James Arthur Haslam II (born December 13, 1930) is an American businessman and philanthropist, best known as the founder of Pilot Corporation, which operates a chain of convenience stores and travel centers throughout the United States and Canada, and is one of the largest privately owned companies in the United States.  Haslam is also a donor for the University of Tennessee, having provided tens of millions of dollars to the school over several decades. Haslam's son Jimmy is the current owner of the National Football League's Cleveland Browns and Major League Soccer's Columbus Crew, and his other son Bill is a former Governor of Tennessee.

Early life
Haslam was born in 1930 in Detroit, Michigan, the son of Melitta (Fry) and James Arthur Haslam. His father was a World War I veteran who was, at the time, working for the Studebaker Corporation.  The family lived for a time in Pennsylvania before moving to St. Petersburg, Florida.  Jim was a star football player at St. Petersburg High School, and had offers to play at several colleges. He eventually chose the University of Tennessee, following a recruiting visit from legendary U.T. coach Robert Neyland.

Haslam enrolled at the University of Tennessee in 1948.  During the Volunteers' 1951 national championship season, he was a starter on an offensive line that helped his Sigma Chi fraternity brother, Hank Lauricella, to an All American season and a second-place finish in the voting for the Heisman Trophy.  Haslam was a captain on the 1952 team, but missed the last few games of the season due to eligibility issues.

Following graduation, Haslam joined the United States Army, with the commission of Second Lieutenant.  He spent several months in Korea following the 1953 armistice that ended combat operations in the Korean War.  After returning to Tennessee, he turned down an offer to coach the South Pittsburg High School football team, and instead joined LaFollette, Tennessee-based Fleet Oil.  After about a year, Fleet president Sam Claiborne appointed Haslam head of the company's new Sail Oil chain of stations.

Career

Pilot Oil
In 1958, Haslam left Sail Oil to start his own company, having made an agreement with Claiborne that he would not compete in East Tennessee for three years.  On October 9, 1958, Haslam and his first wife, Cynthia, incorporated Pilot Oil Corporation, the name of which was inspired by an insurance ad Haslam had seen while traveling in North Carolina. One month later, the company purchased its first filling station in Gate City, Virginia, for $6,000. This first station, which opened on November 20, 1958, had four fuel pumps, and sold cigarettes and soft drinks.

While waiting for his non-compete agreement with Fleet Oil to expire, Haslam focused on the Virginia and Kentucky areas.  A former Pilot board member and early associate of Haslam, Jimmy Smith, later recalled that Haslam would sometimes spend days driving around a city, analyzing its traffic patterns, before deciding on a new location for a filling station. By 1965, Pilot had grown to a dozen stations, but was struggling with debt, and thus sold a 50% stake in the company to Marathon Oil.  Marathon provided Pilot with a consistent supply of wholesale products and a $4 million loan, which allowed the company to further expand.

In 1974, Haslam's wife, Cynthia, died suddenly, and his eldest son, Jimmy, then a student at U.T., took her place on the company's board of directors. Shortly afterward, Pilot expanded into the convenience store market. In 1981, Pilot opened its first travel center in Corbin, Kentucky, a move inspired by a visit to fellow U.T. alum Ken Pritchard, who was operating a travel center in Slidell, Louisiana. As Marathon began to complain about Pilot's expansion efforts, Haslam bought out Marathon's share of the company in 1988.

In 1994, Pilot acquired 11 Pro Stop stations, making it the nation's second-largest truck stop chain. By 1995, Pilot was operating over 80 travel centers in 33 states and 51 convenience stores in Tennessee and Virginia, and employed over 4,000 people. That year, Haslam's son, Jimmy, moved up to CEO, while his other son, Bill, moved up to president. Haslam became the company's chairman.

In 2001, Pilot partnered with Marathon-Ashland to form Pilot Travel Centers, LLC.  In 2003, Pilot bought 60 locations from Williams' Travel Centers for $189 million. By 2008, Pilot was the nation's largest operator of travel centers, with locations in 40 states and Canada, and was the nation's largest seller of over-the-road diesel fuel. That year, Pilot bought out Marathon's share of Pilot Travel Centers for $700 million, and in turn, sold a 47.5% stake to CVC Investments.

Pilot Flying J
In 2010, Pilot Travel Centers merged with the bankrupt truck stop chain Flying J to form Pilot Flying J. The new company featured over 550 locations in 23 states and Canada, and employed over 23,000 people.

Politics
Haslam has been involved in politics in Knoxville, Tennessee, where Pilot is headquartered, both in an active role, and as a Republican Party fundraiser.  He was a fundraiser for both Senator Howard Baker in the 1960s and President Gerald Ford in the 1970s.  He was also appointed chairman of the Knox County Public Building Authority in the early 1970s.  As chairman of this group, Haslam, a long-time proponent of metropolitan government, spearheaded the initiative to build the Knoxville City-County Building. In 1999, Knox County declined to reappoint Haslam to the Public Building Authority, which some interpreted as revenge for his support of a failed metropolitan government initiative the previous year.

In 2002, Haslam's son, Bill, ran for mayor of Knoxville, bringing greater public scrutiny to the Haslam family.  His opponent in the race, Madeline Rogero, consistently tried to portray Bill as a puppet of his father and the region's oil interests, which Bill staunchly denied.  She also blamed Jim for UT's hiring of controversial president, John Shumaker, in 2002.  During Bill's 2010 gubernatorial campaign, his opponents consistently brought up price-gouging allegations levied against Pilot in the wake of Hurricane Katrina.

In 2006, Chattanooga mayor Bob Corker, a former college roommate of Jim and long-time family friend, was elected to the United States Senate. Haslam was the financial manager for his campaign. Haslam was the Tennessee state co-chairman for the 2012 presidential campaign of Republican candidate Mitt Romney. In 2021 he donated to Arizona Senator Kyrsten Sinema (Democrat) and West Virginia Senator Joe Manchin (Democrat), $2,900 to each.

Philanthropy
Haslam serves on the University of Tennessee's board of trustees and has donated tens of millions of dollars to the school and its athletic programs over the years.  In 2002, the football team's new practice field was named "Haslam Field" in his honor.  The Haslam family's $32.5 million donation in 2006 represents the school's largest gift ever.  Part of this money was used to construct the new College of Business building, the James A. Haslam II Business Building, and part will be used to construct a new building for the School of Music, which will be named for Natalie Haslam. The money will also support construction of the Baker Center and renovations to Neyland Stadium.

The Haslams are also major donors to numerous Knoxville-area institutions, including the Knoxville Museum of Art, the Knox-Area Rescue Ministries, the East Tennessee Historical Society, the Foothills Land Conservancy, the Boys and Girls Club, United Way, St. John's Episcopal Church, and the Knoxville Zoo. In 2006, three of the zoo's newborn lion cubs were named Ann, Bill, and Jimmy, in honor of Haslam's children.  The Knoxville alternative newspaper, Metro Pulse, has dubbed Haslam "Knoxville's most conspicuous philanthropist." In 2014, the University of Tennessee announced that its College of Business would be renamed honor of Haslam after the family donated $50 million to the university.

Personal life
Haslam married Cynthia Allen in 1953. They have three children: James "Jimmy" Haslam III (born 1954), Ann Haslam Bailey (born 1956), and Bill Haslam (born 1958). After Cynthia's unexpected death in 1974, Haslam married his longtime friend, Natalie Leach Tucker, in 1976. Through her, he has three stepchildren, Jennie McCabe, Susan Robie, and Carol Pattison.

Bill is a former governor of Tennessee, sworn in on January 15, 2011, and before that was mayor of Knoxville, 2003–2011. Haslam's eldest son, James III (Jimmy), resigned as CEO of Pilot in September 2012 but resumed his role as CEO in February 2013. He also owned a minority stake in the Pittsburgh Steelers but sold it to accommodate his purchase of the Cleveland Browns franchise in August 2012.

References

External links
 Video of the James II and Natalie Haslam speaking about their donation to UT
 Tennessee Sports Hall of Fame

1930 births
Living people
American businesspeople in the oil industry
American retail chief executives
American philanthropists
American transportation businesspeople
Businesspeople from Florida
Businesspeople from Detroit
Businesspeople from Knoxville, Tennessee
People from St. Petersburg, Florida
St. Petersburg High School alumni
Tennessee Volunteers football players
University of Tennessee alumni
University of Tennessee people
Haslam family

Jim Haslam


Over the ages, Italian philosophy had a vast influence on Western philosophy, beginning with the Greeks and Romans, and going onto Renaissance humanism, the Age of Enlightenment and modern philosophy. Philosophy was brought to Italy by Pythagoras, founder of the school of philosophy in Crotone, Magna Graecia. Major philosophers of the Greek period include Xenophanes, Parmenides, Zeno, Empedocles and Gorgias. Roman philosophers include Cicero, Lucretius, Seneca the Younger, Musonius Rufus, Plutarch, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius, Clement of Alexandria, Sextus Empiricus, Alexander of Aphrodisias, Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus, Augustine of Hippo, Philoponus of Alexandria and Boethius.

