Edith Ellis (June 1866 – December 27, 1960) (also known as Edith Ellis Baker) was an American actress, director, and playwright. She began her career as a child actress, and then began writing, directing, and producing. Ellis operated several theatres and touring companies throughout her lifetime. She is the author of over thirty-five plays. While not an outspoken feminist, Ellis's work continuously focused on the issues of women. She also developed her own theory on directing, with a focus on the agency of the actor. Numerous times throughout her life, Ellis produced and directed her own writing.

Biography
Ellis was born in Coldwater, Branch County, Michigan. She was the older sister of actor Edward Ellis. Her father, Edward C. Ellis, was a Shakespearean actor who began her career by putting her behind the curtain and on the stage from a very early age. Her first part was at age six, and by ten she was a star.  Three plays were written for her before her twelfth birthday. At fourteen, Ellis fell ill. During this time, she turned her attention to writing plays rather than acting. She married Frank Baker, a theatre manager, in about 1895. They were married until his death in 1907. Their daughter, Ellis Baker, became an actress. Edith later married C. Becher Furness, a Canadian, in 1909.

Career

Director
Ellis began her work as a director with the help of her husband, theatre manager Frank Baker. Ellis and husband  secured and managed the Park Theatre in Brooklyn from 1901 to 1902. Ellis was the primary stage director there and her husband managed the administrative end until the theatre burned down at the end of the 1902 season.

Ellis and Baker then leased the Criterion Theatre, also in Brooklyn, where Ellis continued to direct plays. While there, Ellis formed the Baker Stock Company. According to Ellis, this is when she did the "hardest work of [her] life, playing the leading roles in a new play every week, directing rehearsals, rewriting plays, planning scenery and properties and fairly living in the theatre."  They later moved to the Berkeley Lyceum in New York City where she directed her own play, The Point of View.

In 1907, Frank Baker died. After his death, Ellis took back her maiden name and resumed directing, acting, and writing. Several times Ellis was head of her own stock companies, travelling or stationary, and wrote, produced, directed, and acted in many plays.

In 1908, Ellis acquired the New York Playhouse in Brooklyn. In 1909, Edith Ellis joined the Society of Dramatic Authors, a feminist group for women dramatics. Including members like Rachel Crothers, this group was a way for Ellis to network with other women in the industry.

Playwright
Her first writing attempt was out of necessity, when she and her brother, Edward, were stranded on the road by the unexpected disbanding of their theatrical company.  The play was successful enough to pay their way home.

Ellis' plots typically followed one of three trajectories. All three centered around women's issues.
 The unhappy life of a married woman (Mary Jane's Pa, 1910)
 Women in the workforce (The Point of View, 1903)
 Women above the age of forty (The White Villa, 1921)
Ellis had difficulty in getting some of her plays produced, as in the case of The White Villa. The White Villa is a play about a woman in an unfulfilled marriage who decides to leave her husband. The play ends with the leading woman now living her life alone while her ex-husband has remarried a younger woman.

One male producer liked The White Villa  but wouldn't produce it. Another male reader (who was married to an actress) said that he enjoyed reading the play, but would never let his wife star in it. A third producer claimed that he would produce the play, except that women in the audience would hate the play's truthful narrative, saying "Women won't stand for the truth." Edith Ellis eventually produced the play herself and would self-produce a majority of her works.

In 1936, Ellis began transcribing works about life after death. She said this idea came from a New England farm boy who was killed by a British soldier in 1781.  These works include: Incarnation: A Plea from the Masters, (1936), Open the Door!, (1935), We Knew These Men, (1943) and Love in the Afterlife, (1956)

She also wrote silent film scenarios for Samuel Goldwyn.

Feminism in theatre

In 1909, Ellis joined the Society of Dramatic Authors, a feminist group for women dramatics. Including members like Rachel Crothers, this group was a way for Ellis to network with other women in the industry.

Although Ellis rejected the suffragette title, she was the most vocal directress at the time when it came to her political beliefs concerning women. Ellis's commercial success as a playwright and director meant that she could present productions with feminist narratives. Having never categorized her work as feminist, she was able to present plays that disrupted expectations of gender roles, particularly the notion that women were passively happy in the domestic sphere.

Additionally, most of the plays that Ellis directed were not written by her, but written by other women. Edith Ellis produced women's plays almost exclusively.

Directing theory
Ellis developed a feminist directing theory. In her words: "My methods differ somewhat from those of the men directors. The men like first to put the company through the rough outline of the play, the mechanics as we say, leaving the characterizations to be developed later along with details and business. I prefer to stay 'living' the play from the first and working out the detail as we go slowly along. In this way the sense of reality is created, and the play is already properly colored."

According to Ellis, women biologically made better directors because women had an ability to impart their knowledge to the cast, whereas male directors did not have the inborn emotional inclination or intuition of women. The only advantage that men had as directors, according to Ellis, was their ability to obtain directing positions. To some scholars, this part of her theory is problematic because Ellis attributes differences in gender to biological causes.

A major element of Ellis' directing theory was maintaining an actor's agency regarding character interpretations. According to Ellis, it was crucial that directors not eliminate the intelligence of the actor. As a former actress, Ellis was very familiar with the lowly treatment of actors by their directors. Actresses (female actors) were treated especially poorly by directors, so Ellis made a point to grant actresses agency in her rehearsal and performance space.

Works
A Batch of Blunders, 1897
Mrs. B. O'Shaughnessy (Wash Lady), 1900
Because I Love You, 1903
The Point of View, 1904
Mary and John, 1905
The Wrong Man, 1905
Contrary Mary, 1905
Ben of Broken Bow, 1905
The Swallow, 1906
Mary Jane's Pa, 1906
My Man (with F. Halsey), 1910
He Fell In Love With His Wife, 1910
Seven Sisters, 1912
Partners, 1912
The Love Wager, 1912
Verspers, 1912
Fields of Flax, 1912
The Man Higher Up, 1912
The Amethyst Ring, 1913
Cupid's Ladder, 1915
Make Believe, 1915
Man with the Black Gloves, 1915,
The Devil's Garden, 1915
Making Dick Over, 1916
Mrs. Clancey's Car Ride, with Edward Ells, 1918
Whose Little Bride Are You, 1919
Bravo, Claudia, 1919
Mrs. Jimmie Thompson (with Norman S. Rose), 1920
The White Villa, 1921
Betty's Last Bet, 1921
The Judsons Entertain, 1922
The Illustrious Tartarin, 1922
White Collars, 1924
The Moon and Sixpence, 1924
The Last Chapter (with Edward Ellis), 1930
The Lady of La Paz, 1926

References

Further reading

External links

1866 births
1960 deaths
American women dramatists and playwrights
American stage actresses
19th-century American actresses
20th-century American actresses
19th-century American dramatists and playwrights
19th-century American women writers
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American women writers
People from Coldwater, Michigan
Actresses from Michigan
Writers from Michigan

Edith Ellis (playwright)


Xinjiang Astronomical Observatory (XAO; ) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences was known as Ürümqi Astronomical Observatory before it was renamed in January 2011.

The current research at XAO spans many fields of astronomy. It consists of radio astronomy, optical astronomy and applications of astronomy, especially pulsars, star formation and evolution, galaxies and cosmology, high energy astrophysics, microwave receiver, digital technology, GPS, and so on. The Radio Astrophysics Laboratory of XAO is a member of the radio astronomy key laboratories in the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and has also been awarded the status of Key Laboratory of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. XAO operates the Nanshan site, Kashgar site, Qitai site and other two independent ground stations.

Facilities
The observatory's facilities include the Nanshan Radio Telescope (see List of radio telescopes#Asia), located in Gangou Township, Ürümqi County (). The 25 m, telescope site in Nanshan of XAO is one of the important stations of Very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI). As a crucial research base for pulsar, centimeter wave molecular line and active galactic nuclei research, Nanshan station is also involved and plays an important role in China's Lunar Exploration Program.

Plans also exist for the construction of a large, fully steerable single-dish radio telescope (diameter 110 m), which is called Qitai Radio Telescope, or QTT for short. The chosen site for the facility is in Banjiegou Town, Qitai County. Upon completion, the sensitivity of 110 m antenna is about 20 times more than a 25 m telescope.

On July 15, 2012, the groundbreaking ceremony took place at Banjiegou for the Xinjiang Qitai Astronomical and Science Education Base, which is presumably the facility that will house the telescope.

Programs
XAO has held a wide range of interesting public science popularization since it was set up. Popular science in XAO comprises Star Party for the public, Field Trip for students, Astronomers Get into Campus, free camps for children who live in remote poverty-stricken areas, Open House Day and so on. The results of spreading public science depend not only on our ability but also on our willingness to give.

International collaboration is an important channel for XAO to promote the development of astronomy, astrophysics and other related fields of science. So far, XAO has already established friendly relationship with America, Australia, Netherland, Japan, Germany, England, Italy, Russia, Sweden, Taiwan and Hong Kong. Besides, has also established a good partnership with domestic scientific research institutions as well as universities.

XAO has more than 100 staff, including 87 scientific and technical personnel, 19 management personnel, also hired 2 foreign professor emeritus and experts from well known universities and research institutions as our guest professors.

See also
 List of astronomical observatories

Notes

External links

Astronomical observatories in China
Buildings and structures in Ürümqi
Research institutes of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
Education in Xinjiang

Xinjiang Astronomical Observatory


Nador (Arabic: الناظور or الناضور; Riffian-Berber: ⵏⴰⴷⵓⵔ) is a coastal city and provincial capital in the northeastern Rif region of Morocco with a population of about 161,726 (2014 census).

Nador city is separated from the Mediterranean Sea by a salt lagoon named Rbḥar Ameẓẓyan in Berber (Mar Chica in Spanish) and is  south of the Spanish city of Melilla.

Nador was founded in the 19th century by local Berber tribes and was under Spanish occupation from 1912 until Morocco's independence in 1956.

The Nador Province has over 600,000 inhabitants, predominantly of Rif-Berber ethnicity. Nador is considered the second largest city in the Oriental East after Wejda.

Etymology
The city name originated from the local Berber tribes of Has Nador, which was a small village near the Nador lagoon.

Overview

The economy of Nador and Nador province includes fishery, agriculture, some light and heavy industry.

In the summer months of June to August thousands of people originating from the Nador area and living in Europe return to the city. The total of these annual visitors may exceed 250,000. They mainly stay with relatives or in rented or owned apartments, rather than staying in Nador's hotels.

The location of the city on the Mediterranean coast and proximity of the Spanish town Melilla mean there is significant international trade, particularly evident in the widespread sale of Spanish manufactured foodstuffs and household goods in Nador.

