Actinic cheilitis  is cheilitis (lip inflammation) caused by long term sunlight exposure. Essentially it is a burn, and a variant of actinic keratosis which occurs on the lip. It is a premalignant condition, as it can develop into squamous cell carcinoma (a type of mouth cancer).

Signs and symptoms
AC almost always affects the lower lip and only rarely the upper lip, probably because the lower lip is more exposed to the sun. In the unusual cases reported where it affects the upper lip, this may be due to upper lip prominence. The commissures (corners of the mouth) are not usually involved.

Affected individuals may experience symptoms such as a dry sensation and cracking of the lips.
It is usually painless and persistent.

The appearance is variable. White lesions indicate hyperkeratosis. Red, erosive or ulcerative lesions indicate atrophy, loss of epithelium and inflammation. Early, acute lesions may be erythematous (red) and edematous (swollen). With months and years of sun exposure, the lesion becomes chronic and may be grey-white in color and appear dry, scaly and wrinkled.

There is thickening whitish discoloration of the lip at the border of the lip and skin.   There is also a loss of the usually sharp border between the red of the lip and the normal skin, known as the vermillion border. The lip may become scaly and indurated as AC progresses.

When palpated, the lip may have a texture similar to rubbing the gloved finger along sandpaper.

AC may occur with skin lesions of actinic keratosis or skin cancer elsewhere, particularly on the head and neck since these are the most sun exposed areas. Rarely it may represent a genetic susceptibility to light damage (e.g. xeroderma pigmentosum or actinic prurigo).

Causes
AC is caused by chronic and excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation in sunlight.

Risk factors include:

 Outdoor lifestyle: e.g. farmers, sailors, fishermen, windsurfers, mountaineers, golfers, etc. This has given rise to synonyms for this condition such as "sailor's lip" and "farmer's lip". The prevalence in agricultural workers in a semi-arid region of Brazil is reported to be 16.7%.
 Light skin complexion: the condition typically affects individuals with lighter skin tones, particularly Caucasians living in tropical regions. In one report, 96% of persons with AC had phenotype II according to the Fitzpatrick scale.
 Age: AC typically affects older individuals, and rarely those under the age of 45.
 Gender: the condition affects males more commonly than females. Sometimes this ratio is reported as high as 10:1.

Additional factors may also play a role, including tobacco use, lip irritation, poor oral hygiene, and ill-fitting dentures.

Diagnosis
Tissue biopsy is indicated.

Prevention
To prevent AC from developing, protective measures could be undertaken such as avoiding mid-day sun, or use of a broad-brimmed hat, lip balm with anti UVA and UVB ingredients (e.g. para-aminobenzoic acid), or sun blocking agents (e.g. zinc oxide, titanium oxide) prior to sun exposure.

Treatment
This condition is considered premalignant because it may lead to squamous cell carcinoma in about 10% of all cases.  It is not possible to predict which cases will progress into SCC, so the current consensus is that all lesions should be treated.

Treatment options include 5-fluorouracil, imiquimod, scalpel vermillionectomy, chemical peel, electrosurgery, and carbon dioxide laser vaporization.  These curative treatments attempt to destroy or remove the damaged epithelium.  All methods are associated with some degree of pain, edema, and a relatively low rate of recurrence.

Medication
Topical 5-fluorouracil (5-FU, Efudex, Carac) has been shown to be an effective therapy for diffuse, but minor actinic cheilitis.  5-fluorouracil works by blocking DNA synthesis. Cells that are rapidly growing need more DNA, so they accumulate more 5-fluorouracil, resulting in their death.  Normal skin is much less affected.  The treatment usually takes 2–4 weeks depending on the response.  The typical response includes an inflammatory phase, followed by redness, burning, oozing, and finally erosion.  Treatment is stopped when ulceration and crusting appear.  There is minimal scarring.  Complete clearance has been reported in about 50% of patients.

Imiquimod (Aldara) is an immune response modifier that has been studied for the treatment of actinic cheilitis.  It promotes an immune response in the skin leading to apoptosis (death) of the tumor cells. It causes the epidermis to be invaded by macrophages, which leads to epidermal erosion. T-cells are also activated as a result of imiquimod treatment. Imiquimod appears to promote an "immune memory" that reduces the recurrence of lesions. There is minimal scarring.  Complete clearance has been demonstrated in up to 45% of patients with actinic keratoses.  However, the dose and duration of therapy, as well as the long-term efficacy, still need to be established in the treatment of actinic cheilitis.

Procedures
Both cryosurgery and electrosurgery are effective choices for small areas of actinic cheilitis.  Cryosurgery is accomplished by applying liquid nitrogen in an open spraying technique.  Local anesthesia is not required, but treatment of the entire lip can be quite painful.  Cure rates in excess of 96% have been reported.  Cryosurgery is the treatment of choice for focal areas of actinic cheilitis.  Electrosurgery is an alternate treatment, but local anesthesia is required, making it less practical than cryosurgery.  With both techniques, adjacent tissue damage can delay healing and promote scar formation.

More extensive or recurring areas of actinic cheilitis may be treated with either a shave vermillionectomy or a carbon dioxide laser.  The shave vemillionectomy removes a portion of the vermillion border but leaves the underlying muscle intact.  Considerable bleeding can occur during the procedure due to the vascular nature of the lip.  A linear scar may also form after treatment, but this can usually be minimized with massage and steroids.  Healing time is short, and effectiveness is very high.

A newer procedure uses a carbon dioxide laser to ablate the vermillion border.  This treatment is relatively quick and easy to perform, but it requires a skilled operator.  Anesthesia is usually required. Secondary infection and scarring can occur with laser ablation.  In most cases, the scar is minimal, and responds well to steroids.  Pain can be a progressive problem during the healing phase, which can last three weeks or more.  However, the carbon dioxide laser also offers a very high success rate, with very few recurrences.

Chemical peeling with 50% trichloroacetic acid has also been evaluated, but results have been poor. Healing usually takes 7–10 days with very few side effects.  However, limited studies show that the success rate may be lower than 30%.

Epidemiology
It is a common condition.

References

External links

Lip disorders
Conditions of the mucous membranes

Actinic cheilitis


Operation Hush was a British plan to make amphibious landings on the Belgian coast in 1917 during the First World War, supported by an attack from Nieuwpoort and the Yser bridgehead, positions which were a legacy of the Battle of the Yser in 1914. Several plans were considered in 1915 and 1916, then shelved due to operations elsewhere. Operation Hush was intended to begin when the Third Battle of Ypres, the main offensive at Ypres, had advanced to Roulers, Koekelare and Thourout, linked by advances by the French and Belgian armies in between.

 (Operation Beach Party) was a German spoiling attack, conducted on 10 July by , in anticipation of an Allied coastal operation. The Germans used mustard gas for the first time, supported by a mass of heavy artillery, captured part of the bridgehead over the Yser and annihilated two British infantry battalions. After several postponements, Operation Hush was cancelled on 14 October 1917, as the advance at Ypres did not meet the objectives required to begin the attack.

In April 1918, the Dover Patrol raided Zeebrugge to sink block ships in the canal entrance to trap U-boats, which closed the canal for a short time. From September to October 1918, the Belgian coast was occupied by the Allies during the Fifth Battle of Ypres.

Background

Strategic developments

The German occupation of the Belgian coast in 1914 caused the Admiralty swiftly to advocate their removal. On 26 October 1914 the First Lord, Winston Churchill wrote to Sir John French, commander of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) "We must have him off the Belgian coast". Churchill offered naval fire support for an army operation and French adopted the idea for the main effort of 1915. The army would advance between Dixmude and the sea while the navy provided bombardments and a surprise landing near Zeebrugge. The plan was cancelled by the British government in favour of the Gallipoli Campaign.

In early 1916 the idea of a coastal attack was revived and talks began between Sir Douglas Haig the new BEF commander-in-chief and Rear Admiral Reginald Bacon, commander of the Dover Patrol. Haig appointed Lieutenant-General Aylmer Hunter-Weston, who had commanded the 29th Division and then VIII Corps at Gallipoli, to work with Bacon on the plan. An offensive from Ypres and the landing operation in support of it, superseded an offensive on the coast. Bacon proposed to land  from six monitors and  in Ostend harbour, with decoys towards Zeebrugge and Middelkirke as a coastal assault began from Nieuwpoort. Hunter-Weston rejected the plan because it was an attack on too narrow a front. Ostend harbour was in range of German heavy guns and the exits from the harbour were easy to block. Bacon began work on a new plan for a beach landing near Middelkirke, which incorporated Hunter-Weston's recommendations and Haig's desire for tanks to be used in the landings.

The Battle of the Somme in 1916 forced Haig to postpone an offensive in Flanders until 1917 and the coastal attack depended on retaining the Yser bridgehead, because the river was deep, tidal and  wide. Lieutenant-Colonel Norman MacMullen (GSO I) and a small planning group formed in January 1917 at General Headquarters (GHQ), recommended that the operation should not begin until a general advance from Ypres had reached Roulers, which Haig accepted. A coastal offensive was to be conducted if one of three conditions were met, that the offensive at Ypres had prompted a collapse in the German defence, if the Germans took troops from the coast to replace losses in a long battle in the Ypres area or if the Allied advance at Ypres had reached Passchendaele ridge and the Fifth Army was advancing on Roulers (now Roeselare) and Thourout (now Torhout).

Tactics

To land troops swiftly, retaining the benefit of surprise, Bacon designed flat-bottomed craft which could land on beaches. The pontoons were , specially built and lashed between pairs of monitors. Men, guns, wagons, ambulances, boxcars, motorcars, handcarts, bicycles, Stokes mortar carts and sidecars, plus two male tanks and one female tank, were to be embarked on each monitor.  and the other monitors would push the pontoons up the beach, the tanks would drive off, pulling sledges full of equipment, climb the sea-walls (an incline of about 30°), surmount a large projecting coping-stone at the top and then haul the rest of their load over the wall.

The Belgian architect who had designed the wall was a refugee in France and supplied his drawings. A replica was built at Merlimont and a detachment of tanks under Major Bingham rehearsed on it, using "shoes" on the tank tracks and special detachable steel ramps carried by the tanks, until they could climb the wall. In experiments on the Thames Estuary, the pontoons performed exceptionally well, riding out very bad weather and being easier to manoeuvre than expected, leading to hopes that they could be used again after the initial assault to land reinforcements. Night landings were also practised, with wire stretched between buoys to guide the pontoons to within  of their landing place.

