Bernard William Nussbaum (March 23, 1937 – March 13, 2022) was an American attorney, best known for having served as White House Counsel under President Bill Clinton.

Background

Nussbaum, the first child of Jewish immigrants from Poland, was born in New York City on March 23, 1937. His father and mother originally worked in garment factories. His father was later employed by the labor union that represented garment workers, the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU). Nussbaum grew up on the Lower East Side of Manhattan, home at the time to many immigrant families from Eastern Europe.

He attended neighborhood public schools. In 1951, he was admitted to Stuyvesant High School, a specialized public high school in New York City which requires the passing of an entrance exam for admission. He graduated in 1954, having been a member of the school's academic honor society, and an editor on the school's newspaper, the Stuyvesant Spectator.

Nussbaum then was accepted at Columbia College in New York. He was awarded scholarships by New York State and by Columbia which made it possible for him to attend Columbia. He joined the staff of the college daily newspaper, the Columbia Daily Spectator and, in his senior year, became its editor-in-chief. He was also elected to Phi Beta Kappa. During the summer months he worked as a waiter at hotels in the Pocono Mountains in Pennsylvania and the Catskill Mountains in New York to help pay for his education.

In 1958, Nussbaum graduated from Columbia and was admitted to Harvard Law School. After his first year, on the basis of his academic record, he was selected to join the Harvard Law Review and was given a full tuition scholarship by the law school. In his senior year he became a note editor of the Law Review, succeeding future Supreme Court justice Antonin Scalia.

Upon completing law school in 1961, Nussbaum was awarded a Harvard University Sheldon Traveling Fellowship. This fellowship enabled him to travel around the world for a year visiting over 30 countries. On his return he served for six months on active duty in the United States Army and was a member of the Army Reserves for six years.

Early career

In 1962, he was sworn in as an Assistant United States Attorney in the Southern District of New York, in the office led by Robert Morgenthau. He was a federal prosecutor for more than three years and tried a number of major criminal cases. These included convicting, after a four-month trial, five officials of a federal savings and loan association of perjury. The perjury was committed by the bank officers to cover up the diversion of over $250,000 from the savings and loan association to finance a political campaign for Congress being conducted by the president of the association. He also won a jury verdict convicting a prominent accountant and investor of bribing and conspiring (with other major investors) to bribe an internal revenue agent.

In 1966, Nussbaum joined the New York law firm, Wachtell, Lipton, Rosen & Katz, one year after the firm was founded in January 1965 by Martin Lipton, Herbert Wachtell, Leonard Rosen, and George Katz, four lawyers in their early 30s who in time became preeminent in the legal profession. In 1966, the firm had less than 10 lawyers. As of 2022, it has over 250 lawyers and is one of the most successful corporate law firms in the United States.

In 1968, Nussbaum ran for a seat in the New York State Assembly. In a close contest, in a Democratic primary election in Brooklyn, New York, he lost to the incumbent assemblyman.

In 1970, Nussbaum managed Robert Morgenthau's campaign for Governor of New York. He led a group of former assistant United States attorneys in conducting a statewide petition drive to place Morgenthau's name on the Democratic Party primary ballot for the party's nomination for governor, opposing Arthur Goldberg, the former Supreme Court Justice, who was the choice of the Democratic Party leaders.

In a short period of time, well over 15,000 signatures of registered Democrats were collected in over 50 New York counties, with the requirement that there be at least 100 such valid signatures in each county. Many of the upstate counties in New York had few residents and even fewer registered Democrats. This made the petition drive difficult. However, it succeeded and Morgenthau began his primary race against Goldberg. A third political party, the Liberal Party, then decided to give its nomination to Goldberg. This decision, which would have had the effect of splitting the vote against the incumbent governor, Nelson Rockefeller, if Morgenthau won the Democratic primary, made it virtually impossible for Morgenthau to defeat Rockefeller in the general election. Morgenthau therefore withdrew from the primary race. Goldberg ran as the Democratic/Liberal candidate against Rockefeller in the general election and was defeated.

In 1972, Nussbaum represented Elizabeth Holtzman who, in a surprise victory, had defeated senior U.S. Representative Emanuel Celler, who at the time was chairman of the House Judiciary Committee, by a little over 600 votes in the Democratic primary election. Celler brought suit in a Brooklyn state court to set aside that victory. Nussbaum won that case, which was ultimately decided by the New York State Court of Appeals, and Holtzman's election was upheld. As a result of that victory, Peter Rodino, a senior congressman from New Jersey replaced Celler and became chairman of the Judiciary Committee which later successfully conducted the impeachment inquiry involving U.S. President Richard Nixon.

In the mid-1970s, during New York City's fiscal crises, Nussbaum represented the Comptroller of the City of New York. At the time the comptroller, along with the mayor and the city, were the subject of an investigation by the United States Securities and Exchange Commission into whether there was fraud in the sale of city securities. After a lengthy inquiry, during which numerous documents were produced and top city officials testified, there was no finding of any wrongdoing.

While in private practice he also served as a member of the adjunct faculty of Columbia Law School, conducting a seminar in trial practice for third year law students.

Nixon impeachment inquiry

In December 1973, Nussbaum left his law firm to serve as a senior member on the House Judiciary Committee's impeachment inquiry staff, led by John Doar, which conducted the  impeachment investigation involving President Richard Nixon. Nussbaum participated in overseeing the fact gathering process. This included analyzing the White House tape recordings made by President Nixon, and interviewing significant witnesses such as John Dean, the President's former White House Counsel, John Mitchell, the former U.S. Attorney General in the Nixon administration, and Charles Colson, a former special assistant to the President. He played a role in presenting the results of the staff's inquiry to the House Judiciary Committee. In July 1974, the committee, in a bi-partisan vote, voted to recommend to the House of Representatives that the President be impeached. Shortly thereafter, on August 9, 1974, President Nixon resigned. At the conclusion of the impeachment inquiry Nussbaum rejoined his law firm.

While serving on the Judiciary Committee staff, Nussbaum met and worked with Hillary Rodham, a recent law school graduate who was also a member of the staff. She introduced him to the man she would marry in 1975, Bill Clinton.

White House Counsel under President Clinton

In 1993, Nussbaum again left his law firm, when he was appointed Counsel to the President of the United States. During his tenure as President Bill Clinton's first White House Counsel he was involved in major personnel and policy issues facing the administration. These included the appointment of Janet Reno as Attorney General, the recruitment of a new FBI director, and the selection of approximately 100 federal judges, including Judge Ruth Bader Ginsburg to the Supreme Court of the United States.

He was also involved in handling the early stages of the Whitewater controversy, an investigation into an unsuccessful Arkansas real estate investment made by the Clintons years earlier, and the investigation of the suicide of his deputy, Vincent Foster. Contrary to the advice of others on the White House staff, in the administration, and in Congress, Nussbaum strongly urged the President not to seek the appointment of an independent counsel with respect to those matters. He maintained there was no legal basis for such an appointment, as there was no evidence of wrongdoing by the President, either before or after he entered office. He warned the president that the institution of an independent counsel, who is responsible to no one, tends to become an uncontrolled, never ending effort to find wrongdoing even where none exists. He predicted that conservative judges would replace anyone who was appointed by the Attorney General with a choice more to their liking. He predicted the investigation would likely last as long as the President was in office and beyond. Consequently, he argued, despite media and congressional pressure, in addition to their being no legal basis, it also made no political sense to request such an appointment.

The President, nonetheless, in response to media and congressional pressure, decided to ask the Attorney General to appoint an independent counsel and she did. A few months later, as predicted by Nussbaum, three appellate judges replaced the counsel appointed by the Attorney General with Ken Starr. An investigation then took place which never resulted in criminal charges against the President, but lasted for over seven years, until after the end of the Clinton presidency. It did, however, result, based on subsequent personal conduct (involving a White House intern) separate from the Whitewater matter, in Clinton being impeached by the House of Representatives in December 1998. He was ultimately acquitted by the Senate, but the impeachment proceeding subsequently affected future presidential elections, first involving Vice President Al Gore and later Hillary Clinton.

In his memoir My Life, published after he left office, President Clinton said the single biggest error he made as president was not listening to Nussbaum and, instead, requesting the appointment of an Independent Counsel. He wrote: "It was the worst presidential decision I ever made, wrong on the facts, wrong on the law, wrong on the politics, wrong for the presidency, and the Constitution."

Referring to media criticism of Nussbaum's advice, the President wrote "there would have been no investigation, subpoenas, or grand jury if I had listened to him and refused to give into the demands for an independent counsel to 'clear the air.' Bernie's real offense was that he thought I should abide by the rule of law and accepted standards of propriety, rather than the constantly shifting standards of the Whitewater media, which were designed to produce the very results they professed to deplore."

Nussbaum resigned on March 5, 1994, as a result of the Whitewater controversy and the position he took regarding the appointment of an Independent Counsel. President Clinton later wrote: "Bernie Nussbaum resigned in early March; he never got over my foolish decision to ask for an independent counsel, and he didn't want to be a source of further problems ... [he was an] able, honest public servant."

Nussbaum returned to his law firm in late 1994 and resumed the private practice of law.

Allegations of obstruction of justice
After the suicide of Vince Foster the justice department and the United States Park Police sought papers found in Foster's briefcase that Nussbaum refused to hand over to both the department and the police.

During the investigation into the travel office firings Nussbaum refused to hand over Foster's travel office notebook to Congress and the FBI.

Later career
Over the years, as a senior litigation partner at Wachtell Lipton, Nussbaum represented clients such as major corporate entities, law firms, law firm partners, government officials, political figures, and the judiciary.

