with an escapement and check, enabled a louder, more robust sound than the Viennese one, though it required deeper touch and was less sensitive. The early English grand pianos by those builders physically resembled Shudi harpsichords, being very imposing, with elegant, restrained veneer work on the exterior.  Unlike contemporary Viennese instruments, English grand fortepianos had three strings per note, rather than two.

Broadwood

John Broadwood married the master's daughter (Barbara Shudi, 1769) and ultimately took over and renamed the Shudi firm. The Broadwood company (which survives to this day) was an important innovator in the evolution of the fortepiano into the piano.  Broadwood, in collaboration with Jan Ladislav Dussek, a noted piano virtuoso active in London in the 1790s, developed pianos that gradually increased the range to six octaves. Dussek was one of the first pianists to receive a 5½ foot piano and, in 1793, he wrote the first work for piano "with extra keys", a piano concert (C 97). The firm shipped a piano to Beethoven in Vienna, which the composer evidently treasured.

Obsolescence and revival
From the late 18th century, the fortepiano underwent extensive technological development and evolved into the modern piano (for details, see Piano). The older type of instrument ceased to be made. In the late 19th century, the early music pioneer Arnold Dolmetsch built three fortepianos. However, that attempted revival of the instrument was evidently several decades ahead of its time, and did not lead to its widespread adoption.

In the second half of the 20th century, a great upsurge of interest occurred in period instruments, including a revival of interest in the fortepiano. Old instruments were restored, and many new ones were built along the lines of the old. Fortepiano kits also became available. The revival of the fortepiano closely resembled the revival of the harpsichord, though occurring somewhat later in time. Among the more prominent modern builders have been (in the United States) Philip Belt, Margaret F. Hood and Rodney Regier; and Paul McNulty.

The reintroduction of the fortepiano has permitted performance of 18th- and early 19th-century music on the instruments for which it was written, yielding new insights into this music (for detailed discussion, see Piano history and musical performance). More and more music schools start fortepiano study courses. There are several fortepiano competitions, including the MAfestival Brugge and the International Chopin Competition on Chopin era instruments, organized by the Warsaw Chopin Institute.

Modern fortepiano specialists
A number of modern harpsichordists and pianists have achieved distinction in fortepiano performance, including Susan Alexander-Max, Paul Badura-Skoda, Malcolm Bilson, Hendrik Bouman, Ronald Brautigam, David Breitman, Wolfgang Brunner, Gary Cooper, Jörg Demus, Ursula Dütschler. Richard Egarr, Richard Fuller, Tuija Hakkila, Christoph Hammer, Robert Hill, Knut Jacques, Jenny Soonjin Kim, Piet Kuijken, Geoffrey Lancaster, Gustav Leonhardt, Trudelies Leonhardt, Morgane Le Corre, Robert Levin, Alexei Lubimov, Steven Lubin, Yury Martynov, Costantino Mastroprimiano, Zvi Meniker, Bart van Oort, Olga Pashchenko, Trevor Pinnock, David Schrader, Viviana Sofronitsky, Andreas Staier, Melvyn Tan, Natalia Valentin, Jos van Immerseel, Andras Schiff, Kristian Bezuidenhout, Katia and Marielle Labèque, Duo Pégase, Vladimir Feltsman.

Opinions
People's opinions about the sound of the fortepiano vary widely, both from person to person and from instrument to instrument.  Here are three representative opinions about fortepianos:

"Although I am a lover of performances on authentic instruments the fortepiano was one of the least successful instruments and the most deserving of improvement. I am not always comfortable with the sound made by many fortepianos and however fine a performance may be I find it difficult at times to get past the often unpleasant sound." (Michael Cookson)
"A frequent initial reaction to the sound of the fortepiano is that it is less beautiful than that of a fine modern concert grand piano. I believe that such a reaction will usually be changed if the player listens to good recordings. The clear sound and relatively short sustain of the fortepiano tends to favor the special elements of style in the music of Haydn and Mozart. The sound is different but not inferior." (Howland Auchincloss)
"This reproduction of a 1730 Cristofori – the greatest of all makers and often the most underrated – by Denzil Wraight based on one made for Scarlatti's patron Queen Maria Barbara of Spain makes a gorgeous sound. Yes it can be metallic and subdued in climaxes but it has a marvellous delicacy and, especially in the expressive sonatas, a profoundly beautiful sound." (Gary Higginson)

Etymology and usage

"Fortepiano" is Italian for "loud-soft", just as the formal name for the modern piano, "pianoforte", is "soft-loud". Both are abbreviations of Cristofori's original name for his invention: gravicembalo col piano e forte, "harpsichord with soft and loud".