Nador was infamous as a centre of smuggling cheap Spanish and Chinese duty-free goods. Currently the smuggling has declined but it still alive competing with a smuggling stream from Algeria. Many used consumer goods from Europe and China find their way to Morocco and Africa via Melilla and Nador, both legally and illegally. The goods range from conserved food, clothes, shoes, electric home appliances, up to sophisticated hardware.

Demographics

It has recently become a fast-growing city, despite experiencing a population drop with the departure of the Spanish, when the population decreased from 23,000 in the early 1950s to less than 5,000 in 1960. Nador's population grew by 566% between 1960 and 1971, from 4,806 people in 1960 and 32,000 in 1971. Its population has since grown with over 500% once again, to a total estimated population of 200,000 in 2015. Only eight years previously, in 2007, the city had a population of 120,000. 98 percent of the city-population is made up by Riffian-Berbers. The Amazigh culture is dominant and Nador is the largest Tarifit-speaking (one of the Tamazight languages) city in the world. The population density in the city of Nador is many times that of the larger Nador Province.

Geography

Nador is the 19th largest city in Morocco and is the capital of Nador Province in the Oriental Region of northern Morocco. It is located on the Sebkha Bou Areq lagoon on the Mediterranean coastline. The city sprawls along the coast. It is approximately  west of the Algerian border,  south of the Spanish enclave of Melilla, and  east of the Moroccan capital of Rabat. The city center of Nador is largely a grid of streets around the north-south axis of Avenue Hassan II, with the main bus- and taxi stations at its southern end. Avenue Mohammed V runs from the city's waterfront to the city's governmental facilities and town hall on its east end. Mohammed V Boulevard has open plazas and Spanish Iberian-style architecture, particularly seen in the Roman Catholic churches. The administrative city center, main post office, and the Grand Mosque are all located on the Youssef Ben Tachfine Boulevard.

Nature
The salt lagoon off and to the east of the city attract wildlife, especially migratory birds The protected wetlands at Oued Moulouya and Kariat Arekman by the Moulouya River mouth are home to greater pink flamingos, great crested grebes, avocets, black-winged stilts, coots, dunlins, oystercatchers, Audouin's gulls, grey herons, little egrets, spotted redshanks, black-tailed godwits, common redshanks, kingfishers, black terns, and numerous other species of terns and gulls. As well as being a safe haven for birds, this area is frequently visited by locals because of its natural environment. There are major freshwater and saline sites covering large areas of protected sand dunes, marsh- and swampland. Insects include damselflies, Caelifera, and numerous others. The flora includes marram grass, juniper, Cistus, and more.

Climate
Nador has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSh). In winter there is more rainfall than in summer. The average annual temperature in Nador is . About  of precipitation falls annually.

Neighborhoods

Main Nador city quarters and neighbourhoods include:
 Teraqqa'a (حي ترقاع)
 El Khettabi (الخطابي)
 El Kindy (الكندي)
 Laarasi (Laɛraṣi)
 Anafag / Elmatar / New Nador / Ennaḍur Amaynu (الناظور الجديد)
 Laari Shikh (Laɛri n Eccix)
 Ammas n Temdint / Centro / Centre ville (Downtown Nador)
Downtown Nador: a relatively developed area in comparison with the rest of the city. This lies in the centre of the city and was partially developed during the Spanish occupation of northern Morocco.

 Ulad Mimun (Ayt Mimun)
 Isebbanen
 Ichumay (Icumay)
 Aarrid (Ɛarriḍ)
 Ulad Barhim
 Tireqqaâ / Tireqqaɛ
 Ayt Leḥsen
 Erfid / Ibarraqen

Nador transmitter

Near Nador is the transmission site for long- and short-wave Medi 1 Radio which broadcasts to all Maghreb countries.  The aerial masts of Medi 1 Radio for long-wave are approximately  high and are among the tallest human-made structures in Africa.

Transport

A railway linking Nador to Taourirt was opened on 2 July 2009 by king Mohammed VI of Morocco. as part of ONCF's rail projects. Previously, there was a connecting bus link from Taourirt, also operated by railway company ONCF

In addition, several direct bus links operate between Nador and major Moroccan cities. Daily ferry services link Nador Port with Almeria in Spain and a weekly service to Sète in France.

Nador International Airport offers direct flights to Moroccan and European destinations, such as cities in France and Germany, and acts as a second airport for travellers to and from Melilla.

Roads give access to the Fes-Oujda expressway and to nearby Melilla.

Economy

The main two economic industries here are fishing and agriculture. Other types of industrial income are generated from textiles, chemicals, and numerous metallurgical industries. Recently, tourism has also become an important factor for the economy.

Most tourists come from other Moroccan cities, but Nador has also an increasing number of European visitors, some through the international ferry connections to Spain and France. Nador International Airport, in which opened in 1999, also serves numerous European cities, including flights to Amsterdam, Brussels, Frankfurt, Marseille, and Barcelona. The two Nador railway stations connect to the rail network of the country of Morocco. The recent boost in tourism here has inspired ambitious tourism plans for the area, endorsed by King Mohammed VI. With its avenues, palm-lined boulevards and brand new marina, hotels, cafés, banks, shops and restaurants press on to make it suitable for the fast-growing tourism industry.

Nador has experienced a dramatic economic growth in recent years, fueled by traditional industries, such as metallurgy, and by modern ones, i.e. electronics, chemicals, and textiles. Older industries as fishing and agriculture are still the most important income for Nadoris. Beni Enzar, on the edge of Nador, is home to Nador Port, which is one of the most crucial fishing ports on the Mediterranean coast. Nador Port also has modern naval dockyards. Nador's farm land is extremely fertile, and the main agricultural resources are fruits, citrus, and wine-grapes.

Tourism

During the summer months, Nador is visited by hundreds of thousands of Moroccan migrants living in Europe, who are originally from the province or from the city of Nador itself. These summer visitors contribute strongly to the development of the city.

Until early 2008 the city end of the boulevard was formed by the Rif Hotel, but in the spring of 2008 the existing hotel was demolished and the road alongside the boulevard opened and extended. This new road by-passes the city centre and runs directly towards the main roundabout at the entrance of Nador via the road to Tawima. The remaining grounds where the hotel and its facilities were located are being redeveloped into a new hotel complex: after some delay the new development is being built under supervision of Khalid El Adouli. The new Rif complex is being built on the grounds of the former hotel minus the strip of land directly on the coast, as this is now a road and a public boulevard on reclaimed land.

The new hotel will target the high-end tourism market and also cater for business users with congress-facilities. Once re-opened it will offer a discothèque (serving alcoholic beverages) and meeting or party rooms. The hotel itself will offer 110 four-star rooms, including ten suites and also 76 apartment rooms. The budget for the redevelopment of the hotel is 356 million dirham and the total usable floorspace will be .

Just outside Nador a new ecological resort, Abdouna Trifa, is being developed, including holiday homes, a golf course and a marina. The total size of the new resort consists of  built area on a terrain of . This ten-year development plan was started in 2008 by Mohammed VI, the king of Morocco. Both this project as well as the new RIF Hotel are being developed by Compagnie Générale Immobiliere (CGI), part of the CDG Group. When completed, the resort will consist of approx. 1700 "villas", 1300 apartments, a four-star and a five-star hotel. The development also includes a 27-hole golf-track and several other tourist facilities.

Notable people

Achraf Ouchen - professional karateka
Najat Vallaud-Belkacem - politician
Elwalid Mimoun - artist
Khalid izri - artist
Namika - musician
Jamal Benomar - politician
Ahmed Aboutaleb - politician
Selim Amallah - football player

References

Mediterranean port cities and towns in Morocco
Populated places in Nador Province
Municipalities of Morocco
Rif
Provincial capitals in Morocco
Berber populated places

Nador


ISO/IEC 4909 is a 2006 international standard produced by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) for Identification cards — Financial transaction cards — Magnetic stripe data content for track 3. It was reviewed in 2018. The original ISO 4909 standard appeared in 1987. It is one of a number of international bank card standards. The standard is used for credit cards.

The standard has been adopted in many countries, including (for example)
Denmark,
Germany,
India,
Netherlands,
New Zealand,
Norway,
United Kingdom,
etc.

References

2006 introductions
04909
Identity documents
Payment cards
Magnetic devices

ISO/IEC 4909


The Mission House at Kerikeri in New Zealand was completed in 1822 as part of the Kerikeri Mission Station by the Church Missionary Society, and is New Zealand's oldest surviving building.  It is sometimes known as Kemp House.

Samuel Marsden established the Anglican mission to New Zealand with lay preachers, who lived in the Bay of Islands under the protection of Hongi Hika, the chief of the local tribe, the Ngāpuhi.  In November 1819, Marsden purchased 13,000 acres (53 km2) from the Ngāpuhi.

Marsden instructed the Reverend John Butler to erect buildings for the mission station under the shelter of the Ngāpuhi Pā or fortress of Kororipo at Kerikeri, (Marsden, himself, Thomas Kendall and Hongi Hika left for Britain).  Using Māori and skilled European labour, Butler had completed the centre piece Mission House by 1822, (despite being interrupted by the return of Kendall and Hongi Hika with a thousand muskets, and Kororipo being used as a base for the subsequent Ngāpuhi military campaign in the Musket Wars).

Butler's house was a weatherboard clad, two-storey Georgian design with a verandah and two chimneys.  It was built primarily from Kauri.  At some point in the 1830s, a skilling was added, and the verandah was replaced with an enlarged design in 1843.  In the 1920s a bathroom was added behind the kitchen.

Butler was sacked in 1823, and George Clarke occupied the building until the early 1830s, by which time the Ngapuhi had abandoned Kororipo, but the mission station was strong enough to feel no need for protection.

The house was occupied by James and Charlotte Kemp in 1832 and although initially part of an expanded mission presence, (including the Stone Store), it was later purchased by the Kemps, and stayed in that family for 142 years, until Ernest Kemp donated it to the New Zealand Historic Places Trust (since renamed to Heritage New Zealand) in 1974.

Mission House was added to the New Zealand Historic Places Category 1 list on 23 June 1983.

The Trust has restored the building to an approximation of its 1843 appearance, (although the verandah was higher, and the roof was not shingled).  Together with the Stone Store, the Mission house is now a museum open to the public.