Working together with his firm's partners and associates, Nussbaum was the lead trial lawyer in many cases tried in various state and federal courts around the country, including significant corporate cases won by his firm. Among the cases he took on were representing United Technologies Corporation in defeating an antitrust suit brought by the U.S. Department of Justice and Carrier Corporation in a New York federal court which sought to prevent United from acquiring Carrier. He represented the Hilton Corporation in a Nevada federal court and obtained an injunction preventing ITT Corporation from blocking a takeover effort. He won a judgment in Delaware Chancery Court on behalf of IBP Corporation ordering Tyson Foods to consummate a multi-billion merger between IBP and Tyson, which Tyson had agreed to but was seeking to avoid. In a South Carolina state court he defeated an effort by Jack Kent Cooke to take over Multimedia, Inc. a local owned broadcast and newspaper enterprise.

In 2004, Nussbaum won a jury verdict in a New York federal court on behalf of the developer of the rebuilt World Trade Center, Larry Silverstein, against major insurance companies. After a trial lasting more than a month, the jury found that the September 11 attacks in 2001, when two towers were struck by two planes, was not a single event, as claimed by the insurance companies, but was, under the terms of the insurance agreements then in force, two separate events. This significantly increased the insurance payments due and resulted in a multi-billion payment to the developer for the rebuilding of the center.

In the course of his career, Nussbaum was asked to represent major law firms (including Sullivan and Cromwell and Shearman and Sterling) in lawsuits brought against them or certain of their partners. Their suits were resolved in favor of his law firm clients.

He represented a senior partner of the Simpson Thacher law firm who was charged with diverting fees owed to the firm. His client ultimately pleaded guilty and cooperated with law enforcement authorities. After lower court hearings and an appeal, a prison term which had been imposed was set aside and his client was not required to serve any time in prison.

In 1992, in a case which generated one of the most prominent legal ethics controversies of the decade, Nussbaum represented the law firm of Kaye Scholer. A government agency sued Kaye Scholer charging it with improperly withholding damaging information about its client, a large federal savings and loan association whose failure epitomized the savings and loan disaster in the early 1990s. The law firm vehemently denied it did anything wrong in representing its client; it maintained it had an obligation to represent its client zealously and not to disclose information harmful to its client.

At the outset of the lawsuit, the government froze all the assets of Kaye Scholer. This freeze rapidly put the firm close to collapse. It made it virtually impossible to contest the government's action as the firm would likely not survive in the interim as clients and employees would depart. At this point Nussbaum was retained to represent Kaye Scholer. In less than a week, a settlement was reached which did not require an admission of wrongdoing by the firm and provided for a monetary payment over time which was covered by insurance. This enabled the firm to continue as a law firm.

As a result of judicial salaries in New York being frozen for more than a decade (the legislature refused to raise judicial salaries unless its own salaries were raised and the Governor of New York refused to agree to legislative salaries being raised), Nussbaum represented the Chief Judge of the State of New York and the Judiciary of the State, without fee, in successful constitutional litigation ultimately decided by the state's highest court, the New York State Court of Appeals.

The Court of Appeals ruled that holding judicial salaries hostage to legislative salaries was unconstitutional. As a consequence, the Legislature and the Governor agreed to change the system for the compensation of judges. Since then, decisions regarding judicial salaries are made every four years by an independent commission rather than by the executive and legislative branches. Salaries of state court judges have been significantly increased to approximate the salaries of federal judges, which, before the lawsuit was brought, were considerably higher than state court judges. They are now roughly equal.

On January 28, 2011, Nussbaum sent a letter to President Barack Obama stating that while serving as White House Counsel he extensively reviewed the Jonathan Pollard file. After pleading guilty in June 1986, Pollard was sentenced to an unprecedented life sentence for providing classified information to Israel without the intention to harm the United States. In his letter to President Obama, Nussbaum wrote: "Pollard has been appropriately punished for his conduct, and a failure at this time to commute his sentence would not serve the course of justice; indeed, I respectfully believe it would be a miscarriage of justice." After serving 30 years in prison, Pollard was granted parole and was released from prison on November 20, 2015.

Other public roles and honors
Nussbaum was the recipient of awards from charitable and educational institutions as well as legal organizations. In 1993, he was awarded an honorary LL.D. from the George Washington University National Law Center. He served as Vice President of the New York City Bar Association and as President of the Federal Bar Council, a bar association whose membership consists of lawyers and judges who practice primarily in federal courts within the Second Circuit. He was a Fellow of the American College of Trial lawyers, a select professional association of trial lawyers from the United States and Canada.

Nussbaum was a member of philanthropic boards of trustees, including Brandeis University and the Jewish Theological Seminary. He served as a trustee of the Boys Brotherhood Republic (now part of the Henry Street Settlement), a self-governing youth club on the Lower East Side of Manhattan. Created in the 1930s, Nussbaum was a member of that club as a child.

Nussbaum also served on the Board of Trustees of The Mount Sinai Medical Center in New York City which encompasses seven major hospitals in New York City and a highly regarded medical school. He was a member of the board's audit committee and legal committee. He was also a member of a three-person independent review board appointed in 2014 by the Brooklyn District Attorney. The board reviews decisions made by the district attorney's office as to whether certain individuals have been wrongly convicted of crimes. That process resulted in a number of convictions being set aside and persons being released from prison.

Personal life
In January 2006, his wife Toby, to whom he was married for 42 years, died of pancreatic cancer. They met in 1958 when she was an undergraduate at Brandeis University and he was a first year law student at Harvard. Throughout her adult life she was active in political, community, and philanthropic affairs, particularly with non-profit organizations in the Jewish community.

In December 2008, Nussbaum married Nancy Kuhn, who had been a fundraiser for political and charitable organizations. Among other political races, she played an important role in raising funds, in New York State and elsewhere, for the Democratic presidential candidate Walter Mondale during the 1984 campaign. Nussbaum and Kuhn resided in Manhattan, Stamford, Connecticut, and Naples, Florida. Kuhn died of brain cancer in April 2021.

He had three children: a daughter, Emily Nussbaum (who is married to Clive Thompson and is on the staff of The New Yorker magazine; she was the magazine's television critic and won both the 2016 Pulitzer Prize for Criticism and the National Magazine Award for Columns and Commentary); two sons, Peter Nussbaum (married to Alexis Tannenbaum), Frank Nussbaum (married to Carlye Adler) and a stepson, William Kuhn. He also had six grandchildren.

Nussbaum died from heart disease at his home in Manhattan on March 13, 2022, at the age of 84.

See also
 List of Jewish American jurists

References

External links
 Bio page at Wachtell, Lipton, Rosen & Katz
 Profile in Harvard Law Bulletin

1937 births
2022 deaths
20th-century American lawyers
21st-century American lawyers
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
Clinton administration personnel
Columbia College (New York) alumni
Harvard Law School alumni
Lawyers from New York City
People from the Lower East Side
Stuyvesant High School alumni
United States presidential advisors
Watergate scandal investigators
White House Counsels
Whitewater controversy
Wachtell, Lipton, Rosen & Katz people

Bernard Nussbaum


The , more commonly known as the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty in English and as the  or just  in Japanese, is a treaty that permits the presence of U.S. military bases on Japanese soil, and commits the two nations to defend each other if one or the other is attacked "in the territories under the administration of Japan". Over time, it has had the effect of establishing a military alliance between the United States and Japan.

The current treaty, which took effect on June 23, 1960, revised and replaced an earlier version of the treaty, which had been signed in 1951 in conjunction with the signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty that terminated World War II in Asia as well as the U.S.-led Occupation of Japan (19451952). The revision of the treaty in 1960 was a highly contentious process in Japan, and widespread opposition to its passage led to the massive Anpo protests, which were the largest popular protests in Japan's history.

The 1960 treaty significantly revised the U.S.-Japan security agreement in the direction of greater mutuality between the two nations. The original 1951 treaty had contained a provision permitting the United States to use forces based in Japan throughout East Asia without prior consultation with Japan, made no explicit promise to defend Japan if Japan were attacked, and even contained a clause allowing U.S. troops to intervene in Japanese domestic disputes. These portions were altered in the revised version of the treaty in 1960. The amended treaty included articles delineating mutual defense obligations and requiring the US, before mobilizing its forces, to inform Japan in advance. It also removed the article permitting U.S. interference in Japanese domestic affairs.

The treaty also included general provisions for the further development of international understanding and improved economic collaboration between the two nations. These provisions became the basis for the establishment of the United States–Japan Conference on Cultural and Educational Interchange (CULCON), the United States–Japan Committee on Scientific Cooperation, and the Joint United States–Japan Committee on Trade and Economic Affairs, all three of which are still in operation in some form.

The U.S.-Japan Security Treaty has never been amended and thus has lasted longer in its original form than any other treaty between two great powers since the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. The treaty had a minimum term of 10 years, but provided that it would remain in force indefinitely unless one party gives one year's notice of wishing to terminate it.

Background

The original U.S.-Japan Security Treaty had been forced on Japan by the United States as a condition of ending the U.S.-led military occupation of Japan following the end of World War II. It was signed on September 8, 1951, in tandem with the signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty ending World War II in Asia, and went into effect on April 28, 1952, in tandem with the end of the occupation of Japan. The original Security Treaty had no specified end date or means of abrogation, allowed US forces stationed in Japan to be used for any purpose anywhere in the "Far East" without prior consultation with the Japanese government, and had a clause specifically authorizing US troops to put down domestic protests in Japan. Perhaps most gallingly of all, the pact did not contain an article committing the United States to defend Japan if Japan were attacked by a third party.

The Japanese government began pushing for a revision to the treaty as early as 1952. However, the administration of U.S. president Dwight D. Eisenhower resisted calls for revision until a growing anti-U.S. military base movement in Japan culminated in the Sunagawa Struggle of 1955-1957 and popular outrage in Japan in the aftermath of the Girard Incident in 1957, which made deep dissatisfaction with the status quo more apparent. The United States agreed to a revision, negotiations began in 1958, and the new treaty was signed by Eisenhower and Kishi at a ceremony in Washington, D.C., on January 19, 1960.

From a Japanese perspective, the new treaty was a significant improvement over the original treaty, committing the United States to defend Japan in an attack, requiring prior consultation with the Japanese government before dispatching US forces based in Japan overseas, removing the clause preauthorizing suppression of domestic disturbances, and specifying an initial 10-year term, after which the treaty could be abrogated by either party with one year's notice.

