TeX, juga ditulis sebagai TeX, sistem typesetting (penyusunan huruf) yang dirancang dan ditulis oleh Donald Knuth, dan pertama kali dirilis pada tahun 1978. TeX adalah cara populer untuk menyusun rumus matematika yang kompleks; TeX telah dicatat sebagai salah satu sistem tipografi digital yang paling canggih.

TeX banyak digunakan dalam dunia akademis, terutama dalam matematika, ilmu komputer, ekonomi, ilmu politik, teknik, linguistik, fisika, statistika, dan psikologi kuantitatif. TeX telah lama menggantikan troff Unix, sistem pemformatan yang sebelumnya disukai di sebagian besar instalasi Unix. TeX juga digunakan untuk banyak tugas penyusunan huruf lainnya, terutama dalam bentuk LaTeX, ConTeXt, dan paket makro lainnya.

TeX dirancang dengan dua tujuan utama: untuk memungkinkan siapa pun menghasilkan buku berkualitas tinggi dengan usaha yang minimal, dan untuk menyediakan sistem yang akan memberikan hasil yang persis sama di semua komputer  kapanpun (bersama dengan bahasa Metafont untuk deskripsi font dan keluarga typeface Computer Modern). TeX adalah perangkat lunak gratis, yang membuatnya dapat diakses oleh berbagai pengguna.

Sejarah
Ketika volume pertama dari buku The Art of Computer Programming karya Knuth diterbitkan pada tahun 1968, buku ini diketik dengan menggunakan hot metal typesetting pada mesin Monotype. Metode ini, yang berasal dari abad ke-19, menghasilkan "gaya klasik" yang disukai oleh Knuth. Ketika edisi kedua diterbitkan, pada tahun 1976, seluruh buku harus diketik lagi karena teknologi Monotype sebagian besar telah digantikan oleh phototypesetting, dan font asli tidak lagi tersedia. Ketika Knuth menerima cetak coba dari buku baru pada tanggal 30 Maret 1977, dia menemukan bahwa kualitas buku tersebut lebih rendah.

Kecewa dengan cetak coba edisi kedua dari jilid kedua, dia termotivasi untuk merancang sistem penyusunan hurufnya sendiri. Knuth melihat untuk pertama kalinya output dari sistem penyusunan huruf digital berkualitas tinggi, dan menjadi tertarik pada tipografi digital. Pada tanggal 13 Mei 1977, ia menulis memo untuk dirinya sendiri yang menjelaskan fitur dasar TeX.

Dia berencana untuk menyelesaikannya pada masa cuti panjangnya pada tahun 1978, tetapi bahasa tersebut tidak sempat "frozen" (siap digunakan) sampai tahun 1989, lebih dari sepuluh tahun kemudian. Guy Steele kebetulan berada di Universitas Stanford selama musim panas 1978, ketika Knuth mengembangkan versi pertama TeX. Ketika Steele kembali ke Institut Teknologi Massachusetts pada musim gugur itu, dia menulis ulang input/output (I/O) TeX untuk dijalankan di sistem operasi Incompatible Timesharing System (ITS). Versi pertama TeX, yang disebut TeX78, ditulis dalam bahasa pemrograman SAIL untuk dijalankan pada PDP-10 di bawah sistem operasi WAITS milik Stanford.

WEB dan pemrograman literasi
Untuk versi TeX yang lebih baru, Knuth menemukan konsep pemrograman literasi (literate programming), sebuah cara untuk menghasilkan kode sumber yang dapat dikompilasi dan dokumentasi cross-linked yang diketik dalam TeX, dari berkas asli yang sama. Bahasa yang digunakan disebut WEB dan menghasilkan program dalam DEC PDP-10 Pascal.

TeX82
TeX82, versi baru TeX yang ditulis ulang dari awal, diterbitkan pada tahun 1982. Di antara perubahan lainnya, algoritma tanda hubung (hypenation) yang asli digantikan oleh algoritma baru yang ditulis oleh Frank Liang. TeX82 juga menggunakan aritmetika fixed-point, bukan floating-point, untuk memastikan hasil yang sama di berbagai perangkat keras komputer yang berbeda, dan menyertakan bahasa pemrograman Turing-lengkap yang nyata, setelah lobi intens oleh Guy Steele. Pada tahun 1989, Donald Knuth merilis versi baru TeX dan Metafont. Terlepas dari keinginannya untuk menjaga kestabilan program, Knuth menyadari bahwa 128 karakter yang berbeda untuk input teks tidak cukup untuk mengakomodasi bahasa asing; perubahan utama dalam TeX versi 3.0 (juga disebut TeX90) adalah kemampuan untuk bekerja dengan input 8-bit, memungkinkan 256 karakter berbeda dalam input teks.

Sejak versi 3, TeX telah menggunakan sistem penomoran versi yang istimewa, yakni pembaruan ditunjukkan dengan menambahkan digit ekstra di akhir desimal, sehingga nomor versi secara asimtotik mendekati . Ini adalah cerminan dari fakta bahwa TeX sekarang sangat stabil, dan hanya pembaruan kecil yang diantisipasi. Versi TeX saat ini adalah 3.141592653; terakhir diperbarui pada tahun 2021. Desainnya dibekukan (frozen) setelah versi 3.0, dan tidak ada fitur baru atau perubahan mendasar yang akan ditambahkan, jadi semua versi yang lebih baru hanya akan berisi perbaikan kutu. Meskipun Donald Knuth sendiri telah menyarankan beberapa area di mana TeX dapat ditingkatkan, dia mengindikasikan bahwa dia sangat yakin bahwa memiliki sistem yang tidak berubah dan yang akan menghasilkan output yang sama sekarang juga di masa depan, lebih penting daripada memperkenalkan fitur baru. Untuk alasan ini, dia telah menyatakan bahwa "perubahan yang benar-benar terakhir (yang akan dilakukan setelah kematian saya)" adalah mengubah nomor versi menjadi , di mana semua bug yang tersisa akan menjadi fitur. Demikian juga, versi Metafont setelah 2.0 secara asimtotik mendekati  (saat ini di 2.7182818), dan perubahan serupa akan diterapkan setelah kematian Knuth.

Domain publik
Karena kode sumber TeX pada dasarnya berada dalam domain publik (lihat di bawah), programmer lain diperbolehkan (dan secara eksplisit didorong) untuk meningkatkan sistem, tetapi diharuskan menggunakan nama lain untuk mendistribusikan TeX yang dimodifikasi, yang berarti bahwa kode sumber masih dapat berkembang. Sebagai contoh, proyek Omega dikembangkan setelah tahun 1991, terutama untuk meningkatkan kemampuan typesetting multibahasa TeX. Knuth menciptakan versi modifikasi "tidak resmi", seperti TeX-XeT, yang memungkinkan pengguna untuk mencampur teks yang ditulis dalam sistem penulisan kiri-ke-kanan dan kanan-ke-kiri dalam dokumen yang sama.

Penggunaan TeX
Dalam beberapa bidang teknis seperti ilmu komputer, matematika, teknik dan fisika, TeX telah menjadi standar de facto. Ribuan buku telah diterbitkan menggunakan TeX, termasuk buku-buku yang diterbitkan oleh Addison-Wesley, Cambridge University Press, Elsevier, Oxford University Press, dan Springer. Banyak jurnal di bidang ini diproduksi menggunakan TeX atau LaTeX, yang memungkinkan penulis untuk mengirimkan naskah mentah mereka yang ditulis dalam TeX. Sementara banyak publikasi di bidang lain, termasuk kamus dan publikasi hukum, telah diproduksi menggunakan TeX, namun belum sesukses di bidang yang lebih teknis, karena TeX terutama dirancang untuk mengetik matematika.

Ketika dia mendesain TeX, Donald Knuth tidak percaya bahwa satu sistem penyusunan huruf tunggal akan sesuai dengan kebutuhan semua orang; sebagai gantinya, dia mendesain banyak pengait di dalam program sehingga memungkinkan untuk menulis ekstensi, dan merilis kode sumbernya, dengan harapan bahwa penerbit akan merancang versi yang menyesuaikan dengan kebutuhan mereka sendiri. Meskipun ekstensi semacam itu telah dibuat (termasuk beberapa oleh Knuth sendiri), kebanyakan orang telah memperluas TeX hanya dengan menggunakan makro dan TeX tetap menjadi sistem yang terkait dengan penyusunan huruf teknis.

Sistem penyusunan huruf
Perintah TeX biasanya dimulai dengan garis miring terbalik dan dikelompokkan dengan kurung kurawal. Hampir semua sifat sintaksis TeX dapat diubah dengan cepat (on the fly), yang membuat input TeX sulit diurai oleh apa pun kecuali TeX itu sendiri. TeX adalah bahasa berbasis makro dan token: banyak perintah, termasuk sebagian besar perintah yang ditentukan pengguna, diperluas (expanded) dengan cepat sampai hanya token yang tidak dapat diekspansi yang tersisa, yang kemudian dieksekusi. Ekspansi itu sendiri praktis bebas dari efek samping. Rekursi ekor dari makro tidak membutuhkan memori, dan konstruksi if-then-else tersedia. Hal ini membuat TeX menjadi bahasa Turing-lengkap bahkan pada tingkat ekspansi. Sistem ini dapat dibagi menjadi empat tingkat: yang pertama, karakter dibaca dari file input dan diberi kode kategori (kadang-kadang disebut dengan "catcode"). Kombinasi garis miring terbalik (sebenarnya, karakter apa pun dari kategori nol) yang diikuti oleh huruf (karakter kategori 11) atau satu karakter lain digantikan oleh token control-sequence. Dalam hal ini, tahap ini seperti analisis leksikal, meskipun tidak membentuk angka dari digit. Pada tahap berikutnya, urutan kontrol yang dapat diperluas (seperti kondisional atau makro yang didefinisikan) digantikan oleh teks penggantinya. Masukan untuk tahap ketiga adalah aliran karakter (termasuk yang memiliki makna khusus) dan urutan kontrol yang tidak dapat diperluas (biasanya tugas dan perintah visual). Di sini, karakter-karakter tersebut dirangkai menjadi sebuah paragraf, dan algoritma pemecah paragraf TeX bekerja dengan mengoptimalkan breakpoints di seluruh paragraf. Tahap keempat memecah daftar vertikal baris dan materi lainnya ke dalam halaman.