After  (Operation Beach Party), a German spoiling attack, 52 Squadron Royal Flying Corps (RFC) and the Fourth Balloon Wing, developed III Wing methods of co-operation during artillery observation, by having balloon observers direct preliminary ranging until shells were landing close to a target, then handing over to the aeroplane observer for the final corrections of aim. When the air observer had ranged the guns, the balloon observer took over again. The new method economised on aircrew and had the advantage of telephone communication between the ground and the balloon, since aircraft wireless could only transmit.

Air co-operation with Royal Engineer sound ranging was also practised. A line of microphones were connected to a receiving station further back and activated by a forward observer. Air observers routinely sent "NF" by wireless and a position report when German batteries were seen to be firing; German shelling often cut off the ground observer from contact with the rear, the sound-ranging station was equipped with a wireless receiver and used receipt of "NF", to activate the sound ranging apparatus. The device could also be used to identify the position of German artillery when the air observer was unable accurately to indicate the position of the guns; balloon observers also assisted the ranging section by reporting gun flashes.

Prelude

British preparations

The Third (Corps) Wing of IV Brigade RFC moved north with XV Corps in June and was temporarily made an independent mixed command, responsible for army co-operation and defence when the line was taken over from the French. By 10 July the Fourteenth (Army) Wing of IV Brigade had arrived, the brigade taking responsibility for reconnaissance in the area Keyem (now Keiem), Ichtergem, Bruges, Blankenberghe (now Blankenberge), Oost and Dunkirk Bains until 13 July, then Keyem, Oostcamp, Zeebrugge, Oost and Dunkirk Bains, while Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) units reconnoitred as required. The offensive patrol front was from Stuyvekenskerke (now Stuivekenskerke) to Oost and Dunkirk Bains and by RNAS aircraft north of Nieuwpoort to  west of Dunkirk. RNAS aircraft conducted night-bombing sorties in the area Dixmude, Thourout, Ghent, Retranchement and Nieuwpoort Bains. The 9th (Headquarters) Wing acted as a mobile reserve on the Flanders front.

When the XV Corps (Lieutenant-General Sir John Du Cane) took over from the 29th and 133rd divisions of the XXXVI Corps () on the coast on 20 June. The British artillery was held back as the French would only allow their infantry to be covered by French guns. The French position had three defensive areas, St Georges on the right (inland) side almost surrounded by water, at the junction with the Belgian army (which held the line for  south to Nordschoote), the Lombartzyde area (now Lombardsijde) in the centre, with inundations on either side and Nieuwpoort Bains on the left to the coast, either side of the Geleide Brook. The sectors were linked across the inundations by bridges and isolated from the rear by the Yser and Dunkirk canals, crossed by floating-barrel bridges called Richmond, Kew and Mortlake near Nieuwpoort Bains and Barnes, Putney and Vauxhall bridges near Nieuwpoort. A permanent roadway crossed lock gates east of Nieuwpoort and another bridge named Crowder was built later near Nieuwpoort. In the centre of the front was a  stretch with no crossing over the Yser; no man's land was  wide. There was very little cover for artillery in the area and machine-guns were vulnerable to stoppages from wind-blown sand.

The 1st Division (Major-General Peter Strickland and the 32nd Division (Major-General Cameron Shute) took over and had only limited artillery support for several days, until the British artillery had completed the relief. Du Cane ordered that the positions were to be held at all costs but the main French defences had been built in the south bank and the bridgehead, which was  deep from St Georges to the coast, had been held as an outpost. Three breastworks gave limited protection from artillery-fire and there were no underground shelters for reserves. Tunnellers began work on dugouts in the sand dunes but few had been completed by early July. A defence plan for the bridgehead was issued on 28 June, relying mainly on artillery but of  in the Fourth Army, only  arrived by 8 July, the remainder being with the First and Second armies, in support of operations towards Lens and Lille, due to arrive by 15 July. On the night of  German aircraft bombed the main British aerodrome at Bray-Dunes near Dunkirk, caused nine casualties and damaged twelve aircraft. Reconnaissance flights by IV Brigade RFC and the RNAS aircraft were hampered from  by ground mist and clouds down to . Vague reports of increased activity behind the German front had been received but a special flight early on 8 July found nothing, despite the unusual amount of movement, as the Germans prepared to attack; on 9 July all aircraft were grounded by bad weather.

British plan

A landing operation would begin at dawn under the command of Rear-Admiral Bacon and an army division in three parties of about  each, would disembark on the beaches near Middelkirke, covered by a naval bombardment and a smoke screen generated by eighty small vessels. Trawlers would carry telephone cable ashore and tanks would disembark from the landing pontoons and climb the sea-wall to cover the infantry landing. The infantry would have four 13-pounder guns and two light howitzers and each wing of the landing had a motor machine-gun battery. For mobility, each landing party had more than  and three motorbikes. Three landing sites were chosen, at Westende Bains,  behind the German second line; another site  beyond the German third line and a third landing  beyond that at Middelkirke Bains, to cut off the German artillery's line of retreat around Westende, turn the German second and third positions and advance inland as far as possible.

The northern landing brigade was to send a flying column with specialist engineers to Raversyde, to destroy the German artillery battery there and then advance east or south-east, to threaten the German withdrawal route to the south and isolate Ostend. All the landing forces were to rush inland towards Leffinghe and Slype, occupy bridges over the Plasschendaele canal and road junctions nearby. Extra transport would move with the two XV Corps divisions advancing from Nieuwpoort. XV Corps would break out of the Nieuwpoort bridgehead between St. Georges and the coast, with a barrage from  with naval guns in support over a  front. A  advance would be followed by a one-hour pause. Four similar advances over six hours would take the land attack to Middelkirke, where it would link with the landing force, keeping three divisions in reserve. The German defence was expected to have two brigades in the first two defence lines as the attack began. The plan was approved by Haig on 18 June and the 1st Division was chosen to make the coastal landing.

German preparations
On 19 June a patrol from the 3rd Marine Division captured eleven soldiers of the British 32nd Division which, with increased artillery and air activity, was taken by Admiral  the commander of  and , as a sign that the British contemplated a coastal operation.  (Operation Beach Party) a spoiling attack by the reinforced 3rd Marine Division with the 199th Division in reserve, was planned to capture ground east of the Yser, from Lombartzijde creek to the sea, led by the Guard Corps commander General Ferdinand von Quast, who took over  on 30 June. Parts of the 3rd Marine Division was withdrawn during the second half of June to rehearse an attack by frontal assault, with covering fire from eleven torpedo boats off the coast; artillery reinforcements with  of ammunition were moved to the coast.

In June 1917 Krupp completed the construction of   at Koekelare with , the biggest gun of the world, an adaptation of its  type. The gun played an important part in the German defence of Flanders and was used to bombard Dunkirk  distant, to stop the unloading of supplies and was sometimes used for diversionary operations. The gun fired its first shell at Dunkirk on 27 June; during the Third Battle of Ypres the gun was also used to shell Ypres.

(Operation Beach Party, also the Battle of the Dunes) began with a German artillery bombardment on 6 July, though not of an intensity sufficient to suggest an attack. The dawn of 9 July was wet and stormy;  was postponed for  at  about two hours before zero hour. The next day was overcast, with a strong wind and the bombardment increased at  The British floating bridges near the coast were destroyed and near Nieuwpoort, only one bridge and the lock-bridge remained intact. By  telephone and wireless contact with the British front was lost. The shelling was heaviest from the Geleide Brook to the coast, held by the 2nd Brigade of the 1st Division. By  the two British battalions had been cut off. Before noon all the German artillery and mortars began firing, except for twenty-minute periods at   and  for observation. The breastworks on the British side were only  high and  thick and collapsed immediately. Sand clogged the defenders' small-arms and the Germans used Yellow Cross (mustard gas) and Blue Cross gas shells for the first time, mainly for counter-battery fire, which reduced the British artillery to a "feeble" reply.

German aircraft made low-altitude strafing attacks and by late afternoon, the British troops on the west bank of the Yser were pinned down. The British artillery defence plan was implemented, with one-hour bombardments of German trench lines at   and  which were ineffective against German concrete shelters. The German artillery had a  in numbers and to conceal their presence, many British guns had not registered, only  into action. At  Marine regiments 1 and 2 of the 3rd Marine Division, with the 199th Division in support, attacked on a front of  between Lombartzyde and the sea, with an outflanking attack along the sea shore.

The main attack advanced in five waves, close behind a creeping barrage. Groups of the specialist   (assault detachment) made up the first wave and advanced to the third breastwork, overwhelmed the defenders and moved forward to the Yser bank after a short pause. The second wave overran the British troops at the second breastwork and then dug in at the third breastwork; the third wave advanced to the Yser bank to reinforce the first wave and set up machine-gun nests. The fourth wave carried engineer stores for consolidation and moppers-up with flame-throwers dealt with the British survivors in the first breastwork, then advanced to the third breastwork, as the fifth wave took over the second breastwork.

In twenty minutes German troops reached the river bank and isolated the British parties still resisting,  having already been killed or wounded by the artillery bombardment,

and at  British observers on the far bank saw troops holding out near the Northamptonshire battalion headquarters. A counter-attack was attempted by troops of the Rifle Corps battalion before the troops opposite were overrun. By  the captured position was consolidated and some of the blocked British dugouts were excavated by the Germans to rescue the occupants. All of the British garrison in the bridgehead was lost and more than  were taken; about forty British troops managed to swim the Yser where they were caught in the German bombardment. German casualties were about  Overnight  from the two infantry battalions and four from the 2nd Australian Tunnelling Company swam the river, having hid in tunnels until dark. Further inland in the 32nd Division area from the Geleide Brook to St. Georges, the 97th Brigade was attacked. The German advance stopped at the second breastwork, which had been made the objective as the ground behind could be easily flooded; a counter-attack overnight by the garrison and some reinforcements regained the position, except for  near Geleide Brook. On 10 July, German smoke-screens, low cloud and fighter attacks made air observation very difficult but some new German battery positions were detected. The front line was plotted from the air late on 10 July and early on 11 July. An extra flight was transferred to 52 Squadron for artillery observation of the great concentration of German guns but when British aircraft began to direct artillery-fire, they found that the Germans had put smoke generators around the main batteries to conceal them.