References

Houses in New Zealand
Museums in the Northland Region
Far North District
Heritage New Zealand Category 1 historic places in the Northland Region
History of New Zealand
Historic house museums in New Zealand
European-New Zealand culture
Bay of Islands
Residential buildings completed in 1822
1820s architecture in New Zealand
1822 in New Zealand
Wooden buildings and structures in New Zealand
1822 establishments in New Zealand
Historic homes in New Zealand
Religious buildings and structures in the Northland Region

Mission House


The Weather Underground organized collectives around the United States in an attempt "to challenge the state directly in solidarity with Third World liberation movements, particularly the Black Power movement here and the Vietnamese in Southeast Asia." Collectives organized the white working class against imperialism by holding militant demonstrations and engaging in small scale property damage.

Formation of the Seattle Collective
During the Ave Riots in Seattle's University District on August 10–14, 1969, the women who were participating came together and from this bonding experience, formed "the core of the Seattle Weathermen". The Ave Riots were part of larger actions around the country protesting the Vietnam War. Rioters in Seattle were also protesting police brutality, but news reports from the time claim that the group was just "teenagers looking for trouble." However, less than a week after these Riots, the Seattle Weather Collective was formed.

Preparing for Chicago's Days of Rage
The first item on the Seattle collective's agenda was to help organize for the Days of Rage that would be in Chicago in October 1969. Members of the Seattle collective produced pamphlets about the Days of Rage in order to raise awareness of the event and encourage people to travel to Chicago to participate.

Jailbreaks
Members of the Seattle Collective would visit several high schools a day in an attempt to recruit members and encourage students to travel to Chicago for the Days of Rage. They titled this action jailbreaks, taking over classrooms while one member stood on a desk speaking to the students. Other members would block doorways and telephones so no one of authority could be notified to what was going on. Others would spray paint the group's slogans on the blackboards.

ROTC attacks
Reserve Officers' Training Corps centers were a popular place for protesting. These offices are where college students are trained for the U.S. military. In May 1970 alone, "thirty ROTC buildings were burned or bombed and National Guard units were mobilized on twenty-one campuses in sixteen states." By protesting these offices that prepare officers for war, Weather Underground was protesting an "empire [that] feeds on war."

September 30, 1969
Female members of the collective stormed the Air Force ROTC office on the University of Washington campus. They "spray [painted] walls, throwing ink bombs, and resisting ROTC cadets who tried to detain them". The women surprised the ROTC cadets who were chasing them by turning back for a member who had been detained and attacking the men.

October 02, 1969
News of the September 30th ROTC attack attracted three hundred people to a rally that preceded the Students for a Democratic Society's first meeting of the year in Seattle. Following several speakers, Susan Stern stood up and declared "we're going to smash an ROTC building". A group of people jumped up and followed Stern to the University of Washington's Clark Hall where there was an ROTC office. Once again, the group spray painted walls and resisted the cadets trying to stop them. No one was arrested for this action. The University of Washington later banned six non-students who had been present for the action.

December 01, 1969
The ROTC office in the University of Washington's Savery Hall was attacked. This was the final straw for the University of Washington, they no longer recognized Students for a Democratic Society as a student organization on their campus.

January 18, 1970
On the day before the Seattle Liberation Front's organizing meeting, two members of the Seattle collective, Trim Bissell and his wife Judith were caught planting a bomb under the Air Force ROTC building at the University of Washington.

April 30, 1970
President Nixon announced he was sending United States troops into Cambodia. Protests erupted around the country, and Seattle. On the University of Washington campus, ROTC offices were attacked in a similar manner to previous Weather Underground attacks on the ROTC offices and Downtown demonstrators attacked the Boeing Employment Center.

References

Far-left politics in the United States
Guerrilla organizations
Weather Underground
COINTELPRO targets
Defunct American political movements
Political violence in the United States
History of Seattle
Crimes in Washington (state)
1969 establishments in Washington (state)
Left-wing militant groups in the United States

Seattle Weather Collective


Lewis Strange Wingfield (1842–1891) was an Irish traveller, actor, writer, and painter.

Life
The third and youngest son of Richard Wingfield, 6th Viscount Powerscourt, by his wife, Lady Elizabeth Frances Charlotte, eldest daughter of Robert Jocelyn, 3rd Earl of Roden, he was born on 25 February 1842, and educated at Eton College and Bonn University. He was intended for the army, but gave up the career at the request of his mother, after her second marriage to Frederick Stewart, 4th Marquess of Londonderry the Marchioness of Londonderry. He then had many occupations.

Actor
On 21 August 1865 Wingfield was at the Haymarket Theatre Roderigo to the Othello of Ira Aldridge, the Iago of Walter Montgomery, and the Desdemona of Madge Robertson. He had previously played in the burlesque Ixion (F. C. Burnand). Reputed adventures were going to The Derby in blackface, spending nights in workhouses and pauper lodgings, and becoming an attendant in a lunatic asylum and prison.

Journalist
During the Franco-Prussian War Wingfield went to Paris, where he stayed through the siege, attending the wounded and qualifying as a surgeon. During the siege he communicated by balloon and otherwise with The Times, the Daily Telegraph, and other newspapers. After returning to London he went back to Paris immediately on hearing of the Paris commune, and remained there until its suppression by French troops.

Artist
Having taken a house, No. 8 Maida Vale, with a large studio attached, Wingfield concentrated on painting, and became a member of the Royal Hibernian Academy. Between 1869 and 1875 he exhibited four domestic scenes at the Royal Academy, and one at the Suffolk Street Gallery. He planned during his stay in Paris for a panorama of the siege to be exhibited in London, and forwarded to England designs executed by various French artists. The failure of an American financier brought the scheme to nothing.

Theatrical designer

After abandoning painting, Wingfield took to designing costumes for the theatre, and was responsible for the dressing of Shakespearean revivals, including Romeo and Juliet at the Lyceum Theatre for Mary Anderson, and Antony and Cleopatra at the Princess's Theatre for Lily Langtry. For a time Wingfield contributed theatrical criticisms to The Globe newspaper, as "Whyte Tyghe".

Traveller, and last years
Wingfield was one of the first Britons to journey into the interior of China, in 1880, visiting Hong Kong, Fuzhou, Shanghai, Suzhou, Tianjin with side trips. He went on to Tokyo, and brought home a life-size figure of a mounted Japanese soldier in armour.

Wingfield also worked as a war correspondent, embedded with the military staff. He joined the British Army in the Sudan in 1884, but was then long in hospital in Egypt, and never quite regained his health. He voyaged to Australia; and died at 14 Montague Place, London (where he had moved from Mecklenburgh Square), on 12 November 1891, and was buried in Kensal Green cemetery.

Works
Wingfield's first published work was Under the Palms in Algeria and Tunis, 1868, 2 vols. For Helena Modjeska he adapted Schiller's play Mary Stuart, produced at the Royal Court Theatre on 9 October 1880. He also wrote some unacted dramas. He published in various literary genres (some of these works reached second editions):

 Slippery Ground, a novel in 3 vols., appeared in 1876;
 Lady Grizzle: an Impression of a momentous Epoch, 1878, 3 vols.;
 My Lords of Strogue: a Chronicle of Ireland from the Convention to the Union, 1879, 3 vols.;
 For Good or Evil appeared in Eros; Four Tales, vol. i. 1880;
 In Her Majesty's Keeping, 1880, 3 vols.;
 Gehenna, or Havens of Unrest, 1882, 3 vols.;
 Abigail Rowe: a Chronicle of the Regency' 1883, 3 vols.;
 Notes on Civil Costume in England, 1884;
 Barbara Philpot: a Study of Manners, 1886, 3 vols.;
 Lovely Wang: a Bit of China, 1887;
 The Curse of Koshin: a Romance, 1888;
 Wanderings of a Globe-trotter in the Far East, 1889; and
 The Maid of Honour: a Tale of the Dark Days of France, 1891, 3 vols.

Wingfield was also responsible for Her English Dress, lectures issued by the International Health Exhibition, 1884.

Family
Wingfield married, on 16 June 1868, Cecilia Emma, fourth daughter and fifth child of John Wilson Fitzpatrick, 1st Baron Castletown.

Notes

Attribution

External links

1842 births
1891 deaths
People educated at Eton College
University of Bonn alumni
19th-century Irish male actors
Irish male dramatists and playwrights
Irish painters
Irish journalists
19th-century journalists
Male journalists
Irish male stage actors
19th-century Irish dramatists and playwrights
19th-century Irish painters
Irish male painters
19th-century male writers
Irish costume designers
Irish illustrators
19th-century Irish male artists

Lewis Strange Wingfield


Ayre & Sons, Ltd. was a department store chain in Newfoundland, Canada. The chain was formed in 1859 in St. John's, Newfoundland by Charles R. Ayre. Ayre opened his flagship store on Water Street in St. John's in 1859. After Newfoundland joined the Canadian confederation in 1949, Ayre's opened some more stores across the province in the 1960s, with locations in Mount Pearl, Carbonear, Corner Brook, and Wabush. A location in the Avalon Mall in St. John's also opened when the mall opened in 1967. However, the company began to encounter financial problems in the 1980s, and in 1991, Ayre and Sons filed for bankruptcy.

Ayre's Supermarkets

Ayre's also began to open supermarkets in the 1960s, under the name Ayre's Supermarkets. The chain was sold to Dominion Stores Ltd. in 1963, with six locations in the St. John's area (five in St. John's plus one in Mount Pearl), as well as supermarkets in Carbonear and Corner Brook. As a result, Ayre's Supermarkets later adopted the Dominion brand. Following the sale of Dominion to A&P Canada, the Dominion stores in Newfoundland and Labrador were resold to local owners in 1987 and subsequently merged with two smaller local chains. The newly amalgamated parent company was named Amalco Foods, but the combined chain's brand name remained "Dominion". The amalgamated chain was acquired by Loblaw Companies Limited in 1995.