Because the new treaty was superior to the old one, Kishi expected it to be ratified in relatively short order. Accordingly, he invited Eisenhower to visit Japan beginning on June 19, 1960, in part to celebrate the newly ratified treaty. If Eisenhower's visit had proceeded as planned, he would have become the first sitting US president to visit Japan.

Terms

In Article 1, the treaty began by establishing that each country would seek to resolve any international disputes peacefully. The treaty also gave prominence to the United Nations in dealing with aggression.

Article 2 generally called for greater collaboration between the two nations in terms of international relations and economics. At a summit meeting between U.S. President John F. Kennedy and Japanese Prime Minister Hayato Ikeda in June 1961, this clause was put into action with the formation of three cabinet level consultative committees - the United States–Japan Conference on Cultural and Educational Interchange (CULCON), the United States–Japan Committee on Scientific Cooperation, and the Joint United States–Japan Committee on Trade and Economic Affairs, all three of which are still in operation in some form.

Article 4 suggests that the United States will consult with Japan in some manner on how it uses the U.S. troops based in Japan.

Article 5 commits the United States to defend Japan if it is attacked by a third party.

Article 6 explicitly grants the United States the right to base troops in Japan, subject to a detailed "Administrative Agreement" negotiated separately.

Article 10 allows for the abrogation of the treaty, after an initial 10-year term, if either party gives one year's advance notice to the other of its wish to terminate the treaty.

The agreed minutes to the treaty specified that the Japanese government would be consulted prior to major changes in United States force deployment in Japan or to the use of Japanese bases for combat operations other than to defend Japan itself. Also covered were the limits of both countries' jurisdictions over crimes committed in Japan by US military personnel.

Popular opposition

Although the 1960 treaty was manifestly superior to the original 1951 treaty, many Japanese from across the political spectrum resented the presence of U.S. military bases on Japanese soil and hoped to get rid of the treaty entirely. An umbrella organization, the , was formed in 1959 to coordinate the actions of various citizen movements involved in opposing ratification of the revised treaty. The People's Council initially consisted of 134 member organizations in March 1959 and grew to have 1,633 affiliated organizations by March 1960. Member groups included labor unions, farmers' and teachers' unions, poetry circles, theater troupes, student and women's organizations, mothers' groups, groups affiliated with the Japan Socialist Party and the Japan Communist Party, and even some conservative business groups. In total the People's Council carried out 27 separate events of nationwide mass protest from March 1959 to July 1960.

Faced with popular opposition in the streets and Socialist Party stonewalling in the National Diet, Prime Minister Kishi grew increasingly desperate to pass the treaty in time for Eisenhower's scheduled arrival in Japan on June 19. Finally on May 19, 1960, in the so-called "May 19 Incident," Kishi suddenly called for a snap vote on the treaty. When Socialist Diet members attempted a sit-in to block the vote, Kishi introduced 500 policemen into the Diet and had them physically removed from the halls of the Diet by police, and rammed the treaty through with only members of his own party present.

Kishi's actions were widely perceived as anti-democratic, and provoked nationwide outrage from across the political spectrum. Thereafter, the anti-treaty protests swelled to massive size, with the Sōhyō labor federation carrying out a series of nationwide strikes involving millions of labor unionists, large crowds marching in cities and towns throughout the nation, and tens of thousands of protesters gathering around the National Diet on nearly a daily basis. On June 10, in the so-called Hagerty Incident, thousands of protesters mobbed a car carrying Eisenhower's press secretary James Hagerty, slashing its tires, smashing its tail lights, and rocking it back and forth for more than an hour before the occupants were rescued by a U.S. Marine Corps helicopter. Finally on 15 June 1960, the radical student activists from the Zengakuren nationwide student federation attempted to storm the Diet compound itself, precipitating a fierce battle with police in which a female Tokyo University student named Michiko Kanba was killed.

Desperate to stay in office long enough to host Eisenhower's visit, Kishi hoped to secure the streets in time for Eisenhower's arrival by calling out the Japan Self Defense Forces and tens of thousands of right-wing thugs that would be provided by his friend, the yakuza-affiliated right-wing "fixer" Yoshio Kodama. However, he was talked out of these extreme measures by his cabinet, and thereafter had no choice but to cancel Eisenhower's visit, for fears that his safety could not be guaranteed, and to announce his own resignation as Prime Minister, in order to quell the widespread popular anger at his actions.

Ratification and enactment

Despite the massive size achieved by the anti-treaty movement, the protests ultimately failed to stop the treaty. Although Kishi was forced to resign and Eisenhower's visit was cancelled, under Japanese law, the treaty was automatically approved 30 days after passing the Lower House of the Diet. Article 8 of the treaty stipulated that the new treaty would immediately enter into force once ratification instruments were exchanged between Japanese and American officials in Tokyo. The instruments were officially exchanged on June 23, 1960, at which point the new treaty took effect and the old treaty expired. According to foreign minister Aiichirō Fujiyama, the official ratification instruments had to be smuggled to Kishi for his signature in a candy box, to avoid the notice of the protesters still mobbing his official residence.

However, once the treaty entered into force and Kishi resigned from office, the anti-treaty protest movement lost momentum and rapidly died away.

Aftermath

The anti-American aspect of the protests and the humiliating cancellation of Eisenhower's visit brought U.S.-Japan relations to their lowest ebb since the end of World War II. The new U.S. President, John F. Kennedy, appointed sympathetic Japan expert and Harvard University professor Edwin O. Reischauer as ambassador to Japan, rather than a career diplomat, and invited the new Japanese prime minister, Hayato Ikeda, to be the first foreign leader to visit the United States in his term in office. At their June 1961 summit meeting, the two leaders agreed that henceforth the two nations would consult much more closely as allies, along lines similar to the relationship between the United States and Great Britain. Back in Japan, Ikeda took a much more conciliatory stance toward the political opposition, indefinitely shelving Kishi's plans to revise the Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, and announcing the Income Doubling Plan with the explicit goal of redirecting the nation's energies away from the contentious treaty issue and toward a nationwide drive for rapid economic growth.

The difficult process of securing the passage of the revised treaty and the violent protests it caused contributed to a culture of secret pacts (密約, mitsuyaku) between the two nations. Going forward, rather than putting contentious issues to a vote, the two nations secretly negotiated to expand the scope of the Security Treaty without allowing a vote. Secret pacts negotiated in the 1960s and not brought to light until decades later allowed U.S. naval vessels carrying nuclear weapons to "transit" through Japanese ports, allowed nuclear powered U.S. vessels to vent radioactive wastewater in Japanese waters, and allowed the U.S. to introduce nuclear weapons into U.S. bases on Okinawa even after its reversion to Japan in 1972, among other secret deals.

Throughout the decade of the 1960s, left-wing activists looked forward to the end of the revised treaty's initial 10-year term in 1970 as an opportunity to try to persuade the Japanese government to abrogate the treaty. In 1970, in the wake of the 1968-1969 student riots in Japan, a number of student groups, civic groups, and the anti-Vietnam War organization Beheiren held a series of protest marches against the Security Treaty. However, prime minister Eisaku Satō (who was Kishi's younger brother) opted to ignore the protests completely and allow the treaty to automatically renew. Since that time, no attempt has been made to abrogate the treaty by either party, and U.S. bases remain a fixture on Japanese soil. As of 2010, there were still some 85 facilities housing 44,850 U.S. military personnel and 44,289 dependents.

Ongoing opposition in Okinawa

A central issue in the debate over the continued U.S. military presence is the heavy concentration of troops in the small Japanese prefecture of Okinawa. U.S. military bases cover about one fifth of Okinawa and house around 75% of the U.S. forces in Japan. Base-related frictions, disputes, and environmental problems have left many Okinawans feeling that while the security agreement may be beneficial to the United States and Japan as a whole, they bear a disproportionate share of the burden.

One contentious issue to many Okinawans is the noise and environmental pollution created by the US forces in Japan. Prolonged exposure to high-decibel noise pollution from the American military jets flying over residential areas in Okinawa has been found to cause heart problems, disrupt sleep patterns, and damage cognitive skills in children. Excessive noise lawsuits filed in 2009 by Okinawa's residents against Kadena Air Base and Marine Corps Air Station Futenma resulted in awards of $57 million and $1.3 million to residents, respectively. Toxic chemical runoff from U.S. bases, live-fire drills using depleted uranium rounds, and base construction and expansion activities have polluted Okinawa's water supply and damaged Okinawa's once-pristine coral reefs, reducing their economic value for fishing and tourism.

The most powerful opposition in Okinawa, however, stemmed from criminal acts committed by US service members and their dependents, with the latest example being the 1995 kidnapping and molestation of a 12-year-old Okinawan girl by two Marines and a Navy corpsman. In early 2008, U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice apologized after a series of crimes involving American troops in Japan, including the rape of a girl of 14 by a marine on Okinawa. The US military also imposed a temporary 24-hour curfew on military personnel and their families to ease the anger of local residents.

These grievances, among others, have sustained a large and enduring anti-Security Treaty movement in Okinawa.

Public support
Despite the strong Okinawan opposition to the US military presence on the island, there is support for the agreement in Japan as a whole. Although views of the treaty were fiercely polarized when the treaty was first approved in 1960, acceptance of the U.S.-Japan alliance has grown over time. According to a 2007 poll, 73.4% of Japanese citizens appreciated the presence of U.S. forces in Japan. The manga series Our Alliance – A Lasting Partnership was designed to stimulate a positive public opinion about the partnership.

Treaty coverage

In 2012, the US clarified in a statement regarding the Senkaku Islands dispute that the treaty covers the Senkaku Islands and requires the Americans to defend them.

On April 19, 2019, Japan and the United States confirmed that cyberattacks are also covered by the treaty. The two nations also promised to increase defense cooperation for outer space warfare, cyberwarfare, and electronic warfare.