Aftermath

Analysis

Admiral Roger Keyes thought that the operation was doomed to fail and Admiral John Jellicoe expected a great success. Despite the demands of the battles at Ypres, Haig kept XV Corps on the coast throughout, ready to exploit a general withdrawal by the 4th Army. Haig resisted suggestions to launch the operation independently, wanting it to be synchronised with the advance on Roulers, which loomed in early October but did not occur until a year later. In 1936, J. F. C. Fuller, a former staff officer of the Heavy Branch Machine Gun Corps, called the scheme "a crack-brained one, a kind of mechanical Gallipoli affair". When in the area in 1933, Fuller had found that the sea-walls were partially covered in a fine green seaweed, which the tanks might not have been able to scale.

In 1996, Robin Prior and Trevor Wilson wrote that the amphibious part of the plan was extremely risky, given the slow speed of the monitors and the pontoons having no armour. A German mobile force was on hand as a precaution and the area could be flooded. In 1997, Andrew Wiest called the plan an imaginative way to return to a war of movement, foreshadowing the amphibious warfare of the Second World War and a credit to Haig but that his refusal to agree to a landing independent of events at Ypres, showed that he had overestimated the possibility of a German collapse. In 2008, J. P. Harris wrote that the German spoiling attack demonstrated that the decline of the German armies in France had been exaggerated and that the War Cabinet neglected to question Haig more rigorously, after he had assured them that the reverse was due to local factors.

Subsequent operations

On 11 July Rawlinson ordered that lost ground be recovered by outflanking the new German line along the canal in the Dunes sector. Du Cane noted that instant counter-attacks made on local initiative usually succeeded, while those ordered later by higher authority were too late to exploit disorganisation among the attackers; adequate preparation and a methodical attack was necessary. The remainder of the bridgehead was constricted, the German artillery reinforcements were still present and after a successful counter-attack, British troops would be vulnerable to another German operation.

Du Cane wanted to wait until the rest of the British artillery arrived and the main offensive at Ypres had begun. Rawlinson accepted Du Cane's views and counter-attacks planned for 12 July by the 32nd Division were cancelled. The 33rd Division was moved to the coast in August and took over from Nieuwpoort to Lombartsyde, spending three weeks in the line, under night bombing and gas shelling. Two of the 33rd Division battalions were kilted Scottish and suffered severely from mustard gas burns, until equipped with undergarments.

To keep British preparations secret, crews from 52 Squadron RFC and the 1st Division were segregated on 16 July, at Le Clipon, a camp enclosed by barbed wire and a story was put about that it was in quarantine. The 1st Division artillery was reduced to three 18-pounder batteries and nine tanks, two cyclist battalions, a motor machine-gun battery and a machine-gun company. It was planned to create three brigade columns, each of which would embark on two monitors,  being carried by the pontoon lashed between the monitors. Special fighter patrols were arranged to keep German reconnaissance aircraft away from training areas and arrangements were made for early warning of German aircraft approaching Dunkirk, fighters standing by to intercept them.

Operation Hush was revised to incorporate the cancelled counter-attack plan; the attack on Lombartzyde would begin from the ground still held north of the Yser, by the 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division and a flank attack shortly after from the Geleide Brook to the coast. The attack up the coast and the landings were left unchanged. Haig accepted the plan on 18 July, to go ahead on 8 August (the operation was postponed several times before it was cancelled). On 24 August, the 33rd Division raided German outposts on the Geleide Brook, killed "many" Germans and took nine prisoners, for a loss of one killed and sixteen wounded. Next day the Germans retaliated by recapturing the easternmost post and on 26 August, fired fifteen super-heavy shells into Nieuwpoort, demolishing the 19th Brigade headquarters. The division was withdrawn from the coastal sector in early September.

The presence of two British divisions in the coastal sector convinced the German commanders that the danger of a British coastal offensive remained. The best tidal conditions for a landing would occur again on 18 August and the Fifth Army made its second general attack at Ypres on 16 August at the Battle of Langemarck, partly to meet the postponed landing date but failed to advance far in the most vital sector, leading to another postponement to 6 September. At a meeting on 22 August, Haig, Rawlinson and Bacon discussed three alternatives, another postponement of the coastal operation, conducting the operation independently or moving the divisions from XV Corps to the Fifth Army.

Rawlinson favoured an independent operation, which he thought would get as far as Middelkirke, bringing Ostend into artillery-range, which would make the Germans counter-attack, despite the pressure being exerted on them at Ypres. Bacon wanted the area between Westende and Middelkirke to be occupied so that 15-inch naval guns would be within range of Bruges  away and Zeebrugge  distant. The Zeebrugge–Bruges canal would also be in range and its locks could be destroyed. Haig rejected the proposal and the September operation was postponed, this time for a night landing under a full moon in the first week of October, unless the situation at Ypres changed sooner.

In September, Rawlinson and Bacon became pessimistic and Haig postponed the operation again but told them to be ready for the second week of October. The 42nd (East Lancashire) Division moved from Ypres, relieved the 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division in late September and found that the area was under frequent German artillery-fire, bombing and gas attacks. The coastal sector was also beneath the flight path of German Gotha bombers attacking Dunkirk, which was attacked on twenty-three nights in September. Hopes rose after the Battle of Broodseinde (4 October) and again after the Battle of Poelcappelle (9 October), although the coastal operation could not start before the end of the month.

After the First Battle of Passchendaele (12 October), Hush was cancelled; on 14 October, Rawlinson wrote, "...things have not been running at all smoothly – it is now clear that we shall do nothing on the coast here". The 1st Division left the camp at Le Clipon on 21 October and the rest of the Fourth Army followed on 3 November. On 23 April 1918, the Dover Patrol conducted the Zeebrugge Raid and sank block ships in the canal entrance to stop U-boats leaving port. The Belgian Army and the British Second Army began the Fifth Battle of Ypres on 28 September 1918 and on 17 October, Ostend was captured.

See also

 Dover Patrol
 Zeebrugge Raid
 First Ostend Raid
 Second Ostend Raid

Notes

Footnotes

References

Further reading

  First published as Wielding the Dagger: The Marinekorps Flandern and the German War Effort, 1914–1918 (2003) Praeger, (Contributions in Military Studies: 226), New York

External links

 Michelin – The Yser and the Belgian Coast
 Great War chemical weapons.
 Mustard Gas
 Psychological effect of Chemical Weapons
 The 2nd Australian Tunnelling Company in the Affair at Nieuwpoort
 Operation Hush – planned landing on the Belgian coast – 1917.
 The Dover Patrol 1915–1917 (1919) Bacon, R.

Western Front (World War I)
Conflicts in 1917
1917 in Belgium
Battles of World War I involving France
Battles of World War I involving Germany
Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom
Battles of the Western Front (World War I)
Battle of Passchendaele
Operation Hush
Operation Hush
Amphibious operations involving the United Kingdom
Cancelled military operations of World War I

Operation Hush


John Evans (1693?–1734?), was an actor, who confined his performances to Ireland.

He seems to have had a share in the management of Smock Alley Theatre with Thomas Elrington and Griffith. The only characters associated with his name are Alcibiades in 'Timon of Athens,' Shadwell's alteration from Shakespeare; and Lieutenant Story in 'The Committee, or the Faithful Irishman,' of Sir Robert Howard. These were played about 1715. Evans had a good voice and just delivery, and was an actor in request. He was, however, corpulent and indolent. Playing at Cork 'in the last year of the reign of Queen Anne,' he was invited by some officers then on duty to a tavern, where he proposed the health of the queen. This involved him in a quarrel with an officer of Jacobite views. In a duel which followed Evans disarmed his adversary. Upon his return to Dublin Evans found that the quarrel had been misrepresented, and that he was held to have insulted the army. Permission to continue the play 'The Rival Queens' was refused until Evans had apologised. This he was very reluctantly compelled to do. One of the malcontents bidding him kneel, Evans retorted, 'No, you rascal, I'll kneel to none but God and my queen.'

The affair was afterwards arranged. Hitchcock simply speaks of him as 'a Mr. Evans.' According to Chetwood, three years later than the above incident, Evans went to the theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields, and on the journey back to Ireland was taken ill of a fever at Whitchurch, Shropshire, whence he was carried for better advice to Chester and there died, in the forty-first year of his life, and was privately buried in the cathedral without monument or inscription. These dates, no unusual thing with Chetwood, are irreconcilable with what is elsewhere said concerning Evans.

References

1693 births
1734 deaths
18th-century Irish male actors
Irish male stage actors

John Evans (actor)


"Coming Back Down" is a song by American rap rock band Hollywood Undead. It is the third single from their second full-length album, American Tragedy, and the tenth track on that album. It is the band's ninth overall single in their discography. The track was released as a promotional single and free download on the band's official website on January 11, 2011. It was later released as a single on March 15, along with another single, "Been to Hell". A remix was featured on the band's American Tragedy Redux remix album.

Background
The track was initially sent to radio stations on February 24, 2011, as a promotional single for their second album, American Tragedy. The unofficial track was soon leaked afterwards, with rumors of Kevin Rudolf being a featured artist. It was later revealed Rudolf was a producer for the track along with Jacob Kasher and Jeff Halavacs, with Don Gilmore as executive producer. On March 15, the band released the song as the third official single following "Hear Me Now", with "Been to Hell" also being released as a single the same day. As a video was shot for "Been to Hell", "Coming Back Down" has yet to receive a music video. Lyrically, "Coming Back Down" centers on the story of an unknown loved one who has recently died, with the narrator having difficulty trying to live without them. The chorus is sung by Danny, with the first verse being rapped by J-Dog and the second being rapped by Johnny 3 Tears. Johnny 3 Tears also sings the bridge.

A remix of the song by Beatnick and K-Salaam was included on the 2011 remix album American Tragedy Redux.

Reception
A reviewer for SoCal Music Today praised the song and said that it "tugs at the heart strings as the boys take a step back from aggression to let out some raw emotion". A reviewer for Sputnik Music called the track one of the best moments of the album and felt that the combination of "Coming Back Down" along with "Bullet" and "Levitate" on the album created a "three song knockout". The track was praised for incorporating "acoustic guitars and a chorus that wouldn't sound out of place on an All Time Low album, with a love-lorn summery atmosphere that feels warm and comfortable for the band". Brian Voerding noted that the song showed the band's strength in both singing and rapping while comparing the sound to Linkin Park, noting that, "The song bolsters the outfit as a force in rap rock with its sampled guitar riffs and swirling synths." Voerding also compared the production to that of Kid Rock mixed with pop-punk bands. He concluded by praising the lyrics, saying, "There's a spirituality in the lyrics, swollen with defeat, but rich with yearning. It's an allowance that however dark the day, the following may lighten."