Locations

St. John's
Water Street - The original flagship store of Ayre and Sons, opened in 1859.
Avalon Mall - Ayre's Department Store. Opened 1967. Converted to expansion of mall interior following a major renovation program in 1993, with Scotiabank and across from that Gap among its tenants. The space that occupied that then renovated in early 2018 once more to become Charm Diamond Centres, Claire's (2019), The Source and Jump Plus with Scotiabank remaining.
Churchill Square - Ayre's Supermarket. Became a Dominion store until 2007, where Loblaw rebranded the store a SaveEasy.
Summerville - Ayre's Supermarket. Located in a mini-mall on Elizabeth Avenue at Paton Street. The Dominion store was closed in 1994, and the plaza was demolished in 1998 to make way for a condominium complex.
Parade Street - Ayre's Supermarket - became a Dominion store until December 21, 1992, when it was destroyed by a major fire, which also claimed several other buildings and businesses. The St. John's Central Fire Station now stands on the site.
Hamilton Avenue - Ayre's Supermarket - became a Dominion store until 1995 - now closed
Torbay Road Mall - Ayre's Supermarket - became a Dominion store until 1993, at which point it moved to a then-larger store on Newfoundland Drive (closed in 2007) - was IGA from 1996 to 1999 - now Shoppers Drug Mart
Mount Pearl - Centennial Square (Commonwealth Avenue) - Ayre's Supermarket. The store later became a Dominion store until 1993, at which time it was closed and relocated to the Pearlgate Mall, being branded a "Dominion Marketplace" until it was taken over by Loblaw. In 1997, Coleman's Supermarket (a local chain of supermarkets based in Corner Brook) opened in the former store; this is their first location in the St. John's area.
Carbonear
Corner Brook - Corner Brook Plaza - Ayre's Supermarket - became a Dominion store until 2002, when it moved to a larger store at the "big box" development at Murphy Square.
Wabush

Companies based in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador
Defunct retail companies of Canada
Defunct supermarkets of Canada
Defunct companies of Newfoundland and Labrador
Retail companies established in 1859
Retail companies disestablished in 1991
1859 establishments in North America
1859 establishments in the British Empire
19th-century establishments in Newfoundland
1991 disestablishments in Newfoundland and Labrador

Ayre and Sons


Massimo Bottura (; born 30 September 1962) is an Italian restaurateur and the chef patron of Osteria Francescana, a three-Michelin-star restaurant based in Modena, Italy. It has been ranked No.1 on The World's 50 Best Restaurants list twice and is currently part of the Best of the Best list.

Early career and life
Massimo Bottura was born and raised in Modena, Italy. He developed an interest in cooking from a young age while watching his mother, grandmother, and aunt in the kitchen, preparing meals for the family.

After secondary school, he enrolled in law school at the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, but in 1986 he interrupted his studies and chose to join the family business, where he initially worked as a wholesaler of petroleum products.

Life as a chef
The same year he stopped working for his family and took over Trattoria del Campazzo, near Nonantola, where he deepened his knowledge of Emilian cuisine with the support of rezdora Lidia Cristoni. He later deepened his knowledge of classical French cuisine thanks to lessons given by Georges Coigny, consolidating his culinary foundations on a combination of regional Italian cuisine and classical French training.

In 1993 he moved to New York and worked in an Italian café. There he met Lara Gilmore, his future wife. After nine months, he returned to Modena and in 1994 began an internship of several months with Alain Ducasse at his restaurant "Le Louis XV" in Monte Carlo. In 1995 he returned to Modena and took over a traditional trattoria in the heart of the city, Osteria Francescana, which officially opened on 19 March of the same year.

In 2000 Catalan chef Ferran Adrià invited Bottura to the kitchen of his restaurant "El Bulli" in Spain, where the Modenese chef learned the basics of molecular cuisine.

In 2002 Bottura received his first Michelin star, followed by the second in 2006 and the third in 2012.

Osteria Francescana

On 19 March 1995, Bottura opened Osteria Francescana in the historic center of Modena. Here the chef presents his cuisine which balances innovation and tradition, with dishes that explore the deep roots of Italian cuisine by referencing history, art, and philosophy.

Today, Osteria Francescana is a three Michelin-starred restaurant held since 2012, and ranked first on The World's 50 Best Restaurants list twice, in 2016 and 2018.

Since 2019, it has been part of the Best of the Best list, the category that includes all restaurants that ranked first in The World's 50 Best Restaurants and can no longer be voted in new editions of the list.

The restaurant has also received top ratings from L'Espresso, Gambero Rosso, and the Touring Club guides.

In 2020, Osteria Francescana was awarded a Michelin Green Star in recognition of the chef's ongoing commitment against food waste and in favor of a more equitable and sustainable food system.

The other restaurants and projects
In 2011, also in Modena, he took over the restaurant "Franceschetta58." While Osteria Francescana offers customers an iconoclastic take on Italian cuisine, Franceschetta58, Bottura's second restaurant, is a contemporary bistro serving local ingredients in a convivial atmosphere.

In 2013, he participated in the Year of Italian Culture in the United States and was the main character in an episode of the fifth season of the program The Witness hosted by Pif.

He is one of the ten directors of the Basque Culinary Center training center.

In 2015 he starred in the first episode of the Netflix documentary "Chef's Table."

In 2018 he opened Gucci Osteria da Massimo Bottura in Florence, the cradle of the Renaissance, with the desire to honor the union of local traditions and multicultural encounters. In fact, the restaurant is awarded its first Michelin Star in 2019. In early 2020, Gucci Osteria da Massimo Bottura also opened its doors to the public in Beverly Hills, Los Angeles, and obtain its first Michel star the following year. More recently Gucci Osteria opened in Tokyo, in August 2021, and in Seoul, in February 2022, with great success as well. In November 2022, Gucci Osteria Tokyo was also awarded its first Michelin Star.

In February 2019, Bottura worked in collaboration with W Hotels to open Torno Subito at W Dubai – The Palm on Palm Jumeirah. In May of the same year, he opened a new hospitality concept with his wife Lara Gilmore: Casa Maria Luigia, a country inn located on an 18th-century property in the Modenese countryside.

In June 2020, along with other chefs, architects, Nobel laureates in economics, and leaders of international organizations, he signed the call for a purple economy ("For a cultural renaissance of the economy") published in Corriere della Sera, El País and Le Monde.

In September of the same year, Massimo Bottura was appointed Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), on the occasion of the inauguration of the International Day of Awareness of Food Loss and Waste.

In June 2021, Massimo Bottura reopened the Cavallino restaurant in collaboration with Ferrari and architect and designer India Mahdavi, with the desire to give new light to this iconic place that represents the history of Ferrari and the culinary traditions of Emilia Romagna.

In addition to the restaurant business, since 1995 Massimo Bottura has dedicated himself to the production of PGI Balsamic Vinegar from Modena and extra virgin olive oil with his Villa Manodori line of condiments, the result of his constant quest for the best quality ingredients.

In 2022 he received the Italy USA Foundation's America Award at the Chamber of Deputies.

Food for Soul
In 2015, in conjunction with the EXPO Milan, Bottura carried out a project in collaboration with Caritas Ambrosiana: the Refettorio Ambrosiano; this project, aimed at welcoming people in need, with the help of more than fifty chefs allowed the recovery of about fifteen tons of food surplus resulting from the EXPO. The Refettorio Ambrosiano project is active to this day and the model has been replicated in different parts of the world.

In Brazil, the project was inaugurated during the 2016 Summer Olympic Games in collaboration with chef David Hertz: the Refettorio Gastromotiva.

As a consequence of these projects, in 2016 Bottura and his wife founded Food for Soul, a nonprofit association that, through the daily work of Refettorios around the world, aims at contrasting food waste and social isolation through the power of beauty, the quality of ideas and the value of hospitality.

In order to raise awareness on these issues, in 2017 Massimo Bottura published the book "Bread is Gold" with Phaidon Press – "Il Pane è Oro," published in Italian by Ippocampo. The book collects recipes, ideas, and experiences of the chefs who cooked at Refettorio Ambrosiano during its first six months, to invite readers to see the ingredients in pantries and home refrigerators with different eyes.

Since then, Food for Soul has developed several projects around the world in collaboration with local partners. By building community spaces where people are invited to connect around a meal, Food for Soul aims to demonstrate the value and potential of people, places, and food and encourage the community served to support social change.

In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Food for Soul Refettorios continued to work and support those most in need; not only that, a fundraiser was also launched through which more than 35 tons of surplus food were recovered in a single month and more than 100,000 meals were delivered to people in vulnerable situations and frontline health workers.

After, Refettorio Ambrosiano and Refettorio Gastromotiva, Food for Soul opened Refettorio Felix in London, Refettorio Paris, Refettorio Antoniano in Bologna, and Refettorio Made in Cloister in Naples. Despite the situation due to the pandemic in 2020 and 2021, Food for Soul has continued working on new projects to support local communities and contrast food waste and social isolation.

Refettorios Mérida and Lima opened their doors in 2020, along with Refettorio Harlem in New York and Refettorio San Francisco in California, while in 2021 it was the turn of Refettorio OzHarvest Refectory in Sydney and Refettorio Geneva in Switzerland, while other projects are currently in the works.

Kitchen quarantine
In March 2020, after the temporary closure of Osteria Francescana due to the first COVID-19 lockdown, Massimo and his daughter Alexa started Kitchen Quarantine, a series of Instagram lives conducted by the Bottura family every night during quarantine. The project was created to interact with families around the world, cook together and exchange ideas on how to reduce household food waste; an innovative way to bring an extra smile during a particularly difficult time for communities around the world. The 24th annual Webby Awards honored Massimo Bottura with a 2020 Webby Special Achievement Award as Chef of the Year for his Kitchen Quarantine series, showcasing his family meals to fans around the world.

Books
Bottura has written five books:

Aceto Balsamico (2005) Autoritratti in Cucina
Parmigiano Reggiano (2006), PRO
Attraverso tradizione e innovazione (2006)
Never Trust a Skinny Italian Chef (2014) Phaidon Press
Bread is Gold (2017) Phaidon Press

References

Prizes and awards

 Osteria Francescana Three Michelin Stars (2012 – confirmed to date)
 Gucci Osteria Firenze one Michelin Star (2019 – confirmed to date)
 Gucci Osteria Los Angeles One Michelin Star (2021 – confirmed to date)
 Torno Subito Dubai One Michelin Star (2022)
 Gucci Osteria Tokyo One Michelin Star (2022)

2002

 Guida Michelin, one Michelin star
 Guida del Gambero Rosso, Premio Miglior Chef emergente

2004

 Guida dell'ESPRESSO, Performance dell'Anno

2005

 Lo Mejor de La Gastronomia, Premio Internacional
 Guida dell'ESPRESSO, Pranzo dell'Anno
 Guida Veronelli, Tre Stelle

2006

 Guida MICHELIN, Due Stelle Michelin
 Golosaria, Ristorante Creativo dell'Anno

2007

 Identità Golose, Miglior Chef creativo
 Guida del Gambero Rosso, Tre Forchette
 Guida dell'ESPRESSO, Piatto dell'Anno: "Riso grigio... e nero"
 Guida dell'ESPRESSO, punteggio 19/20

2008

 Guida dell'ESPRESSO, Piatto dell'Anno: "Zuppa di lumache e spuma di aglio dolce"

2009

 Guida dell'ESPRESSO, punteggio 19,5/20
 Guida del Gambero Rosso, Piatto dell'Anno: "Omaggio a Thelonious Monk"
 The World's 50 Best Restaurants, 13th Best Restaurant in the World
 The World's 50 Best Restaurants, Highest New Entry
 Istituto Valorizzazione Salumi Italiani, "Personaggio di Gusto"