Sistem TeX memiliki pengetahuan yang tepat tentang ukuran semua karakter dan simbol, dan dengan menggunakan informasi ini, sistem ini menghitung pengaturan optimal huruf per baris dan baris per halaman. Kemudian sistem menghasilkan file DVI ("DeVice Independent") yang berisi lokasi akhir dari semua karakter. File DVI ini kemudian dapat dicetak langsung dengan driver printer yang sesuai, atau dapat dikonversi ke format lain. Saat ini, pdfTeX sering digunakan, yang melewati pembuatan DVI sama sekali. Sistem TeX dasar memahami sekitar 300 perintah, yang disebut primitif. Perintah-perintah tingkat rendah ini jarang digunakan secara langsung oleh pengguna, dan sebagian besar fungsionalitas disediakan oleh file format (memory image TeX yang di-predump setelah koleksi makro besar telah dimuat). Format default asli Knuth, yang menambahkan sekitar 600 perintah, adalah Plain TeX. Format yang paling banyak digunakan adalah LaTeX, awalnya dikembangkan oleh Leslie Lamport, yang menggabungkan gaya dokumen untuk buku, surat, slide, dll.; juga menambahkan dukungan untuk referensi dan penomoran otomatis bagian dan persamaan. Format lain yang banyak digunakan, AMS-TeX, diproduksi oleh American Mathematical Society dan menyediakan banyak perintah yang lebih ramah pengguna, yang dapat diubah oleh jurnal-jurnal agar sesuai dengan format gaya mereka. Sebagian besar fitur AMS-TeX dapat digunakan di LaTeX dengan menggunakan "paket AMS" (misalnya, amsmath, amssymb) dan "kelas dokumen AMS" (misalnya, amsart, amsbook). Hal ini kemudian disebut sebagai AMS-LaTeX. Format lain termasuk ConTeXt, yang digunakan terutama untuk penerbitan desktop dan sebagian besar ditulis oleh Hans Hagen di Pragma.

Cara kerja

Contoh program Hello world dalam TeX biasa adalah:Hello, World
\bye          % menandai akhir file; tidak ditampilkan dalam output akhirTeks program ini mungkin berada dalam file myfile.tex, karena .tex adalah ekstensi file yang umum untuk file TeX biasa. Secara default, semua yang mengikuti tanda persen pada suatu baris adalah komentar, dan diabaikan oleh TeX. Menjalankan TeX pada file ini (misalnya, dengan mengetik  tex myfile.tex dalam antarmuka baris perintah, atau dengan memanggilnya dari antarmuka pengguna grafis) akan membuat file output yang disebut myfile.dvi, yang mewakili konten halaman dalam format independen perangkat (DVI, device independent format). File DVI kemudian dapat dilihat di layar atau dikonversi ke format yang sesuai untuk salah satu dari berbagai printer yang driver perangkatnya ada (dukungan printer umumnya bukan fitur sistem operasi pada saat TeX dibuat). Knuth mengatakan bahwa tidak ada yang melekat pada TeX yang membutuhkan DVI sebagai format output, dan versi TeX yang lebih baru, terutama pdfTeX, XeTeX dan LuaTeX, semuanya mendukung output langsung ke PDF.

Contoh matematika
(Contoh-contoh di sini tidak benar-benar di-render dengan TeX; jarak spasi, ukuran karakter, dan yang lainnya mungkin berbeda).

TeX menyediakan sintaks teks yang berbeda khusus untuk rumus matematika. Misalnya, rumus kuadrat (yang merupakan solusi dari persamaan kuadrat) ditulis:Rumus dicetak dengan cara seseorang akan menulisnya dengan tangan, atau dengan mengetik persamaan. Dalam dokumen, mode matematika dimulai dengan simbol $, kemudian memasukkan rumus dalam sintaks TeX, dan ditutup lagi dengan $. Knuth menjelaskan dengan bercanda bahwa dia memilih tanda dolar untuk menunjukkan awal dan akhir mode matematika di TeX biasa karena typesetting matematika secara tradisional seharusnya mahal. Tampilan matematika (matematika yang disajikan rata-tengah pada baris baru) dihasilkan dengan cara serupa tetapi menggunakan $$ bukan simbol $ tunggal. Sebagai contoh, di atas dengan rumus kuadratik dalam tampilan matematika:

Aspek
Perangkat lunak TeX menggabungkan beberapa aspek yang tidak tersedia, atau kualitasnya lebih rendah, dalam program penyusunan huruf (typesetting) lainnya pada saat TeX dirilis. Beberapa inovasi didasarkan pada algoritma yang menarik, dan telah menghasilkan beberapa tesis untuk mahasiswa Knuth. Walaupun beberapa penemuan ini sekarang telah disertakan ke dalam program typesetting lainnya; yang lain, seperti aturan untuk spasi matematis, masih unik.

Spasi matematika

Karena tujuan utama dari bahasa TeX adalah penyusunan huruf berkualitas tinggi untuk penerbit buku, Knuth memberikan banyak perhatian pada aturan spasi untuk rumus matematika. Dia mengambil tiga sistem yang dia anggap sebagai standar keunggulan untuk tipografi matematika: buku-buku yang disusun oleh penerbit Addison-Wesley Publishing (penerbit The Art of Computer Programming) di bawah pengawasan Hans Wolf; edisi jurnal matematika Acta Mathematica yang berasal dari sekitar tahun 1910; dan salinan Indagationes Mathematicae, sebuah jurnal matematika Belanda. Knuth mencermati kertas-kertas cetak ini untuk memilah dan mencari seperangkat aturan untuk spasi. Sementara TeX menyediakan beberapa aturan dasar dan alat yang diperlukan untuk menentukan spasi yang tepat, parameter yang-tepat bergantung pada font yang digunakan untuk mengeset rumus. Misalnya, jarak spasi untuk font Computer Modern telah disetel dengan tepat selama bertahun-tahun dan sekarang sudah diatur; tetapi ketika font lain digunakan oleh Knuth untuk pertama kalinya (seperti AMS Euler), parameter jarak spasi baru harus ditentukan.

Penyusunan huruf matematika di TeX menuai beberapa kritik, terutama yang berkaitan dengan detail teknis metrik font, yang dirancang di era ketika perhatian yang signifikan diperlukan pada persyaratan penyimpanan data. Hal ini mengakibatkan beberapa "hack" di beberapa lokasi, yang pada gilirannya membutuhkan "hack" lainnya. Pada tingkat estetika, hasil render bentuk akar (radical) juga dikritik. Spesifikasi font matematika OpenType sebagian besar meminjam dari TeX, tetapi memiliki beberapa fitur/peningkatan baru.

Lihat pula

 LaTeX
 MathTime
 PGF/TikZ
 PSTricks
 MakeIndex
 xdvi – Sebuah program untuk melihat berkas .dvi

Catatan kaki

Referensi

Sumber

 .
 .  The source code of the book in TeX (and a needed set of macros ) is available online on CTAN. It is provided only as an example and its use to prepare a book like The TeXbook is not allowed.
 . The full source code of TeX; also available on CTAN. Being written using literate programming, it contains plenty of human-readable documentation.
 .
 . Reprinted as .
  contains extensive documentation about the algorithms used in TeX.
 .
 .
 .
  on AMS-TeX.
 .

Pranala luar

 TeX Users' Group
 .
 Eijkhout, Victor. TeX by Topic
 TeX for the Impatient
 Donald Knuth membahas pengembangan perangkat lunak untuk TEX di Xerox PARC 2/21/1980  https://archive.org/details/xerox-parc-tapes-v49

Artikel kelas awal bertopik teknologi informasi

TeX


John Robert Whiting (15 November 1917 – 16 June 1963) was an English actor, dramatist and critic.

Life and career

Born in Salisbury, he was educated at Taunton School, "the particular hellish life which is the English public school" as he described it. Trained at RADA, he then worked as an actor in repertory, and while in the company at Bideford in Devon, met the actress Asthore Lloyd Mawson ("Jackie").

At the start of the Second World War, as a lifelong pacifist, he registered as a conscientious objector, but soon after changed his mind and joined the anti-aircraft section of the Royal Artillery: his wartime experiences as a soldier, which are vividly described in dark detail in diaries written at the time (now held in the V&A theatre museum collection) were to mark a profound change in his life and work. In 1940, he married Jackie; in 1944 he was discharged from the army for undisclosed health reasons.

From 1946 until 1952, while writing, he again worked as an actor, as a member of John Gielgud's company, and also, in 1951, winning first prize in the Festival of Britain play competition for Saint's Day. As a working actor, he, Jackie and their two young boys led a peripatetic life moving to different lodgings around the country until settling into rooms in Jackie's aunt's house in Barnes, where he was able to find a place in the London theatre world and where his first daughter was born. In 1956, he bought and moved his family to a house in the tiny hamlet of Duddleswell, on Ashdown Forest in East Sussex, and in 1957, his second daughter was born in Crowborough.

In Duddleswell, he worked on many plays, film scripts and reviews on a wide mahogany table that had belonged to a hero of his, Lord Byron, writing by hand in a tiny black script adopted from the handwriting of Frederick Rolfe (Baron Corvo), or typing out the pages on a stately German typewriter, often to the accompaniment of a Beethoven piece on a rather modern stereo system.

Works
His works include:
 No More A-Roving (1947)
 Conditions of Agreement (1947)
 Saint's Day (1947–49)
 A Penny for a Song. A play (1951)
 Marching Song. A play (1953)
 The Gates of Summer. A play (1956)
 No Why (1957)
 The Devils. A play (1960) based on the book The Devils of Loudun by Aldous Huxley
 The Art of the Dramatist (1970)

He also wrote un unpublished novel, Not a Foot of Land, many film scripts, short stories for radio and the wartime diaries, as well as an account of his meeting and courtship of Jackie. He was drama critic for the London Magazine and a very active member of the Arts Council in encouraging new writing for the theatre.

A Penny for a Song was adapted into a two-act opera by Richard Rodney Bennett, premiered at Sadler's Wells in 1967.

The Devils formed the basis of the three-act opera Die Teufel von Loudun by Krzysztof Penderecki, to his own libretto adapted from Whiting's theatrical version of the novel. It was premiered by Hamburg State Opera on 20 June 1969, and widely performed throughout Europe, and in North America.