Italian Medieval philosophy was mainly Christian, and included philosophers and theologians such as St Thomas Aquinas, the foremost classical proponent of natural theology and the father of Thomism, who reintroduced Aristotelian philosophy to Christianity. Notable Renaissance philosophers include: Giordano Bruno, one of the major scientific figures of the western world; Marsilio Ficino, one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the period; and Niccolò Machiavelli, one of the main founders of modern political science. Italy was also affected by the Enlightenment. University cities such as Padua, Bologna and Naples remained centres of scholarship and the intellect, with several philosophers such as Giambattista Vico (widely regarded as being the founder of modern Italian philosophy) and Antonio Genovesi. Cesare Beccaria was a significant Enlightenment figure and is now considered one of the fathers of classical criminal theory as well as modern penology.

Italy also had a renowned philosophical movement in the 1800s, with Idealism, Sensism and Empiricism. The main Sensist Italian philosophers were Melchiorre Gioja and Gian Domenico Romagnosi. Criticism of the Sensist movement came from other philosophers such as Pasquale Galluppi. Antonio Rosmini, instead, was the founder of Italian idealism. During the late 19th and 20th centuries, there were also several other movements which gained some form of popularity in Italy, such as Ontologism (whose main philosopher was Vincenzo Gioberti), anarchism, communism, socialism, futurism, fascism and Christian democracy. Giovanni Gentile and Benedetto Croce were two of the most significant 20th-century Idealist philosophers. Antonio Gramsci remains a relevant philosopher within Marxist and communist theory, credited with creating the theory of cultural hegemony. Italian philosophers were also influential in the development of the non-Marxist liberal socialism philosophy, including Carlo Rosselli, Norberto Bobbio, Piero Gobetti and Aldo Capitini. In the 1960s, many Italian left-wing activists adopted the anti-authoritarian pro-working class leftist theories that would become known as autonomism and operaismo.

Early Italian feminists include Sibilla Aleramo, Alaide Gualberta Beccari, and Anna Maria Mozzoni, though proto-feminist philosophies had previously been touched upon by earlier Italian writers such as Christine de Pizan, Moderata Fonte, and Lucrezia Marinella. Italian physician and educator Maria Montessori is credited with the creation of the philosophy of education that bears her name, an educational philosophy now practiced throughout the world. Giuseppe Peano was one of the founders of analytic philosophy and contemporary philosophy of mathematics. Recent analytic philosophers include Carlo Penco, Gloria Origgi, Pieranna Garavaso and Luciano Floridi.

Greek origins

Philosophy was brought to Italy by Pythagoras, founder of the school of philosophy in Crotone, Magna Graecia. Major philosophers of the Greek period include Xenophanes, Parmenides, Zeno, Empedocles and Gorgias.

Parmenides has been considered the founder of ontology or metaphysics and has influenced the whole history of Western philosophy. His single known work, a poem later titled On Nature, has survived only in fragments. Approximately 160 verses remain today from an original total that was probably near 800. The poem was originally divided into three parts: An introductory proem which explains the purpose of the work, a former section known as "The Way of Truth" (aletheia, ἀλήθεια), and a latter section known as "The Way of Appearance/Opinion" (doxa, δόξα).

Empedocles' philosophy is best known for originating the cosmogonic theory of the four classical elements. Empedocles is considered the last Greek philosopher to write in verse. There is a debate about whether the surviving fragments of his teaching should be attributed to two separate poems, "Purifications" and "On Nature", with different subject matter, or whether they may all derive from one poem with two titles, or whether one title refers to part of the whole poem. Some scholars argue that the title "Purifications" refers to the first part of a larger work called (as a whole) "On Nature".

Gorgias, along with Protagoras, forms the first generation of Sophists. "Like other Sophists, he was an itinerant that practiced in various cities and giving public exhibitions of his skill at the great pan-Hellenic centers of Olympia and Delphi, and charged fees for his instruction and performances. A special feature of his displays was to ask miscellaneous questions from the audience and give impromptu replies." He has been called "Gorgias the Nihilist" although the degree to which this epithet adequately describes his philosophy is controversial.

Ancient Rome

Ancient Roman philosophy was heavily influenced by the ancient Greeks and the schools of Hellenistic philosophy; however, unique developments in philosophical schools of thought occurred during the Roman period as well. Interest in philosophy was first excited at Rome in 155 BC, by an Athenian embassy consisting of the Academic skeptic Carneades, the Stoic Diogenes of Babylon, and the Peripatetic Critolaus.

During this time Athens declined as an intellectual center of thought while new sites such as Alexandria and Rome hosted a variety of philosophical discussion. Both leading schools of law of the Roman period, the Sabinian and the Proculean Schools, drew their ethical views from readings on the Stoics and Epicureans respectively, allowing for the competition between thought to manifest in a new field in Rome's jurisprudence. It was during this period that a common tradition of the western philosophical literature was born in commenting on the works of Aristotle.

There were several formidable Roman philosophers, such as Cicero (106–43 BC), Lucretius (94–55 BC), Seneca (4 BC – 65 AD), Musonius Rufus (30 AD – 100 AD), Plutarch (45–120 AD), Epictetus (55–135 AD), Marcus Aurelius (121–180 AD), Clement of Alexandria (150–215 AD), Alcinous (2nd century AD), Sextus Empiricus (3rd century AD), Alexander of Aphrodisias (3rd century AD), Ammonius Saccas (3rd century AD), Plotinus (205–270 AD), Porphyry (232–304 AD), Iamblichus (242–327 AD), Themistius (317–388 AD), Augustine of Hippo (354–430 AD), Proclus (411–485 AD), Philoponus of Alexandria (490–570 AD), Damascius (462–540 AD), Boethius (472–524 AD), and Simplicius of Cilicia (490–560 AD).

Medieval

Italian Medieval philosophy was mainly Christian, and included several important philosophers and theologians such as Anselm of Aosta. Born in 1033 in Aosta, in his mid-twenties Anselm entered the Benedictine school at Bec in Normandy where he came under the tutelage of Lanfranc.

In 1063 Anselm succeeded Lanfranc as prior and was consecrated abbot in 1078. Anselm held the office of Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109. He is famed as the originator of the ontological argument for the existence of God and of the satisfaction theory of atonement. Anselm's works are considered philosophical as well as theological since they endeavour to render Christian tenets of faith, traditionally taken as a revealed truth, as a rational system.

Among the Italian medieval philosophers who exerted the greatest influence a very important one is Peter Lombard. Born in Lumellogno, in the region of Novara, Italy, Peter studied first in the cathedral school of Rheims. In 1136 he arrived in Paris with a letter of introduction from Bernard of Clairvaux to Gilduin, abbot of the house of Saint Victor, where Hugh of Saint Victor was the leading thinker.

Peter became a Master of Arts in the Parisian schools by 1143 or 1144. In 1145 he was made a canon of the cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris. By 1156, perhaps earlier, Peter was archdeacon of Paris; in 1159 he became bishop of Paris. Peter's most enduring contribution to medieval thought was the Sententiae in IV libris distinctae (Four Books of Sentences, 1155–7), a systematic investigation of the whole range of questions that arise under the topic now designated 'theology'. Often presented in modern scholarship as merely a collection of the opinions of earlier authorities on theological topics, the Sententiae is now recognized as a sophisticated work that resolves major (and minor) theological issues with skill and insight. Generations of university scholars, including Thomas Aquinas, wrote commentaries on it as part of their theological education and teaching. Peter also wrote influential biblical commentaries on the Psalms and the Pauline epistles (Magna glossatura).

The most important Italian medieval philosopher is St Thomas Aquinas, the foremost classical proponent of natural theology and the father of Thomism. Aquinas was the student of Albert the Great, a brilliant Dominican experimentalist, much like the Franciscan, Roger Bacon of Oxford in the 13th century.

Aquinas reintroduced Aristotelian philosophy to Christianity. He believed that there was no contradiction between faith and secular reason. He believed that Aristotle had achieved the pinnacle in the human striving for truth and thus adopted Aristotle's philosophy as a framework in constructing his theological and philosophical outlook. He was a professor at the prestigious University of Paris.

He argued that God is the source of both the light of natural reason and the light of faith. He has been described as "the most influential thinker of the medieval period" and "the greatest of the medieval philosopher-theologians." His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy is derived from his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, and political theory.