2010

 Guida dell'ESPRESSO, punteggio 19,75/20
 The World's 50 Best Restaurants, 6th Best Restaurant in the World
 The World's 50 Best Restaurants, Best Italian Restaurant

2011

 Guida dell'ESPRESSO, Punteggio 19,75 (Miglior Ristorante d'Italia)
 Grand Prix de l'Art de la Cuisine, Chef dell'Anno
 The World's 50 Best Restaurants, 4th Best Restaurant in the World
 The World's 50 Best Restaurants, Chef's Choice Award
 Lo Mejor de la Gastronomia, El Restaurante del Dia 9,25

2012

 Guida del Gambero Rosso, Tre Forchette con punteggio 95/100 (Miglior Ristorante d'Italia)
 Guida dell'ESPRESSO, Punteggio 19,75/20 (Miglior Ristorante d'Italia)
 Guida MICHELIN, Tre Stelle Michelin
 Guida Touring, punteggio 93 (Miglior Ristorante d'Italia)
 The World's 50 Best Restaurants, 5th Best Restaurant in the World

2013

 Guida del Gambero Rosso, Tre Forchette con punteggio 95/100 (Miglior Ristorante d'Italia)
 Guida dell'ESPRESSO, Punteggio 19,75/20 (Miglior Ristorante d'Italia)
 The World's 50 Best Restaurants, 3rd Best Restaurant in the World

2014

 The World's 50 Best Restaurants, 3rd Best Restaurant in the World

2015

 The World's 50 Best Restaurants, 2nd Best Restaurant in the World
 Guida dell'ESPRESSO, Punteggio 20/20 (Miglior Ristorante d'Italia)
 Guida del Gambero Rosso, Tre Forchette con punteggio 95/100 (Miglior Ristorante d'Italia)

2016

 The World's 50 Best Restaurants, 1st Best Restaurant in the World

2017

 The World's 50 Best Restaurants, 2nd Best Restaurant in the World
 Premio nazionale Toson d'oro di Vespasiano Gonzaga

2018

 The World's 50 Best Restaurants, 1st Best Restaurant in the World
 Massimo Bottura riceve la Medaglia d'Oro di Benemerenza Civica dal Comune di Milano

2020

 Osteria Francescana riceve la Stella Verde Michelin
 Massimo Bottura riceve il riconoscimento Premiolino-BMW SpecialMente
 Food for Soul riceve il riconoscimento Compasso d'Oro

1962 births
Living people
Italian chefs
Italian restaurateurs
Italian cookbook writers
Businesspeople from Modena

Massimo Bottura


The inline-six engine (also referred to as an straight-six engine; abbreviated I6 or L6) is a piston engine with six cylinders arranged in a straight line along the crankshaft. A straight-six engine has perfect primary and secondary engine balance, resulting in fewer vibrations than other designs of six or fewer cylinders.

Until the mid-20th century, the straight-six layout was the most common design for engines with six cylinders. However, V6 engines became more common from the 1970s and by the 2000s most straight-six engines had been replaced by V6 engines. An exception to this trend is BMW, who have produced automotive straight-six engines from 1933 to present.

Characteristics
In terms of packaging, straight-six engines are almost always narrower than a V6 engine or V8 engine, but longer than straight-four engines, V6s, and most V8s.

Straight-six engines are typically produced in displacements ranging from , however engines ranging in size from the  Benelli 750 Sei motorcycle engine to the  Cummins B Series engine pickup truck engine have also been produced. Due to its well balanced configuration, the straight-six can be scaled up to very large sizes for heavy trucks, locomotives, industrial and marine use.

Engine balance and vibration

If an appropriate firing order is used, a straight-six engine has perfect primary and secondary engine balance. The primary balance is due to the front and rear trio of cylinders move in pairs (albeit 360° out of phase), thus cancelling out the rocking motion present in a straight-three engine. The secondary balance is due to the crank throws being arranged in three planes offset at 120°, which results in the non-sinusoidal forces summing to zero for all free forces up until the sixth order.

The engine balance characteristics of a straight-six engine compare favourably with the more common straight-four engines and V6 engines, which experience significant secondary dynamic imbalance, resulting in engine vibration. As engine reciprocating forces increase with the cube of piston bore, the straight-six is a preferred configuration for large truck engines.

Two-stroke engines
An even-firing six cylinder two-stroke engine requires ignitions at 60° intervals or else it would run with simultaneous ignitions and be no smoother than a triple in power delivery.  As such, it also requires crank throws at 60° such designs appear to have been limited to diesel engines such as the Detroit 71 series and some marine engines, as well as outboard motors.

Some of the 120 possible crankshaft configurations have useful properties, but all of them have a rocking imbalance of some kind which may or may not require a balance shaft, depending on the application.  This is because the six pistons with six unique phases cannot be "paired" as in the four-stroke case.  The Detroit engines used a configuration that, once the primary rocking couple was balanced out, was also perfectly balanced at all other rocking couples until 6th-order. Mercury came to use a configuration that canceled only the primary rocking couple and was run without a balancer.

The reciprocating masses of all configurations are still imbalanced at only 6th-order and up in their plane of motion, but the balance of kinetic energy exchange between pistons has improved to a residual 6th-order-and-up inertial torque oscillation compared with the four-stroke design being imbalanced at 3rd-order and up.

Crankshaft

Crankshafts for straight-six engines usually have either four main bearings (i.e. a bearing in between each pair of crankpins and one at each end) or seven main bearings (i.e. a bearing between every crankpin):
 Larger engines and diesel engines typically use seven bearings, in order to minimise crankshaft flex. When an engine is subject to high loads at low engine speeds, the greater distance between main bearings causes increased crankshaft flex. Modern high-compression engines subject the crankshaft to greater bending loads from higher peak gas pressures, requiring the crankthrows to have greater support from adjacent bearings, so it is now common for straight-six engines to use seven main bearings.
 Smaller and high-performance engines typically use four bearings, since having fewer main journals increases the torsional stiffness of the crankshaft. At high engine speeds, the lack of torsional stiffness can make the seven main bearing design susceptible to torsional flex and potential breakage. Any torsional flex in the crankshaft is compounded by the torsional flex of the camshafts for the rear cylinders, since the camshafts are quite long and subject to torsional flex. At high engine speeds, the combination of camshaft and crankshaft flex results in inaccurate timing of the valve openings which in the worst case can cause the valves and pistons to collide with catastrophic results.

Usage in cars
The first production straight-six engine was introduced in the Dutch Spyker 60 HP racing car in 1903. Straight-six engines increased in popularity in the years after and by 1909, there were approximately 80 manufacturers using them (including 62 in the United Kingdom). Prior to the 1950s, V6 engines were rarely used, due to the poorer engine balance of V6 engines compared to straight-six engines. Since the 1980s, however, the shorter length of V6 engines has seen most manufacturers replace straight-six engines with V6 engines. An exception to this trend is German brand BMW, which has always used a straight-six layout for its six-cylinder engines.

Since 2017, a small reversal of the trend of switching to V6 engines has occurred, due to the ability to create a modular engine family of straight engines sharing many components. Examples include the 2017–present Mercedes-Benz M256 engine, the 2019–present Jaguar Land Rover Ingenium engines (AJ300 and AJ300D versions), the 2021–present Stellantis Hurricane engine and the 2022–present Mazda Skyactiv-X and Skyactiv-D engines.

Europe

Alfa Romeo's first production straight-six engine - 6.3 litre flathead petrol engine - was introduced in 1921 in the Alfa Romeo G1 luxury car. A overhead valve design was introduced in the 1922 Alfa Romeo RL sports car and an overhead camshaft design was used in the 1927 Alfa Romeo 6C sports car and various racing cars from 1927 to 1954. The last Alfa Romeo model using a straight-six was the 1961-1969 Alfa Romeo 2600 executive car, before the company switched to V6 engines.

Mercedes-Benz's history of straight-six engines began with the 1913 Mercedes D.I aircraft engine. The first automotive straight-six engine was the 1924-1929 Daimler M836 3.9 litre petrol engine. Following World War 2, Mercedes resumed production of straight-six engines with the 1951 introduction of the Mercedes-Benz M180 overhead camshaft engine. In 1985, the Mercedes-Benz OM603 3.0 litre diesel straight-six engine was introduced. In 1996, the company replaced its petrol straight-sixes with a series V6 engines, although the company continued to produce diesel straight-six engines. Production of petrol straight-six engines resumed in 2017 with the introduction of the Mercedes-Benz M256 turbocharged DOHC engine.

Opel began production of straight-six engines in 1927 with a 1.8 litre flathead petrol engine used by the Opel 8/40 PS. The displacement of this engine was expanded as it was used in later models such as the Opel Kapitän and Opel Admiral, with later versions switching to an overhead valve (pushrod) design. In 1968, the straight-six versions of the Opel CIH engine were introduced, initially using a single overhead camshaft (SOHC) with some later versions using double overhead camshafts (DOHC). Production of the Opel CIH engine continued until 1993, when it was replaced by a V6 engine.

Volvo began production of straight-six engines with the 1929-1958 Penta DB flathead petrol engines. The company resumed production in 1969 with the Volvo B30 overhead valve petrol engine, followed by the straight-six versions of the Volvo Modular Engine introduced in 1995 and then the Volvo SI6 engine introduced in 2006. Several models (such as the 1998-2006 Volvo S80) used the uncommon design of a transversely-mounted straight-six engine. Production of Volvo straight-six engines ceased in 2015.

BMW's first product was the 1917 BMW IIIa straight-six aircraft engine. The company began production of automotive straight-six engines in 1933 with the BMW M78 petrol engine, a 1.2 litre overhead valve design which evolved over the years into the BMW M337 (produced until 1958). Production of straight-six engines resumed in 1968 with the BMW M30 single overhead camshaft engine, which was produced for 27 years and used in various models. The 1978-1989 BMW M88 engine was a double overhead camshaft design which was introduced in the BMW M1 mid-engine sport car. BMW's introduction of turbocharged straight-six engines (aside from the low-volume variants of the M30 engine in the 1980s) was the 2006 BMW N54 and production of naturally aspirated engines ceased in 2015. , the BMW B58 turbocharged straight-six engine remains in production, along with its higher performance BMW S58 variants.

United Kingdom

Rolls-Royce's first straight-six engine was a 6.0 litre IOE petrol engine which was used in the 1905 Rolls-Royce 30 hp luxury car. This car was replaced by the 1906-1926 Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost, which switched to a flathead (side-valve) design for its straight-six engine.