Marching Song was adapted into a three-act opera by Benjamin Frankel, with a libretto by Hans Keller. Finished by the composer in short score, it was orchestrated after his death by Buxton Orr and broadcast on 3 October 1983 by BBC Radio 3.

Personal life

John Whiting died from testicular cancer on 16 June 1963 in London at the age of 45.

His obituary notice in The Times noted that, "As a dramatist John Whiting was in reach of the first rank, even if in his completed works he never quite achieved it. He was an incisive critic (for some time he wrote as drama critic of The London Magazine and his fine critical intelligence prevented him from ever, after Saint's Day, going too far, but in artistic creations those who never go too far perhaps never go quite far enough. Nevertheless in Marching Song in particular he wrote a play which seems likely to last, and at the time of his death he appeared to be at the beginning of a fruitful new phase in his career. The British theatre, even in its present flowering, can ill afford to lose the plays he might have written had he lived long enough to achieve his full potential stature."

In 1965, the John Whiting Award was established to commemorate the writer's contribution to post-war British theatre.

In 2015, the wartime diaries, as well as personal letters, handwritten notes, manuscripts etc. were donated by the family to the V&A.

References

External links

1917 births
1963 deaths
Military personnel from Salisbury
People from Salisbury
Deaths from cancer in England
People educated at Taunton School
20th-century English dramatists and playwrights
English male dramatists and playwrights
Alumni of RADA
20th-century English male writers
Deaths from testicular cancer
British Army personnel of World War II
Royal Artillery soldiers

John Whiting


Conrad Dunn is an American actor. He began his screen career with the role of Francis "Psycho" Soyer in Stripes (1981). Working for some ten years under the name George Jenesky, he achieved soap-opera stardom in Days of Our Lives as Nick Corelli, a misogynistic pimp who evolved from bad guy to romantic lead. He returned to the name Conrad Dunn and began working extensively in Canadian as well as U.S. film and television. He excels as a villain, and has found depth in such TV films as We the Jury (1996) and the miniseries The Last Don  (1997–1998). For two seasons he portrayed the freelance detective Saul Panzer in the A&E TV series Nero Wolfe (2001–2002).

Life and career
Born and raised in Los Angeles, Conrad Dunn studied at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts-Los Angeles and with Stella Adler in New York. After seeing him on the stage, a casting director asked him to read for the role of Francis "Psycho" Soyer in Stripes (1981), his first feature film.  His introductory speech, described by one reviewer as "Conrad Dunn's adroit tribute to Travis Bickle", was singled out by film critic Roger Ebert: "The movie has especially good writing in several scenes. My favorite comes near the beginning, during a session when recruits in the new platoon get to know one another. One obviously psycho draftee, who looks like Robert De Niro, quietly announces that if his fellow soldiers touch him, touch his stuff, or interfere in any way with his person or his privacy, he will quite simply be forced to kill them." The response from drill sergeant Hulka, played by Warren Oates—"Lighten up, Francis"—became a popular movie quote.

Taking the name George Jenesky, Dunn performed over seven seasons (1981–1990) in the NBC daytime soap opera, Days of Our Lives. His character, Nick Corelli, became a fan favorite, a despicable pimp who evolved into a romantic lead and one of the show's main characters. Nick's murder was one of the series' notable whodunits.

Dunn had his own theatre company, and his stage credits include a 1994 production of Edward Albee's The Zoo Story simultaneously performed in American Sign Language. "Notwithstanding the value of bringing this important work to a non-hearing audience, the energy of the gestures generated by the actors actually underscores the emotional impact of their fateful encounter," wrote Variety.

He has made numerous appearances in films and on television, frequently as the villain. In the mid-1990s he returned to the name Conrad Dunn and began working extensively in Canada as well as the U.S. Notable TV roles include an antagonistic juror in the USA Network film, We the Jury (1996), a remorseless mobster in two CBS miniseries (1997–1998) adapted from Mario Puzo's The Last Don, and the arch villain in the 2000 pilot for TNT's supernatural drama series Witchblade. In 2001 he joined the principal cast of the A&E TV series, Nero Wolfe (2001–2002), portraying the superlatively competent freelance detective Saul Panzer for two seasons. His later film appearances include Chicago (2001), Owning Mahowny (2003) and Ving Rhames' Animal 2 (2007).

Filmography

Notes

References

External links

Male actors from Los Angeles
Living people
American male television actors
Year of birth missing (living people)
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male soap opera actors
American male film actors

Conrad Dunn


Edward Jenner (17 May 1749 – 26 January 1823) was an English physician known for creating the vaccine for smallpox.

Vaccination
Vaccination was a concept that was known before Jenner.

In 1765, Dr John Fewster published a paper in the London Medical Society entitled "Cow pox and its ability to prevent smallpox", but he did not pursue the subject further.

After 1770, at least five investigators in England and Germany (Sevel, Jensen, Jesty 1774, Rendell, Plett 1791) successfully tested a cowpox vaccine in humans against smallpox. For example, Dorset farmer Benjamin Jesty successfully vaccinated and presumably induced immunity with cowpox in his wife and two children during a smallpox epidemic in 1774. Jenner may have been aware of Jesty's procedures and success, but after Jenner's work some 20 years later the procedure became widely understood at last.

It was a common observation that milkmaids were generally immune to smallpox. Jenner thought that the pus in the blisters that milkmaids received from cowpox (a disease similar to smallpox, but much less virulent) protected them from smallpox. He may already have heard of Benjamin Jesty's success.

On 14 May 1796, Jenner tested his hypothesis on an eight-year-old boy, the son of his gardener. He scraped pus from cowpox blisters on the hands of a milkmaid. Jenner inoculated Phipps in both arms that day, subsequently producing in Phipps a fever and some uneasiness, but no full-blown infection. Later, he injected the boy with a mild form of smallpox and he showed no sign of infection. Jenner successfully tested his hypothesis on 23 more subjects.

"Jenner's unique contribution was not that he inoculated a few persons with cowpox, but that he then proved [by subsequent challenges] that they were immune to smallpox. Moreover, he demonstrated that the protective cowpox pus could be effectively inoculated from person to person, not just directly from cattle".

References

1749 births
1823 deaths
English physicians
Vaccinologists

Edward Jenner


Apollo 18 is a 2011 found-footage science fiction horror film written by Brian Miller, directed by Gonzalo López-Gallego, and co-produced by Timur Bekmambetov and Michele Wolkoff. An American-Canadian co-production, its premise is that the cancelled Apollo 18 mission actually landed on the Moon in December 1974, but never returned.

Apollo 18 is López-Gallego's first English-language film. After various release date changes, it was released in the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada on September 2, 2011. The film received mostly mixed reviews, with most critics comparing it negatively to Paranormal Activity, The Blair Witch Project and Alien.

Plot
In December 1974 (two years after the Apollo 17 mission), the crew of the cancelled Apollo 18 mission is informed that it will now proceed as a top secret Department of Defense (DoD) mission to deliver a classified payload. Commander Nathan Walker, Lieutenant Colonel John Grey, and Captain Ben Anderson are launched, at night, toward the Moon to place an early warning detector for ICBM attacks from the USSR.

Grey remains in orbit aboard the Apollo command module Freedom while Walker and Anderson land on the South Pole of the Moon in the Apollo Lunar Module Liberty, on December 25. While planting the ICBM detector, the pair take rock samples which Anderson describes as feeling "strange". In the background, the camera captures a rock moving in a nearby crater. After returning to Liberty, the pair hear noises outside and the motion sensor camera captures a small rock moving nearby. Houston claims the noises are interference from the ICBM detector. The next day, Anderson finds a rock sample on the floor of Liberty despite having secured the samples. During their ICBM detector set-up, Anderson discovers footprints that lead them to a bloodstained and abandoned (but still functional) Soviet LK lander. Anderson explores a nearby crater, describing the ground as "feeling softer". Inside the crater, he finds a dead cosmonaut as well as a broken space helmet. Walker queries Houston about the Soviet presence, but he is told only to continue with the mission. While they are sleeping, Walker is woken by strange noises and something bumping into the lander.

The following day, the pair find that the flag they had planted is missing. Having completed their mission, the duo prepares to leave, but the launch is aborted when Liberty suffers violent shaking. An inspection reveals extensive damage to the module. Walker finds their shredded flag nearby; the motion sensor camera is also missing, and the rover tipped on its side. He then finds non-human tracks outside Liberty, and cites them as evidence of extraterrestrial life. Walker feels something moving inside his spacesuit and is horrified as a spider-like creature crawls across the inside of his helmet; he disappears from view and Anderson finds him unconscious outside of Liberty. Walker later denies the events. A wound is discovered on his chest, and Anderson removes a Moon rock embedded within him. After having removed the rock, Walker smashes it with a hammer, contaminating the ship. The pair find themselves unable to contact Houston or Grey due to increased levels of interference from an unknown source.

Anderson speculates that the true purpose of the "ICBM warning device" is to monitor the aliens, and that it is the source of the interference. Anderson and Walker attempt to switch the device off, only to discover it has been destroyed, with the same non-human tracks surrounding it. Walker shows signs of a developing infection, such as vein discoloration (possibly caused by necrosis) and blood-shot eyes, and he becomes contentious and paranoid. The mission cameras capture a rock sample moving around in the interior of Liberty, revealing that the aliens are camouflaged as Moon rocks. Increasingly delusional, Walker attempts to destroy the cameras within Liberty with a hammer, but he accidentally damages other controls, causing Liberty to depressurize. Realizing the Soviet LK lander is their only source of oxygen, the pair travel to the LK lander in their Lunar rover. Walker becomes agitated, believing he should not leave the Moon because of the risk of spreading the infection to Earth, and causes the rover to crash. As the rover crashes, the camera catches glimpses of the large space rocks, which begin to grow legs similar to that of spiders.

Anderson awakens and tracks Walker to a crater. Walker is pulled into the crater by the creatures. Anderson gives chase, but he is confronted by the aliens, and flees to the Soviet LK and uses its radio to contact USSR Mission Control, who connect him to the Department of Defense. The Deputy Secretary informs Anderson that they cannot allow him to return to Earth, admitting they are aware of the situation and incorrectly believe he is also infected. Anderson manages to contact Grey and they make arrangements for Anderson to return to Freedom. Anderson prepares the lander for launch, but Walker arrives, revealing that he survived the alien encounter and demanding to be let in. However, he is now completely psychotic and when Anderson refuses to let him in, he tries to break the lander's window with a hammer. Before Walker can enter the vehicle, he is swarmed with rock aliens which break his helmet open and kill him; his body is dragged away by a much larger alien rock.