The Catholic Church honors Thomas Aquinas as a saint and regards him as the model teacher for those studying for the priesthood, and indeed the highest expression of both natural reason and speculative theology. In modern times, under papal directives, the study of his works was long used as a core of the required program of study for those seeking ordination as priests or deacons, as well as for those in religious formation and for other students of the sacred disciplines (philosophy, Catholic theology, church history, liturgy, and canon law).

Next to Aquinas ranks Bonaventure, perhaps the foremost Franciscan theologian of the 13th century, whose only real rival, in terms of immediate and ultimate influence, is the Scottish Duns Scotus.

A disciple of Alexander of Hales and John of La Rochelle, Bonaventure was an Augustinian, rejecting much of the Aristotelianism incorporated by his contemporary Thomas Aquinas. While Siger of Brabant and Boetius of Dacia, defended an Aristotle tainted with Averroism and Thomas Aquinas tried to give the Philosopher a theologically acceptable interpretation, Bonaventure moved in completely different way. Aristotle for him was an authority who must be read critically and with eyes open.

When in 1273 he gave his conferences on the Hexameron, he denounced the nefarious influence of Aristotle in Theology and undertook to expound what, according to him, Christian wisdom consisted in. This Christian wisdom that he intended to expound determined the sources of his knowledge; his choice was significant, since he turned more readily to Pseudo-Dionysius than to Aristotle. That is to say that he intended to construct a spiritual synthesis and not a rationally scientific work. In works such as Breviloquium or De triplici via, Bonaventure describes theology as wisdom (sapientia) rather than science (scientia) and considers its main task to be the achievement of spiritual perfection.

Renaissance
The Renaissance was an essentially Italian (Florentine) movement, and also a great period of the arts and philosophy. Among the distinctive elements of Renaissance philosophy are the revival (renaissance means "rebirth") of classical civilization and learning; a partial return to the authority of Plato over Aristotle, who had come to dominate later medieval philosophy; and, among some philosophers, enthusiasm for the occult and Hermeticism.

As with all periods, there is a wide drift of dates, reasons for categorization and boundaries. In particular, the Renaissance, more than later periods, is thought to begin in Italy with the Italian Renaissance and roll through Europe.

Humanism

Renaissance Humanism was a European intellectual movement that was a crucial component of the Renaissance, beginning in Florence in the latter half of the 14th century, and affected most of Italy. The humanist movement developed from the rediscovery by European scholars of Latin literary and Greek literary texts. Initially, a humanist was simply a scholar or teacher of Latin literature. By the mid-15th century humanism described a curriculum – the studia humanitatis – consisting of grammar, rhetoric, moral philosophy, poetry, and history as studied via Latin and Greek literary authors.

Humanism offered the necessary intellectual and philological tools for the first critical analysis of texts. An early triumph of textual criticism by Lorenzo Valla revealed the Donation of Constantine to be an early medieval forgery produced in the Curia. This textual criticism created sharper controversy when Erasmus followed Valla in criticizing the accuracy of the Vulgate translation of the New Testament, and promoting readings from the original Greek manuscripts of the New Testament.

Italian Renaissance humanists believed that the liberal arts (art, music, grammar, rhetoric, oratory, history, poetry, using classical texts, and the studies of all of the above) should be practiced by all levels of "richness". They also approved of self, human worth and individual dignity.
They hold the belief that everything in life has a determinate nature, but man's privilege is to be able to choose his own path. Pico della Mirandola wrote the following concerning the creation of the universe and man's place in it:

Neoplatonism

Italy was also affected by a movement called Neoplatonism, which was a movement which had a general revival of interest in Classical antiquity. Interest in Platonism was especially strong in Florence under the Medici.

During the sessions at Florence of the Council of Ferrara-Florence in 1438–1445, during the failed attempts to heal the schism of the Orthodox and Catholic churches, Cosimo de' Medici and his intellectual circle had made acquaintance with the Neoplatonic philosopher George Gemistos Plethon, whose discourses upon Plato and the Alexandrian mystics so fascinated the learned society of Florence that they named him the second Plato.

In 1459 John Argyropoulos was lecturing on Greek language and literature at Florence, and Marsilio Ficino became his pupil. When Cosimo decided to refound Plato's Academy at Florence, his choice to head it was Ficino, who made the classic translation of Plato from Greek to Latin (published in 1484), as well as a translation of a collection of Hellenistic Greek documents of the Hermetic Corpus, and the writings of many of the Neoplatonists, for example Porphyry, Iamblichus, Plotinus, et al.. Following suggestions laid out by Gemistos Plethon, Ficino tried to synthesize Christianity and Platonism.

Machiavelli

Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527) was an Italian philosopher /writer, and is considered one of the most influential Italian Renaissance philosophers and one of the main founders of modern political science. His most famous work was The Prince. The Prince's contribution to the history of political thought is the fundamental break between political realism and political idealism. Niccolò Machiavelli's best-known book exposits and describes the arts with which a ruling prince can maintain control of his realm. It concentrates on the "new prince", under the presumption that a hereditary prince has an easier task in ruling, since the people are accustomed to him. To retain power, the hereditary prince must carefully maintain the socio-political institutions to which the people are accustomed; whereas a new prince has the more difficult task in ruling, since he must first stabilize his new-found power in order to build an enduring political structure. That requires the prince being a public figure above reproach, whilst privately acting immorally to maintain his state. The examples are those princes who most successfully obtain and maintain power, drawn from his observations as a Florentine diplomat, and his ancient history readings; thus, the Latin phrases and Classic examples.

The Prince politically defines "Virtu"—as any quality that helps a prince rule his state effectively. Machiavelli is aware of the irony of good results coming from evil actions, and because of this, the Catholic Church proscribed The Prince, registering it to the Index Librorum Prohibitorum, moreover, the Humanists also viewed the book negatively, among them, Erasmus of Rotterdam. As a treatise, its primary intellectual contribution to the history of political thought is the fundamental break between political Realism and political Idealism—thus, The Prince is a manual to acquiring and keeping political power. In contrast with Plato and Aristotle, a Classical ideal society is not the aim of the prince's will to power. As a political scientist, Machiavelli emphasises necessary, methodical exercise of brute force and deception to preserve the status quo.

Between Machiavelli's advice to ruthless and tyrannical princes in The Prince and his more republican exhortations in Discorsi, some have concluded that The Prince is actually only a satire. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, for instance, admired Machiavelli the republican and consequently argued that The Prince is a book for the republicans as it exposes the methods used by princes. If the book was only intended as a manual for tyrannical rulers, it contains a paradox: it would apparently be more effective if the secrets it contains would not be made publicly available. Also Antonio Gramsci argued that Machiavelli's audience was the common people because the rulers already knew these methods through their education. This interpretation is supported by the fact that Machiavelli wrote in Italian, not in Latin (which would have been the language of the ruling elite).

Many contemporaries associated Machiavelli with the political tracts offering the idea of "Reason of State", an idea proposed most notably in the writings of Jean Bodin and Giovanni Botero.
To this day, contemporary usage of Machiavellian is an adjective describing someone who is "marked by cunning, duplicty, or bad faith". The Prince is the treatise that is most responsible for the term being brought about. To this day, "Machiavellian" remains a popular term used in casual and political contexts, while in psychology, "Machiavellianism" denotes a personality type.

Age of Enlightenment

Italy was also affected by the enlightenment, a movement which was a consequence of the Renaissance and changed the road of Italian philosophy. Followers of the group often met to discuss in private salons and coffeehouses, notably in the cities of Milan, Rome and Venice. Cities with important universities such as Padua, Bologna and Naples, however, also remained great centres of scholarship and the intellect, with several philosophers such as Giambattista Vico (1668–1744) (who is widely regarded as being the founder of modern Italian philosophy) and Antonio Genovesi.

Giambattista Vico criticized the expansion and development of modern rationalism, finding Cartesian analysis and other types of reductionism impractical to human life, and he was an apologist for classical antiquity and the Renaissance humanities, in addition to being the first expositor of the fundamentals of social science and of semiotics. He is recognised as one of the first Counter-Enlightenment figures in history. The Latin aphorism Verum esse ipsum factum ("truth is itself something made") coined by Vico is an early instance of constructivist epistemology. He inaugurated the modern field of the philosophy of history, and, although the term philosophy of history is not in his writings, Vico spoke of a "history of philosophy narrated philosophically."

Italian society also dramatically changed during the Enlightenment, with rulers such as Leopold II of Tuscany abolishing the death penalty. The church's power was significantly reduced, and it was a period of great thought and invention, with scientists such as Alessandro Volta and Luigi Galvani discovering new things and greatly contributing to Western science. Cesare Beccaria was a significant Enlightenment figure and is now considered one of the fathers of classical criminal theory as well as modern penology. Beccaria is famous for his On Crimes and Punishments (1764), a treatise that served as one of the earliest prominent condemnations of torture and the death penalty and thus a landmark work in anti-death penalty philosophy, which was later translated into 22 languages.