In 1906, the Standard Six luxury car was introduced, powered by a 20 hp straight-six petrol engine. Standard's engines were also used in several cars built by SS Cars and its successor Jaguar, such as the 1932 SS 1 sports car, the 1936 SS Jaguar 100 and the 1938 Jaguar 3½ Litre sports saloon/coupe and the 1948 Jaguar Mark V luxury car.

The 1927 Rover Two-litre luxury car introduced the company's IOE straight-six petrol engine. This engine was used in various Rover models until the Rover P5 was discontinued in 1973, and in various Land Rover models from the 1961 Land Rover Series IIA until 1980 Land Rover Series III.

The 1928 Austin 20/6 luxury car introduced Austin's flathead straight-six petrol engine. The 1938-1939 Austin Twenty-Eight used an enlarged version of this engine. This was replaced by the Austin D-Series engine, an overhead valve engine initially designed for trucks, which was used in passenger cars from 1947 to 1968 (along with several Jensen Motors models from 1946 to 1962). The overhead valve BMC C-Series was used by various BMC brands from 1954 to 1971, followed by the 2.2 litre version of the BMC E-Series overhead camshaft engine, which was produced from 1970 to 1982.

The 1930-1936 Wolseley Hornet six lightweight car was powered by a 1.3-1.6 litre overhead camshaft straight-six petrol engine.

The 1931-1932 MG F-type tourers, 1932-1934 MG K-type sports cars and 1934-1936 MG N-type sports cars were powered by an overhead camshaft straight-six petrol engine.

During the mid-1930s, the Riley MPH sports car and Riley Kestrel 6 saloon were produced in small numbers and were powered by dual overhead camshaft straight-six petrol engine.

The 1947 Bristol 400 luxury car was powered by an overhead valve straight-six petrol engine based on the design of the BMW M328 engine. This engine remained in use until the Bristol 406 was discontinued in 1961.

The dual overhead camshaft Jaguar XK6 engine petrol engine was produced from 1948 to 1992 in the Jaguar XK120 sports car. Introduced as a 3.4-litre, it was used both in passenger cars and racing cars, being produced in displacements of 2.4 to 4.2-litres. The XK6 engine was followed by the AJ6 and AJ16 engines, which were produced from 1984 to 1996, before being replaced by a Ford-derived V6 engine.

The 1948-1959 Lagonda straight-6 dual overhead camshaft petrol engine was used in various cars from Aston Martin and Lagonda. This engine's successor was the Tadek Marek-designed straight-six used in the DB4 (1958), DB5 (1963), DB6 (1965) and DBS (1967).

The Ford Zephyr 6 overhead valve engine was used in the Ford Zephyr executive car and several other models from 1951 to 1966.

The Triumph I6 overhead valve straight-six petrol engine was produced from 1960 to 1977 and debuted in the Triumph TR5 sports car. The Leyland PE166 engine was loosely based on the Triumph design and was produced from 1977 to 1986.

The 1972-1977 TVR 2500M sports car was powered by the aforementioned Triumph I6 engine. Then from 1999 to 2007, TVR's own TVR Speed Six dual overhead camshaft engine was used in several of the company's sports cars.

United States

The 1906-1908 Ford Model K luxury car used a  straight-six petrol engine and was the only Ford six-cylinder passenger car engine until the 1940s. The Ford flathead I6 was produced from 1941 to 1951, followed by the Ford OHV I6 overhead valve engine from 1952 to 1964, then the Ford Thriftpower Six overhead valve engine from 1960 to 1982 and the Ford 240 I6 from 1965 to 1972. The Ford straight-sixes were replaced by V6 engines for passenger cars in the mid-1970s, however a  version of the straight-six engine remained in production for SUVs, vans and trucks until 1996.

In 1908, the Oldsmobile Model Z was powered a flathead straight-six petrol engine, which was produced until 1912 (in the Oldsmobile Limited luxury car) in displacements of ,  and . Oldsmobile's next straight-six engine was introduced in the 1913 Oldsmobile Six luxury car, initially with a displacement of , followed by a displacement of  for the 1917-1921 Oldsmobile Model 37 luxury car. The later generations of the Oldsmobile Straight-6 also used a flathead design, from its introduction in the 1923 Oldsmobile Model 30 luxury car until it was replaced in 1950 by Oldsmobile's V8 engine.

The 1913-1929 Oakland Six luxury car was powered by a flathead petrol engine produced in displacements of  and . In 1926, the Pontiac Six was introduced as a lower cost version of the Oakland six, powered by the Pontiac Split-Head Six flathead engine, which used two cylinder heads. This engine was replaced by the 1941-1954 Pontiac flathead six. The unrelated Pontiac OHV 6 overhead valve engine was produced in 1964–1965, based on a Chevrolet design. Pontiac's final straight-six engine was the 1966-1969 Pontiac OHC 6 overhead camshaft engine, which was replaced by Chevrolet's straight-six engine and Buick's V6 engine.
a
The overhead valve Buick Straight-6 petrol engine was introduced in the 1914 Buick Six luxury car and was produced until 1930. Buick did not produce another six-cylinder engine until they introduced a V6 engine in 1962.

The 1916-1926 Hudson Super Six was powered by a  straight-six petrol engine. This was followed by an IOE version in 1916. The 1951 Hudson Hornet introduced a  flathead straight-six engine, which remained in production until Hudson was shuttered in 1957.

In 1924, Chrysler began production of a straight six version of the Chrysler flathead petrol engine. This was replaced by the 1959-2000 Chrysler Slant-6 overhead valve straight-six petrol engine, which was so named due to the 30-degree angle used to reduce the height of the engine (with the trade-off of a wider engine). The Slant-6 was released in the Dodge Dart economy car and used in many models until it was replaced by a V6 engine after 30 years in production.

The Chevrolet Stovebolt overhead valve straight-six petrol engine was introduced in 1929 as a replacement for the brand's straight-four engines and was produced in displacements of ,  and . The second generation of this engine family - often referred to as the Blue Flame engine - was produced from 1937 to 1962 in displacements of ,  and . This was followed by the 1962-1988 Chevrolet Turbo-Thrift engine (also using an overhead valve design), which was replaced by various General Motors V6 engines.

The 1952-2006 AMC Straight-6 petrol engine initially used a flathead design, before being upgraded to an overhead valve design in 1956. The engine blocks were noted for their sturdiness and used in some racing cars; a turbocharged racing engine based on the AMC Straight-6 engine block produced  and competed in the 1978 Indianapolis 500 race. The final application for the AMC Straight-6 engine was the 2006 Jeep Wrangler (TJ), after which it was replaced by a V6 engine.

The 1962-1973 Jeep Tornado overhead camshaft straight-six engine was introduced in the Willys Jeep Station Wagon. At the time of its introduction, the Tornado engine had the lowest specific fuel consumption of an American gasoline (petrol) engine. The Tornado engine was replaced by the AMC Straight-6 engine.

In 2001, General Motors resumed production of straight-six engines with the Vortec 4200 dual overhead camshaft petrol engine. This engine was used in various SUV models until 2009. Also, the Duramax Straight-6 turbocharged diesel engine has been available in several General Motors SUV and light truck models since 2020.

On March 25, 2022, Stellantis announced their new turbocharged straight-six engine, called Hurricane. Two different outputs are available, a standard output 400 hp / 450 lb/ft, and a high output 500 HP / 475 lb/ft.  The turbos on the Hurricane Standard Output deliver peak boost of 22 psi, while the Hurricane High Output turbos deliver 26 psi of peak boost. The 3.0-liter Hurricane twin-turbo I-6 is produced at Stellantis' Saltillo Engine Plant in Mexico.

Asia

Toyota's first straight-six engine was the Toyota Type A, which was produced from 1935 to 1947. The Type A was an overhead valve petrol engine based on the Chevrolet Stovebolt engine. This was followed by the first generation Toyota F overhead valve engine, which was produced from 1949 to 1975, which in turn was followed by the 2F version from 1975 to 1988 and the fuel-injected 3F / 3FE version from 1988 to 1992. This was replaced by the dual overhead camshaft Toyota FZ engine, which was produced from 1993 to 2008. Produced alongside these engines was the single overhead camshaft Toyota M engine, which was introduced in 1965 and produced over seven generations until 1993 (with the 7M-GTE being the final version of the M engine). The M engine was replaced by the dual overhead camshaft Toyota JZ engine, which was produced from 1990 to 2007 and arguably known as Toyota's best straight-six engine. Toyota's third line of straight-six engines was the 2.0 litre Toyota G engine, which was released as a single overhead camshaft engine in 1979 and upgraded to dual overhead camshafts before production ended in 2008 (with the 1G-FE being the final variant).

Nissan's first straight-six engine was the 1950-1952 Nissan NAK flathead petrol engine, which continued in various forms until production of the Nissan P engine ended in 2003. The 1963-1965 Nissan K overhead valve petrol engine was used in the Nissan Cedric Special 50 luxury car. Using a similar design, the Nissan H30 engine was used in several luxury cars form 1965–1989. In 1966, Nissan began production of the six-cylinder versions of the Nissan L single overhead camshaft engine, which was produced until 2009. The 1985-2004 Nissan RB engine, used in the Nissan Skyline and several other cars, was produced in single overhead camshaft and dual overhead camshaft configurations until it was replaced by a V6 engine. The Nissan TB overhead valve engine was introduced in 1987 and produced alongside the other straight-six engines.

The six-cylinder versions of the Prince G engine were introduced in 1963 and remained in production until 1969, three years after Prince's merger with Nissan. The 1969-1973 Nissan S20 dual overhead camshaft engine (used in the Nissan Fairlady and first generation of the Nissan Skyline GT-R) was based on the Prince G engine.

Mitsubishi produced six-cylinder versions of the Mitsubishi KE engine from 1963 to 1970, as well as the rare six-cylinder versions of the Mitsubishi 6G34 version of the single overhead camshaft "Saturn" engine from 1970 to 1976.

The 2000-2006 Daewoo Magnus (also called the Chevrolet Evanda, Chevrolet Epica, Holden Epica or Suzuki Verona) was powered by the Daewoo XK6 straight-six petrol engine, which is one of few straight-six engines to be used in a transverse engine front-wheel drive car.

Australia

From the 1950s to the 2010s, many cars produced in Australia were powered by a straight-six engine.

Holden's first car, the 1948 Holden 48-215 sedan, was powered by the Holden 'grey' motor, an overhead valve petrol engine. This engine was replaced by the Holden 'red' motor, which was produced from 1963 to 1980 and in turn followed by the 1980-1984 Holden 'blue' motor. The final locally produced Holden straight-six was the 1984-1986 Holden 'black' motor, which was initially replaced by the Japanese-built Nissan RB30 engine, before Holden switched to a locally-built V6 engine.