The term fortepiano is somewhat specialist in its connotations, and does not preclude using the more general term piano to designate the same instrument. Thus, usages like "Cristofori invented the piano" or "Mozart's piano concertos" are currently common and would probably be considered acceptable by most musicians. Fortepiano is used in contexts where it is important to make the precise identity of the instrument clear, as in (for instance) "a fortepiano recital by Malcolm Bilson".

The use of "fortepiano" to refer specifically to early pianos appears to be recent. Even the authoritative Oxford English Dictionary does not record this usage, noting only that "fortepiano" is "an early name of the pianoforte". During the age of the fortepiano, "fortepiano" and "pianoforte" were used interchangeably, as the OED's attestations show. Jane Austen, who lived in the age of the fortepiano and herself played the instrument, used "pianoforte" (also:  "piano-forte", "piano forte") for the many occurrences of the instrument in her writings.

References

Sources
Good, Edwin M. (1982) Giraffes, black dragons, and other pianos: a technological history from Cristofori to the modern concert grand, Stanford, Calif. : Stanford University Press.

Marshall, Robert (2003) 18th Century Piano Music, Routledge.
Pollens, Stewart (1995) The Early Pianoforte.  Cambridge:  Cambridge University Press.
Ripin, Edwin M. (1986) "Piano", 1986 Encyclopædia Britannica
Ripin, Edwin M. (2001). "Fortepiano (i)". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell. London: Macmillan. Also in Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 19 June 2008), (subscription access)
Ripin, Edwin M., Stewart Pollens, Philip R. Belt, Maribel Meisel, Alfons Huber, Michael Cole, Gert Hecher, Beryl Kenyon De Pascual, Cynthia Adams Hoover, Cyril Ehrlich, And Edwin M. Good (2001). "Pianoforte I: History of the Instrument". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell. London: Macmillan. Also in Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 19 June 2008), (subscription access)

External links

 10-minute video crash course introduction to the Viennese 5-octave fortepiano
 Photo and discussion of the action of Viennese fortepianos, from Carey Beebe Harpsichords
 One of Arnold Dolmetsch's late 19th century fortepianos, from Dolmetsch Online
 Image and discussion of 1795 Dulcken fortepiano, from the Ira F. Brilliant Center for Beethoven Studies
 Images of fortepianos in the Abell Gallery, National Music Museum, Vermillion, South Dakota
 The Pianofortes of Bartolomeo Cristofori, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
 Other historic pianos at The Metropolitan Museum of Art
 Piano by Conrad Graf, Vienna, 1838
 Piano by Ferdinand Hofmann, Vienna, c. 1790
 Piano by Johann Schmidt, Salzburg, c. 1790
 Piano by Joseph Böhm, Vienna, c. 1820
  Cornell University Fortepianos including Broadwood 1827
 Fortepianos in the Museum of the University of Leipzig
 Cobbe Collection, UK
 fortepiano – photoarchive Photos of historical pianos and their parts / discussion in the forum
Modern fortepiano builder Paul McNulty website
 More information on early keyboard instruments
 Geelvinck Muziek Musea | Piano's met karakter, muziek met een verhaal the Sweelinck Collection at Museum geelvinck Hinlopen Huis in Amsterdam: over 80 historic pianos
 The website of builder Gerard Tuinman include sound files of three of his Anton Walter replicas, illustrating the evolution of fortepiano sound during the career of this builder.
 Radbon Fortepiano Collection c. 1760 to 1860
 John A. Rice, "Stein's 'Favorite Instrument': A Vis-à-vis Piano-Harpsichord in Naples"