See also
 Anpo protests
 U.S.–Japan Alliance
 Japan–United States relations
 United States Forces Japan
 Defence policy of Japan
 Security Treaty between the United States and Japan
 Nuclear umbrella

References

Citations

Sources cited

1960 in Japan
1960 in the United States
20th-century military alliances
21st-century military alliances
Cold War treaties
Cold War alliances and military strategy
Foreign relations of Post-war Japan
1951 in the United States
1951 in Japan
Japan–United States relations
Japan–United States treaties
Mutual Cooperation
Mutual Cooperation
Treaties concluded in 1960
Treaties entered into force in 1960
United States Armed Forces in Okinawa Prefecture
United States military in Japan
June 1960 events in Asia

Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan


Cawl  is a Welsh dish. It was traditionally eaten during the winter months in the south-west of Wales. Today the word is often used to refer to a dish containing lamb and leeks, but historically it was made with either salted bacon or beef, potatoes, carrots and other vegetables. Cawl is widely considered to be the national dish of Wales.

The meat in the dish was normally cut into medium-sized pieces and boiled with the vegetables in water. The stock was thickened with either oatmeal or flour. It was then served, without the meat or vegetables, as a first course.  The vegetables and slices of the meat would then be served as a second course.  Cawl served as a single course is today the most popular way to serve the dish. Cawl is similar to lobsgows, cawl's north Wales equivalent. Lobsgows differs in that the meat and vegetables are cut into smaller pieces. The stock is not thickened.

"Cawl cennin", or leek cawl, can be made without meat but using meat stock. In some areas cawl is often served with bread and cheese. These are served separately on a plate. The dish was traditionally cooked in an iron pot or cauldron over the fire. It was eaten with wooden spoons. The word cawl in Welsh is first recorded in the 14th century, and is thought to come from the Latin , meaning the stalk of a plant, a cabbage stalk or a cabbage. In Welsh,   ("make a cawl of [something]") means to mess something up.

Notes

Further reading

Other websites
Recipes
BBC Mid Wales article and recipe for Cawl Cennin
Recipe for Cawl Cymreig

Welsh culture
British food

Cawl


Net run rate (NRR) is a number used in cricket to decide which of two teams is better, if both teams are equal on points gotten from winning games during a competition (i.e. they may have won and lost an equal number of games during a World Cup). It is calculated using the difference between the number of runs scored by a team and its opponents, while dividing each of these by the number of legal deliveries (in batches of 6 i.e. the number of overs) that team and its opponents have each batted throughout all of the games involving that team in the competition. This calculation does not look at how many times each team's batsmen have gotten out, so it gives teams that score many runs very quickly an advantage even if they have more batsmen get out than their opponents.

As an example, if a team wins a game 300 runs to 200, with it having batted 200 legal deliveries (33.2 overs, meaning 33 overs and 2 deliveries, or 33 overs plus a third of an over) and its opponents having batted 185 legal deliveries (30.5 overs), then the team's Net Run Rate during that game is (6*((300/200)-(200/185)))= 2.51.

References

Cricket
Sports words

Net run rate


Coucher de soleil no. 1 (also called Landscape, Paysage, Landschap, or Sunset No. 1) is an oil painting created circa 1906 by the French artist and theorist Jean Metzinger (1883–1956). Coucher de soleil no. 1 is a work executed in a mosaic-like Divisionist style with a Fauve palette. The reverberating image of the Sun in Metzinger's painting is an homage to the decomposition of spectral light at the core of Neo-Impressionist color theory.

Coucher de soleil was exhibited in Paris during the spring of 1907 at the Salon des Indépendants (n. 3457), along with Bacchante and four other works by Metzinger.

The painting had been in the collection of Helene Kröller-Müller since 1921 or prior, now in the collection of the Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands.

Description
Coucher de soleil no. 1 is an oil painting on canvas in a horizontal format with dimensions , signed J.Metzinger (lower right), and titled on the verso "Coucher de soleil no. 1". Also on the verso is another painting by Metzinger representing a river scene with ships.

The work represents two nude women relaxing in a lush Mediterranean landscape with semi-tropical vegetation, hills, trees, a body of water and a radiating setting Sun beyond. The plants to the lower left resemble the agave, a species found in the south of France, Spain and Greece. "Agave" is also the name of three characters in Greek mythology:

Agave: one of the Nereids.
Agave: one of the Danaïdes, daughter of Danaus and Europa. She married Lycus, son of Aegyptus and Argyphia.
Agave: an Amazon.

The two nudes appear to play a secondary role in the overall composition due to their small size. But their prominent location in the foreground and the provocative nature of public nudity propels them to a position that cannot be ignored.

In this luscious setting—as in Luxe, Calme et Volupté by Henri Matisse—Metzinger makes use all the colors in the spectrum of visible light. Unlike Matisse's work, Metzinger's brushstrokes are large, forming a mosaic-like lattice of squares or cubes of similar size and shape throughout, juxtaposed in a wide variety of angles relative to one another, creating an overall rhythm that would otherwise not be present.

Evidence suggests that this work was completed prior to Metzinger's paintings entitled La danse (Bacchante) or Two Nudes in an Exotic Landscape: (1) there exists an oil on canvas study of the latter dated circa 1905–1906, located at the University of Iowa with the title Two Nudes in a garden, 91.4 x 63.8 cm with a similar radiating sun above the bathers. (2) The brushstrokes are smaller in size consistent with Metzinger's style of late 1905. (3) In 1906 and 1907 Metzinger's brushstrokes became larger and more organized, structured within a highly geometrized framework already proto-Cubist in appearance. (4) As its name implies, Coucher de soleil no. 1 might have been the first in a series of sunsets. Though no other works by Metzinger are known by the titles Coucher de soleil no. 2 or No. 3, the artist did produce other works with sunsets during the same period: Landscape with Fountain, for example, an oil on canvas measuring 53.3 x 73.6 cm; Paysage pointilliste, 1906–07, an oil on canvas measuring 54.5 x 73 cm; Matin au Parc Montsouris, ca. 1906, oil on canvas, 49.9 x 67.7 cm; or even La tour de Batz au coucher de soleil, 54 x 73 cm, an oil on canvas ca. 1905.

These clues would seem to suggest Coucher de soleil no. 1 was painted during the later months of 1905, or early 1906, just before Metzinger and Robert Delaunay began painting portraits of one another, rather than circa 1908 as indicated by the Kröller-Müller Museum.

Neo-Impressionism, Divisionism

The Fauves (many of whom would become Cubists), were heavily influenced by Neo-Impressionism, calling upon rational and scientific thought and creating highly abstract visions with the goal of producing the effects of real color-light. Mechanical brushwork suppressed the personality of the artist in an act of conspicuous defiance against the Impressionists. The Symbolists too would strip away the casual and accidental features of reality, revealing the true 'essence of form.' Whether such a revelation could be backed up by a scientific theory or not, there were still examples that could be codified. The problem was that pigments reflect light, they are not a light source themselves. Colors in the spectra of light did not respond in the same way as color pigments painted on canvas. For example, red and blue light rays result in white light, but the same colors in pigments make violet.

Metzinger's response in Coucher de soleil no. 1, in addition to illustrating actual radiation emanating in concentric circles from the sun, was to separate colors in such a way as to avoid mixtures, leading to inert tones. Contrary to the Impressionists related hues, often placed on top of one another while still wet—leading to a result the Divisionists found dull—contrasting hues placed side by side for the effect or creating optical vibrations were essential to Divisionists.

The basic elements of art—the line, particle of color—like words could be treated autonomously, each possessing an abstract value independent of one another, if so chose the artist. The line, independent of its topographical role, possesses an calculable abstract value, in addition to the particles of color and the relation of both to the observer's emotion. The underlying theory behind Neo-Impressionsim, something Divisionists like the Metzinger would push to the extreme, would have a lasting effect on the works produced in the coming years by Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay and Gino Severini.

The impulse toward abstraction was a primary quality of the time, even prior to Metzinger's Sunset No. 1. "Neo-Impressionism" wrote Paul Adam, "wants to reproduce the pure phenomenon, the subjective appearance of things. It is a school of abstraction."

By "abstract," writes Robert Herbert, "writers and painters of the period did not mean "devoid of reference to the real world", as we now use the term. They meant to draw away from nature, in the sense of disdaining imitation in order to concentrate upon the distillation of essential shapes and movements. These distilled forms were superior to nature because they partook of idea, and represented the dominance of the artist over the mere stuff of nature. In embryo, the Symbolists and Neo-Impressionists did establish the philosophical defense of pure abstraction, but nature still formed part of the basic dialogue."

By 1905 Metzinger began to favor the abstract qualities of larger brushstrokes and luminous colors. Following the lead of Georges Seurat, Henri-Edmond Cross and Paul Cézanne, Metzinger began incorporating a new geometry into his works that signified a further departure still from naturalism.

Robert Herbert writes of Metzinger's Coucher de soleil and its importance during the Neo-Impressionist period and thereafter:
"At the Indépendants in 1905, his paintings were already regarded as in the Neo-Impressionist tradition by contemporary critics, and he apparently continued to paint in large mosaic strokes until some time in 1908. The height of his Neo-Impressionist work was in 1906 and 1907, when he and Delaunay did portraits of each other [...] in prominent rectangles of pigment. (In the sky of [Coucher de soleil, 1906-1907, Collection Rijksmuseum Kröller-Müller] is the solar disk which Delaunay was later to make into a personal emblem.)"

The vibrating image of the Sun in Metzinger's painting, and of Delaunay's Paysage au disque (1906-1907), writes Herbert, "is an homage to the decomposition of spectral light that lay at the heart of Neo-Impressionist color theory..."

"The Neo-Impressionists" according to Maurice Denis, "inaugurated a vision, a technique, and esthetic based on the recent discoveries of physics, on a scientific conception of the world and of life."

In 1904-05 Henri Poincaré discovered a graphical tool for visualizing different types of polarized light (known as Poincaré sphere). The Poincaré homology sphere, also called Poincaré dodecahedral space, is a particular example of a homology sphere. Being a spherical 3-manifold, it is the only homology 3-sphere, besides the 3-sphere itself, with a finite fundamental group. While it is not known the extent to which such discoveries influenced Metzinger's representation of the radiating sun in Coucher de soleil no. 1, his interest and prowess in mathematics is well documented.