Ford produced straight-six engines for the longest time of any Australian manufacturer. In 1960, the Ford Falcon large sedan was introduced with a locally-built version of the American Ford Straight-6 overhead valve engine. In 1998, these engines were upgraded to a single overhead camshaft design. This was followed in 2002 by the Ford Barra dual overhead camshaft engine in 2002, which was produced in both naturally aspirated and turbocharged versions. The Ford Barra engine remained in use until Ford Australia ceased local production in 2016.

The Chrysler Valiant was introduced in 1962, powered by the American Chrysler Slant 6. In 1970, the Valiant switched over to the Chrysler Hemi-6 overhead valve engine, an Australia-only engine that was produced until Chrysler Australia ceased production of large cars in 1981.

The 1962-1965 Austin Freeway and Wolseley 24/80 large sedans were powered by BMC Australia's Blue Streak overhead valve petrol engine. This was followed by the six-cylinder versions of the BMC E-series overhead camshaft engines, which were introduced in the 1970 Austin Kimberley / Austin Tasman front-wheel drive sedans, which were produced until 1972. This engine was upsized to a 2.6 L displacement in 1973 and used Leyland P76 and the Morris Marina large cars until 1975.

Usage in motorcycles

From 1964 to 1967, Honda produced several Grand Prix motorcycle racing motorcycles powered by straight-six versions of the Honda RC petrol racing engine; these versions were designated the '3RC164', 'RC165', 'RC166' and Honda RC174. The unrelated road-use Honda CBX was produced from 1978 to 1982 and was powered by a  dual overhead camshaft petrol engine.

The 1973-1989 Benelli Sei series was the first road-use motorcycle to use a straight-six engine. Initially released with a  single overhead camshaft petrol engine, in 1979 it was upgraded to a  engine.

The 1979-1989 Kawasaki Z1300 roadster motorcycle was powered by a  dual overhead camshaft petrol engine.

From 2011–present, the BMW K1600 series of touring motorcycles have been powered by a  dual overhead camshaft petrol engine.

Usage in trucks
Straight-six engines used in trucks include:
 5.9 and 6.7 litre versions of the 1984–present Cummins B Series turbocharged diesel engine
 General Motors' 2002-2009 Vortec 4200 naturally-aspirated petrol engine

Diesel engines

Automotive engines
Straight-six engines used in automobiles include:
 1978-1995 Volkswagen D24 naturally-aspirated engine and the 1982-1992 Volkswagen D24T turbocharged engine
 1986-1997 Mercedes-Benz OM603 engine - produced in naturally-aspirated and turbocharged variants
 BMW's line of diesel engines consists of the BMW M21 (introduced in 1981) through to the current BMW B57 engine
 1985-2009 Nissan RD (naturally-aspirated and turbocharged variants) and 1987-2007 Nissan TD42 (turbocharged) engines

Industrial-use and truck engines
 various Toyota engines from 1956–present
 Cummins B Series (5.9 and 6.7 litre versions) from 1984–present
 industrial and truck engines from MAN Truck & Bus, Scania and Yuchai

See also

 Flat-six engine
 V6 engine
 VR6 engine

References

6

Straight-six engine


The First Lift Station is a pump station in Mission, Texas, that once provided water for irrigating the crops of the early Rio Grande Valley. In 1907 John J. Conway and James W. Hoit began the Mission Canal Co. Irrigation system, which was instrumental in the early agricultural growth of the area. Here, they built the first pump station. The pump was powered by steam produced by wood-fired boilers. The chimney, which still stands at the site, was made out of handmade brick from Madero. It is 106 feet tall and 6 feet in diameter. The top of the chimney has a double row of bricks that form a partial design, but the top was never completed. The chimney was dedicated as a Texas Historic Landmark by the Texas Historical Commission in 1985.

The boilers began operation in 1907 and the lift station started to pump water from the Rio Grande.  Wood was used in units of 2 to 3 cords (7 to 11 m³) and a crew of 26 men with teams of mules worked around the clock to keep the boilers fed.

The plant was later operated by John H. Shary and by Hidalgo County Water Control and Improvement Districts No. 7 and No. 14. The property was developed for recreational use after dams and a new pumping plant were built upstream in the late 1950s. The chimney is still standing at the site of Chimney Park.

References

Mission, Texas
Towers in Texas
Buildings and structures in Hidalgo County, Texas
Agricultural buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Texas
National Register of Historic Places in Hidalgo County, Texas
Water supply infrastructure on the National Register of Historic Places

First Lift Station


Íomar Fir Bolg () was an early Irish Saint.

Writing on 5 November 1838, John O'Donovan reported that his field work for the Ordnance Survey had brought him to the parish of Killimer-Bologue, which was "according to tradition ... the principal establishment and the birth-place of St. Imor, whose life was preserved in the Country in Irish metre to a late period." O'Donovon, who appears to have been informed by a Mr. McEgan "who lives near the old church" included the following account of Íomar in his letter:

Imor was a very respectable man living in Sil-Anmhcadha a long time ago [tradition never remembers dates] and had no idea originally of becoming a saint, but had intended to apply himself to increasing the number of the human family in a lawful manner [liberis procreandis operam dare sibi proposuit] and for this purpose he married a very beautiful girl, a native of Ely O'Carroll on the other side of the Shannon. But before he had seen her she had been wooed by another who was driven to desperation on hearing of her marriage with Imor, and he swore that he would never suffer her to be brought to Connacht. Accordingly on the day that Imor went with a party of his friends to take her home, he [his Munster rival], having collected a body of the men of Slieve Bloom, attacked him on the way after he had cross (the Shannon), and made a desperate effort to carry off the bride. But the Connaught (party) were equally vigorous in resisting, and the poor girl was killed in the struggle between them! After this Imor became a melancholy recluse and swore to (he would) dedicate his virginity to God. He never took holy orders, but still was always esteemed as an Irish saint.

At the time of O'Donovan's visit, it measured 75 feet long and 18 broad, "It is the largest parish churcy of the period to which it must be referred, that I have yet seen in Ireland ... The greater part of the two side walls is destroyed, but the two gables, which are 75 feet asunder are in good preservation. The oldest tombstone in this church is a monument to William O'Tressy, who died in the year 16-4."

St. Imor's well was situated at the side of the road immediately beside the church.

See also

 Íomar of the Sogain

References

 Ordnance Survey Letters Galway 1838 and 1839, pp. 182–183, ed. Michael Herity, MRIA, FourMasters Press, Dublin, 2009.

People from County Galway
5th-century Irish people
6th-century Irish people
Medieval saints of Connacht

Íomar Fir Bolg


Museums Galleries Scotland, formerly the Scottish Museums Council, is the National Development Body for the museum sector in Scotland. It offers support to 400 museums and galleries, ranging from small local museums to larger regional and national museums.

It acts as the representative for the sector, promoting its work to the public, stakeholders and the Scottish Government. This involves speaking on behalf of the sector and showing that museums and galleries are not only custodians of Scotland's rich and diverse history, but also have a lot to contribute to modern society. Its core work involves supporting and enabling the sector to meet their objectives in a number of ways, including though strategic investment, advice, advocacy and skills development opportunities.

See also
List of museums in Scotland

References

External links
Museums Galleries Scotland website

Art museums and galleries in Scotland
Organisations based in Edinburgh
Lobbying organisations in the United Kingdom

Museums Galleries Scotland


Brian Stuart Johnston (born 13 November 1958 in Dunedoo, New South Wales) is an Australian former rugby league footballer and administrator. He played with the St George Dragons and represented for the Australian national rugby league team on one occasion. Johnston's position of choice was  but his speed also saw him play on the , especially in representative teams.

Career
An athletic speedster who played Colts for Eastern Suburbs RUFC while studying at the Institute of Technology in Sydney, Johnston signed with St George in 1980 and played for New South Wales in the State of Origin series on eight occasions between 1984–1989. He represented in the centres or at wing for the Blues in all three games of the 1987 State of Origin series plus the 4th 'exhibition' game played in Los Angeles. He was also selected for one game in the 1984, 1985 and 1986 Origin series. After missing the 1988 series, Johnston was recalled for Game 3 of the 1989 State of Origin series in what would be his final representative appearance.

Injury and form lapses caused Johnston to miss a place in St. George's 1985 Grand Final side which went down 6–7 to the Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs, although he did play in the reserve grade grand final win against Canberra. Johnston was considered unlucky not to tour with the 1986 Kangaroos.

Brian Johnston played in his only test for Australia in 1987, coming off the reserves bench in Australia's shock 6–13 loss to New Zealand at Lang Park in Brisbane.

Johnston assumed the St George captaincy in 1989 but retired at the beginning of the 1990 season because of injury.

He was awarded Life Membership of the St. George Dragons club in 1990.

Administrative career

After football, he became St George's chief executive officer in 1996. He was named Australian Test manager for the 1999 ANZAC Test. Johnston drew criticism of his handling of the sacking of Craig Gower for misbehaviour in the week before the Test. He resigned in 1999 because of ill health.

References

Sources
Encyclopedia of Rugby League Players, St George/Illawarra edition, Alan Whiticker & Glen Hudson

Australian rugby league players
St. George Dragons players
New South Wales Rugby League State of Origin players
Australia national rugby league team players
Country New South Wales rugby league team players
Country New South Wales Origin rugby league team players
Australian chief executives
Australian rugby league administrators
1958 births
Living people
Rugby league centres
Rugby league wingers
People from the Central West (New South Wales)

Brian Johnston (rugby league)


The Domus Aurea (Latin, "Golden House") was a vast landscaped complex built by the Emperor Nero largely on the Oppian Hill in the heart of ancient Rome after the great fire in 64 AD had destroyed a large part of the city.

It replaced and extended his Domus Transitoria that he had built as his first palace complex on the site.

History

Construction began after the great fire of 64 and was nearly completed before Nero's death in 68, a remarkably short time for such an enormous project. Nero took great interest in every detail of the project, according to Tacitus, and oversaw the engineer-architects, Celer and Severus, who were also responsible for the attempted navigable canal with which Nero hoped to link Misenum with Lake Avernus.

Emperor Otho and possibly Titus allotted money to finish at least the structure on the Oppian Hill; this continued to be inhabited, notably by emperor Vitellius in 69 but only after falling ill, until it was destroyed in a fire under Trajan in 104.