Anderson launches, but the DoD tells Grey that Anderson is infected, and orders him to abort the rescue or ground communication (without which the CSM will be unable to return to Earth) will be cut off. The lander's engines shut off as it enters orbit; while it is in free fall, small rocks within the craft float in the air, some of which reveal themselves to be rock aliens. Anderson is attacked and infected by the rock aliens, preventing him from controlling the vehicle. Grey warns Anderson that he is approaching too fast, and the footage ends abruptly, implying that the LK and Freedom collided.

The film concludes with a statement giving the "official" fate of the astronauts, describing them as having been killed in various jet accidents that left their bodies unrecoverable. An epilogue notes that many of the hundreds of rock samples returned from the previous Apollo missions, given to dignitaries, are now missing.

Cast
 Warren Christie as Lunar Module Pilot Captain Benjamin "Ben" Anderson
 Lloyd Owen as Commander Nathan "Nate" Walker
 Ryan Robbins as Command Module Pilot Lieutenant Colonel John "Johnny" Grey
 Andrew Airlie as CAPCOM (Thomas Young)
 Michael Kopsa as Deputy Secretary of Defense

Production
Apollo 18 was shot in Vancouver, British Columbia. However, it has been promoted as a "found footage" film that does not use actors. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Dimension Films head Bob Weinstein "balk[ed] at the idea" that the film was a work of fiction, stating that "We didn't shoot anything; we found it. Found, baby!"

The Science & Entertainment Exchange provided a science consultation to the film's production team. NASA was also "minimally involved with this picture," but declined to go further with the project.

The film concludes with a statement that the Nixon Administration gave away hundreds of Moon rocks to foreign dignitaries around the world, and that many of these Moon rocks have been lost or stolen. This is actually true; both the Nixon and Ford Administrations gave away 135 Apollo 11 Moon rocks and 135 Apollo 17 goodwill Moon rocks. The Moon Rock Project, a joint effort of over 1,000 graduate students started at the University of Phoenix in 2002, has helped track down, recover or locate many Moon rocks and found that 160 are unaccounted for, lost or destroyed. In 1998, a sting operation called Operation Lunar Eclipse recovered the Honduras Apollo 17 goodwill Moon rock.

The film is distributed by Dimension Films.

Alternate endings and deleted scenes
Sixteen deleted scenes and four alternate endings are included in the DVD releases. Other deleted scenes have also surfaced that were included in some of the trailers.

Deleted scenes

A single deleted scene details the fate of the Russian cosmonaut. He is killed when an alien breaks his helmet visor.

Other deleted scenes show two alternate versions of the dead cosmonaut.
Version 1: Walker and Anderson find the cosmonaut's helmet but no Soviet ship. They then find the cosmonaut's body dragged many meters away.
Version 2: The same as the first but the cosmonaut is partially buried.

Another alternate scene shows Anderson leaving a picture of his family on the surface as he swears that he will get home. As he does, the rocks aliens begin to stalk him. Anderson spots the Soviet lander in the distance and narrowly makes it inside as the aliens chase after him.

In another deleted scene, Grey survives the ordeal and argues with a DoD official back on Earth, who reveals that the astronauts were sent to the Moon to get infected and return to Earth so the United States could use the alien venom as a Bioweapon against the Soviet Union, which is conducting human experiments with the venom.

Alternate endings

In the first ending, Anderson is in the LK after being attacked by Walker. Anderson is surrounded by the aliens as the LK loses oxygen, and he dies. An alien then leaves the shot.

In the second ending, Anderson is talking with DoD in the LK and sees the veins in his arms turning black, showing he is infected. The infection overtakes him, and he begins to smash the control panel in rage before breaking the camera, leaving his fate unknown.

In the third ending, Anderson is in the LK, with the aliens trying to break in. Suddenly, a large alien breaks the window of the LK and kills Anderson with a pincer.

In the fourth and final ending, an infected Anderson is in the LK. An alarm begins to sound as the lander plummets back to the Moon. The LK impacts with the surface of the Moon.

Release
Apollo 18 was released on September 2, 2011, in multiple countries. Originally scheduled for February 5, 2010, the film's release date was moved ten times between 2010 and 2011.

Home media
The film was released December 27, 2011, on DVD, Blu-ray, and online. Special features include an audio commentary with director López-Gallego and editor Patrick Lussier, deleted and alternate scenes and endings, including footage of how the Russian cosmonaut died and 4 alternate deaths of Ben Anderson.

Reception

Apollo 18 has received mostly mixed reviews from critics. On the online reviews site Rotten Tomatoes, the film was given  "rotten" score based on  reviews, with an average rating of  and the consensus: "A boring, suspense-free Paranormal Activity rip-off that feels long even at just 90 minutes." Metacritic, which gives an aggregate score between 0 and 100, gives the film a 24 based on 19 critic reviews, which indicates "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "D" on an A+ to F scale.

Conversely, Fred Topel of CraveOnline gave the film a positive review, saying that the film "will shock you to your core" and that the last 10 minutes "are the most exciting of any summer movie, and without motion capture effects."

Box office
At the end of its run in 2011, Apollo 18 had earned $17,687,709 domestically, plus $8,548,444 overseas for a worldwide gross of $26,236,153 against a $5 million budget, becoming a financial success. In its opening weekend, Apollo 18 screened in 3,328 theaters and opened in number 3, earning $8,704,271, with an average of $2,615 per theater. In its second weekend, the film earned $2,851,349, dropping 62.7%, with an average of $856 per theater, dropping to number 8, but still had a higher total gross at that point over Shark Night 3D, another horror film opening the same weekend as Apollo 18.

See also
 Moonfall (film), 2022 movie with a similar plot
 Europa Report
 Moon landing conspiracy theories in popular culture
 Lost Cosmonauts
 The Case of the Missing Moon Rocks
 Moon in fiction

References

External links

2011 films
2011 horror films
18 film
American science fiction horror films
American alternate history films
Canadian alternative history films
Films about astronauts
Films about space hazards
Films about the Apollo program
Films about extraterrestrial life
Films set in 1974
Films set on the moon
Films shot in Vancouver
Found footage films
American independent films
Canadian independent films
Dimension Films films
2010s science fiction horror films
Canadian science fiction horror films
Bazelevs Company films
Lunar modules
2010s English-language films
Films directed by Gonzalo López-Gallego
2010s American films
2010s Canadian films

Apollo 18 (film)


Arlen Specter (February 12, 1930 – October 14, 2012) was an American lawyer, author and politician who served as a United States Senator from Pennsylvania from 1981 to 2011. Specter was a Democrat from 1951 to 1965, then a Republican from 1965 until 2009, when he switched back to the Democratic Party. First elected in 1980, he was the longest-serving senator from Pennsylvania, having represented the state for 30 years.

Specter was born in Wichita, Kansas, to immigrant Russian/Ukrainian Jewish parents. He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania and served with the United States Air Force during the Korean War. Specter later graduated from Yale Law School and opened a law firm with Marvin Katz, who would later become a federal judge. Specter served as assistant counsel for the Warren Commission investigating the assassination of John F. Kennedy and helped formulate the "single-bullet theory". In 1965, Specter was elected District Attorney of Philadelphia, a position that he held until 1973.

During his 30-year Senate career, Specter staked out a spot in the political center. He served as Chair of the Senate Judiciary Committee from 2005 to 2007. In 2006, Specter was selected by Time as one of America's Ten Best Senators. Specter lost his 2010 re-election bid in the Democratic primary to former U.S. Navy vice admiral Joe Sestak, who then lost to Republican Pat Toomey in the general election. Toomey succeeded Specter on January 3, 2011.

Diagnosed with Hodgkin's lymphoma in early 2005, Specter continued his work in the Senate while undergoing chemotherapy. He died from complications of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma on October 14, 2012.

Early life and education
Specter was born in Wichita, Kansas, the youngest child of Lillie (née Shanin) and Harry Specter, who grew up in the Bachkuryne village of Cherkasy Oblast, Ukraine. Specter was Jewish, and wrote in his memoir, Passion for Truth, that his father's family was the only Jewish family in the village. The family lived at 940 South Emporia Street in Wichita before moving to Russell, Kansas, where he graduated from Russell High School in 1947. Russell is also the hometown of fellow politician Bob Dole (who graduated from Russell High School in 1941). Specter said that his father weighed items from his junkyard on a scale owned by Dole's father Doran Dole (who owned a granary). He said his brother Morton and Dole's brother Kenny were contemporaries and friends.

Specter's father served in the U.S. infantry during World War I, and was badly wounded. During the Great Depression, Specter's father was a fruit peddler, a tailor, and a junkyard owner. After graduating from Russell High School, Arlen Specter studied first at the University of Oklahoma. He transferred to the University of Pennsylvania, majored in international relations, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1951. While at Penn, Specter was a member of the Pi Lambda Phi fraternity. Specter said the family moved to Philadelphia when his sister Shirley was of a marriageable age because there were no other Jews in Russell.

Military career
During the Korean War, Specter served stateside in the United States Air Force from 1951 to 1953 and obtained the rank of first lieutenant as an officer in the Air Force Office of Special Investigations.

Early legal career and personal life
In 1953, he married Joan Levy. In 1979, she was elected to one of the two allotted minority party at-large seats on the Philadelphia City Council. She held the seat for four terms, until she was defeated for re-election in 1995 by Frank Rizzo Jr. The couple had two sons. Specter graduated from Yale Law School in 1956, while serving as editor of the Yale Law Journal. Afterward, Specter opened a law practice, Specter & Katz, with Marvin Katz, who served as a Federal District Court Judge in Philadelphia, until his death in October 2010.  Specter represented Ira Einhorn, known as "The Unicorn Killer".  Specter became an assistant district attorney under District Attorney James C. Crumlish Jr., and was a member of the Democratic Party.