Related works

See also
 List of works by Jean Metzinger

References

External links
 Jean Metzinger Catalogue Raisonné entry page for Coucher de soleil no. 1
 Jean Metzinger: Divisionism, Cubism, Neoclassicism and Post-Cubism
 Agence Photographique de la Réunion des musées nationaux et du Grand Palais des Champs-Elysées

Paintings by Jean Metzinger
1905 paintings
1906 paintings
Landscape paintings
Collections of the Kröller-Müller Museum
Nude art
Water in art
Sun in art

Coucher de soleil no. 1


Stuart Ford (born 20 July 1971) is an English former professional football goalkeeper.

He started his career as an apprentice at Rotherham United in June 1987. He spent five years at Rotherham, but made just five league appearances. Despite serving a promising apprenticeship and helping the club win the Northern Intermediate Cup, he failed to dislodge Kelham O'Hanlon and then Billy Mercer as the number one keeper. After a successful loan spell at Scarborough FC at the end of 1991–92 season, he signed a one-year contract with the Seadogs, where he fought for the starting position with Mark Evans.

Scarborough's highlight of the 1992–93 season was a League Cup run, which included victories over Bradford City, Coventry City, Plymouth Argyle, before going out to a Nigel Winterburn goal against Arsenal. At the end of that season he was released by Scarborough, but Ford was signed by Doncaster Rovers to be understudy to Andy Beasley. After playing a handful of games at Rovers, Ford moved back to Scarborough, but after an injury plagued season and only a few first team appearances he was to find himself without a contract at a professional club in 1995.

In August 1995 he signed for non-league Gresley Rovers where he stayed for 5 years, helping them win the Southern League Championship. Due to ground grading Gresley could not take a place in the Conference. After winning many personal honours and establishing himself as a firm crowd favourite, he eventually moved on to Hednesford Town, Ilkeston Town and Alfreton Town, before finishing his career at AFC Barnsley. Ford helped them to promotion in his first season, losing just one league game and conceding just 18 goals.

In 2011, Ford launched a range of retro goalkeeping gloves.

References

External links

GresleyFC.com

1971 births
Living people
Footballers from Sheffield
English men's footballers
Men's association football goalkeepers
Rotherham United F.C. players
Scarborough F.C. players
English Football League players
People educated at Firth Park Academy

Stuart Ford (footballer)


"The Evil Queen" is the 20th episode of the second season of the American ABC fantasy/drama television series Once Upon a Time, and the show's 42nd episode overall. It aired on April 28, 2013.

In this episode, Hook helps Regina find a way to get her and Henry to the Enchanted Forest; and Emma and Henry investigate Tamara. In flashbacks, the Evil Queen goes undercover to kill Snow White.

The episode was written by Christine Boylan & Jane Espenson and directed by Gwyneth Horder-Payton.

Plot

Opening Sequence
The Evil Queen's fortress appears in the forest.

Event Chronology
The Enchanted Forest events take place after "Child of the Moon" and before "Ariel". The Storybrooke events take place after "Lacey".

In the Characters' Past
In the Enchanted Forest, Queen Regina (Lana Parrilla) searches for the fugitive Snow White (Ginnifer Goodwin) and finds that Snow has recently left a village. Regina offers the villagers gold for information on Snow, whom she denounces as the murderer of Leopold, but they remain silent. Regina orders all the villagers killed. She meets with Rumplestiltstkin, asking to learn Cora's shape-shifting spell. He tells her it would take too long to teach it, instead offering to cast it on her himself, in exchange for her cutting off trade with King George's kingdom in order to bankrupt him. She agrees and is transformed into an inconspicuous peasant. She will be unable to use her own magic while under the spell, but she plans to get close enough to Snow White to murder her with her own hands, and then cast herself as a hero instead of the "Evil Queen" her subjects call her.

In a marketplace, Regina is unable to contain her anger at seeing the public defacement of an effigy of herself; blamed for the crime and mocked as a madwoman when she proclaims herself the queen, guards take her to be beheaded. Snow White appears and rescues her from the chopping block, taking her to a forest hideout to nurse her injuries. Regina asks why Snow, a known fugitive, would risk her own life to help her, a stranger. Snow explains that a stranger saved her life when she was a little girl on a runaway horse, and that two people can form a true connection through kindness. At Regina's prompting, Snow also speaks of Regina as they move within the forest, saying that if Regina were truly repentant and wanted to be a family, Snow could forgive her for sending the Huntsman after her. But when they come to the massacred village, Snow declares that there is no good in Regina and her crimes are unforgivable. Regina reminds Snow that Regina saved her from the horse, a connection Snow never revealed, leading Snow to recognize Regina. Snow nocks an arrow but does not shoot as Regina flees. Regina comes to the palace of Rumplestiltskin, who has repeatedly ignored her verbal summons. He forces her to acknowledge that neither Snow nor the people will ever accept her, then restores her appearance.  She embraces her identity as the "Evil Queen."

In Storybrooke
At the library clock tower, Greg (Ethan Embry) and Tamara (Sonequa Martin-Green) remove Hook's (Colin O'Donoghue) hood, begin their plot to take magic from Storybrooke, and look for Greg's father. The outsiders offer Hook a chance to help them, but Hook says that he already succeeded in his mission in killing Rumplestiltskin. But the two show Hook that his mission failed by giving him his telescope to show him that Mr. Gold and Lacey are still alive. Hook reluctantly gives in to their demands. At the same time, at the docks, David (Josh Dallas) and Mary Margaret discuss what to do about Regina, knowing that every time they tried to trust her she kept breaking those promises, unaware that Regina, posing as a fisherman, is hearing the conversation and vows that she will not be locked away. The following morning, Regina approaches Henry at the park and tries to manipulate him into believing that his family is about to take him away from her by showing off the magic beans that would transport them back to the Enchanted Forest. However, when Regina tells Henry that she plans to solve the problem by unleashing a fail-safe trigger that would wipe out Storybrooke, Henry tells Regina that she has not changed. Before he can warn the family, Regina takes out her book of spells and gives him a short-term memory block to make him forget about the conversation and they start over as if nothing happened.

Meanwhile, at Granny's Diner, Emma Swan bumps into Tamara moments after she picks up sandwiches for her and Neal/Baelfire (Michael Raymond-James). As Emma helps her, she notices Tamara has a list of Storybrooke residents and their true identities. Tamara is quick to pick it up but assures Emma that she won't reveal the truth about Storybrooke. Emma deduces that Tamara is the "she" that August warned her about, but when she runs this by Mary Margaret, her mother  dismisses it as Emma's jealousy towards Tamara because Emma might have feelings for Neal. Mary Margaret warns Emma if Henry finds out, he will want to reunite his parents, so she tells Emma not to worry about it until she has proof. However, Henry heard everything and now wants to tag along with Emma and restart Operation Cobra. At the Inn, the two stake out the place until Neal and Tamara leave so Emma can snoop with Henry as a lookout. Inside, she checks the room until she notices a creaking sound on the floor, only to have Neal return to discover Emma trying to pry the floor open. Emma insists Tamara is not to be trusted, but the floorboard reveals nothing. She tells Neal that Tamara has a list of Storybrooke residents; however, Neal tells Emma that he gave Tamara the list so she can tell who's who in town. Emma and Henry believe that Tamara might be planning something, but Henry thinks that Neal and Emma should get back together and brings up the subject of the magic beans to Emma. When Mary Margaret, David, and Leroy arrive at the bean field, they discover the crop was burned, leading to speculation that someone found out at the last moment.

At the Mayor's office, Hook shows up to warn Regina about Greg and Tamara, and that he was offered a deal to help them take magic from Storybrooke, but tells Regina that he can help her by betraying the outsiders, reminding her how loyal he was to Cora, who he learns has died. Regina agrees to this alliance and explains that the curse has a fail-safe trigger that will wipe Storybrooke off the map and retrieving the device would be the only way to take Henry with her now that she has found out about the magic beans. As the two venture down the library's elevator for what Regina reveals to Hook was a two-man operation, Regina notices Hook wearing Cora's arm brace and demands that he give it to her, and he does. When they reach the bottom, Regina tells Hook that this task requires a distraction, so she pushes Hook down into the lair to face a wraith-like Maleficent while Regina heads to Snow White's coffin to pick up a black diamond. As Regina returns to the top of the library, she is shocked to see Hook is there as she hands over the diamond. Regina has been betrayed by Hook, since he had been allied with Greg and Tamara all along. Regina also discovers that she cannot use her powers, as the leather cuff Hook gave her and placed on her left wrist renders her powers useless. As Tamara takes out her list of Storybrooke residents and identities, Greg tells her that Regina is the "Evil Queen" before they bag her.

Production
"The Evil Queen" was co-written by Christine Boylan & Jane Espenson, while Gwyneth Horder-Payton served as the episode's director.

Cultural references
Disney references in this episode point to "Sleeping Beauty" and "Snow White." As Queen Regina, dressed in peasant garb, walks among her subjects, she discovers how unpopular a queen she is. This plot is similar to Mark Twain's "The Prince and the Pauper" where Prince Edward changes places and social status with peasant Tom Canty.

When changing Regina back into the Queen, Rumpelstiltskin says, "So sad, so true," a reference to the song "Poor Unfortunate Souls" sung by Ursula in "The Little Mermaid."

Reception

Ratings
The outing saw a slight decrease in the ratings, placing 2.0/6 among 18-49s with 7.16 million viewers tuning in, making it the lowest rated episode of the series to date with adults 18-49.

Reviews
The episode received mixed reviews from critics.