Some reviewers were critical, however. One review from Revolver Magazine called the ballad "the weaker [point] in the record", despite having a positive review for the American Tragedy album as a whole.

Personnel
Hollywood Undead
Charlie Scene – lead guitar, composer
Da Kurlzz – drums, percussion, composer
Danny – clean vocals
Funny Man – composer
J-Dog – keyboards, synthesizers, piano, rhythm guitar, bass guitar, vocals, composer, additional production, engineering
Johnny 3 Tears – vocals, composer

Production
Don Gilmore – executive producer, recording, programming
Kevin Rudolf – producer
Jeff Halavacs – producer
Jacob Kasher – producer

References

2011 singles
Hollywood Undead songs
Songs written by Jacob Kasher
Songs written by Kevin Rudolf
2011 songs
A&M Octone Records singles

Coming Back Down


Laminar flame speed is an intrinsic characteristic of premixed combustible mixtures.  It is the speed at which an un-stretched laminar flame will propagate through a quiescent mixture of unburned reactants.  Laminar flame speed is given the symbol sL.  According to the thermal flame theory of Ernest-François Mallard and Le Chatelier, the un-stretched laminar flame speed is dependent on only three properties of a chemical mixture: the thermal diffusivity of the mixture, the reaction rate of the mixture and the temperature through the flame zone:

 is thermal diffusivity,

 is reaction rate,

and the temperature subscript u is for unburned, b is for burned and i is for ignition temperature.

Laminar flame speed is a property of the mixture (fuel structure, stoichiometry) and thermodynamic conditions upon mixture ignition (pressure, temperature). Turbulent flame speed is a function of the aforementioned parameters, but also heavily depends on the flow field. As flow velocity increases and turbulence is introduced, a flame will begin to wrinkle, then corrugate and eventually the flame front will be broken and transport properties will be enhanced by turbulent eddies in the flame zone. As a result, the flame front of a turbulent flame will propagate at a speed that is not only a function of the mixture's chemical and transport properties but also properties of the flow and turbulence.

See also
 Flame speed
 Chemical kinetics

References

Combustion

Laminar flame speed


Isenburg-Büdingen was a County of southern Hesse, Germany, located in Büdingen. It was originally a part of the County of Isenburg.

There were two different Counties of the same name. The first (1341–1511) was a partition of Isenburg-Cleberg, and was partitioned into Isenburg-Büdingen-Birstein and Isenburg-Ronneburg in 1511. The second (1628–1806) was a partition of Isenburg-Büdingen-Birstein. It was partitioned between itself, Isenburg-Meerholz and Isenburg-Wächtersbach in 1673, and was mediatised to Isenburg in 1806. In 1816 Isenburg was partitioned between the Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt and the Electorate of Hesse-Kassel.

Count Ernest Casimir (1801-1848) was elevated to the rank of prince by Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse, in 1840. Since then, the name of the branch is spelled Ysenburg and Büdingen, to distinguish it from the princes of Isenburg from the Isenburg-Birstein branch.

Counts of Isenburg-Büdingen

See also
Diether von Isenburg, son of Diether I

References

External links
Genealogy

Counties of the Holy Roman Empire

States and territories established in 1341

Isenburg-Büdingen


Aurelio Robotti (1913–1994) was an Air Engineers Corps CO and later professor at the Polytechnic University of Turin, is another of the handful of space pioneers in Italy, particularly in the field of liquid propellants that he started investigating at the end of the 1940s.

Career

While serving in the AE Corps, he began research into rockets and missiles. After leaving ITAF in 1949 he started his own company Te.Co., experimenting with combustion chambers, until he developed a missile program, where missiles bear his own initials, AR. In 1951 he drew plans for a remotely controlled anti-aircraft missile, the AR-1, fuelled by liquid oxygen and ethylic alcohol. He kept studying the performance of nitric acid and aniline as propellants, building a dozen missile models.

On May 9, 1952, his AR-3 was fired from the Pian della Mussa, becoming the first successfully tested Italian-built liquid-fuel missile. AR-3 "flew straight up for hundreds of yards before disappearing behind a hill", as he himself noted somewhat proudly. In 1955 the Italian Air Force Ministry contracted Whitehead-Motofides (FIAT Group) for a supply of AR-15 missiles developed by Robotti. In his many publications he wrote of thermoelectric propulsion, airborne vectors, solar power and underlined the great importance of a Moon Base for the future of astronautics.

Legacy

The asteroid 9796 Robotti was named in his honor. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 31 March 2018 ().

Bibliography
 Franca Giusti, "Aurelio Robotti, omaggio ad un torinese", 2011
 Aurelio Robotti, 1941–1961, venti anni di storia missilistica in Italia, "Missili" Edizioni Italiane, 1962
 Giovanni Caprara, L'Italia nello spazio, Valerio Levi Editore, 1992
 AA.VV., Le attività spaziali italiane dal dopoguerra all'istituzione dell'Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, Agenzia Spaziale Europea

References

Engineers from Turin
1994 deaths
1913 births
20th-century Italian engineers
Academic staff of the Polytechnic University of Turin

Aurelio Robotti


STS-51 was a NASA Space Shuttle Discovery mission that launched the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) in September 1993. The flight also featured the deployment and retrieval of the SPAS-ORFEUS satellite and its IMAX camera, which captured spectacular footage of Discovery in space. A spacewalk was also performed during the mission to evaluate tools and techniques for the STS-61 Hubble Space Telescope (HST) servicing mission later that year. STS-51 was the first shuttle mission to fly a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver, a Trimble TANS Quadrex. It was mounted in an overhead window where limited field of view (FoV) and signal attenuation from the glass severely impacted receiver performance. Full triple-redundant 3-string GPS would not happen until 14 years later with STS-118 in 2007.

Crew

Launch Preparations

STS-51 was notable for having been scrubbed three times on the launchpad, each time after the crew had boarded the spacecraft:

 On July 17, 1993, the launch was scrubbed on the pad due to a flaw in the pyrotechnic initiator controller that triggers the release of the solid rocket boosters from the mobile launcher platform.
 On July 24, 1993, problems with a hydraulic power unit in one of the solid rocket boosters caused another scrub on the pad. Because of the Perseids meteor shower, the next launch window did not open until the second week of August 1993.
 On August 12, 1993, the count reached the T−3 second mark, at which point the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSMEs) had ignited. A shutdown was then triggered by faulty fuel flow sensors in one of the SSMEs.
 STS-51 was successfully launched on September 12, 1993.

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS)

The Advanced Communications Technology Satellite was deployed on flight day 1. This satellite served as a test bed for advanced experimental communications satellite concepts and technology. Its Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS) upper stage fired on time 45 minutes after deployment and boosted the satellite to geosynchronous orbit on the first day of the mission.

The first attempt to deploy ACTS was delayed by the crew when two-way communications were lost with Mission Control Center (MCC) about 30 minutes before the deploy time. Flight controllers could receive telemetry and voice communications from Discovery, however the crew could not receive communications from the ground. The crew waived off the 2:43 p.m. CDT deploy when they did not receive a "go" from MCC as called for in preflight plans made for just such an occurrence. After the waive off of deploy, the crew changed the shuttle's S-Band communications system to a lower frequency and restored two-way communications with the ground. The two-way communications had been lost for a total of about 45 minutes. After consulting the crew, flight controllers began immediately planning for the second, and ultimately successful deploy.

During the deployment on September 12, 1993, two Super*Zip explosive cords in the Airborne Support Equipment cradle (ASE) designed to release the spacecraft, one primary and the other a backup, simultaneously detonated. This caused minor tears in two dozen insulation blankets mounted on the bulkhead between the payload bay and the AFT near the #3 APU. The ASE ring holding the TOS was damaged as well, and ejected debris was visible as the stack moved away from the orbiter.

The Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS), a significant activity of the NASA Space Communications Program, provided for the development and flight test of high-risk advanced communications satellite technology. Using multiple spot beam antennas and advanced on-board switching and processing systems, ACTS pioneered new initiatives in communications satellite technology. NASA Glenn Research Center was responsible for the development, management, and operation of ACTS as part of a long legacy of experimental communications satellites.

After fulfilling its original mission as a key part of the ACTS Gigabit Satellite Network, the spacecraft continued operations through a partnership between the space agency and a nonprofit consortium. It was shut down April 28, 2004, after funding dried up. The satellite was put into a flat spin with its solar array edges facing the Sun, which should theoretically prevent it from ever being restarted. The spacecraft was moved to its final graveyard orbit at 105.2° west longitude – where it poses minimal risk to other satellites – after NASA concluded in 2000 that it probably lacked the fuel to move to a higher graveyard orbit. Nevertheless, ACTS should not re-enter the atmosphere for thousands of years, according to Richard Krawczyk, the ACTS operations manager at Glenn Research Center.

SPAS-ORFEUS

Another payload on this mission was the Orbiting Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer (ORFEUS) telescope mounted on the Shuttle Pallet Satellite (SPAS) payload carrier. ORFEUS was designed to provide information on how stars are born and how they die, while studying gaseous interstellar clouds. Also in the cargo bay was the Limited Duration space environment Candidate materials Exposure (LDCE).

Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB) began development of the SPAS carrier (flown previously on STS-7, STS-41-B, and STS-39) in 1986 into a free-flying astronomical platform. The DARA/NASA agreement called for four co-operative science missions, with Deutsche Agentur für Raumfahrtangelegenheiten (DARA) providing the satellite, NASA the Shuttle launch and deployment/retrieval services, and the two parties sharing the science instruments. NASA provided the Shuttle free of charge, in return for access to data and the inclusion of U.S. experiments. ORFEUS, the Orbiting Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer, designed to measure radiation between 400 and 1280 angstroms, was released at 14:06 UTC, on September 13, 1993, and was retrieved at 11:50 UTC, on September 19, 1993. Science contributions came from the University of Tübingen, Sternwarte Heidelberg, University of California, Berkeley and Princeton University (IMPAS). ORFEUS' telescope was fabricated by Kayser-Threde in Germany; France's REOSC provided the  f/2.5 mirror. The separate 950–1150 Å Interstellar Medium Absorption Profile Spectrograph (IMAPS) added to the observations of hot galactic objects and the interstellar medium at high spectral resolution (240,000). Other payloads were Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR's) Surface Effective Sample Monitor and Canada's IMAX Cargo Bay Camera, which was used to film Discovery in orbit for the IMAX film Destiny in Space. A portion of this footage was also included in Space Station 3D. This was the fourth flight of the SPAS platform, of a total of seven during the space shuttle program. The SPAS-ORFEUS version was reflown on mission STS-80 in 1996.