A symbol of decadence that caused severe embarrassment to Nero's successors, the Domus Aurea was stripped of its marble, jewels, and ivory within a decade. Although the Oppian villa continued to be inhabited for some years, soon after Nero's death other parts of the palace and grounds, encompassing 2.6 km2 (c. 1 mi2), were filled with earth and built over: the Baths of Titus were already being built on part of the site, probably the private baths, in 79 AD. On the site of the lake, in the middle of the palace grounds, Vespasian built the Flavian Amphitheatre, which could be flooded at will, with the Colossus of Nero beside it. The Baths of Trajan, and the Temple of Venus and Roma were also built on the site. Within 40 years, the palace was obliterated. Paradoxically, this ensured the wall paintings' survival by protecting them from moisture.

Rediscovery

When a young Roman inadvertently fell through a cleft in the Esquiline hillside at the end of the 15th century, he found himself in a strange cave or grotto filled with painted figures. Soon the young artists of Rome were having themselves let down on boards knotted to ropes to see for themselves. The Fourth Style frescoes that were uncovered then have faded now, but the effect of these freshly rediscovered grotesque decorations () was electrifying in the early Renaissance, which was just arriving in Rome.

When Raphael and Michelangelo crawled underground and were let down shafts to study them, the paintings were a revelation of the true world of antiquity. Beside the graffiti signatures of later tourists like Casanova and the Marquis de Sade scratched into a fresco inches apart (British Archaeology June 1999), are the autographs of Domenico Ghirlandaio, Martin van Heemskerck, and Filippino Lippi.

The frescoes' effect on Renaissance artists was instant and profound (it can be seen most obviously in Raphael's decoration for the loggias in the Vatican), and the white walls, delicate swags, and bands of frieze—framed reserves containing figures or landscapes—have returned at intervals ever since, notably in late 18th century Neoclassicism, making Famulus one of the most influential painters in the history of art.

20th century to present

Discovery of the pavilion led to the arrival of moisture starting the slow, inevitable process of decay; humidity sometimes reaches 90% inside the Domus. Heavy rain was blamed for the collapse of a chunk of ceiling. The presence of trees in the park above was causing further damage.

The weight of earth on the Domus was also causing a problem. Increasing concerns about the condition of the building resulted in its closing at the end of 2005 for further restoration work. The complex was partially reopened in 2007, but closed in 2008 because of safety concerns.

On March 30, 2010,  of the vault of a gallery collapsed.

The Domus reopened in 2014.

Construction

Suetonius claims this of Nero and the Domus Aurea:
When the edifice was finished in this style and he dedicated it, he deigned to say nothing more in the way of approval than that he had at last begun to live like a human being.

The Domus Aurea complex covered parts of the slopes of the Palatine, Oppian, and Caelian hills, with an artificial lake in the marshy valley. The area of the estate can only be approximated, as much of it has not been excavated. Some scholars place it at more than , while others estimate its size to have been less than . Suetonius describes the complex as "ruinously prodigal" as it included groves of trees, pastures with flocks, vineyards, and an artificial lake—rus in urbe, "countryside in the city".
Nero's main residence remained the imperial palaces of the Palatine, while the pavilion on the Oppian was used when he preferred to remain in the horti, and the buildings with vestibulum and stagnum were used for feasts, where he received the people of Rome.

To supply his lake in the valley between the Palatine, Oppian, and Caelian, Nero diverted water from the Aqua Claudia by a specially built branch aqueduct known as the Arcus Neroniani. This extended 2 km west from the Claudia to the southern side of the Caelian Hill.

He also built a nymphaeum on the eastern side of the Caelian, visible across the valley from the pavilion, and against the eastern  wall of the unfinished Temple of Claudius. The nymphaeum was made up of tiered columns and semicircular and rectangular niches; it would have contained a large sculptural group at the centre. Archaeological excavations confirm that the water cascaded from the top of the nymphaeum down into 4 basins. The aqueduct fed the nymphaeum and ultimately the lake.

Nero also commissioned from the Greek Zenodorus a colossal 35.5 m (120 RF) high bronze statue of him, the Colossus Neronis. Pliny the Elder, however, puts its height at only 30.3 m (106.5 RF). The statue was placed just outside the main palace entrance at the terminus of the Via Appia in a large atrium of porticoes that divided the city from the private villa. This statue may have represented Nero as the sun god Sol, as Pliny saw some resemblance. This idea is widely accepted among scholars, but some are convinced that Nero was not identified with Sol while he was alive. The face of the statue was modified shortly after Nero's death during Vespasian's reign to make it truly a statue of Sol. Hadrian moved it, with the help of the architect Decrianus and 24 elephants, to a position next to the Flavian Amphitheater. This building took the name "Colosseum" in the Middle Ages, after the statue nearby, or, as some historians believe, because of the sheer size of the building.

Palace on the Palatine

The main part of the palace was probably on the Palatine Hill and a large and brilliantly decorated set of rooms has been located in the central part of the hill under the Palace of Domitian. This site was excavated in 1721 when considerable damage was done during the excavations. The lower floors contained sunken gardens, two pavilions and an art gallery.

In one of these rooms is a rich marble floor found under the oval fountain room of Domitian's Cenatio Iovis, and a rich nymphaeum with marble columns and bronze capitals. Today one corner of the nymphaeum has been rebuilt.

The cryptoporticus of Nero that connected the palace with the nearby Domus Tiberiana was also part of the complex. It is 130 m long with mosaic floors and elaborate stucco ceiling decoration with vegetal elements and cupids. It lies beneath the Horti Farnesiani along one side of the Domus Tiberiana.

The possible remains of Nero's rotating banquet hall and its underlying mechanism were unveiled by archaeologists on September 29, 2009.

Today, one of the best-preserved parts of the palace is the block of 50 communal toilets which would have been used by slaves and workers in Nero's time.

Pavilion on the Oppian Hill

The Golden House building (pavilion) on the Oppian Hill (part of the Esquiline Hill) was extended from Nero's earlier Domus Transitoria and designed mainly as a place of entertainment, as shown by the presence of 300 rooms with few sleeping quarters.

Rooms sheathed in dazzling polished white marble with paintings above had richly varied floor plans, complete with niches and exedras that concentrated or dispersed the daylight. There were pools in the floors and fountains splashing in the corridors.

The building plan is divided into two parts: the western one is simple and classic in design, characterised by perpendicular axes and built around a large rectangular courtyard, which opened towards the valley and the lake. The eastern part is of a much richer design with two of the principal dining rooms flanking an octagonal court, surmounted by a dome with a giant central oculus to let in light. It was an early use of Roman concrete construction.

It also had an upper floor on the same level as the hill against which it rested (to the north). The surviving parts of this floor are preserved only to a height of 30/60 cm, and the thickness of the walls was also reduced to 40/50 cm so that it was a much less monumental body than the lower floor.

During renovation works at the end of 2018, experts discovered a barrel-vaulted room (room 72) richly decorated with panthers, centaurs, the god Pan, and a sphinx, believed to have been built between 65 and 68 AD. The frescoes were of similar style to those in the cryptoporticus (room 92) which allows attribution to the so-called "A" workshop.

The octagonal room

The octagonal room was a masterpiece of Roman architecture and overlooked a xystus a track to watch gymnastic competitions, and the immense park. The lower part of the dome follows a pattern of octagonal segments (like Brunelleschi 's dome of S. Maria del Fiore in Florence), while the upper part assumes a circular shape.

This domed room was a triclinium, where the emperor manifested himself as divine, through the effects of light that the dome filtered, assimilating himself to the god Apollo. It was built on the model of the cenatio praecipua rotunda (dining room whose ceiling constantly revolved like the heavens) which Carandini and Fraioli position in the pavilion. The ceiling of the octagonal hall could probably rotate by means of a mechanism created by Celer and Severus and similar to a millstone which, hooked to the uncovered tracks along the edge of the central opening, was moved by slaves. Perfume was sprayed and rose petals were dropped on the assembled diners. According to some accounts, perhaps embellished by Nero's political enemies, on one occasion such quantities of rose petals were dropped that one unlucky guest was asphyxiated (a similar story is told of the emperor Elagabalus).

On the sides of the octagonal room there were two apartments: the "room of Achilles in Skyros" and the "room of Hector and Andromache", judged from their paintings. The side spaces served both as passageways and as buttress elements for the dome; These spaces were accessed through large openings surmounted by brick courses. This was probably one of the models from which the famous dome of the Pantheon drew inspiration: it is in fact an early example of the use of the cementitious technique, which had been developed by the Romans from the second century BC for the development of large and articulated interior spaces.

Decoration
The extensive gold leaf that gave the palace its name was not the only extravagant element of its decor: stuccoed ceilings were faced with semi-precious stones and ivory veneers, while the walls were frescoed, coordinating the decoration into different themes in each major group of rooms. Pliny the Elder watched it being built and mentions it in his Naturalis Historia.

One innovation was destined to have an enormous influence on the art of the future: Nero placed mosaics, previously restricted to floors, in the vaulted ceilings. Only fragments have survived, but that technique was to be copied extensively, eventually ending up as a fundamental feature of Christian art: the apse mosaics that decorate so many churches in Rome, Ravenna, Sicily, and Constantinople.

Frescoes covered every surface that was not more richly finished. The main artist was Famulus (or Fabulus according to some sources). Fresco technique, working on damp plaster, demands a speedy and sure touch: Famulus and assistants from his studio covered a spectacular amount of wall area with frescoes. Pliny, in his Natural History, recounts how Famulus went for only a few hours each day to the Golden House, to work while the light was best. The swiftness of Famulus's execution gives a wonderful unity and astonishing delicacy to his compositions.

Pliny the Elder presents Amulius as one of the principal painters of the domus aurea:
"More recently, lived Amulius, a grave and serious personage, but a painter in the florid style. By this artist there was a Minerva, which had the appearance of always looking at the spectators, from whatever point it was viewed. He only painted a few hours each day, and then with the greatest gravity, for he always kept the toga on, even when in the midst of his implements. The Golden Palace of Nero was the prison-house of this artist's productions, and hence it is that there are so few of them to be seen elsewhere."

See also
Ancient Roman architecture
List of ancient monuments in Rome

Notes

Sources

 Pliny, C. Secundus (c. 77). Natural History.

 Spartianus, Aelius (117-284). Historia Augusta: The Life of Hadrian.

External links
 Great Buildings on-line: Domus Aurea
 Virtual reconstruction in 3D of the Domus Aurea

68
Houses completed in the 1st century
Buildings and structures demolished in the 1st century
60s establishments in the Roman Empire
1st-century disestablishments in the Roman Empire
15th-century archaeological discoveries
Archaeological discoveries in Italy
Julio-Claudian dynasty
Ancient palaces in Rome
Nero
Rome R. I Monti
National museums of Italy
Demolished buildings and structures in Rome
Colosseum

Domus Aurea