Hilary Busis from Entertainment Weekly gave it positive remarks: "How do you solve a problem like Regina? Don't get me wrong: Lana Parrilla certainly brings her A-game to Once week after week, and layered anti-heroes are certainly more interesting than one-dimensional, purely eeeevil villains. Plus, anyone who presumably has an entire closet filled with tiny hats will always be capable (and worthy) of our attention. But even though Once's writers have tried to cast Regina in a more sympathetic light this season, it has been and continues to be mighty difficult to empathize with a character who takes several leaps backwards every time she takes a single, halting step toward redemption -- no matter how much of a witch her mother was."

Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club gave a very negative review, giving the episode a D+ and stating: "It's been a while since Once Upon A Time had an episode quite as bad as this one, which combines a gross abuse of magic with far-fetched plot developments and incredibly repetitive storytelling. Dear god, how many variations of Regina hunting down Snow White are we going to see on this show?"

References

External links

2013 American television episodes
Once Upon a Time (season 2) episodes
Television episodes directed by Gwyneth Horder-Payton

The Evil Queen (Once Upon a Time)


Philippe du Contant de La Molette (1737–1793) was a French theologian and biblical scholar.

He was born at La Côte-Saint-André, in Dauphiné, France, 29 August 1737. He studied at the Sorbonne, and, in 1765, defended a thesis on Job, in six languages. Louis XV was so well pleased that he allowed him to pass the examinations for the licentiate without the required delays, a privilege, however, which de la Molette did not use. Later on, he became Vicar-General of the diocese of Vienne, France.

As a biblical author, he shows great erudition and is well versed in the Oriental languages, but he lacked originality, and his criticism is often misleading. His works, all published in Paris, are the following. Essai sur l'Ecriture Sainte, ou Tableau historique des avantages que l'on peut tirer des langues orientales pour la parfaite intelligence des Livres Saints (1775); Nouvelle méthode pour entrer dans le vrai sens de l'Ecriture sainte (1777); La Genèse expliquée d'après les textes primitifs, etc. (1777), 3 vols., a work intended especially as a refutation of Voltaire; L'Exode expliqué, 3 vols. (1780); the thesis that he had defended in 1765 is printed in the beginning of this work; Les Psaumes expliqués, etc., 3 vols. (1781); Traité sur la poésie et la musique des Hébreux (1781), a continuation of the preceding; Le Lévitique expliqué, 2 vols. (1785). He had also done considerable work as a preparation for a Nouvelle Bible polyglotte, but it is doubtful whether he ever published it.

He died on the scaffold during the Reign of Terror in 1793.

References

1737 births
1793 deaths
18th-century French Catholic theologians
French scholars
University of Paris alumni

Philippe du Contant de la Molette


Jason William Briggs (June 25, 1821 – January 11, 1899) was a leader in the early history of the Latter Day Saint movement and was instrumental in bringing about the 1860 "Reorganization" of the church, which resulted in the establishment of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints.

Early membership
Briggs was born on June 25, 1821, in Pompey, New York, to Hugh Lackey Briggs and Polly Briggs (née Damon). In 1841 at Potosi, Wisconsin, he was baptized into the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints by William O. Clark. By 1842, Briggs had been ordained an elder of the church and he organized and became the head of a branch in Beloit, Wisconsin. By 1843, Briggs had organized a second branch in Waukesha, Wisconsin.

In 1844, the movement's founder, Joseph Smith, was killed and a succession crisis ensued. Brigham Young, president of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, assumed control of the church's headquarters in Nauvoo, Illinois. Briggs became convinced that Young's organization had fallen into apostasy and by 1846 he and his branches affiliated with James J. Strang, who had organized a new church headquarters in nearby Voree, Wisconsin.

Briggs was a fervent opponent of polygamy, and when Strang began to practice plural marriage openly, Briggs broke with his organization. He affiliated briefly with William Smith's organization of the church before learning that William, too, had been practicing plural marriage.

"New Organization"
After these set-backs, Briggs despaired that the Latter Day Saint movement had irrevocably fallen into iniquity. He later reported that on November 18, 1851, on the prairie near Beloit, he was pondering this concern when the "Spirit of the Lord" came upon him and spoke, saying:
Verily, verily, saith the Lord, even Jesus Christ unto his servant, Jason W. Briggs, concerning the church: Behold I have not cast off my people; neither have I changed in regard to Zion. Yea, verily, my people shall be redeemed, and my law shall be kept which I revealed unto my servant Joseph Smith...

According to Briggs, the Lord further explained that "in mine own due time will I call upon the seed of Joseph Smith," (i.e., one of his sons), "and will bring one forth, and he shall be mighty and strong, and he shall preside over the high priesthood of my Church...". And finally, Briggs said the Lord assured him "that which ye received as my celestial law," (i.e., plural marriage), "is not of me, but is the doctrine of Baalam."

After reporting that he received this guidance, Briggs began to coordinate with leaders of branches in Wisconsin and Illinois, including Zenas H. Gurley Sr. who resolved with him to wait for a leader to be raised up "from the seed of Joseph." They began to establish a "New Organization" of the church and Briggs was called to preside over its first conference on June 12, 1852, in Beloit. In 1853, Briggs was called as an apostle and sustained as President of the Quorum of the Twelve and as the "Representative President of the Church."

Important leaders, including William Marks and Aaron Smith (former leader of a Strangite schismatic group), joined the movement.

On April 6, 1860, at a General Conference of the New Organization of the church in Amboy, Illinois, Joseph Smith III joined with the group and was sustained to follow in his father's role as President of the Church.

Disagreements and disfellowship
By 1885, Briggs was out of harmony with Joseph Smith III. Briggs was theological liberal and was aware of "higher criticism" of the Bible being taught at the time in German universities. Like these German scholars, Briggs believed that scripture was contextually understood and that revelation was never a final process, but progressively revealed over time. Such views angered more conservative members. Briggs also attacked the idea of the pre-existence of souls, then a cherished doctrine; he also questioned whether the church should again attempt a gathered community due to the disastrous results in Joseph Smith's lifetime. While many of Joseph Smith III's actual positions mirrored Briggs's thoughts, Briggs presented them more stridently than Smith ever did. Furthermore, Briggs angered Joseph Smith III by his constant reminders that Joseph Smith had practiced polygamy, contrary to what Joseph Smith III believed. In addition, Briggs sparred with Smith over who should be allowed to print their views in the RLDS periodical, the True Latter Day Saints' Herald.  At the 1885 RLDS conference, Briggs was not sustained in his position as Apostle and in 1886 he withdrew from the Reorganization. Briggs died on January 11, 1899, near Denver, Colorado.

See also
Edmund C. Briggs

Notes

References

External links

1821 births
1899 deaths
American Latter Day Saint missionaries
American leaders of the Community of Christ
Apostles of the Community of Christ
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) members
Community of Christ missionaries
Doctrine and Covenants people
Latter Day Saint missionaries in the United States
People from Grant County, Wisconsin
People from Pompey, New York
Presidents of the Council of Twelve Apostles (Community of Christ)

Jason W. Briggs


Spin welding (also called thermal welding) is a technique used to model thermoplastic materials. The material is remodelled by using enough friction to make it so the material will be heated so much that is able to change its shape or have something attached to it. This is done by using a lathe, drill press or milling machine.

Construction
Technology

Spin welding


The semicollared flycatcher (Ficedula semitorquata) is a small passerine bird in the Old World flycatcher family, one of the four species of Western Palearctic black-and-white flycatchers. It breeds in montane forests of the southeastern corner of Europe (Balkan Peninsula) to Northwest Iran. It is migratory, wintering in Central and Eastern Africa. It is a rare vagrant in western Europe. Tracking studies using geolocators have revealed that weather conditions during spring migration can have a large impact on the timing of Semicollared flycatcher migration and survival of adult birds.

This is a 12–13.5 cm long bird, intermediate in appearance between collared flycatcher and European pied flycatcher. It has often been classed as a subspecies of collared flycatcher.

The breeding male is mainly black above and white below, with a white half-collar, extending further back than in pied, large white wing patch, extensively white tail sides and a large white forehead patch. It has a pale grey rump. The bill is black and has the broad but pointed shape typical of aerial insectivores. It mainly takes insects in flight, rarely hunting caterpillars amongst the tree foliage like pied flycatcher.

Non-breeding male, females and juvenile semi-collared flycatchers have the black replaced by a pale brown, and may be very difficult to distinguish from other  Ficedula flycatchers, particularly the collared flycatcher. A distinction is that semicollared may show a white second wing bar, but many individuals are not separable in the field.

Semicollared flycatchers are birds of belts of deciduous woodlands, especially oak and hornbeam, in mountainous areas. They build an open nest in a native tree-holes and old nests of woodpeckers, also the species can occupy nest-boxes. The clutch size is 4-7 eggs. The song is again intermediate between collared and pied flycatchers, with slow strained whistles, but some rhythmic elements.

References

External links
  Semi-collared Flycatcher in Armenia, Armenian Bird Census Council

semicollared flycatcher
Birds of Europe
Birds of West Asia
semicollared flycatcher

Semicollared flycatcher


Toormina is a suburb in the City of Coffs Harbour, on the east coast of New South Wales, Australia.  Located in the city's south, Toormina is near the seaside suburb of Sawtell.

History

The suburb was developed in the 1980s by Mr Patrick Hargraves, a local landowner who owned a large amount of land within the Coffs Harbour and Sawtell area. Hargraves holidayed in Sawtell with his family annually for Christmas during the 1960s and says that he ″saw the opportunity for expansion in new subdivisions to the west of the existing centre and slowly bought the land that now is Toormina″.

The suburb's name ′Toormina′ was inspired by local residents. Some of Hargraves′ clients, who were Italian residents living in the area, suggested the name Taormina based on the famous resort area in Sicily, Italy. Hargraves decided that the name sounded better without the ′a′ and changed the name to Toormina.

The suburb is connected to Coffs Harbour by Hogbin Drive, commonly referred to as the Link Road, and is serviced by Sawtell Coaches and Busways. During the subdivision of the land along Hogbin Drive, which was involved in the development of Toormina, Hargraves agreed to a land swap with the Coffs Harbour and District RSL for the Coffs Harbour Education Campus and also donated land for the Coffs Harbour Catholic High School, St. John Paul College.