Early political career

Involvement with the Warren Commission
Specter worked for the Warren Commission, which investigated the assassination of John F. Kennedy, at the recommendation of Representative Gerald Ford, who was then one of the Commissioners. As an assistant for the commission, he co-wrote the proposal of the "single bullet theory", which suggested the non-fatal wounds to Kennedy and wounds to Texas Governor John Connally were caused by the same bullet. This was a crucial assertion for the Warren Commission, since if the two had been wounded by separate bullets within such a short time frame, that would have demonstrated the presence of a second assassin and therefore a conspiracy. The United States House Select Committee on Assassinations published their report in 1979 stating that their "forensic pathology panel's conclusions were consistent with the so-called single bullet theory advanced by the Warren Commission".

Initial electoral campaigns
In 1965, Specter ran for Philadelphia district attorney against his former boss, incumbent James C. Crumlish Jr. However, the city's Democratic leaders, such as Peter Camiel, did not want Specter as their candidate, so he switched parties and ran as a Republican, prompting Crumlish to call him "Benedict Arlen". Specter defeated Crumlish by 36,000 votes. Although he was a supporter of capital punishment, as a prosecutor he questioned the fairness of the Pennsylvania death penalty statute in 1972.

In 1967 he was the Republican Party standard bearer, together with City Controller candidate, Tom Gola, in the Philadelphia mayoral campaign against the Democratic incumbent James Tate. Two of their slogans were, "We need THESE guys to watch THOSE guys" and "They're younger, they're tougher, and nobody owns them!" He served two four-year terms as district attorney for the city of Philadelphia, but was handily defeated in his bid for a third term in 1973 by noted criminal defense attorney F. Emmett Fitzpatrick.

In 1976, Specter ran in the Republican primary for the U.S. Senate and was defeated by John Heinz. In 1978, he was defeated in the primary for Governor of Pennsylvania by Dick Thornburgh. After several years in private practice with the Philadelphia law firm Dechert, Price & Rhoads, Specter ran again for the U.S. Senate in 1980. This time, he won, and assumed office in January 1981.

Senate career

In 1988, he co-sponsored an amendment to the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which prohibited discrimination in the rental, sale, marketing, and financing of the nation's housing. The amendment strengthened the ability of the Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity to enforce the Fair Housing Act and expanded the protected classes to include disabled persons and families with children. In 1998 and 1999, Specter criticized the Republican Party for the impeachment of President Bill Clinton. Believing that Clinton had not received a fair trial, Specter cited Scots law to render a verdict of "not proven" on Clinton's impeachment. However, his verdict was recorded as "not guilty" in the Senate records.

In October 1999, Specter was one of four Senate Republicans to vote in favor of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. The treaty was designed to ban underground nuclear testing and was the first major international security pact to be defeated in the Senate since the Treaty of Versailles.

On October 11, 2002, Specter voted in favor of H.J.Res.114 authorizing the Iraq War.

In a 2002 PoliticsPA Feature story designating politicians with yearbook superlatives, he was named the "Toughest to Work For". In 2003, the Pennsylvania Report, a subscription-based political newsletter, described Specter as one of the "vanishing breed of Republican moderates", and described his political stance as "'Pennsylvania first' middle of-the-road politics", even though he was known as an "avid Republican partisan".

Soon after the 2004 election, Specter stepped into the public spotlight as a result of controversial statements about his views of the future of the Supreme Court. At a press conference, he stated:

Activist groups interpreted his comments as warnings to President George W. Bush about the implications of nominating Supreme Court justices who were opposed to the Roe v. Wade decision. Specter maintained that his comments were a prediction, not a warning. He met with many conservative Republican senators, and based on assurances he gave them, he was recommended for the Judiciary Committee's chairmanship in late 2004. He officially assumed that position when the 109th Congress convened on January 4, 2005.

On March 9, 2006, a revision of the USA PATRIOT Act was signed into law. It amended the process for interim appointments of U.S. Attorneys, a clause Specter wrote during his chairmanship of the Senate Judiciary Committee. The change allowed the Bush Administration to appoint interim U.S. attorneys without term limits, and without confirmation by the Senate. The Bush administration used the law to place at least eight interim attorneys into office in 2006. Specter claimed that the changes were added by staff member Brett Tolman. For more information, see dismissal of U.S. Attorneys controversy.

Specter was very critical of Bush's wiretapping of U.S. citizens without warrants. When the story first broke, he called the effort "inappropriate" and "clearly and categorically wrong". He said that he intended to hold hearings into the matter early in 2006, and had Alberto Gonzales appear before the Senate Judiciary Committee to answer for the program. (However, Specter declined to force Gonzales to testify under oath.) On January 15, 2006, Specter mentioned impeachment and criminal prosecution as potential remedies if Bush proved to have broken the law, though he downplayed the likelihood of such an outcome.

On April 9, 2006, speaking on Fox News about the Bush administration's leaking of classified intelligence, Specter stated: "The President of the United States owes a specific explanation to the American people." However, he did vote for the 2008 amendments to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act, which placed federal electronic searches almost entirely within the executive branch.

During the 2007–2008 National Football League season, Specter wrote to NFL commissioner Roger Goodell concerning the destruction of New England Patriots "Spygate" tapes. Specter, a devout and longtime Philadelphia Eagles fan, wondered if there was a link between the tapes and their Super Bowl victory over the Eagles in 2005. On February 1, 2008, Goodell stated that the tapes were destroyed because "they confirmed what I already knew about the issue". Specter released a follow-up statement:

Starting in 2007, Specter sponsored legislation to fix a long-standing inequity in American law that shut out a majority of U.S. Armed Forces service members convicted in courts-martial from appealing their convictions to the U.S. Supreme Court.

In 2007, Specter co-sponsored the Equal Justice for United States Military Personnel Act of 2007 with Senators Dianne Feinstein (D-Calif.), Hillary Clinton (D-NY) and Russ Feingold (D-Wis.). But the bill failed in the 110th Congress, and Specter again co-sponsored the measure in the 2009 111th Congress. In December 2008, Specter was involved in a controversy as a result of telling "Polish jokes" at New York's Rainbow Room while speaking at the annual meeting of the Commonwealth Club.

Specter voted in favor of the Senate's version of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 on February 10, 2009; he was one of only three Republicans to break ranks with the party and support the bill, which was favored by President Barack Obama and was unanimously supported by the Democratic senators. As a result of his support, many in the Republican mainstream began calling for his removal from office.

Specter was instrumental in ensuring that the act allocated an additional $10 billion to the National Institutes of Health over the next two years. In August 2009, more than ten years before the global Covid-19 pandemic, he joined Pennsylvania congressman Jason Altmire in leading a congressional hearing investigating whether the federal government should fund a national vaccine production center.

In late April 2009, facing a tough Republican primary, Specter switched to the Democratic party which put Democrats on the "precipice" of a 60-seat majority. He was then denied seniority on Senate committees by his Democratic colleagues.

In October 2009, Specter called for the repeal of the Defense of Marriage Act, which he had supported in 1996. In November 2009, Specter introduced a bill to require televising U.S. Supreme Court proceedings, and explained that "[t]he Supreme Court makes pronouncements on constitutional and federal law that have direct impacts on the rights of Americans. Those rights would be substantially enhanced by televising the oral arguments of the Court so that the public can see and hear the issues presented."

Specter's career in the United States Senate ended on January 3, 2011, after his primary defeat to Joe Sestak. He was succeeded by Republican U.S. Representative Pat Toomey, who won the general election against Sestak.

Committee assignments
Specter was chairman of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence from 1995, when the Republicans gained control of the Senate, until 1997, when he became chairman of the Committee on Veterans Affairs. He chaired that committee until 2001 and again from 2003 to 2005, during the times the Republicans controlled the Senate. He also chaired the Judiciary Committee from 2005 to 2007.

Campaigns

In 1980, Specter became the Republican nominee for Senate when Republican incumbent Richard Schweiker announced his retirement. He faced the former Mayor of Pittsburgh, Pete Flaherty. Specter won the election by a 2.5% margin. He was later re-elected in 1986, 1992, 1998, and 2004, despite 1992 and 1998 being bad years for Republicans. Specter ran for re-election in 2010, for the first time as a Democrat, but was defeated in the primary.

1996 presidential bid

On March 31, 1995, Specter announced his candidacy for President of the United States, to challenge the incumbent Bill Clinton. He entered the race as an alternative to the stereotypical religious conservative image. He was critical of Pat Buchanan, Pat Robertson, and Ralph Reed, saying all three were far too conservative.

His campaign focused on balancing the federal budget, strict crime laws, and establishing relations with North Korea. His candidacy was not expected to succeed in winning the Republican nomination due to the overwhelmingly large number of social conservatives in the Republican Party. He was, however, able to gain support. Fellow Pennsylvania Senator Rick Santorum was supportive of his candidacy. Other supportive Republicans were hopeful Specter could trim the party's "far-right fringe". Although his campaign was ultimately unsuccessful at wooing conservatives, it was widely believed he could have had a strong showing among independents. On November 23, 1995, before the start of the primaries, Specter suspended his campaign to endorse Kansas Senator Bob Dole.

2004 campaign

In 2004, Specter faced a challenge in the Republican primary election from conservative Congressman Pat Toomey, whose campaign theme was that Specter was not conservative enough. The match-up was closely watched nationally, being seen as a symbolic clash between the conservative and moderate wings of the Republican Party. However, most of the state and national Republican establishment, including the state's other senator at the time, Rick Santorum, closed ranks behind Specter. Specter was supported by President George W. Bush. Specter narrowly avoided a major upset with 51% of the primary vote. Once Specter defeated the challenge from the right, he was able to enjoy great support from independents and some Democrats in his race against U.S. Representative Joe Hoeffel, the Democratic nominee. Hoeffel trailed Specter in name recognition, campaign funds, and poll results. Although the two minor candidates in the race were seen as more conservative than Specter, they were only able to take 5.39 percent of the vote, and Specter was easily re-elected.

2010 campaign

Specter was up for re-election to the Senate in 2010, and expressed his plans to run again. On March 18, 2009, Specter said that he was not considering running as an independent. He said, "To eliminate any doubt, I am a Republican, and I am running for re-election in 2010 as a Republican on the Republican ticket." Subsequently, Specter's 2004 conservative GOP primary challenger, Pat Toomey, announced he would again run for the Republican nomination in the Republican senatorial primary.

However, on April 28, 2009, Specter stated that, "As the Republican Party has moved farther and farther to the right, I have found myself increasingly at odds with the Republican philosophy and more in line with the philosophy of the Democratic Party". He said that he was switching party affiliation and would run as a Democrat in the 2010 election.