Early modern and 19th-century philosophy

Italy also had a renowned philosophical movement in the 1800s, with Idealism, Sensism and Empiricism. The main Sensist Italian philosophers were Melchiorre Gioja (1767–1829) and Gian Domenico Romagnosi (1761–1835). Criticism of the Sensist movement came from other philosophers such as Pasquale Galluppi (1770–1846), who affirmed that a priori relationships were synthetic. Antonio Rosmini, instead, was the founder of Italian idealism. The most comprehensive view of Rosmini's philosophical standpoint is to be found in his Sistema filosofico, in which he set forth the conception of a complete encyclopaedia of the human knowable, synthetically conjoined, according to the order of ideas, in a perfectly harmonious whole. Contemplating the position of recent philosophy from Locke to Hegel, and having his eye directed to the ancient and fundamental problem of the origin, truth and certainty of our ideas, he wrote: "If philosophy is to be restored to love and respect, I think it will be necessary, in part, to return to the teachings of the ancients, and in part to give those teachings the benefit of modern methods" (Theodicy, a. 148). He examined and analysed the fact of human knowledge, and obtained the following results:

 that the notion or idea of being or existence in general enters into, and is presupposed by, all our acquired cognitions, so that, without it, they would be impossible
 that this idea is essentially objective, inasmuch as what is seen in it is as distinct from and opposed to the mind that sees it as the light is from the eye that looks at it
 that it is essentially true, because being and truth are convertible terms, and because in the vision of it the mind cannot err, since error could only be committed by a judgment, and here there is no judgment, but a pure intuition affirming nothing and denying nothing
 that by the application of this essentially objective and true idea the human being intellectually perceives, first, the animal body individually conjoined with him, and then, on occasion of the sensations produced in him not by himself, the causes of those sensations, that is, from the action felt he perceives and affirms an agent, a being, and therefore a true thing, that acts on him, and he thus gets at the external world, these are the true primitive judgments, containing
 the subsistence of the particular being (subject), and
 its essence or species as determined by the quality of the action felt from it (predicate)
 that reflection, by separating the essence or species from the subsistence, obtains the full specific idea (universalization), and then from this, by leaving aside some of its elements, the abstract specific idea (abstraction)
 that the mind, having reached this stage of development, can proceed to further and further abstracts, including the first principles of reasoning, the principles of the several sciences, complex ideas, groups of ideas, and so on without end
 finally, that the same most universal idea of being, this generator and formal element of all acquired cognitions, cannot itself be acquired, but must be innate in us, implanted by God in our nature. Being, as naturally shining to our mind, must therefore be what men call the light of reason. Hence the name Rosmini gives it of ideal being; and this he laid down as the fundamental principle of all philosophy and the supreme criterion of truth and certainty. This he believed to be the teaching of St Augustine, as well as of St Thomas, of whom he was an ardent admirer and defender.

In the 19th century, there were also several other movements which gained some form of popularity in Italy, such as Ontologism. The main Italian son of this philosophical movement was Vincenzo Gioberti (1801–1852), who was a priest and a metaphysician. Gioberti's writings are more important than his political career. In the general history of European philosophy they stand apart. As the speculations of Rosmini-Serbati, against which he wrote, have been called the last link added to medieval thought, so the system of Gioberti, known as Ontologism, more especially in his greater and earlier works, is unrelated to other modern schools of thought. It shows a harmony with the Roman Catholic faith which caused Cousin to declare that Italian philosophy was still in the bonds of theology, and that Gioberti was no philosopher.

Method is with him a synthetic, subjective and psychological instrument. He reconstructs, as he declares, ontology, and begins with the ideal formula, the "Ens" creates ex nihilo the existent. God is the only being (Ens); all other things are merely existences. God is the origin of all human knowledge (called lidea, thought), which is one and so to say identical with God himself. It is directly beheld (intuited) by reason, but in order to be of use it has to be reflected on, and this by means of language. A knowledge of being and existences (concrete, not abstract) and their mutual relations, is necessary as the beginning of philosophy.

Gioberti is in some respects a Platonist. He identifies religion with civilization, and in his treatise Del primato morale e civile degli Italiani arrives at the conclusion that the church is the axis on which the well-being of human life revolves. In it he affirms the idea of the supremacy of Italy, brought about by the restoration of the papacy as a moral dominion, founded on religion and public opinion. In his later works, the Rinnovamento and the Protologia, he is thought by some to have shifted his ground under the influence of events.

His first work, written when he was thirty-seven, had a personal reason for its existence. A young fellow-exile and friend, Paolo Pallia, having many doubts and misgivings as to the reality of revelation and a future life, Gioberti at once set to work with La Teorica del sovrannaturale, which was his first publication (1838). After this, philosophical treatises followed in rapid succession. The Teorica was followed by Introduzione allo studio della filosofia in three volumes (1839–1840). In this work he states his reasons for requiring a new method and new terminology. Here he brings out the doctrine that religion is the direct expression of the idea in this life, and is one with true civilization in history. Civilization is a conditioned mediate tendency to perfection, to which religion is the final completion if carried out; it is the end of the second cycle expressed by the second formula, the Ens redeems existences.

Essays (not published till 1846) on the lighter and more popular subjects, Del bello and Del buono, followed the Introduzione. Del primato morale e civile degli Italiani and the Prolegomeni to the same, and soon afterwards his triumphant exposure of the Jesuits, Il Gesuita moderno, no doubt hastened the transfer of rule from clerical to civil hands. It was the popularity of these semi-political works, increased by other occasional political articles, and his Rinnovamento civile d'Italia, that caused Gioberti to be welcomed with such enthusiasm on his return to his native country. All these works were perfectly orthodox, and aided in drawing the liberal clergy into the movement which has resulted since his time in the unification of Italy. The Jesuits, however, closed round the pope more firmly after his return to Rome, and in the end Gioberti's writings were placed on the Index. The remainder of his works, especially La Filosofia della Rivelazione and the Prolologia, give his mature views on many points.

Other Ontological philosophers include Terenzio Mamiani (1800–1885), Luigi Ferri (1826–1895), and Ausonio Franchi (1821–1895).

Hegelianism, Scholasticism and Positivism. Augusto Vera (1813–1885) was probably the greatest Italian Hegelianist philosopher, who composed works in both French and Italian. It was during his studies, with his cousin in Paris, that he learned of philosophy and through them he acquired knowledge of Hegelianism and it culminated during the events of the 1848–49 French revolution. In England he continued his studies of Hegelian philosophy. During his years in Naples, he would maintain relationships with the Philosophical Society of Berlin, which originally consisted of Hegelians, and kept up to date with both the German and the French Hegelian literature. As a teacher, he undertook the translation of Hegel's Introduzione alla filosofia (Introduction to philosophy) in French. A lot of his work on neo-Hegelian theories were undertaken with Bertrando Spaventa. Some works see the Italian Hegelian doctrine as having led to Italian Fascism.

Modern, contemporary and 20th-century philosophy

Some of the most prominent philosophies and ideologies in Italy during the late 19th and 20th centuries included anarchism, communism, socialism, futurism, fascism, idealism, and Christian democracy. Both futurism and fascism (in its original form, now often distinguished as Italian fascism) were developed in Italy at this time. From the 1920s to the 1940s, Italian Fascism was the official philosophy and ideology of the Italian government. Giovanni Gentile was one of the greatest Italian 20th-century Idealist/Fascist philosophers, who greatly supported Benito Mussolini. He had great a number of developments within his thought and career which defined his philosophy.
 The discovery of Actual Idealism in his work Theory of the Pure Act (1903)
 The political favour he felt for the invasion of Libya (1911) and the entry of Italy into World War I (1915)
 The dispute with Benedetto Croce over the historic inevitability of Fascism.
 His role as education minister (1923)
 His belief that Fascism could be made to be subservient to his thought and the gathering of influence through the work of such students as Ugo Spirito.

Benedetto Croce, one of the greatest Italian 20th-century Idealist philosophers, wrote that Gentile "...holds the honor of having been the most rigorous neo–Hegelian in the entire history of Western philosophy and the dishonor of having been the official philosopher of Fascism in Italy." His philosophical basis for fascism was rooted in his understanding of ontology and epistemology, in which he found vindication for the rejection of individualism, acceptance of collectivism, with the state as the ultimate location of authority and loyalty to which the individual found in the conception of individuality no meaning outside of the state (which in turn justified totalitarianism). Ultimately, Gentile foresaw a social order wherein opposites of all kinds weren't to be given sanction as existing independently from each other; that 'publicness' and 'privateness' as broad interpretations were currently false as imposed by all former kinds of Government; capitalism, communism, and that only the reciprocal totalitarian state of Corporative Syndicalism, a Fascist state, could defeat these problems made from reifying as an external that which is in fact to Gentile only a thinking reality. Whereas it was common in the philosophy of the time to see conditional subject as abstract and object as concrete, Gentile postulated the opposite, that subject was the concrete and objectification was abstraction (or rather; that what was conventionally dubbed "subject" was in fact only conditional object, and that true subject was the 'act of' being or essence above any object).