Schools

The area's education is covered by Toormina High School, Toormina Primary School and (Bayldon) Primary School, and a number of independent schools including the Catholic Primary School Mary Help of Christians.

Toormina Gardens

A local shopping centre, Toormina Gardens, was built in the 1980s to service the growing population in south Coffs Harbour. Situated off Toormina road, the centre was bought in 2001 by Centro Properties Group and renamed Centro Toormina.  In April 2007 the Coffs Harbour City Council approved a A$20 million redevelopment of the centre that would incorporate a Kmart Australia discount department store, in with the existing supermarkets run by Coles and Woolworths, and specialty stores including Man to Man Menswear, Michael Hill Jewellers, & Sanity Music. Major work on the redevelopment, which included the suburb's first set of traffic lights, was completed by November 2008 by Mainbrace Constructions, with the grand re-opening for Centro Toormina on the 27th. Centro was sold in 2013 and renamed back to its original name Toormina Gardens. Supermarket chain Aldi built its stand alone shopping complex next to Toormina Gardens and began its operations in late 2013.

Other

Clint Greenshields, a former player for St George Illawarra Dragons, in the NRL, came from Toormina. He previously played in France for the Catalans Dragons from 2007 until 2012 where he switched to the NRL for the QLD Cowboys.
Other town facilities include a velodrome, skate park and a well maintained BMX track that regularly hosts state championships.

References

Mid North Coast
Towns in New South Wales
Suburbs of Coffs Harbour

Toormina, New South Wales


, or  (English: arrhae, wedding tokens, or unity coins)  are wedding paraphernalia used in Christian wedding ceremonies in Spain, Latin American countries, and the Philippines. The tradition is also followed, with varying names and customs, in other countries and communities bearing degrees of Hispanic influence. Traditionally, in Spain and Latin America, it is made up of thirteen gold coins presented in an ornate box or chest; in the Philippines, it is in an ornate basket or pouch. After being blessed by a priest, they are given or presented by the groom to the bride.

Origins and representation
The word arras is Spanish, meaning "earnest money" (arrhae, plural of ), "bride price", or "bride wealth".  The custom of using coins in weddings can be traced to a number of places, including Spain and Rome. The book An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies claims that origin of arras was from gold rings or coins in Visigothic law, whereas the Sex and Society claims the practice emerged from Frankish marriage ceremonies.
  The ancient Roman custom includes the act of breaking gold or silver equally into two pieces.  This signifies the promise to marry by two individuals.  The Spanish tradition of Mozarabic origin does not include treating the set of coins as a representation of the bridal dowry or a way of hastening prosperity.

As to the number, the thirteen coins placed inside the decorated boxes, pouches, or trays represent the twelve months of the year and the poor (the thirteenth). Perhaps trying to make sense of it all, Reynolds & Witte wrote that the Franks during their weddings gave 13 pennies while the Spanish gave coins or some sort of marriage gift. These two practices then merged in the 11th century.

The thirteen coins today have the alternative meaning of Jesus and the twelve apostles.  The exchange of the coins represents the groom's promise to provide for his family and the bride's trust in his ability to do so.

In Filipino and Hispanic weddings, an "arrhae-bearer" or "coin-bearer" is included as a second page in the entourage, in addition to the ring bearer. Unlike the ring bearer, however, he carries the actual arrhae in its case on a cushion.

This optional Hispanic rite and its Spanish text was approved by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops in 2010. In September 2016, an English language version was approved and placed in the English Order of Celebrating Matrimony, along with the wedding cord.

Other usage
Depending on the culture in which this tradition is followed, the tradition of  may be used on different occasions, although it is rare in most Hispanic countries. They may be used for quinceañeras, debutante balls for young ladies, and at bat mitzvahs.

In 1833 Balzac wrote (Eugénie Grandet):

The "marriage dozen" is an old custom sacredly preserved and still in force in many parts of central France. In Berry and in Anjou, when a young girl marries, her family, or that of the husband, must give her a purse, in which they place, according to their means, twelve pieces, or twelve dozen pieces, or twelve hundred pieces of gold. The poorest shepherd-girl never marries without her dozen, be it only a dozen coppers. They still tell in Issoudun of a certain "dozen" presented to a rich heiress, which contained a hundred and forty-four portugaises d'or. Pope Clement VII., uncle of Catherine de' Medici, gave her when he married her to Henri II. a dozen antique gold medals of priceless value.

Other definitions
In legal terminology, an  is a civil law contract.  Legally, it could also mean money or items with value given by a buyer to a vendor.  The purpose of giving such a payment is to provide an evidence of "contract earnest". It is usually part of a pre-contract.

References

Bibliography
 - Total pages: 1521

 - Total pages: 519
 - Total pages: 916

Wedding objects
Token coins
Arras, Las
Culture of Spain
Mexican culture
Marriage in the Catholic Church
Marriage in Spain

Las arras


Star Trek: The Next Generation Interactive VCR Board Game – A Klingon Challenge is a video board game created by Decipher, Inc., published by Milton Bradley in 1993. Based on the American science fiction television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, the game is set in the Star Trek universe, specifically on the USS Enterprise-D starship. The game utilizes a video tape that runs constantly while users play the board game portion. Events on the video tape combine with board game play to determine whether users win or lose the game. The video itself was directed by Les Landau and contains original footage filmed on the actual Star Trek: The Next Generation sets at Paramount Studios.

The Klingon character (Kavok) is played by actor Robert O'Reilly, who is famous for his role on the series as Gowron, chancellor of the Klingon High Council. Jonathan Frakes contributes to the game by reprising his role as William Riker and narrating the beginning of the videotape via log entry. This log entry sets the stage for the game play and subsequent events.

The game was originally released in 1993 with "limited edition" white box packaging but later releases had "general edition" black box packaging with updated graphics and flavor text.

The game takes about 1 hour to play and required a VCR with a television, while the players also have a board and must roll dice and draw cards.

Casting
The game features video segments that are played at certain times, and these segments have actors playing Star Trek characters. This includes:

 Jonathan Frakes as William Riker narrates a voiceover log entry at the beginning of the game.
 Robert O'Reilly as Kavok

Plot
The USS Enterprise-D has docked at Starbase 74 to undergo repairs to a damaged computer core that has been causing low-level malfunctions. The ship is practically empty, because Captain Jean-Luc Picard has granted shore leave to all personnel. The only people on the ship are the Starbase engineering team (the players) assigned to repairs.

Before the repairs are complete, Kavok, a Klingon who believes the Federation–Klingon alliance has made the Klingon Empire weak, hijacks the Enterprise and sets a course for the Klingon homeworld (Qo'noS), where he plans on using the Enterprise to start a war between the two space-faring powers.

The objective of the game is to regain control of the Enterprise and stop Kavok's plan. To do so, players will need to secure access to five levels of the main computer, obtain a phaser from Security, and successfully crawl down a Jeffries tube to access the Bridge, all within the 60 minutes before the ship reaches the Klingon home world.

There are multiple events in the videotape which affect game play, and once the countdown clock hits 00:00, the ship reaches Qo'noS and is attacked by Klingon ships stationed there. The Enterprise manages to destroy one Bird of Prey before the Klingons hit the Enterprises nacelle, destroying Enterprise, igniting a war and ending the game in defeat.

Box contents and flavor text

Game box contents
1 60-minute VHS tape, 1 game board, 6 Tricorders, 6 phasers, 56 Computer Access cards, 12 Holodeck cards, 12 Klingon bIj cards, 6 male playing pieces, 6 female playing pieces, 6 plastic stands, 30 Isolinear chips, 6 Federation rank tokens, 4 Bridge tokens, 2 stasis fields, 1 die, 1 plastic spinner with base, 1 sticker sheet with 18 communicators, 36 Federation rank pins, 1 spinner sticker, and 4 Medals of Valor.

Reception
The A.V. Club notes that, in the 1980s and 1990s, VCR-based games came closer to offering audiences "immersive, interactive audio-visual experience" in a novel way. This title is noted for Robert O'Reilly playing a disgruntled Klingon that demands a response from players.

Rob Wieland of Game & Sundry called it "surreal" to see Robert O'Reilly cast as a Klingon other than Gowron in the video segments. He described the game as a "pretty basic board game", but said the video is a "campy delight" for fans.

References

External links

 Review at RPG.net
 Did You Ever Take "A Klingon Challenge"? by Maria Jose and John Tenuto  May 17, 2016

Board games introduced in 1993
Board games based on Star Trek
Cooperative board games
Decipher, Inc. games
Video board games
Television episodes directed by Les Landau
Star Trek: The Next Generation


Robert H. Shaffer (September 13, 1915 – April 21, 2017) was an American pioneer in the field of college student personnel and student affairs. His work spanned the course of four decades ( 1940–1981), which can be characterized as a period of "incredible growth and social and political change in American Society."

Believing that those who enter the field of student affairs must be "human development experts," not simply administrators and bureaucrats, it was said that "his own understanding of human development...enabled him to have so great an impact on both the students he served as dean and those entering his field."

Early life
Shaffer was born in 1915 in Delphi, Indiana. As a member of the Boy Scouts of America, Shaffer earned the Eagle Scout, Silver Beaver, and Distinguished Eagle Awards. He graduated from Mishawaka High School in 1932. Shaffer was awarded a Rector scholarship in 1932 to attend DePauw University, where he was back-up Quarterback on the 1933 football team, which for the season was unbeaten, untied, and unscored upon. At DePauw he was active in the Sigma Chi fraternity as well as President of the Interfraternity Council.  He was also founding President of DePauw's chapter of Alpha Phi Omega, a national service fraternity.  For his later work with fraternities, Shaffer was recognized by a number of individual fraternities, as well as with the Silver Medal Award from the National Interfraternity Conference and a special award from the Fraternity Executives Association.  Eventually, he would have the honor of becoming a Significant Sig. Shaffer graduated from DePauw with a degree in social science in 1936. After graduating, Shaffer moved to New York City and became the assistant to the director of personnel Boy Scouts of America.