Extravehicular activity (EVA)

On September 16, 1993, spacewalkers James H. Newman and Carl E. Walz performed an extravehicular activity (EVA) designed to evaluate tools, tethers and a foot restraint platform. Their findings reassured the designers and planners of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) servicing flight that their preparations were sound. This was the third and final shuttle mission to include a preparatory EVA in response to the weaknesses in EVA training exposed by the STS-49 mission. The new equipment tested during the extensive spacewalk would later be required for the December 1993
Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission, and was only part of the objectives of the spacewalk, with Newman and Walz fulfilling the other goals as they explained at length to Mission Control Center the differences they perceived between work in orbit and ground training. The two EVA crewmen were ahead of schedule much of the day, and completed more tasks than originally planned. As the two astronauts were cleaning up, a balky tool box lid slowed them down when they had to pry it free and close it for Discoverys trip home. The toolbox lid stretched the spacewalk by about 45 minutes over what had been planned, with Newman and Walz logging a total seven hours, five minutes, and twenty-eight seconds of time outside the vehicle. This was the 112th EVA performed in the history of human spaceflight.

Spacewalk
  Newman and Walz  – EVA 1
 EVA 1 Start: September 16, 1993 – 08:40 UTC
 EVA 1 End: September 16, 1993 – 15:45 UTC
 Duration: 7 hours 5 minutes

Secondary experiments
In-cabin payloads included the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS), the Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B), the Commercial Protein Crystal Growth (CPCG), Chromosome and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), High Resolution Shuttle Glow Spectroscopy (HRSGS-A), IMAX, Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) and the Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III) experiment. The Investigation into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP), is designed to research the mixing of various solvent systems in the absence of convection found on Earth in hopes of controlling the porosity of various polymer membranes. RME measures gamma ray, electron, neutron and proton radiation levels in the crew cabin throughout the flight.

On board, Mission specialist James Newman donned a special visor to perform a medical experiment testing vision in weightlessness as part of investigations into how vision compensates for the inner ear's lack of balance in space. Newman also successfully tested a Global Positioning System receiver flying aboard Discovery as an evaluation of using such equipment to supplement the shuttle's navigation. Also, in a precursor of space station operations, one of Discoverys fuel cells was turned off and restarted.

In another medical evaluation, Commander Frank Culbertson and Mission specialist Daniel Bursch rode a stationary bike on Discoverys lower deck as part of a continuing study of using exercise to counteract the effects of weightlessness on the body. The crew also powered up an experiment that looks at improving membrane filters in weightlessness and checked on another experiment that has been running well studying the effects of microgravity on plant cells.

Astronauts Carl Walz and Jim Newman operated the experiments designed to study the glowing effect, one a spectrometer that records the effect on film in fine detail and another that records the effect on still photographs. The experiments are hoped to provide information about just what types of gases – in addition to atomic oxygen – create the glow. The information on kinds of gases in the extreme reaches of the atmosphere may be coupled with the materials exposure experiment in the cargo bay to assist with the design and construction of future spacecraft.

Mission insignia
The five white stars and one yellow star of the insignia symbolize the flight's numerical designation in the Space Transportation System's mission sequence. The insignia also depicts the triangular SPAS-ORFEUS on the right.

Documentary
The crew of STS-51 were followed by a camera crew from Channel 4 from the United Kingdom from the day they were assigned to the flight and then through their training and, finally, the mission itself. The documentary of this crew is called "Space Shuttle Discovery" and it was narrated by Heather Couper. It was released in 1993.

See also

 List of human spaceflights
 List of Space Shuttle missions
 Outline of space science
 Space Shuttle

References

 http://www.space.com/spacenews/archive04/actsarch_051004.html

External links
 NASA mission summary
 STS-51 Video Highlights

Space Shuttle missions
Spacecraft launched in 1993

STS-51


Fornes (second syllable stressed) is the dialect native to Forni di Sopra and Forni di Sotto, two villages which, from 1300 to 1700 AD, were governed separately from the surrounding areas by the Savorgnani family of Venice and known as 'I Forni Savorgnani'.

As the two villages are 9 km (over 5 miles) from each other and there was traditionally poor communication in the snowy months of the year, these villages' dialects diverged and are still markedly different both from each other and from the language spoken further down the mountains (Friulian).
According to studies by some institutions  which study Ladin languages these two dialects moved away from Friulian to become 'Raetic-Dolomitic-Ladin' similar to Ladin languages spoken in Grisons, Switzerland, while keeping Friulian characteristics..

To give one example, the word sheep (plural) translates as las minas in Forni di Sopra, lis fedis in Forni di Sotto, and lis pioris in Friuli. For comparison, the Italian is le pecore.

References

Languages of Friuli-Venezia Giulia
Friulian language
Ladin language
Rhaeto-Romance languages

Fornes dialects


Danger - Love at Work is a 1937 American romantic comedy movie directed by Otto Preminger and starring Ann Sothern, Jack Haley, Edward Everett Horton, Mary Boland, John Carradine, Walter Catlett, Benny Bartlett, Maurice Cass, Charles Coleman. It was distributed by 20th Century Fox.

Other websites

1937 romantic comedy movies
American romantic comedy movies
20th Century Fox movies
Movies directed by Otto Preminger

Danger - Love at Work


Michael Rock is an American graphic designer and recipient of the National Design Award.

Biography

Rock received his B.A. in Humanities from Union College in 1981, before going on to receive his M.F.A. in Graphic Design from the Rhode Island School of Design.

In 1994, Rock, alongside designers Susan Sellers and Georgianna Stout, founded 2x4, a design firm based in New York City.

He is currently the Director of the Graphic Architecture Project at Columbia University's Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation. He is also a member of the graphic design faculty at the Yale School of Art.

Recognition

Rock is the recipient of the 1999 Rome Prize in Design, and in 2006, was awarded the National Design Award.

As winner of the National Design Award, Rock was invited with other winners to the White House. Rock gained notoriety as one of the signers of a letter to the White House declining the invitation. Also signing the letter were co-winners Susan Sellers, Georgianna Stout, Paula Scher, and Stefan Sagmeister.

References

External links
 2x4 website

American graphic designers
Living people
Rhode Island School of Design faculty
Columbia Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation faculty
Year of birth missing (living people)

Michael Rock (graphic designer)


Nicholas Krushenick (May 31, 1929 – February 5, 1999) was an American abstract painter, collagist and printmaker whose mature artistic style straddled Pop Art, Op Art, Minimalism and Color Field. He was active in the New York art scene from the mid-1950s to the mid-1970s, before he began focusing his time as a professor at the University of Maryland. Initially experimenting with a more derivative Abstract Expressionist style, by the mid-1960s he had developed his own unique approach, painting increasingly decisive compositions marked by bold, colorful, geometric fields and forms simultaneously flattened and amplified by strong black outlines, in a style that eventually became known as Pop abstraction. In 1984, the biographical dictionary World Artists, 1950-1980 observed that Krushenick "has been called the only truly abstract Pop painter." Today, as other artists have been carefully folded into the same paradoxical genre, Krushenick is not only considered a singular figure within that style but also its pioneer, earning him the title "the father of Pop abstraction."

Biography

Born in New York City in 1929 into a working-class family, Krushenick dropped out of high school, served in World War II, worked on constructing the Major Deegan Expressway, and then enrolled in art school with the help of the GI Bill, attending the Art Students League of New York (1948–1950) and the Hans Hofmann School of Fine Art (1950–1951). In the early 1950s, Krushenick supported himself and his family by designing window displays for department stores and working for the Whitney and Metropolitan museums and the Museum of Modern Art.

From April 21 to May 10, 1956, Krushenick showed his work to the public for the first time during The Brothers Krushenick: Paintings - Glassprints - Collages, a joint exhibition with his older brother, John Krushenick, at the Camino Gallery co-op to which the pair belonged. Nicholas's first solo show, titled Nicholas Krushenick: Recent Paintings, debuted at the same gallery on January 25, 1957.

Later that year, having become frustrated with the internal politics of Camino, the brothers left and opened a framing shop in a nearby storefront, which quickly turned into the artists' cooperative Brata Gallery. Nicholas later recounted that it was John who devised the name, from the Russian "brata" meaning "brothers." Along with Camino and others, Brata became one of the now-famed 10th Street galleries, which nurtured and galvanized experimental artists by allowing them to sidestep the conservative uptown galleries that had dominated and, from a certain point of view, stifled the New York arts scene. With members including Al Held, Ronald Bladen, Ed Clark, Yayoi Kusama, and George Sugarman, Brata was "one of the most significant of the Tenth Street cooperatives which for a time were the most important launching pads for new artists." Nicholas exhibited solo shows at Brata in 1958 and 1960.

After leaving Brata in 1962, Krushenick gave solo shows at New York City's Graham Gallery in 1962 and 1964 and Fischbach Gallery in 1965. In 1966 came his first solo effort in Europe, at Galerie Müller in Stuttgart, Germany. In 1967, he gave solo shows in New York City and Paris as well as in Detroit, Michigan, and Vienna, Austria, while also receiving a fine arts fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim Foundation. In 1968, the Center Opera Company of the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis, Minnesota, commissioned him to design the sets and costumes for a production of The Man in the Moon, held in conjunction with a large survey of his works at the center. Solo exhibitions at Harcus-Krakow Gallery in Boston, Massachusetts, and Galerie Renée Ziegler in Zurich, Switzerland, soon followed. In 1969, on the heels of another solo at Pace Gallery, Krushenick was the Fall term Artist-In-Residence at Dartmouth College's Hopkins Center for the Arts, where he mentored students and created new works, culminating in an exhibition of paintings and prints at the college's Jaffe-Friede Gallery. Earlier that year, he had served as a visiting critic at Yale University, and in years past, he had accepted invitations to work as a visiting artist at the School of Visual Arts in New York, the University of Wisconsin in Madison, and others.