Early musical instruments
Italian musical instruments
Piano
Orchestral instruments
String instruments

Fortepiano


A pulse detonation engine (PDE) is a type of propulsion system that uses detonation waves to combust the fuel and oxidizer mixture. The engine is pulsed because the mixture must be renewed in the combustion chamber between each detonation wave and the next.  Theoretically, a PDE can operate from subsonic up to a hypersonic flight speed of roughly Mach 5. An ideal PDE design can have a thermodynamic efficiency higher than other designs like turbojets and turbofans because a detonation wave rapidly compresses the mixture and adds heat at constant volume. Consequently, moving parts like compressor spools are not necessarily required in the engine, which could significantly reduce overall weight and cost.  PDEs have been considered for propulsion since 1940.  Key issues for further development include fast and efficient mixing of the fuel and oxidizer, the prevention of autoignition, and integration with an inlet and nozzle.

To date, no practical PDE has been put into production, but several testbed engines have been built and one was successfully integrated into a low-speed demonstration aircraft that flew in sustained PDE powered flight in 2008.  In June 2008, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) unveiled Blackswift, which was intended to use this technology to reach speeds of up to Mach 6. However the project was reported cancelled soon afterward, in October 2008.

Concept

Pulse jets

The basic operation of the PDE is similar to that of the pulse jet engine. In the pulse jet, air is mixed with fuel to create a flammable mixture that is then ignited in an open chamber. The resulting combustion greatly increases the pressure of the mixture to approximately 100 atmospheres (10 MPa), which then expands through a nozzle for thrust.

To ensure that the mixture exits to the rear, thereby pushing the aircraft forward, a series of shutters are used to close off the front of the engine. Careful tuning of the inlet ensures the shutters close at the right time to force the air to travel in one direction only through the engine. Some pulse jet designs used a tuned resonant cavity to provide the valving action through the airflow in the system. These designs normally look like a U-shaped tube, open at both ends.

In either system, the pulse jet has problems during the combustion process. As the fuel burns and expands to create thrust, it is also pushing any remaining unburnt charge rearward, out of the nozzle. In many cases some of the charge is ejected before burning, which causes the famous trail of flame seen on the V-1 flying bomb and other pulse jets. Even while inside the engine, the mixture's volume is constantly changing which inefficiently converts fuel into usable energy.

PDEs
All regular jet engines and most rocket engines operate on the deflagration of fuel, that is, the rapid but subsonic combustion of fuel. The pulse detonation engine is a concept currently in active development to create a jet engine that operates on the supersonic detonation of fuel. Because the combustion takes place so rapidly, the charge (fuel/air mix) does not have time to expand during this process, so it takes place under almost constant volume. Constant volume combustion is more efficient than open-cycle designs like gas turbines, which leads to greater fuel efficiency.

As the combustion process is so rapid, mechanical shutters are difficult to arrange with the required performance. Instead, PDEs generally use a series of valves to time the process carefully.

Most PDE research is military in nature, as the engine could be used to develop a new generation of high-speed, long-range reconnaissance aircraft that would fly high enough to be out of range of any current anti-aircraft defenses, while offering range considerably greater than the SR-71, which required a massive tanker support fleet to use in operation.

Key difficulties in pulse detonation engines are achieving DDT without requiring a tube long enough to make it impractical and drag-imposing on the aircraft (adding a U-bend into the tube extinguishes the detonation wave); reducing the noise (often described as sounding like a jackhammer); and damping the severe vibration caused by the operation of the engine.

First PDE powered flight

The first known flight of an aircraft powered by a pulse detonation engine took place at the Mojave Air & Space Port on 31 January 2008.  The project was developed by the Air Force Research Laboratory and Innovative Scientific Solutions, Inc.  The aircraft selected for the flight was a heavily modified Scaled Composites Long-EZ, named Borealis.  The engine consisted of four tubes producing pulse detonations at a frequency of 80 Hz, creating up to 200 pounds of thrust (890 newtons).  Many fuels were considered and tested by the engine developers in recent years, but a refined octane was used for this flight.  A small rocket system was used to facilitate the liftoff of the Long-EZ, but the PDE operated under its own power for 10 seconds at an altitude of approximately 100 feet (30 m).  The flight took place at a low speed whereas the appeal of the PDE engine concept lies more at high speeds, but the demonstration showed that a PDE can be integrated into an aircraft frame without experiencing structural problems from the 195-200 dB detonation waves.  No more flights are planned for the modified Long-EZ, but the success is likely to fuel more funding for PDE research. The aircraft itself has been moved to the National Museum of the United States Air Force for display.