In the same announcement, Specter also said that he had "surveyed the sentiments of the Republican Party in Pennsylvania and public opinion polls, observed other public opinion polls and have found that the prospects for winning a Republican primary are bleak". A March 2009 Quinnipiac poll indicated that Specter trailed his likely primary challenger, Pat Toomey, by 14% (41% for Toomey, 27% for Specter). Additional polling found that 70% of Pennsylvania Republicans disapproved of his vote in favor of the Stimulus Bill and that 52 percent of Pennsylvania Republicans disapproved of the job he was doing. Following Specter's switching parties, Republican National Committee chairman Michael Steele criticized his leaving the Republican Party, claiming that Specter had "flipped the bird" at the GOP.

On February 6, 2010, the Pennsylvania Democratic Party overwhelmingly endorsed Specter at the Democratic State Committee's annual endorsement convention, which was held in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. He received more votes than Joe Sestak, winning more than 77% of the Pennsylvania Democratic State Committee members vote, far in excess of the 2/3 threshold needed to claim the endorsement. Sestak, however, went on to win the Democratic primary nomination on May 18.

Following the primary, Specter endorsed Sestak in the general election. Sestak would go on to lose the general election to Toomey.

Political views
According to the National Journal, Specter voted with Democrats 90% of the time after switching parties, while, as a Republican, he split his votes between both parties. According to FiveThirtyEight, during January–March 2009 Specter voted with the Democrats 58% of the time. Following the support of the stimulus package and the entrance of Pat Toomey in the Republican primary, Specter began to vote 16% with Democrats. When switching to become a Democrat, he voted 69% with his new party initially, until Joe Sestak entered the Democratic primary and Specter started to vote with Democrats 97% of the time.

Abortion
Specter stated that he was "personally opposed to abortion", but was "a supporter of a woman's right to choose." He received a 20% rating from NARAL Pro-Choice America in 2005 based on certain votes related to the regulation of abortion. In 2008, he received 100%.

LGBT rights
Specter's record on LGBT rights was mixed. He voted to prohibit job discrimination based on sexual orientation and was a co-sponsor of the Matthew Shepard Hate Crimes Prevention Act. Specter was opposed to same-sex marriage, but was also opposed to a federal ban and supported civil unions. He also became opposed to the Defense of Marriage Act, which he once supported. Specter voted in favor of repealing "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" in the lame-duck session of the 111th Congress.

Gun control
Specter strongly opposed most gun control measures. He voted against the Brady Bill, background checks at gun shows, the ban on assault weapons, and trigger locks for handguns.

Affirmative action
He supported affirmative action, and voted for the Civil Rights Act of 1991, receiving a 76 percent rating from the NAACP in 2008.

Civil rights and U.S. Supreme Court
Specter voted in favor of the bill establishing Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a federal holiday and the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 (as well as to override President Reagan's veto). Specter voted against the nomination of Robert Bork to the U.S. Supreme Court, but voted in favor of the nominations of Clarence Thomas, John Roberts, and Samuel Alito. Specter described Anita Hill's testimony during Thomas' nomination as "perjurious in its entirety."

Tax cuts and minimum wage
In 1995, he was the only Republican to vote to limit tax cuts to individuals with incomes of less than one million dollars. He voted against CAFTA. Specter also supported an increase in the federal minimum wage. He was a leading supporter of the U.S. Public Service Academy.

Illegal immigration
On immigration, Specter supported a "pathway to citizenship" and a "guest worker program", which opponents call amnesty. He introduced Senate bill S. 2611 (the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006) on April 6, 2006, which was passed by the Senate on May 25, 2006, before reaching a stalemate in the House.

Health care reform

Public option
On May 3, 2009, Specter went on Meet the Press and was asked, "Would you support health care reform that puts up a government-run public plan to compete with a private plan issued by a private insurance company?" Specter responded with "no." Two months later, he changed his position.

Single-payer
Specter believed a single-payer healthcare system should not be "taken off the table", according to an interview he had with John King on CNN.

Votes
On health care reform, Specter was a co-sponsor of the Healthy Americans Act, a proposal he supported during both the 110th and 111th Congresses. Specter voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the healthcare bill passed through the Senate by every Democratic senator, on a party-line vote.

In May 2012, New York-Presbyterian Hospital, Columbia University Medical Center, and Weill Cornell Medical College presented Specter with the annual Public Service Award for his work in expanding mental health care.

Card check
Specter received a 61% rating from the AFL–CIO. He voted for cloture on the Employee Free Choice Act in 2007. In early 2009, Specter announced he would not be voting for cloture on the same act in the 111th Congress. After Specter switched parties, he changed his position on the issue again, and wrote a letter to the unions indicating he supported card check legislation.

Privacy; computers
Spurred by the 2010 Robbins v. Lower Merion School District case, in which two high schools admitted to secretly taking 66,000 webcam photos and screenshots of students in their homes on school-issued laptops, Specter held a hearing of the Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Crime and Drugs on March 29, 2010. He said: "The issue is one of surreptitious eavesdropping. Unbeknownst to people, their movements and activities were under surveillance." He said that Lower Merion's use of laptop cameras for surveillance convinced him that new federal legislation was needed to regulate electronic privacy.

Specter then introduced legislation in April 2010 to amend the federal Wiretap Act to clarify that it is illegal to capture silent visual images inside another person's home. He said: "This is going to become law. You have a very significant invasion of privacy with these webcams, as more information is coming to light." Speaking on the floor of the Senate, he said:

Other
The Jewish daily newspaper The Forward reported in the wake of the July 2009 organ trafficking scandal in the U.S. involving Rabbi Levy Izhak Rosenbaum of Brooklyn that an Organ Trafficking Prohibition Act of 2009, sponsored by Specter, had yet to be officially introduced in the U.S.

Specter criticized the federal government's policy on cancer, stating the day after Jack Kemp—the 1996 Republican vice presidential nominee and former congressman—died of cancer, that Kemp would still be alive if the federal government had done a better job funding cancer research.

On February 16, 2011, Specter wrote a letter to President Obama. As Chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee, he stated that Jonathan Pollard should be pardoned. He stated, "Unfortunately, spying is not an uncommon practice even between allies and friendly nations."

Electoral history

Post-Senate career
During the fall of 2011, Specter was an adjunct professor at the University of Pennsylvania Law School, where he taught a course on the relationship between Congress and the U.S. Supreme Court, focusing on separation of powers and the confirmation process. For this course the National Jurist named him as one of the "23 professors to take before you die."

Arlen Specter Center for Public Service at Philadelphia University
On December 21, 2011, Specter donated to Philadelphia University nearly 2,700 boxes of historical papers and memorabilia dating from his career as a Philadelphia district attorney to his service as a United States senator, including materials associated with his role as assistant counsel on the Warren Commission. The collection will be jointly managed by the University of Pittsburgh, which will house, organize, and manage the collection. The universities will collaborate on related education programing that will consequently provide access to the archives on both ends of the state. The Specter Collection will also support The Arlen Specter Center for Public Policy at Philadelphia University.

The center will be a nonpartisan initiative dedicated to promoting greater understanding of public policy issues both foreign and domestic. The center will strive to accomplish these goals through support for research, educational programming, and exhibitions inspired, in part, by the senator's career and the permanent collection of his historic papers. The center will be managed by the Paul J. Gutman Library at Philadelphia University will be located in Roxboro House, which is located nearby on campus.

Parts of Roxboro House date back to 1799. The Georgian period house constructed of frame and clapboard was expanded in 1810. At one point in its history, Roxboro House was owned by Dr. Caspar Wistar who published the first American textbook of anatomy in 1811. Wistar was president of the American Philosophical Society and his friend, Thomas Nuttall, a famous botanist, named the Wisteria vine after him. In 1965, the Philadelphia Historical Commission added this house to its list of registered buildings (No. 141). Prior to the university's purchase of the property in 1998, the house was being used as a bed and breakfast establishment.

Arlen Specter US Squash Center
US Squash announced it was building a new squash center in Philadelphia that is to be named the Arlen Specter US Squash Center. The construction of the Arlen Specter US Squash Center began in 2019 and was completed in 2021.

Illness and death
On February 16, 2005, Specter announced that he had been diagnosed with an advanced form of Hodgkin's lymphoma, a type of cancer. Despite this, Specter continued working during chemotherapy. He ended treatment on July 22. Senator John Sununu (R-NH) shaved his head to show solidarity with Specter, who was temporarily bald while undergoing chemotherapy. On April 15, 2008, Specter announced his cancer had returned, at a stage "significantly less advanced than his Hodgkin's disease when it was originally diagnosed in 2005." He underwent a second round of chemotherapy, which ended on July 14, 2008.

On August 28, 2012, it was announced that Specter was battling a "serious form of cancer" and hospitalized. He was diagnosed six weeks earlier with a new form of the disease.
On September 7, 2012, he was released from a Philadelphia hospital, but was expected to return there for additional treatment.

Specter died from complications of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, aged 82, on October 14, 2012, at his home in Philadelphia. Statements of condolence were issued by President and Mrs. Obama, Vice President Joe Biden and Mrs. Biden, the Office of the Governor of Pennsylvania, and by many of his colleagues and former opponents in the U.S. Congress, the Pennsylvania legislature, and the city of Philadelphia, among many others. Senator Specter, while he had been accused of alienating both parties due to certain positions he took and due to the two times he switched parties, among other issues, was nonetheless respected by many as a principled statesman who did much for his state and country, including by those in politics and the legislature, both in Pennsylvania and his home state, Kansas, as well as across the U.S. and beyond. He was the longest-serving of Pennsylvania's U.S. Senators. As a sign of this respect and out of mourning, President Obama ordered U.S. flags to be lowered to half-staff at public institutions and military bases in Washington, D.C., and the rest of the country on his day of interment.