Along the way, Krushenick's work appeared in seminal midcentury group exhibitions at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and the Art Gallery of Toronto in 1964; at New York's Whitney Museum of American Art and Museum of Modern Art, as well as Washington DC's Corcoran Gallery of Art, in 1965; at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in 1966; and as part of the United States Pavilion at the 1967 World's Fair, a.k.a. Expo 67, held in Montreal, Canada. Despite finding acceptance at major institutions and inclusion among the most celebrated artists of the time, Krushenick viewed himself, with some satisfaction, as an outsider. As he told the curator and art historian Paul Cummings during an interview in 1968, critics and other observers have "never really pigeonholed me... Like I'm out in left field all by myself. And that's just where I want to stay."

Between his primary pursuit of painting and tertiary collage practice, Krushenick pursued a keen interest in printmaking. The companion book to Graphicstudio: Contemporary Art from the Collaborative Workshop at the University of South Florida, a 1991 exhibition at the National Gallery of Art, notes that "Krushenick began to experiment with screenprinting in the late 1950s and became an active printmaker by the mid-1960s," including during a 1965 fellowship at the Tamarind Lithography Workshop in Los Angeles (which has since moved to Albuquerque, New Mexico, and been rebranded as the Tamarind Institute). At Tamarind, "he completed twenty-two lithographs during his two-month tenure," which, still featuring the more organic and undulating forms that marked Krushenick's earliest mature paintings, can be viewed here. In 1967, working with the famed Domberger serigraphy studio, the artist produced his R3-67 portfolio, a suite of a dozen screenprints that, taking advantage of serigraphy's capacity for bright color, are significantly more vibrant and yet refined compared to the Tamarind suite and track Krushenick's broader shift toward clean, consistent line execution. The following year, published by Pace Editions and produced at Domberger, Krushenick produced his Iron Butterfly portfolio, a suite of 10 similarly vivid and composed screenprints, half of which can be viewed here. In 1970 at Graphicstudio, Krushenick briefly returned to lithography, producing works embracing straight lines and angular, "more architectonic" forms. In his 1971 Fire-Flash-Five-Fade suite of six serigraphs, Krushenick compresses and sharpens his trademark black lines into jagged bolts of electricity or shark's teeth.

In the mid-1970s, Krushenick began spiritually withdrawing from the New York art scene from which he'd already physically departed. He then embarked, after many visiting stints at various institutions during the prior decade, on his only long-term engagement as an educator, serving as a professor at the University of Maryland, College Park from 1977 to 1991. Though he never stopped producing new paintings, his prominence in the New York and global art scenes faded away over time. But he still had champions, including the New York-based outsider curator Mitchell Algus and his Mitchell Algus Gallery, which held two exhibitions of Krushenick's work, in 1997 and in 1999. The latter occurred after Krushenick died of liver cancer in New York on February 5, 1999, at age 69. As of 2021, at least ten posthumous solo exhibitions have helped spur renewed interest in Krushenick's work and legacy. Two of those exhibitions—at Gary Snyder Gallery in New York and the Frances Young Tang Teaching Museum and Art Gallery at Skidmore College, respectively—prompted major literary treatments: John Yau's Nicholas Krushenick: A Survey (2011) and Ian Berry's Nicholas Krushenick: Electric Soup (2016).

Artistic Style

Krushenick was part of a generation that at first emulated and soon rebelled against Abstract Expressionism, the dominant painting movement in post-war America. This rebellion would eventually drive that style out of fashion, leading to numerous simultaneous movements that continue to interest artists, critics, historians and collectors today. Krushenick landed somewhere between them all, both embracing and rejecting elements of many styles considered distinct, including Pop Art, Op Art, Minimalism, and Color Field. Some of his early inspirations were Henri Matisse, J. M. W. Turner, Henri Rousseau, Fernand Léger, Alexander Calder, Claes Oldenburg and his eventual friend Roy Lichtenstein.

In 1956, when he gave his first public showing in a group exhibition, Krushenick's paintings were muddy and imprecise. Yet he was already starting to poise discernible shapes and masses next to each other in a manner that one critic seems to have misinterpreted as a "Cubist persuasion." Not a year later, on the occasion of his first solo show in 1957, another critic resisted the temptation to classify the work, content to observe Krushenick's "methodically painted strands or streamers which, varying from canvas to canvas in color, width and tensility, advance upon a rival host with similar properties or thrustingly explore an open space or solid color. The mutations on view are dramatically potent, flamboyantly so in the large canvases where black stalactites prong downward into yellow, or black fingers undulate from the bottom."

In 1959, Krushenick discarded what he called the "dirty kitchen" look of oil paints and replaced it with the "delicious" electricity of Liquitex acrylics, which had just become commercially available. Having an immediate effect on the brightness and saturation of his paintings as well as the precision with which he could render them, this could be considered the pivotal moment of Krushenick's career. Following this change, his paintings start to feature clear black lines framing both the painting itself and the individual forms within it, albeit via a wobblier, curvier, messier approach than the more precise compositions to come.

In 1965, one art critic, Vivien Raynor, observed that Krushenick "is now beginning to look Pop. Whether this is because he anticipated the movement and now looks more official, or because he's using acrylic colors, or simply because everyone to an extent becomes a victim of the audience's compulsion to organize artists into groups, I can't tell." Yet it is important to note that only his palette resembled Pop art. His subject matter made no references to pop culture; indeed, it made no overt reference to recognizable objects at all. However, his increasingly monumental works did find inspiration in cartoon illustration, and many critics interpreted the subject matter as more or less covertly sexual—often as vulvar and penetrative.

By this time, Krushenick had begun to home in on a more exacting style, obscuring the visibility of the artist's hand. At first he did this with the aid of extensive drawings that became like maquettes for the painting. Over time, these drawings would become less precise and, instead, he'd rely on using tape directly on the canvas surface. By 1967, his style had become noticeably tighter, without losing its emotionality. As John Perreault observed in a feature story that year, "In spite of the hard black, coloring-book lines that divide one shape or super-color from another, the neat flatness, and the often symmetrical composition, these paintings are systematic visual manifestations of the emotionally organic, executed with cool precision, but conceived with great gusto. The raucous candy-cane stripes that Krushenick uses as the basic device of his abstractions do not 'contain' the painting." To correct Perreault on one point, Krushenick's paintings are rarely if ever symmetrical, though, in some cases, it's an easy mistake to make.

In the mid-1970s, when Krushenick began to withdraw from the New York art world and his vision began to falter, he turned his focus towards education. But his painting continued. By this time, his style had evolved quite a bit. Long gone were the feathery, curvilinear forms of the mid-1960s. Now the implicit and explicit form of the grid took precedence on his canvases, almost like a prescient depiction of the boom in technology that would soon arrive. As Corinne Robins noted in 1975, "The new paintings, like the old, have a tonal feeling; but now, rather than the blare of trumpets, the buzz of an IBM machine making crazy computations comes to mind." Into the 1980s, his paintings would retreat in precision as well as in color, marked by flurries of cartoonish, confetti-like ribbons amid cool grays, blues and pinks. By the end of that decade and the start of a new one, yellow began to dominate Krushenick's work, with a renewed attention to intricate details playing out across smaller canvases. From the early 1960s to the late 1990s, perhaps the one through line is the black lines themselves, delineating Krushenick's forms while uniting his works.

See also
Pop Art
Hard-edge painting
New York School
Tenth street galleries

References

External links
Nicholas Krushenick at Garth Greenan Gallery
Nicholas Krushenick in the National Gallery of Australia's Kenneth Tyler collection

1929 births
1999 deaths
Artists from the Bronx
20th-century American painters
American male painters
American contemporary painters
American pop artists
Art Students League of New York alumni
People from Ridgefield, Connecticut
Painters from New York City
20th-century American printmakers
20th-century American male artists

Nicholas Krushenick


Lokenath Bal () (8 March 1908 – 4 September 1964) was an Indian independence activist and a member of the armed resistance movement led by Surya Sen, which carried out the Chittagong armoury raid in 1930. Later, he joined the Indian National Congress. After the Indian independence, he worked as an administrative officer in the Calcutta Corporation till his death.

Early life and independence movement
Lokenath Bal was born in Dhorla village of Chittagong District in Bengal Province of British India. His father's name was Prankrishna Bal. On 18 April 1930, a group of revolutionaries led by him took over the AFI armoury. Later, on 22 April 1930, he led another gunfight with a combined forces comprising the British army and the British police. His younger brother Harigopal Bal (Tegra) and another 11 revolutionaries died in this gunfight. He was able to escape and reach Chandernagore, a French territory. He and Ganesh Ghosh were arrested on 1 September 1930 after a gunfight with the British police. Jiban Ghoshal alias Makhan, his young associate died in this gunfight. He was sentenced to transportation for life on 1 March 1932 and sent to the Cellular Jail in Port Blair. After his release in 1946, he joined the Radical Democratic Party founded by Manabendra Nath Roy. Later, he joined the Indian National Congress.

Post independence
Bal was the second deputy commissioner of the Calcutta Corporation from 1 May 1952 to 19 July 1962. He was promoted to its first deputy commissioner on 20 July 1962 and remained in office till his death in Calcutta on 4 September 1964.His son, Dr Himadri Bal did his MBBS from Kolkata and joined Indian Army. He became a renowned gynaecolgist of the Indian Armed Forces and was posted to several teaching hospitals in the Armed Forces Medical Services including the prestigiousArmed Forces Medical College Pune. He retired as a Colonel form the Army in 2015 and is teaching in a local Medical College in Pune as Professor in Obstetrics and Gynaecology.

References

Indian revolutionaries
Indian independence armed struggle activists
1908 births
1964 deaths
People from West Bengal

Lokenath Bal


How Jesus Became Christian (New York: St. Martin's Press; Toronto, Random House; London, Orion Publishing) is a 2008 book by the Canadian historian and philosopher of religion, Barrie Wilson, which suggests a "cover-up hypothesis" to explain why the religion that evolved from Jesus was so different from what Jesus himself taught and practised.

The historical analymethodes how a human Jewish teacher claiming to be the Messiah became the dying-rising God-human savior of humanity. In the book, Wilson advances "the Jesus Cover-Up" hypothesis, contending that the theology of Paul covered the teachings of Jesus and those of his first followers, the Jesus Movement led by Jesus' brother James. Wilson shows in detail how Paul's theology differs from them in terms of origin, teaching and practice.