Gentile was a notable philosophical theorist of his time throughout Europe, since having developed his 'Actual Idealism' system of Idealism, sometimes called 'Actualism.' It was especially in which his ideas put subject to the position of a transcending truth above positivism that garnered attention; by way that all senses about the world only take the form of ideas within one's mind in any real sense; to Gentile even the analogy between the function & location of the physical brain with the functions of the physical body were a consistent creation of the mind (and not brain; which was a creation of the mind and not the other way around). An example of Actual Idealism in Theology is the idea that although man may have invented the concept of God, it does not make God any less real in any sense possible as far as it is not presupposed to exist as abstraction and except in case qualities about what existence actually entails (i.e. being invented apart from the thinking making it) are presupposed. Benedetto Croce objected that Gentile's "pure act" is nothing other than Schopenhauer's will. Therefore, Gentile proposed a form of what he called 'absolute Immanentism' in which the divine was the present conception of reality in the totality of one's individual thinking as an evolving, growing and dynamic process. Many times accused of Solipsism, Gentile maintained his philosophy to be a Humanism that sensed the possibility of nothing beyond what was contingent; the self's human thinking, in order to communicate as immanence is to be human like oneself, made a cohesive empathy of the self-same, without an external division, and therefore not modeled as objects to one's own thinking.

Meanwhile, anarchism, communism, and socialism, though not originating in Italy, took significant hold in Italy during the early 20th century, with the country producing numerous significant figures in anarchist, socialist, and communist thought. In addition, anarcho-communism first fully formed into its modern strain within the Italian section of the First International. Italian anarchists often adhered to forms of anarcho-communism, illegalist or insurrectionary anarchism, collectivist anarchism, anarcho-syndicalism, and platformism. Some of the most important figures in the late 19th and 20th century anarchist movement include Italians such as Errico Malatesta, Giuseppe Fanelli, Carlo Cafiero, Alfredo M. Bonanno, Renzo Novatore, Pietro Gori, Luigi Galleani, Severino Di Giovanni, Giuseppe Ciancabilla, Luigi Fabbri, Camillo Berneri, and Sacco and Vanzetti. Other Italian figures influential in both the anarchist and socialist movements include Carlo Tresca and Andrea Costa, as well as the author, director, and intellectual Pier Paolo Pasolini. Antonio Gramsci remains an important philosopher within Marxist and communist theory, credited with creating the theory of cultural hegemony. Italian philosophers were also influential in the development of the non-Marxist liberal socialism philosophy, including Carlo Rosselli, Norberto Bobbio, Piero Gobetti, Aldo Capitini, and Guido Calogero; Gianni Vattimo borders this tradition, defending a "weak Marxism", as part of his pensiero debole (weak thought) take on hermeneutics. 21st century post-marxist philosophers include Giorgio Agamben and Antonio Negri.In the 1960s, many Italian left-wing activists adopted the anti-authoritarian pro-working class leftist theories that would become known as autonomism and operaismo.

Important scholars and specialists include Giovanni Reale and Enrico Berti in Ancient philosophy; Franco Volpi and Diego Giordano in German philosophy, Umberto Eco in semiotics and narrative theory, Maurizio Ferraris in hermeneutics and ontology. Early and important Italian feminists include Sibilla Aleramo, Alaide Gualberta Beccari, and Anna Maria Mozzoni, though proto-feminist philosophies had previously been touched upon by earlier Italian writers such as Christine de Pizan, Moderata Fonte, Lucrezia Marinella. The Italian physician and educator Maria Montessori is credited with the creation of the philosophy of education that bears her name, an educational philosophy now practiced throughout the world.

The Montessori method of education is a system of education for children that seeks to develop natural interests and activities rather than use formal teaching methods. A Montessori classroom places an emphasis on hands on learning and developing real-world skills. It was developed by physician Maria Montessori. It emphasizes independence and it views children as naturally eager for knowledge and capable of initiating learning in a sufficiently supportive and well-prepared learning environment. The underlying philosophy can be viewed as stemming from Unfoldment Theory. It discourages some conventional measures of achievement, such as grades and tests. Montessori developed her theories in the early 20th century through scientific experimentation with her students; the method has since been used in many parts of the world, in public and private schools alike.

A range of practices exists under the name "Montessori", which is not trademarked. Popular elements include mixed-age classrooms, student freedom (including their choices of activity), long blocks of uninterrupted work time, specially trained teachers and prepared environment. Scientific studies regarding the Montessori method are mostly positive, with a 2017 review stating that "broad evidence" exists for its efficacy.

Giuseppe Peano was one of the founders of analytic philosophy and contemporary philosophy of mathematics. Recent analytic philosophers include Francesco Berto, Claudia Bianchi, Cristina Bicchieri, Emiliano Boccardi, Roberto Casati, Annalisa Coliva, Franca D'Agostini, Maria Luisa Dalla Chiara, Mauro Dorato, Luciano Floridi, Pieranna Garavaso, Aldo Gargani, Giulio Giorello, Diego Marconi, Luca Moretti, Gloria Origgi, Carlo Penco, Eva Picardi, Gualtiero Piccinini, Stefano Predelli, Marina Sbisà, Alessandra Tanesini, Alessandro Torza, Achille Varzi, and Nicla Vassallo.

See also

 Ancient Roman philosophy
 Italian idealism
 List of Italian philosophers

References

Culture of Italy
Italian literature

it:Filosofia italiana

Italian philosophy


The Fifth Empire (Portuguese: Quinto Império) is an esoteric concept of a global Portuguese empire with spiritual and temporal power, based on an interpretation of Daniel 2 and the Book of Revelation, whose origins lay with António Vieira. The concept was re-popularized in the twentieth century with the publication of Mensagem by Fernando Pessoa in 1934.

The concept
The Fifth Empire is not a mere territorial empire.  It is a spiritual and linguistic body which spreads throughout the entire world.  It represents the ultimate form of fusion between material (science, reason, intellectual speculation) and spiritual knowledge: the occult, mystical speculation and Kabbalism.  It is the pinnacle of all the work undertaken by the previous empires (according to old principle of the translatio imperii), which are the following under Pessoa's point of view:
 First Empire - Ancient Greece, all knowledge and experience extracted from the ancient empires;
 Second Empire - Roman Empire, expansion of the First Empire's culture and knowledge;
 Third Empire - Christianity, fusion between the First and the Second Empires, with the absorption of several eastern elements (such as Judaism) - the Christian Moral;
 Fourth Empire - Europe, spreading throughout the entire world the outcome of the previous empires and the Anglo-Saxon hegemony, its culture and the English-speaking world as a result of the British Empire - the English individualism.

The Fifth Empire, led by "the hidden one" (O Encoberto in the poem, an allusion to Sebastianism), will unite the entire world spiritually and culturally, led by the Portuguese Nation.

Origins

The Fifth Empire is a belief messianic, millenarian (quiliástica), designed by Father António Vieira in the seventeenth century.

The first four empires were, according to Vieira, in order: the Assyro-Chaldeans, the Persians, the Greeks and the Romans. The fifth was the Portuguese Empire.

As seen when viewing the book of Daniel 2, in the Hebrew scriptures (Old Testament), in Bible, Father António Vieira came to this myth based on a biblical passage that tells the story of King Nebuchadnezzar and his dream, with a statue that featured five kinds of materials.

The origins of the myth of the Fifth Empire are intimately connected with the History of Portugal. The death of King Sebastian and subsequent loss of independence were disastrous for the country and its colonial ambitions.  The restoration of independence in 1640 did, however, give a new hope for the entire nation.  Father António Vieira, in many of his works and sermons, would present John IV as the saviour, who would restore the grandiosity of the Portuguese Empire, leader of the Age of Discovery, and succeed to the four empires of ancient History (Vieira's past empires did not coincide with those advocated by Pessoa and mentioned above). As for the Fifth Monarchists later in England and other authors, although with some differences, Vieira, with an elaborate exegesis based on his vast knowledge of the Bible, believed that the timing was significant because the calendar year 1666 was approaching. The number 666 had been identified in the Book of Revelation with the ultimate human despot to rule the world, but who would be replaced by the second coming of the Messiah; this added to his belief that the Fifth Monarchy was possibly about to begin.