In rocketry
If both fuel and oxidizer are carried by the vehicle a pulse detonation engine is independent of the atmosphere and it can be used in spaceflight. On 26 July 2021 (UTC), Japan's space agency JAXA successfully tested a pulse detonation rocket engine in space on a S-520 sounding rocket flight.

Popular culture

 In the sci-fi novel Aelita (1923), two Russians travel to Mars in a pulse detonation rocket utilizing "a fine powder of unusual explosive force" (p. 19).
The 1939 Soviet novel The Mystery of the Two Oceans by Grigory Adamov is centered around a submarine using a detonation engine (among other cutting-edge technologies). The fuel is a hydrogen/oxygen mixture, produced through water electrolysis. At one point, the submarine is sabotaged by disabling the pressure indicators, causing a buildup of the explosive mixture.
 X-COM: UFO Defense video game features fictional fighter aircraft, "Interceptor", which is powered by dual pulse detonation engines, according to ingame description.
 In the drama television series JAG, the Season Nine episode "The One That Got Away" (original air date 17 October 2003) features the Aurora — which in the show is a super-secret hypersonic aircraft under development by the CIA that uses a pulse-detonation engine.
In the movie Stealth (2005), the advanced fighters use pulse-detonation engines with scramjet boosters.
 The PDE has been used as a story point in a number of modern novels such as Dan Brown's thriller Deception Point (the second page of the book states that all technologies in the story are non-fictional and exist, albeit without referencing any sources), and Victor Koman's science fiction novel Kings of the High Frontier.
 Eureka season 4's Christmas special: Taggart creates a Santa sled powered by a pulse detonation engine.

See also
Nuclear pulse propulsion
Rotating detonation engine
Scramjet
Gluhareff Pressure Jet
Aurora

References

External links
Innovative Scientific Solutions Inc.
Pulse Detonation Engines
Popular Science
1952 Pulse Detonation Jet Propulsion Patent by William Bollay
Apparatus powered using laser-supplied energy, US patent Issued on 6 August 1996 Boyd B. Bushman
(Video) The high detonation temperature inside the tube of an experimental PDE causes the seals to heat up and catch fire.
(Video) An experimental PDE operating with a detonation frequency of 1 Hz where the pulses are clearly defined.
(Video) An experimental PDE operating with a detonation frequency of 25 Hz.
2-D pulse-detonation engine simulation
Fox News report on the Blackswift
DARPA May 2009 notes on PDE

Jet engines
Aircraft engines
Emerging technologies

Pulse detonation engine


Linnart Mäll (7 June 1938 – 14 February 2010) was an Estonian historian, orientalist, translator and politician.

Biography
Born in Tallinn, Estonia, Mäll graduated from the University of Tartu in 1962 with a major in general history. He followed graduation with postgraduate studies at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences at the USSR Academy of Sciences (1964–1966) and Department of History, University of Tartu (1966–1969); 1985 Cand. Hist. (PhD) in history, PhD thesis "Ashtasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā as a Historical Source".

Since 1994 he was Head of the Centre for Oriental Studies, senior research fellow, Department of History, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Tartu. From 1969 to 1973 he served as lecturer of the Chair of General History at Tartu State University. Later he was dismissed for anti-communist views and subsequently worked for ten years as engineer of the Cabinet for Oriental Studies. He was partly rehabilitated in 1983 and promoted to head of the Laboratory for History and Semiotics (1983–1991). He later served as head of the Laboratory for Oriental Studies (1991–1994).

His main research fields included: Buddhist Mahāyāna texts, Buddhist mythology, classical Indian literature and culture, classical Chinese texts, Tibetan Buddhist texts and the history of small nations and peoples.