Having claimed that Paul's religion differs from that of Jesus and his first followers, Wilson argues that the covering up takes place within the Book of Acts. In this late first-century writing, Paul's non-Torah-observant movement becomes grafted on to a Torah-observant one, the so-called Council of Jerusalem being an important step in this development. Thus a new model of Christian origins is proposed, that Paul's was a separate religion, with different beliefs and practices than those of Jesus' first followers. This new religion, one with a different origin, becomes attached to the one that first emanated from Jesus. Thus a Jewish religion focused on the Kingdom of God and the messianic era is transformed into a Gentile one that worships a dying-rising saviour God-human. The shift involves moving the focus from the message to the messenger.

Wilson also notes that the Book of Acts represents an influential work of historical revisionism, noting that it is the one work of the Bible that we can compare to something else to judge accuracy. In this case, we can compare what Paul says about himself with what the unknown author of the Book of Acts says about him. The former represents the Paul of history, the latter the mythologized Paul. The discrepancies between the two are significant as the author of Acts tries to downplay the enmity that existed between Paul and James.

The book also traces the evolution of Christian appropriation of Jewish symbols and beliefs as well as the rise of Christian anti-semitism.

How Jesus Became Christian was shortlisted for the Cundill Prize in History. In 2009 the book received the Tanenbaum Award in History at the Canadian Jewish Book Awards.

References

External links

Books about ancient Christianity
Books critical of Christianity
2008 non-fiction books

How Jesus Became Christian


The 1960 Treaty of Alliance was an international agreement regarding the control and administration of Cyprus. It was signed by the governments of Greece, Turkey and Cyprus in Nicosia in August 1960.

Terms
Cyprus attained independence from the United Kingdom on 16 August 1960 through the Zürich and London Agreement. The Treaty of Alliance was a simultaneous attempt to defuse the dangerous Cyprus dispute between Greece and Turkey.

A major element of the treaty was its specification of the exact number of Greek and Turkish troops that could remain in the new Republic of Cyprus. Small numbers of troops were permitted to provide local defense: Greece was allowed 950 personnel, and Turkey was allowed 650. The treaty also stipulated the formation of a Cypriot National Guard which would include both Greek and Turkish recruits.

A pledge to form a joint military headquarters among Greek, Turkish and Cypriot armed forces was included in the treaty, but the plan was never realised.

The treaty was augmented by the concomitant Treaty of Guarantee (1960), signed by Greece, Turkey and the United Kingdom. The three powers reserved the right to act unilaterally, but the Treaty of Guarantee committed them to consult one another in any Cyprus-related crisis and to attempt to forge a unified course of action.

References

Further reading
 The Cyprus Issue: A Documentary History, 1878-2006, Murat Metin Hakkim, ed. New York: I.B. Tauris (2008). .

External links
 Articles of the Treaty of Alliance at Cypnet.co.uk.

1960 in Cyprus
Treaties concluded in 1960
Treaties entered into force in 1960
Treaties of Turkey
Treaties of the Kingdom of Greece
Treaties of Cyprus

Treaty of Alliance (1960)


Gatorade is a brand of sports-themed food and beverage products, built around its signature product: a line of sports drinks. Gatorade is currently manufactured by PepsiCo, distributed in over 80 countries. The beverage was first developed in 1965 by researchers at the University of Florida, to replenish the combination of water, carbohydrates, and electrolytes that the school's student-athletes lost (in sweat) during rigorous athletic competitions. Its name was derived from the collective nickname of the university's athletic teams, "the Gators".

Originally produced and marketed by Stokely-Van Camp, the Gatorade brand was purchased by the Quaker Oats Company in 1983, who was bought out by PepsiCo in 2001. As of 2010, Gatorade is PepsiCo's 4th-largest brand, on the basis of worldwide annual retail sales. It primarily competes with Coca-Cola's Powerade and Vitaminwater brands worldwide; plus, Lucozade Sport in the United Kingdom. Within the United States, Gatorade accounts for approximately 75 percent market share in the sports drink category.

Other flavours
There are many other flavours of Gatorade, including:
 Original Lemon-lime
 Fruit punch
 Grape
 Orange
 Cool Blue

Advertising and endorsements
Gatorade is the official sports drink of NASCAR, the National Football League, Major League Baseball, National Basketball Association, Women's National Basketball Association, USA Basketball, National Hockey League, Association of Volleyball Professionals, US Soccer Federation, Major League Soccer, and other professional and collegiate athletic organizations, providing supplies of the drinks to sponsored teams in some cases. Distribution was extended to include the U.K. in 2008, coinciding with an agreement designating Gatorade as the official sports drink of the Chelsea F.C. Gatorade's 1991 "Be Like Mike" ads featured Michael Jordan of the Chicago Bulls, a North American basketball team which had just won its first National Basketball Association championship at the time. The ads began airing in August 1991 and the phrase "Be Like Mike" became household lingo in America. In more recent years, the Gatorade brand has continued to employ professional sports athletes in the promotion of its products. Primary endorsers in the 2000s have included Major League Baseball player Derek Jeter, National Hockey League player Sidney Crosby, National Basketball Association player Dwyane Wade, PGA Tour golfer Tiger Woods, and National Football League quarterback Peyton Manning. Gatorade is the official sports drink of Viva Entertainment's home video affiliate, Viva Video, Inc.

In popular culture
Gatorade has been the subject of substantial media attention and reference in popular culture situations, most of which are in relation to team or individual athletic sports. The most notable and ongoing presence of Gatorade in popular culture is the Gatorade shower, originally called the "Gatorade Dunk," where players from a victorious team pick up the Gatorade cooler, sneak up behind the head coach, and pour the contents of the cooler (generally Gatorade and ice) over his head at the end of an American football game. This tradition was popularized in the mid-1980s when Harry Carson and Jim Burt, of the New York Giants, doused head coach Bill Parcells during the 1985 season. Burt's teammates picked up on this practice and popularized it during the team's championship season of 1986-87. The tradition has since become a recurring tradition across other team sports.

Gatorade has also achieved status as the cliché representative for sports drinks in American media, for example, in the film Clerks, the character Dante is at one point forced to give free Gatorade to his hockey teammates, and in the film The Waterboy, Adam Sandler is told that "the water sucks" and that Gatorade is superior.

References

Other websites
Gatorade
Soft drinks

Gatorade


Robert Morris (February 9, 1931 – November 28, 2018) was an American sculptor, conceptual artist and writer. He was regarded as having been one of the most prominent theorists of Minimalism along with Donald Judd, but also made important contributions to the development of performance art, land art, the Process Art movement, and installation art. Morris lived and worked in New York. In 2013 as part of the October Files, MIT Press published a volume on Morris, examining his work and influence, edited by Julia Bryan-Wilson.

Early life and education
Born in Kansas City, Missouri to Robert O. Morris and Lora "Pearl" Schrock Morris.  Between 1948 and 1950, Morris studied engineering at the University of Kansas. He then studied art at both the University of Kansas and at Kansas City Art Institute as well as philosophy at Reed College . He interrupted his studies in 1951-52 to serve with the United States Army Corps of Engineers in Arizona and Korea. He married dancer Simone Forti in 1955 and later divorced in 1962. After moving to New York City in 1959 to study sculpture, he received a master's degree in art history in 1963 from Hunter College.

Work

Initially a painter, Morris' work of the 1950s was influenced by Abstract Expressionism and particularly Jackson Pollock. While living in California, Morris also came into contact with the work of La Monte Young, John Cage, and Warner Jepson with whom he and first wife Simone Forti collaborated. The idea that art making was a record of a performance by the artist (drawn from Hans Namuth's photos of Pollock at work) in the studio led to an interest in dance and choreography. During the 1950s, Morris' furthered his interest in dance while living in San Francisco with his wife, the dancer and choreographer Simone Forti. Morris moved to New York City in 1960. In 1962 where he staged the performance Column at the Living Theater in New York based on the exploration of bodies in space in which an upright square column after a few minutes on stage falls over.

In New York City, Morris began to explore the work of Marcel Duchamp, making conceptual pieces such as Box with the Sound of its Own Making (1961) and Fountain (1963). In 1963 he had an exhibition of Minimal sculptures at the Green Gallery in New York that was written about by Donald Judd. The following year, also at Green Gallery, Morris exhibited a suite of large-scale polyhedron forms constructed from 2 x 4s and gray-painted plywood. In 1964 Morris devised and performed two celebrated performance artworks 21.3 in which he lip syncs to a reading of an essay by Erwin Panofsky and Site with Carolee Schneemann. Morris enrolled at Hunter College in New York (his masters thesis was on the work of Brâncuși) and in 1966 published a series of influential essays "Notes on Sculpture" in Artforum. He exhibited two L Beams in the seminal 1966 exhibit, "Primary Structures" at the Jewish Museum in New York.

In 1967 Morris created Steam, an early piece of Land Art. By the late 1960s Morris was being featured in museum shows in America but his work and writings drew criticism from Clement Greenberg. His work became larger scale taking up the majority of the gallery space with series of modular units or piles of earth and felt. Untitled (Pink Felt) (1970), for example, is composed of dozens of sliced pink industrial felt pieces that have been dropped on the floor. In 1971 Morris designed an exhibition for the Tate Gallery that took up the whole central sculpture gallery with ramps and cubes. He published a photo of himself dressed in S&M gear in an advertisement in Artforum, similar to one by Lynda Benglis, with whom Morris had collaborated on several videos.

He created the Robert Morris Observatory in the Netherlands, a "modern Stonehenge", which identifies the solstices and the equinoxes. It is at coordinates 52°32'58"N 5°33'57"E.

During the later 1970s, Morris switched to figurative work, a move that surprised many of his supporters. Themes of the work were often fear of nuclear war.

In 2002, Morris designed a set of seventeen pale blue and beige-coloured stained-glass windows for the medieval Maguelone Cathedral, near Montpelier in France. The windows, which depict the ripples of a pebble dropped in water, were produced by Ateliers Duchemin glassmakers and placed in restored romanesque window lights around the cathedral building.

At the time of his death in late November 2018 an exhibit of Morris' recent work "Banners and Curses" was on display at the Leo Castelli Gallery in New York City. The exhibition ran through January 25, 2019.  Morris attended the opening night reception for the show at the gallery.

Death
Morris died on November 28, 2018, in Kingston, New York, from pneumonia at the age of 87. He had married Lucile Michels in 1984.  He is survived by his wife Lucile and a daughter Laura Morris.