Gonçalo Anes Bandarra, the 16th century shoemaker turned prophet whom interpreters credit with foretelling accurately the coming of a period of 60 years when Portugal was under Spanish rule, the subsequent 1640 revolution and liberation under king John IV (after thirty scissors) and the reigns of Afonso VI, Peter II and John V, was an inspired prophet to António Vieira and the Sebastianists of his time. His work also aroused interest especially among the new Christians. Bandarra had a vast knowledge from the Old Testament and his prophetic Trovas would also be subject to analysis and inspiration for Fernando Pessoa. In his poem "Mensagem", a book so thoroughly steeped in Templar and Rosicrucian symbolism in his own words, Pessoa reveals himself as the author of the third and final warning, which complements the two previous ones, of Bandarra and Vieira.

From the 17th century on, and as the Portuguese Empire slowly crumbled, the dream became increasingly more mystical.  Greater importance was given to Luís de Camões and his masterpiece, Os Lusíadas, which exalted Portugal as a nation of heroes aided by the classical gods.

Pessoa
The third cycle of "Mensagem", called O Encoberto ("The Hidden One") refers to Fernando Pessoa's vision of a future world of peace and understanding, the Fifth Empire, which will come about through a Portuguese of mystical origin to which he refers by a number of names including "The Hidden One", "The King" or "King Sebastian". The Hidden One represents the fulfillment of the destiny of mankind, designed by God since before Time, and, at the same time, the accomplishment of Portugal which, in Pessoa's vision is the chosen nation, the one that will bear the New Messiah and lead the way towards the Fifth Empire:

According to Pessoa "The Fifth Empire. Portugal's future – which I do not reckon, but I know – it is already written, for those who know how to read it, in the Bandarra's Trovas, and also in quatrains of Nostradamus". In The Prophecies of Nostradamus, Fernando Pessoa probably makes reference to the Tenth and last Century, including the Fifth quatrain and the last of all quatrains of this century, among many others in Nostradamus's Centuries.

In Pessoa's vision, lusophone countries such as Brazil have a key role in this mission, supported by the Portuguese international alliances, including the Iberian nations, Britain, Ireland, the Atlantism, Greece and its legacy, and beyond.

See also
 Cult of the Holy Spirit
 Fifth Monarchists
 Lusotropicalism
 Third Rome

References

Portuguese mythology
Monarchism in Portugal

Fifth Empire


Heinrich Conrad Schleinitz (born 1805 in Zechanitz for chub; died 1881 in Leipzig) was a German jurist and tenor .

Schleinitz was born in 1805, the son of a school headmaster in Zechanitz. He was a pupil at the Thomas School in Leipzig . After graduation, he studied law at the University of Leipzig . He received a doctorate in the Dr. iur. and worked as a lawyer in Leipzig. Later he received a musical education. He entered 1830 as a tenor at a festival in Halle in 1848 and sang Mendelssohn's Elijah in Leipzig. After him to the Board of the Leipzig Gewandhaus ordered, he set in 1835 for Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, Office of the Gewandhaus one. Between the two was a lifelong friendship. So he was A Midsummer Night's Dream and night song dedicated. After Mendelssohn's death in 1847, he became director of the Leipzig Conservatory . Schleinitz died in 1881, in almost complete blindness, in Leipzig.

Sources
 Biographie von Heinrich Conrad Schleinitz

1805 births
Jurists from Saxony
German tenors
1881 deaths
19th-century German male opera singers

Heinrich Conrad Schleinitz


Nusa Ceningan is a small island located in Nusa Penida district, Klungkung Regency, Bali, Indonesia; between Nusa Lembongan and Nusa Penida and south of mainland Bali. It lies on the southern side of the Strait of Badung.

There is a notable surf break off Nusa Ceningan which attracts some surfers away from the more crowded breaks on Nusa Lembongan.

The island offers some scenic roads and paths, and the westward views back over Nusa Lembongan to Bali are impressive. Viewing the sunset over Bali from the central Ceningan ridge is very much worth the effort. The estuarine channel between Lembongan and Ceningan is home to many seaweed farms and pristine mangrove forests.

Nusa Ceningan has been slowly growing in popularity since 2009. It is connected to Lembongan island through a narrow bridge. Several resorts and hotels have opened their doors in the recent years. A key tourist attraction is the Mahana cliff jump. This is located on the south easterly side of Nusa Ceningan at Mahana Point Bar. The bar manages two diving platforms at 5 and 13 meters. Jumping is only permitted when the tide is high enough.

References

Bali
Islands of Bali
Klungkung Regency
Populated places in Indonesia

Nusa Ceningan


The rigging of a sailing ship is made up of the ropes and/or chains used to support the ship's masts, yards and sails. The standing rigging is used to support the masts. The running rigging supports the yards and sails. Some types of sailboats that have unsupported masts do not have any rigging. These include the junk rig and catboat rigs. Bermuda sloops with a single mast and one headsail use fairly simple rigging. Cutter-rigged ketches and schooners have the most complex rigging.

Standing rigging
A sailing ship's standing rigging is made up of the ropes used to support the masts, yards and booms. Most modern sailing vessels use wire rope for the standing rigging. Modern standing rigging is regularly checked for tension using a special gauge. Adjusting the tension is done by use of a turnbuckle. Ropes, wires or rods that run fore-and-aft along the centerline which stabilize the masts or spars are called stays. Those that from the mast to the bow are called forestays. Those that run from the mast to the stern are called backstays.

Running rigging
The running rigging of a sailing vessel controls the sails. The running rigging is usually made up of various kinds of rope (ropes are also called lines). It uses blocks and Sheaves to adjust the length of the ropes. A block is a kind of pulley. A sheave is the grooved wheel inside the block. Larger sailing boats and ships use winches. The adjustability of the running rigging allows the boat to perform various maneuvers such as tacking and jibing. Common to all sailboats are the outhaul and the downhaul. The outhaul pulls the sail to the free end of the boom. The downhaul keeps the boom from rising on the mast.

References

Other websites
 Lines, Cables and Spars, oh my…
 Adjusting standing rigging tensions; YouTube
 Rigging Inspections, Check your rigging before heading out; YouTube
 Running Rigging; YouTube

Sailing ships

Rigging


Between 1990 and 1996, a total of seven people were killed in Australia. Since all of the people were backpackers, the events are known as backpacker murders today. All of their bodies were found in Belangalo State Forest, which is close to Sydney. Ivan Milat killed all of these people.

What happened
7 people were found in Belangalo State Forest.  Five of these people were visiting Australia - three Germans and two British people. The other two were visiting Sydney from other parts of Australia.  Some of these people were by themselves.  Some of these people were with a friend.  The 7 people were all different from each other.

Television report
On the TV they said that tourists were killed, but not everyone who died was a tourist.

The crimescene
The 7 people were found all over Belangalo State Forest, which is a big area.  One of them had their head chopped off.  Someone had sex with some of them.  Some of them had their clothes taken off.  Some of them had bits of their bodies cut off and put somewhere else.  Some of the bodies were by themselves.

Deaths
Some of the people had been killed with a knife. Some had been killed with a gun.  Some seemed to have been strangled.

The 7 people who died had nothing in common.  People who tried to find out who did it said that there may have been more than one person who killed them.  They said that they may have been a part of a gang.

Catching Ivan Milat
Ivan Milat (born 1944 died 2019) was an Australian man from New South Wales who lived near Belangalo State Forest.  So police arrested Milat and searched his house. They found out that:

Milat had a gun similar to the weapon used to murder the victims and items that belonged to the victims.
One man in England said that he was nearly killed by Milat.
Police then said that Ivan Milat must have tried to kill that man.  They also said that Ivan Milat may have killed all of the other people.

Milat went to court, and people in court said that he did kill all of these people.

The mystery

Some people think that other people helped Milat.  Some people said his brothers helped him, or a girl, or lots of other people. Police have said that there are more than 30 people that went missing that might have been killed by Milat.

1990s in Australia
Murder in Australia
Murder in the 1990s
History of New South Wales

Backpacker murders


"All We Know" is a song by American DJ duo The Chainsmokers. It features vocals from Andrew Taggart (one half of The Chainsmokers) and American singer Phoebe Ryan. The song was released on September 29, 2016, through Disruptor Records and Columbia Records.

Background and composition
On the song, The Chainsmokers said "It's about the hardships of relationships but never giving up on your ride or die."

The song is written in the key of C major with a common time tempo of 90 beats per minute with a chord progression of C – Fsus2 – Am. The vocals span from G3 to A4 in the song. The lyrics were written by Taggart and Swedish songwriting duo SHY—made up of Sara Hjellström and Nirob Islam (better known as Shy Martin and Shy Nodi, respectively)—while the production was handled by The Chainsmokers.

Critical reception
Isis Briones of Teen Vogue stated "When you look beyond the catchy beats, the song explores a situation arguably worse than wanting to get back together with your ex: The idea of a fading relationship. The DJs open up a door of emotions many can relate to. As tragic as the initial lines may be, the rest of the song pulls through with the most heartfelt happy ever after you'll hear." Idolator's Mike Wass said "[All We Know] picks up where 'Closer' left off" and went on to say "it's almost as if The Chainsmokers took 'Closer' and refined it. That might be a little safe, but it's also very smart." Deepa Lakshmin of MTV labeled it a "bittersweet tune about a relationship that's not quite going anywhere" and said it is "basically a sequel to 'Closer'."