He was one of the first who applied the methods of semiotic analysis for investigation of Buddhist texts and other texts of classical Oriental thought. Mäll was one of the central figures of the branch of oriental studies in the Tartu-Moscow Semiotic School in 1960–70s. In the 1990s he worked on the elaboration of the conception of humanistic base texts; since 1998 the initiator and head of the research project "Humanistic base texts in the history of mankind"; and author of ten books and over one hundred academic articles.

Mäll was inspired to become a Buddhist and buddhologist by well-known Estonian theologian and philosopher Uku Masing in the early 1960s. He later studied under and worked together with several Buddhist and non-Buddhist teachers and scholars including Nikolai Konrad, Alexander Piatigorsky, Oktiabrina Volkova, Youri Parfionovich, Lev Menshikov and Lama Bidia Dandaron. He was a teacher and spiritual master for many Estonian Buddhists and orientalists of the younger generation. In the 1990s he established close ties with The Dalai Lama and served as the main organizer of both of his visits to Estonia (1991 and 2001). Mäll was the founder and director of the first Mahāyāna Institute (which existed from 1991 to 1994).

He was awarded the Order of the White Star, IV degree in 2001, and the Medal of Freedom of the Government of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria in exile in March 2004.

Mäll died of cancer in Tartu on 14 February 2010.

Academic associations
His membership in the academic associations is as follows:
Estonian Oriental Society, founder and president in 1988–2001, since 2001 honorary president;
American Oriental Society;
Learned Estonian Society;
Academic Baltic-German Cultural Society in Tartu;
Academic Historical Society;
Estonian Writers' Association and
Estonian Tibetan Cultural Society, honorary member.

Other groups
Dr. Mäll was one of the founders and first chairman of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization, 1991–1993; *Member of the Estonian Congress and Estonian Committee (), 1990–1992;
member of the Estonian Constitutional Assembly, 1991–1992;
Vice Chairman of the Estonian National Independence Party, 1992–1994;
founder and president of the Estonian Paneuropean Union since 1992.

See also

 Buddhism in Estonia
 Uku Masing

References

External links
 The Estonian Institute of Buddhism
 Monday, 15 February 2010, Linnart Mäll, First UNPO Chairperson, Passes Away, www.unpo.org

1938 births
2010 deaths
Estonian orientalists
Estonian translators
20th-century Estonian historians
Estonian National Independence Party politicians
University of Tartu alumni
Academic staff of the University of Tartu
People from Tallinn
Deaths from cancer in Estonia
Recipients of the Order of the National Coat of Arms, 4th Class
Translators to Estonian
Translators from Sanskrit
Translators from Chinese
Recipients of the Order of the White Star, 4th Class
20th-century translators
20th-century Estonian politicians
Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization

Linnart Mäll


Malcolm X is a 1992 American biographical movie directed by Spike Lee. Its stars Denzel Washington as Malcolm X. It also stars Angela Bassett, Albert Hall, Al Freeman, Jr., and Delroy. Al Sharpton and Nelson Mandela also appear in this movie.

It received positive reviews. It was released on November 18, 1992. In 2010, the movie was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".

1992 drama movies
1990s biographical movies
1990s epic movies
American biographical movies
1990s American drama movies
Japanese biographical movies
Japanese drama movies
United States National Film Registry movies
Movies set in Massachusetts
Movies set in New York City
Movies set in Egypt
Political movies
Movies about racism
Movies set in Chicago
Movies set in Michigan
Movies directed by Spike Lee

Malcolm X (1992 movie)


Value-driven design (VDD) is a systems engineering strategy based on microeconomics which enables multidisciplinary design optimization.  Value-driven design is being developed by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, through a program committee of government, industry and academic representatives.  In parallel, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency has promulgated an identical strategy, calling it value-centric design, on the F6 Program. At this point, the terms value-driven design and value-centric design are interchangeable.  The essence of these strategies is that design choices are made to maximize system value rather than to meet performance requirements.

This is also similar to the value-driven approach of agile software development where a project's stakeholders prioritise their high-level needs (or system features) based on the perceived business value each would deliver.