See also
 List of American politicians who switched parties in office
 List of United States senators who switched parties
 List of Jewish members of the United States Congress

References

Citations

Cited work

Further reading
 Fenno, Richard. Learning to legislate: the Senate education of Arlen Specter (1991) online free to borrow

External links

 Appearances at the U.S. Supreme Court from the Oyez Project
 Interactive timeline

Articles
 After Yale, Specter Still a Force, Andrew Mangino, Yale Daily News, September 23, 2005
 Tale of injustice , Sarasota Herald Tribune, July 16, 2007
 Specter: Reagan's GOP is Gone by Mark Trumbull, The Christian Science Monitor, May 3, 2009
 The Need to Roll Back Presidential Power Grabs, by Arlen Specter, The New York Review of Books, May 14, 2009

Legislation sponsored or cosponsored
The following table links to the Congressional Record hosted by the Library of Congress. All the specifics and actions taken for each individual piece of legislation that Specter either sponsored or cosponsored can be viewed in detail there. "Original bills" and "'Original amendments" indicate instances where Sen. Specter pledged to support the legislation at the time it was initially introduced and entered into the Senate record, rather than later in the legislative process.

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1930 births
2012 deaths
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Deaths from cancer in Pennsylvania
Deaths from non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Democratic Party United States senators from Pennsylvania
Dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy
District Attorneys of Philadelphia
Jewish American academics
Jewish American attorneys
Jewish American military personnel
Jewish American candidates for President of the United States
Jewish United States senators
Military personnel from Kansas
Military personnel from Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania Democrats
Pennsylvania lawyers
Pennsylvania Republicans
Politicians from Wichita, Kansas
Politicians from Philadelphia
Republican Party United States senators from Pennsylvania
United States Air Force officers
Candidates in the 1996 United States presidential election
University of Pennsylvania alumni
United States Air Force Office of Special Investigations
Warren Commission counsel and staff
Yale Law School alumni
University of Pennsylvania Law School faculty
Kansas Republicans

Arlen Specter


Bone china is a type of ceramic that is composed of bone ash, feldspathic material, and kaolin. It has been defined as "ware with a translucent body" containing a minimum of 30% of phosphate derived from animal bone and calculated calcium phosphate. Bone china is the strongest of the porcelain or china ceramics, having very high mechanical and physical strength and chip resistance, and is known for its high levels of whiteness and translucency. Its high strength allows it to be produced in thinner cross-sections than other types of porcelain. Like stoneware, it is vitrified, but is translucent due to differing mineral properties.

In the mid-18th century, English potters had not succeeded in making hard-paste porcelain (as made in East Asia and Meissen porcelain), but found bone ash a useful addition to their soft-paste porcelain mixtures, giving strength.  This became standard at the Bow porcelain factory in London (operating from around 1747), and spread to some other English factories.  The modern product was developed by the Staffordshire potter Josiah Spode in the early 1790s.  Spode included kaolin, so his formula, sometimes called "Staffordshire bone-porcelain", was effectively hard-paste, but stronger, and versions were adopted by all the major English factories by around 1815.

From its initial development and up to the latter part of the 20th century, bone china was almost exclusively an English product, with production being effectively localised in Stoke-on-Trent. Most major English firms made or still make it, including  Spode, and Worcester, Royal Crown Derby, Royal Doulton, Wedgwood, and Mintons.   In the 20th century it began to be made elsewhere, including in Russia, China, and Japan. China is now the world's largest manufacturer.

In the UK, references to "china" or "porcelain" can refer to bone china, and "English porcelain" has been used as a term for it, both in the UK and around the world.

History
The first development of what would become known as bone china was made by Thomas Frye at his Bow porcelain factory near Bow in East London in 1748. His factory was located very close to the cattle markets and slaughterhouses of London and Essex, and hence had easy access to animal bones. Frye used up to 45% bone ash in his formulation to create what he called "fine porcelain".

Later, Josiah Spode in Stoke-on-Trent further developed the concept between 1789 and 1793, introducing his "Stoke China" in 1796.  He died suddenly the year later, and his son Josiah II quickly rechristened the ware "Bone china". Among his developments was to abandon Frye's procedure of calcining the bone together with some of the other raw body materials, instead calcining just the bone. Bone china quickly proved to be highly popular, leading to its production by other English pottery manufacturers. Both Spode's formulation and his business were successful: his formulation of 6 parts bone ash, 4 parts china stone and 3.5 parts china clay, remains the basis for all bone china. It was only in 2009 that his company, Spode, went into receivership before eventually being purchased by Portmeirion.

Production

Raw materials

The traditional formulation for bone china is about 25% kaolin, 25% Cornish stone and 50% bone ash.

The bone ash that is used in bone china has traditionally been made from cattle bones that have a lower iron content. These bones are crushed before being degelatinised and then calcined to around 1,000 °C to produce bone ash. The ash is milled to a fine particle size. The kaolin component of the body is needed to give the unfired body plasticity which allows articles to be shaped. This mixture is then fired at around 1200 °C. The raw materials for bone china are comparatively expensive, and the production is labour-intensive, which is why bone china maintains a luxury status and high pricing.

The use of hydroxyapatite compounds, derived from rock sources, rather than bone ash has seen increased use since the 1990s. If used appropriately the resultant ceramic material conforms to accepted definitions of bone china, and the properties and appearance are indistinguishable from those using naturally derived bone ash.

Mineralogy
Bone china consists of two crystalline phases, anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) and β-tricalcium phosphate/whitlockite (Ca3(PO4)2) embedded in a substantial amount of glass.

Production locations
For almost 200 years from its development bone china was almost exclusively produced in the UK. During the middle part of the 20th century manufacturers in other countries began production, with the first successful ones outside the UK being in Japan: Noritake, Nikko and Narumi.

In the Soviet Union, bone china recipe was reinvented at the Lomonosov Porcelain Factory, production starting in May 1969. The Soviet bone china was said to be thinner and whiter than the British one thanks to particular firing regimen, which landed the recipe developers USSR State Prizes. Bone china is still produced in Russia at the Imperial Porcelain Factory.

In more recent years production in China has expanded considerably, and the country is now the biggest producer of bone china in the world. Other countries producing considerable amounts of bone china are Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Iran, Sri Lanka and Thailand.

From the start of the first factory, Bengal Potteries, in 1964, bone china output from Indian factories had risen to 10,000 tonnes per year by 2009. Rajasthan has become a hub for bone china in India, with production in the state totalling 16-17 tonnes per day in 2003.

Lenox was the only major manufacturer of bone china in the United States, and has supplied presidential services to the White House. It closed production in the US permanently in March 2020.

Cultural issues
In the 21st century, "Islamic bone china" became available, using only bone ash from halal animals.

Due to the use of animal bones in the production of bone china vegetarians and vegans may avoid using or purchasing it.

References

External links

Ceramic materials
Porcelain
Pottery

Bone china


Chileans (, ) are an ethnic group and nation native to the country of Chile and its neighboring insular territories. Most Chileans share a common culture, history, ancestry and language. The overwhelming majority of Chileans are the product of varying degrees of admixture between European ethnic groups (predominantly Basques and Spaniards) with peoples indigenous to Chile's modern territory (predominantly Mapuche). Chile is a multilingual and multicultural society, but an overwhelming majority of Chileans have Spanish as their first language and either are Christians or have a Christian cultural background.

However, many Chileans do not equate their nationality with ethnicity, but with citizenship and allegiance to Chile. This has resulted due to immigration to Chile throughout its history, and thus the term "Chilean" can now also include people identifying with the country whose connection may not be ethnic, but cultural, historical, legal, or residential. For most modern Chileans, several or all of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their Chilean identity.

There is a strong correlation between the ratio of a Chilean's European and indigenous genetic components and their socioeconomic situation. There is a marked continuum existing between the lower classes of a high component of indigenous ancestry and the upper classes of a predominant component of European ancestry. Indigenous inheritance, whether cultural or genetic, is most pronounced in rural areas and in aspects of culture such as Chilean cuisine and Chilean Spanish. Although post-independence immigrants never made up more than 2% of the population, there are now hundreds of thousands of Chileans with German, British, French, Croatian, Italian or Palestinian ancestry, though these have also been mostly miscegenated with other groups within the country.

Though the majority of Chileans reside in Chile, significant communities have been established in multiple countries, most noticeably Argentina, United States, Australia and Canada and countries of the European Union. Although small in number, Chilean people also make up a substantial part of the permanent population of Antarctica and the Falkland Islands (see: Chileans in the Falkland Islands).

Ethnic structure
As in other Latin American countries, in Chile, from the onset of Spanish colonization and settlement, miscegenation or mestizaje was the norm rather than the exception. Today, ethnic and racial self-identities are highly fluid and can differ between persons of the same family, including siblings of the same parentage. It is dictated not only by strict physical appearance, nor more loosely by ancestry (actual or presumed), but by cultural patterns, social class, wealth and access, language, and prevailing biases of the era. These very factors, indeed, lend to the significantly varying ethnic structure figures from one source to the next. Additionally, those various figures refer to different, even if often overlapping, concepts: including racial vs ethnic categories, self-identity vs genetic findings, as well as culturally assigned categories. These concepts should not be confused, and the figures represented in one source might not be corresponding to figures of concepts from another source.

Thus, for instance, UNAM professor of Latin American studies, Francisco Lizcano, in his social research estimates that a predominant 52.7% of the Chilean population can be classified as culturally European, with an estimated 44% as Mestizo. Other social studies put the total amount of Whites at over 60 percent. Some publications, such as the CIA World Factbook, state that the entire population consist of a combined 95.4% of "Whites and White-Amerindians", and 4.6% of indigenous peoples. These figures are based on a national census held in 2002, which classified the population as indigenous and non-indigenous, rather than as White or Mestizo.

Despite this, a Chilean researcher in 2015 stated that "there are no Chileans without Amerindian or European ancestry".

Ancestries and genetics
 General genetic ancestries

 67.9% European; 32.1% Indigenous; (Valenzuela, 1984): Marco de referencia sociogenético para los estudios de salud pública en Chile, fuente: Revista Chilena de Pediatría.
 64.0% European; 35.0% Indigenous; (Cruz-Coke, 1994): Genetic epidemiology of single gene defects in Chile, fuente: Universidad de Chile.
 57.2% European; 38.7% Indigenous; 2.5% African; 1.7% Asian; (Homburger et al., 2015): Genomic Insights into the Ancestry and Demographic History of South America, fuente: PLOS ONE Genetics.
 An autosomal DNA study from 2014 found Chile to possess a genepool averaging 51.85% (± 5.44%) European, 44.34% (± 3.9%) Indigenous, and 3.81% (± 0.45%) African DNA. The genetic study was conducted across all regions of Chile, and while it "ratified the preponderance of mestizaje in Chile", it also found "the indigenous presence is marked by a curve in the Chilean territory. In the north, between Arica and Coquimbo, and in the south, between La Araucanía and Aysén, the genes of indigenous Amerindians exceeds 50%. Only in the central region and the far south does the European component surpass [the Amerindian component]." However, the majority of Chile's population is concentrated in the central regions of the country.