Music video
The music video for the song directed by Rory Kramer was released to YouTube on November 17, 2016. The video begins with a man (portrayed by Casey Deidrick) fleeing out from his girlfriend's (Jocelin Albor) house after receiving a desperate phone call. He buys a bottle of liquor in a store and then smashes the bottle, his phone, and a trash can cover. Feeling drawn out, he hitchhikes a car as the sun was about to rise. The video ends with his footage of walking on a mountain trail as cutbacks of his prior events last night were played in rewind, culminating in meeting his girlfriend back at the mountain peak.

The video's shooting method is found footage, in which a camera is strapped to Casey's waist to record the music video. It includes cameos of The Chainsmokers as convenience store customers and Phoebe Ryan as a cashier.

Track listing

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications

References

2016 singles
2016 songs
The Chainsmokers songs
Columbia Records singles
Disruptor Records singles
Future bass songs
Phoebe Ryan songs
Song recordings produced by the Chainsmokers
Songs written by Andrew Taggart
Songs written by Shy Martin
Male–female vocal duets

All We Know


KS Steel is a permanent magnetic steel with three times the magnetic reluctance of tungsten steel, which was developed in 1917 by the Japanese scientist and inventor Kotaro Honda. "KS" stands for Kichizaemon Sumitomo, the head of the family-run conglomerate, who provided financial support for the research leading to KS Steel's invention. Honda would go on to invent NKS steel in 1933 whose magnetic resistance is several times higher than that of KS Steel.

History
After World War one when Japan faced a problem of coping with painful restrictions on imports of materials from foreign countries such as Germany. That is when physicist Kotaro Honda was motivated to study alloy for this need in domestic steel production and opened up his RIKEN-Honda Laboratory at Tohoku Imperial University in 1922. He invented KS steel in 1917; it is a permanent magnetic steel with three times the magnetic resistance of tungsten steel. Kichizaemon Sumitomo, who was the head of the family run that provided financial support for the research leading to the invention, gives the initials KS in the name of the steel.

Material properties
The composition of KS steel is 0.4–0.8 percent carbon; 30–40 percent cobalt; 5–9 percent tungsten; and 1.5–3 percent chromium. KS steel is best tempered when heated to 950 °C and then quenched in heavy oil. The residual magnetism is reduced by only 6 percent when artificially aged. The yield strength of KS steel is above 500 and tensile strength is above 620 and elongation is above 14. The maximum energy product (BH)max of KS steel is 30 kJ/m^3.

See also
 MKM steel
 RIKEN
 Ten Japanese Great Inventors

References

Steels
Japanese inventions
1917 introductions
Magnetic alloys
Ferromagnetic materials

KS Steel


Electron Power Systems, Inc. of Acton, Massachusetts, United States, claims to have developed a technology for maintaining small stable plasma toroids called electron spiral toroids (ESTs) which remain stable in Earth's atmosphere without the use of any special magnetic fields. They claim to have created these toroids in the laboratory, and to have developed a mathematical model for them that is similar to some explanations for ball lightning. An EST may be a special case of a spheromak.

Because of EST's claimed lack of need for an external stabilizing magnetic field, EPS hope to be able to create small efficient fusion reactors by colliding magnetically accelerated ESTs together at speeds high enough to induce ballistic nuclear fusion.

Their model for their reported toroidal phenomena was extensively criticised by a December 2000 technical report commissioned by NASA. , EPS claim to have met the criticisms of the NASA report, and to have demonstrated that their model is mathematically sound, and state that they are ready to proceed with development of their technology.

References

 Jean-Luc Cambier and David A. Micheletti. Theoretical Analysis of the Electron Spiral Toroid Concept NASA/CR-2000-210654.
  C. Chen, R. Pakter, and D. C. Seward. Equilibrium and stability properties of self-organized electron spiral toroids.  Physics of Plasmas Vol 8(10) pp. 4441–4449. October 2001.

External links
Electron Power Systems: The official web site of Electron Power Systems.

Plasma physics

Electron spiral toroid


James R. Stark (born May 27, 1943) is a retired rear admiral of the United States Navy who served during the Cold War and in the Vietnam War and oversaw operations related to the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s. A surface warfare officer, his career included command of ships at sea, senior U.S. Navy and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) commands, staff assignments with the Chief of Naval Operations and the National Security Council, and a tour as President of the Naval War College.

Naval career
Stark was born in Arlington, Virginia. He graduated with distinction from the United States Naval Academy in 1965 with a Bachelor of Science degree. His initial tour was a short one aboard the destroyer , after which he attended the University of Vienna in Vienna, Austria, for one year as a Fulbright Scholar from 1965 to 1966.

After returning to the United States, Stark went back to sea, serving as Combat Information Center officer aboard the destroyer leader . He then was weapons officer first aboard the destroyer  and then aboard the destroyer  and deployed to Southeast Asia aboard both ships for service in the Vietnam War.

In 1970, Stark began graduate studies at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University, from which he received two master's degrees and a doctorate in political science in 1973.  He then returned to sea duty as executive officer of the destroyer , followed by a tour as executive officer of the guided-missile cruiser . He was commanding officer of the guided-missile frigate  from 1981 to 1983 and of the guided-missile cruiser  from 18 July 1987 to 31 October 1989.

In Washington, D.C., Stark had assignments on the Navy Staff, on the National Security Council staff, and as executive director of the Chief of Naval Operations Executive Panel. He was selected in December 1991 for promotion to rear admiral (lower half), and was commander of the United States Pacific Fleet Training Command from June 1992 to March 1994. He assumed command of the North Atlantic Treaty Organizations Standing Naval Force Atlantic on 14 April 1994, and during that tour directed its operations in support of the United Nations embargo of Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Yugoslav Wars.  He was selected for promotion to rear admiral in December 1994.

On 29 June 1995, Stark became the 47th President of the Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island. During his presidency, he reorganized the curriculum of the College of Continuing Education to allow officers to complete the course in a single shore tour, oversaw the construction of McCarty-Little Hall, began the colleges planning for a new library and administration building, and incorporated the Naval Warfare Development Center into the colleges operations. Stark retired from the Navy after 33 years of service upon the conclusion of his college presidency on 24 July 1998.

Decorations and awards

During his career, Stark received the Defense Superior Service Medal, three awards of the Legion of Merit, three awards of the Meritorious Service Medal, and two awards of the Navy Commendation Medal, as well as various campaign and service awards.

Personal life
Stark is married to the former Roswitha Stari. They have a son and a daughter.

Retirement

In retirement, Stark worked in London, England, for Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems for nearly seven years as vice president for European Marketing. He then became an independent consultant as a member of The Spectrum Group. He also has served as a senior advisor to the CNA Financial Corporation.

Awards
 Defense Superior Service Medal
 Legion of Merit (three awards)
  Meritorious Service Medal (three awards)
 Navy Commendation Medal (two awards)

References

External links
Portrait of James R. Stark

Living people
Military personnel from Arlington County, Virginia
Presidents of the Naval War College
United States Navy admirals
Military personnel of the Cold War
United States Navy personnel of the Vietnam War
NATO military personnel
United States Naval Academy alumni
University of Vienna alumni
The Fletcher School at Tufts University alumni
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
1943 births
Recipients of the Meritorious Service Medal (United States)

James R. Stark


, also known as manic shooter, is a subgenre of shoot 'em up video games featuring large amounts of projectiles the player character is required to dodge. Introduced in 1993 with Batsugun and initially limited to vertically scrolling shooters, bullet hell elements were later added to numerous other genres. Pure bullet hell games remained a niche genre due to their high level of difficulty, akin to masocore games.

History
The origin of the bullet hell genre is attributed to Toaplan, a now-defunct Japanese video game studio that developed arcade shoot 'em ups. In 1993, the studio released Batsugun, an innovative game that, after the first level, featured increasingly complex and hypnotic bullet patterns. In order to make the game more fair to players, only a small part of the player's ship served as the hitbox, rather than the entire vessel itself. This remained a tenet of bullet hell shooters, allowing players to navigate through seemingly impossible swarms of bullets. The company collapsed soon after, but former employees started a different studio, Cave, that continued to develop bullet hell games.