Value-driven design is controversial because performance requirements are a central element of systems engineering. However, value-driven design supporters claim that it can improve the development of large aerospace systems by reducing or eliminating cost overruns which are a major problem, according to independent auditors.

Concept
Value-driven design creates an environment that enables and encourages design optimization by providing designers with an objective function and eliminating those constraints which have been expressed as performance requirements.  The objective function inputs all the important attributes of the system being designed, and outputs a score.  The higher the score, the better the design. Describing an early version of what is now called value-driven design, George Hazelrigg said, "The purpose of this framework is to enable the assessment of a value for every design option so that options can be rationally compared and a choice taken." At the whole system level, the objective function which performs this assessment of value is called a "value model." The value model distinguishes value-driven design from Multi-Attribute Utility Theory applied to design. Whereas in Multi-Attribute Utility Theory, an objective function is constructed from stakeholder assessments, value-driven design employs economic analysis to build a value model.  The basis for the value model is often an expression of profit for a business, but economic value models have also been developed for other organizations, such as government.

To design a system, engineers first take system attributes that would traditionally be assigned performance requirements, like the range and fuel consumption of an aircraft, and build a system value model that uses all these attributes as inputs.  Next, the conceptual design is optimized to maximize the output of the value model.  Then, when the system is decomposed into components, an objective function for each component is derived from the system value model through a sensitivity analysis.

A workshop exercise implementing value-driven design for a GPS satellite was conducted in 2006, and may serve as an example of the process.

History
The dichotomy between designing to performance requirements versus objective functions was raised by Herbert Simon in an essay called "The Science of Design" in 1969.   Simon played both sides, saying that, ideally, engineered systems should be optimized according to an objective function, but realistically this is often too hard, so that attributes would need to be satisficed, which amounted to setting performance requirements. But he included optimization techniques in his recommended curriculum for engineers, and endorsed "utility theory and statistical decision theory as a logical framework for rational choice among given alternatives".

Utility theory was given most of its current mathematical formulation by von Neumann and Morgenstern, but it was the economist Kenneth Arrow who proved the Expected Utility Theorem most broadly, which says in essence that, given a choice among a set of alternatives, one should choose the alternative that provides the greatest probabilistic expectation of utility, where utility is value adjusted for risk aversion.

Ralph Keeney and Howard Raiffa extended utility theory in support of decision making, and Keeney developed the idea of a value model to encapsulate the calculation of utility.  Keeney and Raiffa also used "attributes" to describe the inputs to an evaluation process or value model.

George Hazelrigg put engineering design, business plan analysis, and decision theory together for the first time in a framework in a paper written in 1995, which was published in 1998.  Meanwhile, Paul Collopy independently developed a similar framework in 1997, and Harry Cook developed the S-Model for incorporating product price and demand into a profit-based objective function for design decisions.

The MIT Engineering Systems Division produced a series of papers from 2000 on, many co-authored by Daniel Hastings, in which many utility formulations were used to address various forms of uncertainty in making engineering design decisions.  Saleh et al. is a good example of this work.

The term value-driven design was coined by James Sturges at Lockheed Martin while he was organizing a workshop that would become the Value-Driven Design Program Committee at the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) in 2006. Meanwhile, value centric design was coined independently by Owen Brown and Paul Eremenko of DARPA in the Phase 1 Broad Agency Announcement for the DARPA F6 satellite design program in 2007.
Castagne et al. provides an example where value-driven design was used to design fuselage panels for a regional jet.

Value-based acquisition
Implementation of value-driven design on large government systems, such as NASA or European Space Agency spacecraft or weapon systems, will require a government acquisition system that directs or incentivizes the contractor to employ a value model. Such a system is proposed in some detail in an essay by Michael Lippitz, Sean O'Keefe, and John White. They suggest that "A program office can offer a contract in which price is a function of value", where the function is derived from a value model.  The price function is structured so that, in optimizing the product design in accordance with the value model, the contractor will maximize its own profit.  They call this system Value Based Acquisition.

See also

 Systems engineering
 Decision theory
 Multidisciplinary optimization

References

Systems engineering

Value-driven design