Artist books
 Hurting Horses, 64 pages, 23,5 x 16,5 cm. Limited edition of 1500 copies. Produced and published in 2005 by mfc-michèle didier.

Writing
 Continuous Project Altered Daily: The Writings of Robert Morris, October Books, MIT Press
 'Notes on Sculpture

Critical reception
In 1974, Robert Morris advertised his display at the Castelli Gallery with a poster showing him bare-chested in sadomasochistic garb. Critic Amelia Jones argued that the body poster was a statement about hyper-masculinity and the stereotypical idea that masculinity equated to homophobia. Through the poster, Morris equated the power of art with that of a physical force, specifically violence.

Robert Morris's art is fundamentally theatrical. (…) his theater is one of negation: negation of the avant-gardist concept of originality, negation of logic and reason, negation of the desire to assign uniform cultural meanings to diverse phenomena; negation of a worldview that distrusts the unfamiliar and the unconventional. (Maurice Berger, Labyrinths: Robert Morris, Minimalism, and the 1960s, p. 3.)

In Morris' book, Continuous Project Altered Daily: The Writings of Robert Morris, the artist includes a collaborative project with the art critic G. Roger Denson in which he lampoons the criticism of his work published over the course of his career up to the early 1990s. The chapter, entitled "Robert Morris Replies to Roger Denson (Or Is That a Mouse in My Paragon?)", lists thirteen questions submitted by Denson, with each question representing the criticism of Morris' work written by a different unnamed critic responding to a specific exhibition, installation, or art work. Instead of answering the questions, Morris has written an elaborate, comically absurd, satirical narrative that in many ways epitomizes the "only possible response" to criticism that had become fashionable in the so-called "demise of criticism" that some writers of the 1980s and 1990s heralded following the "deconstruction of logocentrism" postulated by the post-structuralist theorist Jacques Derrida. As one commentator, Brian Winkenweder, wrote:

"In his reply [to Denson's questions], Morris compartmentalized diverse aspects of his oeuvre into nine, named alter-egos such as Body Bob, Major Minimax, Lil Dahlink Felt, Mirror Stagette, Dirt Macher and Blind. He also appropriated the brick-hurling Ignatz Mouse from George Herriman's comic strip Krazy Kat as rhetorical flourish to enhance his written answers to Denson's questions."

Winkenweder then cites the mockery to which Morris' critics are subjected in his absurdist satire, as bricks are hurled at each of Denson's questions.

"Hey, what's going on, Ignatz? Everybody is rolling on the floor and laughing. I've never seen such a hysterical gang of assassins. What, you read that ticket about our 'new tone of ironic self-reference?' And what? Body Bob threw the I-Box at the Major who then bent Stagette out of shape with the Corner Piece and Blind smeared cup grease on Dirt Macher's … wait a minute, Ignatz. You started this bedlam by throwing bricks at everyone, I bet....Get Body Bob out of that Kraut helmet immediately…No, I did not give it to Lil Dahlink Felt with the Card File. How could you think such a thing, Ignatz? You are so surly today. Why don't I punch my own ticket?" (Morris, 1993, 307).

Exhibitions
Morris' first exhibition of paintings was held in 1958 at the Dilexi Gallery in San Francisco. Numerous museums have hosted solo exhibitions of his work, including the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York (1970), the Art Institute of Chicago (1980), the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago and the Newport Harbor Art Museum (1986), and the Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. (1990). In 1994, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, organized Robert Morris: The Mind/Body Problem, a major retrospective of the artist's work, which traveled to the Deichtorhallen in Hamburg and the Musée National d'Art Moderne in Paris.

Notable works
 Box with the Sound of Its Own Making (1961), Seattle Art Museum
 Untitled (Mirrored Cubes) (1965), Pérez Art Museum Miami
 Steam Work for Bellingham-II (1974), Western Washington University Public Sculpture Collection, Bellingham, Washington
Untitled (L-Beams) (1965), Whitney Museum of American Art, New York
 Labyrinth, 1982 Gori Collection, Italy

Art market
As a conceptual artist, Morris at times contractually removed work from circulation. When a collector, the architect Philip Johnson, did not pay Morris for a work he had ostensibly purchased, the artist drew up a certificate of deauthorization that officially withdrew all aesthetic content from his piece, making it nonexistent as art.

See also
Robert Morris Earthwork

Notes

References
 Berger, Maurice. Labyrinths: Robert Morris, Minimalism, and the 1960s, New York: Harper & Row, 1989
 Busch, Julia M., A Decade of Sculpture: the New Media in the 1960s (The Art Alliance Press: Philadelphia; Associated University Presses: London, 1974)

Further reading
 Nancy Marmer, "Death in Black and White: Robert Morris," Art in America, March 1983, pp. 129–133.

External links

 Guggenheim Robert Morris bio
 Robert Morris, Publicportfolio at columbia.edu
 Robert Morris in the Video Data Bank
 Land Reclamation und Erdmonumente article in German by Thomas Dreher
 Observatory near Lelystad/Oost Flevoland in Netherlands, illustrations
 Allan Kaprow versus Robert Morris. Ansätze zu einer Kunstgeschichte als Mediengeschichte article in German by Thomas Dreher on the competing theories on art by Allan Kaprow and Robert Morris

1931 births
2018 deaths
Artists from Kansas City, Missouri
Reed College alumni
Kansas City Art Institute alumni
Military personnel from Missouri
United States Army Corps of Engineers personnel
20th-century American painters
American male painters
21st-century American painters
Hunter College alumni
University of Kansas alumni
Minimalist artists
20th-century American sculptors
20th-century American male artists
American male sculptors
Deaths from pneumonia in New York (state)

Robert Morris (artist)


David Rodger Mitchell (March 26, 1898 – January 4, 1967) was a Canadian politician, who represented the riding of Sudbury in the House of Commons of Canada from 1953 until his death in 1967. He was a member of the Liberal Party.

Mitchell was born in Owen Sound, Ontario. Before entering politics, he was a pharmacist in Sudbury. He married Greta Beryl McElroy and had 3 children: daughter Jean Ann, son Jimmie, and daughter Ruth (Duggan).

The by-election following Mitchell's death of pulmonary fibrosis was held on May 29. Jim Jerome ran as the new Liberal candidate, but lost to New Democrat Bud Germa. However, Germa served the riding for just barely more than a year—in the national election the following year, Jerome defeated Germa.

References

1898 births
1967 deaths
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
People from Owen Sound
Politicians from Greater Sudbury
Canadian pharmacists
Deaths from pulmonary fibrosis

Rodger Mitchell


Pixelization  (British English, pixelisation) or mosaic processing is any technique used in editing images or video, whereby an image is blurred by displaying part or all of it at a markedly lower resolution.  It is primarily used for censorship. The effect is a standard graphics filter, available in all but the most basic bitmap graphics editors.

As censorship
A familiar example of pixelization can be found in a majority of television news and documentary productions, in which vehicle license plates and faces of suspects at crime scenes are routinely obscured to maintain the presumption of innocence, such as how it appears in the television series COPS. This is especially used in Hungary and Slovakia by RTL Klub. Bystanders and others who do not sign release forms are also customarily pixelized.  Footage of nudity (including male and female genitals, buttocks, nipples, pubic hair, or areolae) is likewise obscured in some media: before the watershed in many countries, in newspapers or general magazines, or in places in which the public cannot avoid seeing the image (such as on billboards). Drug references, as well as gestures considered obscene (such as the finger) may also be censored in this manner.  Pixelization is not usually used for this purpose in films, DVDs, subscription television services, or pornography (except for countries in which the law requires it). When obscene language is censored by an audible bleep, the mouth of the speaker may be pixelized to prevent lip reading, such as in the television series COPS. Graphic injuries and excess blood may also be pixelized. Offense words that are visually visible may also be pixelized.

Pixelization may also be used to avoid unintentional product placement, or to hide elements that would date a broadcast, such as date and time stamps on home video submissions. Censorship for such purposes is most common on reality television series.

In media
Pixelization has also been used for artistic effect, notably in the art print The Wave of the Future, a reinterpretation of Katsushika Hokusai's The Great Wave off Kanagawa. In this updated print, the image of the large ocean wave shifts from the traditional style of the Japanese woodcut print to a pixelized image and finally to a wireframe model computer graphics image. Westworld (1973) was the first feature film to use digital image processing to pixelize photography to simulate an android's point of view.

Alternative techniques

A black rectangular or square box (known as censor bars) may be used to occlude parts of images completely (for example, a black bar covering the eyes instead of the entire face being pixelized). Censor bars were extensively used as a graphic device in the January 2012 protests against SOPA and PIPA.

A drawback of pixelization is that any differences between the large pixels can be exploited in moving images to reconstruct the original, unpixelized image; squinting at a pixelized, moving image can sometimes achieve a similar result. In both cases, integration of the large pixels over time allows smaller, more accurate pixels to be constructed in a still image result.  Completely obscuring the censored area with pixels of a constant color or pixels of random colors escapes this drawback but can be more aesthetically jarring.

An additional drawback, when pixelization is used to reduce the repulsing, disturbing or, more generally shocking, aspect of an image, is that all information contained in the pixelized area is lost for the audience. Other visual processing techniques can help reduce the shocking aspect of images or videos while preserving most of the information of the media.

International legal standards
Nudity is obscured on broadcast television stations in the United States. The Federal Communications Commission states it is a violation of federal law to air obscene, indecent, and profane programming at any time, especially during certain hours. Monetary penalties and revocation of licenses are issued for law breakers. Japanese pornography laws require that genitals in films (including animated works) and other forms of adult media (such as eroge, drawings, etc) be obscured. Article 175 of Penal Code (Act No.45 of 1907) still in effect today in Japan forbids any person and imprisons anyone who distributes, sells or displays in public an obscene document, drawing or other objects of such nature. In Thailand, restrictions are placed on television broadcast depiction of cigarettes being smoked, alcohol being consumed, or guns being pointed at people. Pixelization is one method of censoring this content.

See also
 Bleep censor
 Colour banding
 Fogging (censorship), an alternate technique
 Posterization
 Reverse video
 Tape delay (broadcasting)
 Use of pixelation in camouflage patterns such as MARPAT

References

External links

 Facepixelizer - Online editor for pixelizing parts of an image

Censorship of broadcasting
Digital art
Self-censorship

Pixelization