The 1995 DonPachi added more twists to the formula that continued to be reflected in the genre going forward. It added a fighting game-style combo system that forced the player to defeat enemies quickly or lose score. Around this time, the Touhou Project, the most prolific fan-made shooter series as recognized by Guinness World Records, was also conceived. Largely the work of a single doujin soft developer, ZUN, he had begun developing the games simply to have a showcase for his musical compositions. The second game in the series, the 1997 Story of Eastern Wonderland, was its first bullet hell shoot 'em up. The 2002 Embodiment of Scarlet Devil marked a large step forward for the series, and, due to its Windows release, gained massive popularity with a new Western audience.

In 2001, Ikaruga gained significant attention outside of Japan due to its release on the GameCube. It was the first experience with bullet hell games for many Western players, and gained a respected place in gaming culture. In the modern day, more bullet hell titles have been released on mobile platforms than ever before. While it is still a heavily Japan-centric genre, there have been some Western-developed exceptions, such as Jamestown: Legend of the Lost Colony.

Bullet hell hybrids
Some games began incorporating bullet hell elements despite being different genres, muddying definitions of what exactly the genre is. RPG/bullet hell hybrids include Knights in the Nightmare (2008), Undertale (2015) and Nier: Automata (2017), which have combat systems featuring bullet dodging. Enter the Gungeon (2016) is a twin-stick shooter roguelike with "smart" bullets. Due to the "die-hard" nature of pure bullet hell fans, such hybrids open the genre to a new audience who might never seek to try one.

Competitive play
The competitive bullet hell scene is defined by hyper-fast reflex gameplay with a focus on achieving high scores. It has not become an esport due to a lack of human drama, as well as a belief that highly-skilled Japanese players are "gods" of the genre, causing fewer Western players to pick them up.

Bullet heaven

Bullet heaven or reverse bullet hell are terms for games related to bullet hell games, but instead of where the player is attempting to dodge numerous bullets, the player's character or vessel generates the bullets, typically in the manner of an auto shooter, to take out waves of enemies while the player moves to dodge contact with the enemies and arrange for more strategic position. These games are often roguelike in nature, having the player choose power ups from a random selection to improve attack and passive abilities. Such games became popular with the release of Vampire Survivors in 2022, and include games like Brotato, 20 Minutes Till Dawn, and HoloCure - Save the Fans!.

References

Video game genres

Bullet hell


Pasapali sari  also known as Saktapar is a Bandha (Ikat) handloom sari weaved mainly in the Bargarh district of Odisha, India. The name Pasapali is derived from pasā or gambling games using Chess board. These saris have intricate check patterns of contrast colors resembling the chess boards which gives it such name.

References

Sonepur Handloom Cluster
bomkai silk
sambalpuri and sonepuri patta saree
Deal inked with national brands to promote state products

Saris
Dresses
Odia culture
Bargarh district
Handloom sarees

Pasapali sari


West Midlands Trains (WMT) is a British train operating company based in Birmingham, England. It operates passenger trains on the West Midlands franchise between London and the West Midlands under two trade names: West Midlands Railway (WMR) (within the West Midlands region) and London Northwestern Railway (LNR) (outside the West Midlands region). The company took over from London Midland on 10 December 2017.

It is owned by a consortium of three companies: Abellio, JR East and Mitsui Group.

The company provides direct LNWR trains mainly between London and Birmingham, with some trains going to Watford, Tring, Milton Keynes, Crewe and Liverpool. WMR provide direct trains between Birmingham and towns such as Shrewsbury, Rugeley, Wolverhampton, Walsall, Stratford-upon-Avon, Nuneaton, Redditch and Hereford.

References

2017 establishments in the United Kingdom
British train operating companies

West Midlands Trains


Secret Garden is the third EP  by South Korean girl group Apink, released on July 5, 2013. This is their first official release as six-member group and they returned after 14 months since they last promoted their last album "Une Année" with "Hush" and "Bubibu" in May 2012. They made first comeback stage on Mnet's "M! Countdown" one day before the official release. The theme of the album is healing, aim to that will soothe the listeners' eyes and ears. The album consist of five new songs including the title track "No No No" produced by Shinsadong Tiger.

This is also the first release following Hong Yoo-kyung's departure in April 2013.

Release and promotion
On June 23, A Cube Entertainment announced that Apink will return with a new mini album "Secret Garden" through a video teaser released on their YouTube channel. The teaser showed six girls, confirming Apink will continue as six without adding new member after Yookyung left the group in April. "Secret Garden" will be their first official release as six-member group and their returned after 14 months since they last promoted their last album "Une Année" with "Hush" and "Bubibu" in May 2012.

On June 28, a second video teaser was released, showing the girls each holding a bouquet of flowers in a green meadow. The teaser revealed the date of upcoming album release will be on July 5. It was later revealed that the background music used for the video teasers were snippets of two of the tracks on their up-coming mini-album, titled "Secret Garden" and "U You".

On July 3, it was stated that the group's title track will be "No No No", a song composed by Shinsadong Tiger and the full music video will be released together with the album release on July 5. In a preview of their upcoming music video of the song, Apink members can be seen dancing and singing a small part of their song.

One day before the music video and mini-album was released, Apink performed a snippet of "Lovely Day", a track on their album, in addition to a full performance of "No No No" on Mnet's M! Countdown on July 4. This was followed by additional comebacks on music programs including KBS's Music Bank, MBC's Show! Music Core and SBS's Inkigayo. On July 9, Apink's "No No No" won 1st place on Music Bank. On July 5, they released the physical mini album, digital single and the music video for "No No No".

Concept
In regards to the theme of their album, A Cube Entertainment stated "The theme of the Secret Garden album is healing, and more than anything shocking, it'll be an album that will make you feel refreshed. You can anticipate Apink's improved skills that improved over the year of preparation." They added, "With the meaning of "Apink's Establishment", this album "Secret Garden" will not be a transformation, but it will be an album filled with an innocent music genre, perfect for the girls, that will soothe the listeners' eyes and ears."

On July 10, Apink members sent healing messages for their fans. In the picture uploaded by A Cube, each of Apink member can be seen holding a personally decorated for their fans. their healing song "No No No" revealed each of their own healing messages through their agency.The members wrote messages such as Naeun brightened up their day by telling fans to "Cheer UP!" Chorong assured, "Everything will be okay~ Pat Pat." Namjoo gave encouraging advice with the message: "Always Smile." Bomi suggested a "Positive mindset." Eunji let fans know, "I'm by your side. I love you," and Hayoung declared, "I will be your light."

Stage Outfit
For "Secret Garden" promotion, Apink incorporated 2013 summer fashion trend for their stage outfit. The aim is to achieve a girlish and feminine look that matched with the album concept and summer season. Some of fashion concept such as "Stripe & Lace", a combination of Black & White striped pattern pants with lace and sporty baseball uniform for the top to finish a girlish look; "Pastel color", warm and bright pastel color outfit that perfect for summer season;"Flower pattern & Crop", a trendy crop top with flower pattern that will give a feminine look.

Album cover and artwork
Apink released album jacket photos teaser through Naver Music online on June 27 through Naver Music Online, revealed both group and individual close up shots as they posed in a green field. On July 2, album cover for Secret Garden was released showing Apink member setting up a lemonade stand for the summer and showed off their innocent and pure image.

Member Naeun had personally designed the album cover of Apink's new 3rd mini album Secret Garden. After the album release, many fans asked if member Naeun participated in the album cover design after seeing the name Son Naeun credited for 'Art Work & Design'. On July 11, A Cube replied, "The Son Naeun listed on the credits is indeed the same Son Naeun from Apink. She draws really well, so we suggested that she could design the album cover this time. She personally agreed to it in a positive light and went ahead with it. Everyone will be able to find for themselves the art work that Son Naeun did within the album."

Songs and music video

No No No

The song was written and produced by Shinsadong Tiger and the music video was created by ZanyBros. Shinsadong Tiger previously worked with Apink for "My My" and "Wishlist". There are two version for the song music video, the full version released on July 5, while the dance choreography version on July 11.  "No No No" was the group's highest charting single, peaking at number 2 on 'Billboard's K-Pop Hot 100 and number 3 on Gaon Single Chart.  On the year-end charts, "No No No" placed at number 12 on the K-Pop Hot 100, and number 33 on Gaon's digital chart. A Japanese version of the song was released on October 22, 2014.

Secret Garden
"Secret Garden" composed by ZigZag Note is a pop ballad song with a medium tempo that showcases Apink member's vocals. The lyrics portrayed emotion of a girl who finally ready to open her heart to someone she love.
On July 20, the group released the music video for their song, which was also created by ZanyBros.

U You
Music video for "U You" first revealed exclusively for the fans during Apink's first fan meeting on August 31. It was later officially released on September 3 at their YouTube channel. Using the similar set with title song "No No No", the video showed Apink members having fun playing together.

Track listing

Taiwan Version

Charts

Sales and certifications

Release history

References

External links

Apink albums
2013 EPs
Dance-pop EPs
Korean-language EPs
Cube Entertainment EPs

Secret Garden (Apink EP)