Shaffer received his master's degree from Teachers College, Columbia University, in 1940. He then enrolled in the doctoral program at New York University, from which he received the Ph.D. degree in 1945. He met Marjorie Jane Fitch at the International House in New York City and they married in 1940.  In 1941 Shaffer took his first student affairs position as an assistant to the dean of the school of business at Indiana University.

Shaffer's academic career was interrupted with service in the US Army from 1943 to 1945.  After basic and specialized training, he served in a Replacement Depot in Hawaii as a classification specialist.  From there he was returned to the US for Officer Training School and was assigned to labor relations work at the Boston Port of Embarkation.  Upon returning to Indiana University in 1945, Shaffer was named Assistant Dean of Students and director of the Veteran's Guidance Center.

Career
Early on at Indiana, Shaffer had a wide variety of experiences. He worked with students in regards to health, housing, financial aid and academic issues. Shaffer worked with several associations of professional student affairs workers. In 1948 Shaffer was elected secretary of the American College Personnel Association (ACPA). In 1951 Shaffer was elected the first president of the newly formed American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA), the forerunner of the present American Counseling Association.

Shaffer worked as dean of students at Indiana from 1955 until 1969. Shaffer proposed a successful student affairs research office as well as a faculty associate program at Indiana University. The faculty associate program is a way to encourage faculty involvement with resident student life. Shaffer spent much of his personal time working with international students. His commitment to issues related to international students lead him to work in Thailand, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia and Malaysia. His numerous publications are landmarks in the field of student affairs, and throughout his career he has been a consultant to national educational and government organizations.

In 1956 Shaffer organized the student affairs division by function rather than by gender. This controversial approach allowed for the founding of various departments, such as residence life, orientation, financial aid, counseling, career placement and student health. Through the Vietnam War, the Civil Rights Movement, and the student protests surrounding these and many other issues, Shaffer engaged student concerns in ways that earned him the respect of both students and faculty. In recognition of his work he received honorary doctorate degrees from both DePauw and Indiana University. Another innovation by Shaffer was his creation of an extern program for student affairs graduate students. Students gain practical experience and gave them access to an environment to apply what was being learned in the classroom.

Shaffer went on to serve as an editor of the NASPA Journal in the late 1960s. After leaving his administrative post in 1969, Shaffer became chairman of the Department of College Student Personnel Administration. He would retire from that post in 1981.  His first wife having died in 1987, Shaffer remarried in 1989 and lived with his second wife, Joye Coy Shaffer in New Smyrna Beach, Florida until his death. He turned 100 in September 2015 and died on  April 21, 2017 at the age of 101.

References

Bibliography
Kirby, A. F.,& Woodard, D. . Career Perspectives in Student Affairs. Monograph Series, Volume 1. 1984-01-00

External links
2006 article by Robert H. Shaffer

1915 births
2017 deaths
Teachers College, Columbia University alumni
New York University alumni
DePauw University alumni
Indiana University faculty
People from Delphi, Indiana
American centenarians
Men centenarians

Robert H. Shaffer


The theory of quantum error correction plays a prominent role in the practical realization and engineering of
quantum computing and quantum communication devices. The first quantum
error-correcting codes  are strikingly similar to classical block codes  in their
operation and performance. Quantum error-correcting codes restore a noisy,
decohered quantum state to a pure quantum state. A
stabilizer quantum error-correcting code appends ancilla qubits
to qubits that we want to protect. A unitary encoding circuit rotates the
global state into a subspace of a larger Hilbert space. This highly entangled,
encoded state corrects for local noisy errors. A quantum error-correcting code makes quantum computation
and quantum communication practical by providing a way for a sender and
receiver to simulate a noiseless qubit channel given a noisy qubit channel
whose noise conforms to a particular error model.

The stabilizer theory of quantum error correction allows one to import some
classical binary or quaternary codes for use as a quantum code. However, when importing the
classical code, it must satisfy the dual-containing (or self-orthogonality)
constraint. Researchers have found many examples of classical codes satisfying
this constraint, but most classical codes do not. Nevertheless, it is still useful to import classical codes in this way (though, see how the entanglement-assisted stabilizer formalism overcomes this difficulty).

Mathematical background

The stabilizer formalism exploits elements of
the Pauli group  in formulating quantum error-correcting codes. The set
 consists of the Pauli operators:

The above operators act on a single qubit – a state represented by a vector in a two-dimensional
Hilbert space. Operators in  have eigenvalues  and either commute
or anti-commute. The set  consists of -fold tensor products of
Pauli operators:

Elements of  act on a quantum register of  qubits. We
occasionally omit tensor product symbols in what follows so that

The -fold Pauli group
 plays an important role for both the encoding circuit and the
error-correction procedure of a quantum stabilizer code over  qubits.

Definition

Let us define an  stabilizer quantum error-correcting
code to encode  logical qubits into  physical qubits. The rate of such a
code is . Its stabilizer  is an abelian subgroup of the
-fold Pauli group .
does not contain the operator . The simultaneous
-eigenspace of the operators constitutes the codespace. The
codespace has dimension  so that we can encode  qubits into it. The
stabilizer  has a minimal representation in terms of
independent generators

The generators are
independent in the sense that none of them is a product of any other two (up
to a global phase). The operators  function in the same
way as a parity check matrix does for a classical linear block code.

Stabilizer error-correction conditions

One of the fundamental notions in quantum error correction theory is that it
suffices to correct a discrete error set with support in the Pauli group
. Suppose that the errors affecting an
encoded quantum state are a subset  of the Pauli group :

Because  and  are both subsets of  , an error  that affects an
encoded quantum state either commutes or anticommutes with any particular
element  in . The error  is correctable if it
anticommutes with an element  in . An anticommuting error
 is detectable by measuring each element  in  and
computing a syndrome  identifying . The syndrome is a binary
vector  with length  whose elements identify whether the
error  commutes or anticommutes with each . An error
 that commutes with every element  in  is correctable if
and only if it is in . It corrupts the encoded state if it
commutes with every element of  but does not lie in . So we compactly summarize the stabilizer error-correcting conditions: a
stabilizer code can correct any errors  in  if

or

where  is the centralizer of  (i.e., the subgroup of elements that commute with all members of , also known as the commutant).

Simple example of a stabilizer code
A simple example of a stabilizer code is a three qubit
 stabilizer code. It encodes  logical qubit
into  physical qubits and protects against a single-bit flip
error in the set .  This does not protect against other Pauli errors such as phase flip errors in the set .or . This has code distance . Its stabilizer consists of  Pauli operators:

If there are no bit-flip errors, both operators  and   commute, the syndrome is +1,+1, and no errors are detected.

If there is a bit-flip error on the first encoded qubit, operator  will anti-commute and   commute, the syndrome is -1,+1, and the error is detected. If there is a bit-flip error on the second encoded qubit, operator  will anti-commute and   anti-commute, the syndrome is -1,-1, and the error is detected. If there is a bit-flip error on the third encoded qubit, operator  will commute and   anti-commute, the syndrome is +1,-1, and the error is detected.

Example of a stabilizer code

An example of a stabilizer code is the five qubit
 stabilizer code. It encodes  logical qubit
into  physical qubits and protects against an arbitrary single-qubit
error. It has code distance . Its stabilizer consists of  Pauli operators:

The above operators commute. Therefore, the codespace is the simultaneous
+1-eigenspace of the above operators. Suppose a single-qubit error occurs on
the encoded quantum register. A single-qubit error is in the set  where  denotes a Pauli error on qubit .
It is straightforward to verify that any arbitrary single-qubit error has a
unique syndrome. The receiver corrects any single-qubit error by identifying
the syndrome via a parity measurement and applying a corrective operation.

Relation between Pauli group and binary vectors

A simple but useful mapping exists between elements of  and the binary
vector space . This mapping gives a
simplification of quantum error correction theory. It represents quantum codes
with binary vectors and binary operations rather than with Pauli operators and
matrix operations respectively.

We first give the mapping for the one-qubit case. Suppose
is a set of equivalence classes of an operator  that have the same phase:

Let  be the set of phase-free Pauli operators where
.
Define the map  as

Suppose . Let us employ the
shorthand  and  where , , , . For
example, suppose . Then . The
map  induces an isomorphism  because addition of vectors
in  is equivalent to multiplication of
Pauli operators up to a global phase:

Let  denote the symplectic product between two elements :

The symplectic product  gives the commutation relations of elements of
:

The symplectic product and the mapping  thus give a useful way to phrase
Pauli relations in terms of binary algebra.
The extension of the above definitions and mapping  to multiple qubits is
straightforward. Let  denote an
arbitrary element of . We can similarly define the phase-free
-qubit Pauli group  where

The group operation  for the above equivalence class is as follows:

The equivalence class  forms a commutative group
under operation . Consider the -dimensional vector space

It forms the commutative group  with
operation  defined as binary vector addition. We employ the notation
 to represent any vectors
 respectively. Each
vector  and  has elements  and  respectively with
similar representations for  and .
The symplectic product  of  and  is

or

where  and . Let us define a map  as follows:

Let

so that  and  belong to the same
equivalence class:

The map  is an isomorphism for the same
reason given as in the previous case:

where . The symplectic product
captures the commutation relations of any operators  and :

The above binary representation and symplectic algebra are useful in making
the relation between classical linear error correction and quantum error correction more explicit.

By comparing quantum error correcting codes in this language to symplectic vector spaces, we can see the following. A symplectic subspace corresponds to a direct sum of Pauli algebras (i.e., encoded qubits), while an isotropic subspace corresponds to a set of stabilizers.

References

 D. Gottesman, "Stabilizer codes and quantum error correction," quant-ph/9705052, Caltech Ph.D. thesis. https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/9705052

 A. Calderbank, E. Rains, P. Shor, and N. Sloane, "Quantum error correction via codes over GF(4)," IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory, vol. 44, pp. 1369–1387, 1998. Available at https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/9608006

Linear algebra
Quantum computing

Stabilizer code