 Others genetics topics

Cities with a historically higher proportion of European immigration, such as Concepción, in south central Chile, exhibited an average middle class genepool of 75% European and 25% Indigenous DNA, while in Valparaíso the average middle class genepool was 77% European and 23% Indigenous DNA. By contrast, in southern and northern regions of the country, the Indigenous component surpassed the European component.

Related genetic studies conducted on Santiago's mtDNA and Y-DNA found a sex bias in the ethnic origin of those sex-specific chromosomes. Thus, across all social classes, an overwhelming 84% of Santiago's mitochondrial DNA (inherited only from mother to child) is of Indigenous origin, while the Y chromosome (inherited only from father to son) is about 70% of European origin, and between 6% and 15% Indigenous, depending on the area of the city. The results indicate a gender asymmetrical pattern of sexual relations leading to childbirth in Chile's history.

On a genotypic (genetic) level, however, persons in all groups, despite their classification by phenotype (appearance) would nonetheless contain admixture, not just those with stereotypically mestizo appearance. Thus, in Chile, the three groups, the phenotypically "white," "mestizo," and "indigenous," would represent a genetic continuum rather than isolated groups, including the presence of some Indigenous DNA in Chileans who appear more European and some European DNA in Chileans who appear more Indigenous.

Racial self-perceptions
A 2002 national poll revealed that a slim majority of 51.7% of Chileans stated that they believed that they possessed "indigenous blood". Some 43.4% of respondents said that they believed they had "some" Amerindian ancestry and another 8.3% believed they had "much" Amerindian ancestry, but 40.3% responded that they believed that they had no Amerindian ancestry. Despite a majority of Chileans acknowledging that they had at least some Amerindian ancestry, if asked, many Chileans would simply self-identify as white.

Thus, in a 2011 Latinobarómetro survey which asked respondents in Chile what race they considered themselves to belong to, a majority of 59% answered "white", while 25% said "mestizo", and 8% self-classified as "indigenous".

Ethnographic history of Chile

Spaniards, Mestizos and Indigenous Peoples

For at least 12,000 years, numerous indigenous peoples settled in central and southern Chile. The predominant Mapuche made up the overwhelming majority the population up until the Spanish conquest. During the colonial period, troops were sent out to the Americas by the Spanish Crown in order to protect distant colonies. Spanish folk immigrated from all regions of Spain, particularly Andalusia, Extremadura, Basque Country, Asturias, Navarra and Castile. Of the Spanish, many immigrants ultimately settled in Chile after the Mapuche resistance to the conquest.

The indigenous Picunche population of Central Chile disappeared by a process of mestizaje by gradually abandoning their villages (pueblo de indios) to settle in nearby Spanish haciendas. There Picunches mingled with disparate indigenous peoples brought in from: Araucanía (Mapuche), Chiloé (Huilliche, Cunco, Chono, Poyas) and Argentina (Huarpe). Few in numbers, disconnected from their ancestral lands and diluted by mestizaje the Picunche and their descendants lost their indigenous identity.

The government of Agustín de Jáuregui, which ruled around 1777–1778, ordered the first general population census. The census confirmed a total of 259,646 inhabitants at the time, with 73.5% classified as Caucasian, 9.8% as African, 8.6% as Indian, and 7.8% as Mestizo. In 1784, Francisco Hurtado, governor of the province of Chiloé, conducted a population census in Chiloe that totaled 26,703 inhabitants, of which about 64.4% was classified as españoles ("Spaniards", Caucasian and mixed Mestizo people) and 33.5% considered indios ("Indians"). First generation mestizos sprang largely from the intercourse of Spanish men and indigenous women. The opposite, the union of indigenous men and Spanish women was rare but not unheard of.

In 1812, the Diocese of Concepción conducted a census to the south of the Maule river; however, this did not include the indigenous population — at that time estimated at 8,000 people — nor the inhabitants of the province of Chiloé. It put the total population at 210,567, of which 86.1% was native Spaniards and 10% were Indian, with a remaining 3.7% of African, mulattos, and mestizo descent. Other estimates in the late 17th century indicate that the population reached a maximum total of 152,000, consisting of 72% whites and mestizos, 18% Indians, and 10% blacks and mulattos.

For many years, Spanish-descent settlers and religious orders imported African slaves to the country, which in the early 19th century constituted 1.5% of the national population. Despite this, the Afro-Chilean population was small, reaching a height of only 2,500 — or 0.1% of the total population — during the colonial period. The birth rates of black people were low. According to Sergio Villalobos this could have been indebted to the fact that black women and men were often apart as result of their slave labor and an hesitancy of other racial groups to engage with them.

In the 18th century, many Spanish civilians (mainly of Basque origin) entered the country, in particular attracted by trade liberalization at the time enacted by the Spanish Crown. In the late 18th century, Basque descendants were estimated to comprise 27% of the total population. Most of the Basque immigrants initially partook in small businesses, though others attained higher levels of prosperity. Of those, many mixed with the Criollo aristocracy of Castilian origin, who owned much of the land. This resulted in the Castilian-Basque aristocracy, which later came to form the basis of the Chilean ruling class; other Basques also integrated with mestizo population of Castilian origin, that resulted in modern Chilean middle classes. The number of descendants from Basques in Chile are estimated at 10% of the population (1.7 million).

European and neighboring immigrants

After Chile's independence successive waves of Spanish, Italians, Irish, French, Greeks, Germans, British, Dutch, Croats, Russians, Poles, Hungarians, Portuguese and Middle Eastern people immigrated to the country.

A substantial German immigration took place in 1848, laying the foundation for the German-Chilean community. Under a government sponsored program aimed at colonizing the southern region, the Germans (including German-speaking Swiss, Silesians, Alsatians, Austrians, and Sudeten Germans), colonized the south and have since influenced the cultural and racial composition of the southern provinces of Chile. It is estimated that 150,000 to 200,000 Chileans could have German ancestors.

About 700,000 Chileans, or 5% of Chile's population, have Arab ancestry. Of these 500,000 are Palestinian descendants.

Other historically significant immigrant groups include: Croatians, whose numbers today are estimated at 380,000 persons, about 2.4% of the population. 4.6% of the Chilean population has some Croatian ancestry. Over 700,000 Chileans, 4.5% of Chile's population, has British (English, Scottish and Welsh) origin.

Between 90,000 and 120,000 Chileans are of Greek origin. Most live either in the Santiago or Antofagasta areas. Chile is one of the 5 countries with the most Greeks in the world.
The number of Swiss is about 90,000. About 5% of the Chilean population has some French ancestry. 600,000 to 800,000 are Italians. Other European groups are found in smaller numbers.

The European immigrants have transformed the country culturally, economically and politically. European emigration in Chile and to a lesser extent, the arrival from the Middle East during the second half of the 19th and 20th centuries, was the most important in Latin America second to that which occurred in the Atlantic Coast of the Southern Cone (i.e., Argentina and southern Brazil).

These European ethnic groups have intermarried thereby diluting the distinct cultures, descent and identities of the home countries and fusing them among each other. These intermixed cultures form the society and culture of the Chilean middle and upper classes. The European have still preserved elements of themselves, therefore they enjoy the original European cultural practices such as the British afternoon tea and biscuits, French casseroles and coffee, German cakes and sausage, and Italian pasta and mineral waters. The cultural influences can also be seen in the architecture of the cities. The Chilean folk culture is not embraced as it is an offshoot of the culture of the Spaniards who settled the country in the colonial period.

Latin American immigrants
Since 1990, with the end of Augusto Pinochet's dictatorship and the return to democracy, and the subsequent socioeconomic development of the country, a significant number of immigrants from various Latin American countries started to arrive to Chile. These represented nearly 1,200,000 people (2017) corresponding to 7% of the population residing in the country. They were composed of 288,233 Venezuelans, 223,923 Peruvians, 179,338 Haitians, 146,582 Colombians, 107,346 Bolivians, 74,713 Argentines, 36,994 Ecuadorians, 18,185 Brazilians, 17,959 Dominicans, 15,837 Cubans and 8,975 Mexicans.

This has prompted a change in the physiognomy of certain boroughs ("communes") in the country where its number is concentrated. In boroughs such as Santiago Centro and Independencia, a third of all residents (28% and 31% respectively) were born abroad. Other communes of Greater Santiago with high numbers of immigrants are Estación Central (17%) and Recoleta (16%). In the northern regions such as Antofagasta Region, 17.3% of the population is a Latin American foreigner, with communes such as Ollagüe (31%), Mejillones (16%), Sierra Gorda (16%) and Antofagasta (11%), with high percentages of Latin American immigrants, mainly Bolivians, Colombians and Peruvians.

Indigenous Chileans

With the independence of Chile in the 1810s, Mapuche began to be seen as Chileans by other Chileans, contrasting with previous perceptions of them as a separate people or nation.

Although indigenous peoples like Mapuche and Aymaras are in some situations contrasted against Chilean people the two demonyms are not mutually exclusive and are rather often used in combination. For example, "a Chilean Aymara" can be used to contrast with Aymaras living in Bolivia or Peru.

The 1907 census reported 101,118 Indians, or 3.1% of the total country population. Only those that practiced their native culture or spoke their native language were considered, irrespective of their "racial purity."

At the 2002 census, people that declared themselves as indigenous amounted to 4.6% of the population (692,192 people); of these, 87.3% declared themselves Mapuche. as with Chileans of other backgrounds most Mapuche show varying degrees of mixed ancestry.

Some native peoples of Chile disappeared product from acculturation and miscegenation, as is the case of peoples Picunches, Diaguitas and Chonos, whereas a large number of Selknam or Onas disappeared by the extermination carried out by settlers in Tierra del Fuego in the early 20th century. Other factors that contributed to their extinction were diseases brought by Europeans, such as smallpox.

According to the 2017 census, 12.8% of the Chilean population, 1 842 607 people of 14 years or more, declares themselves indigenous. Of the total indigenous population, 79.8% declared themselves Mapuche; 7.2%, Aymara; 4.1%, Diaguita; 1.6%, Quechua; 1.4%, Atacameño; 0.9%, Colla; 0.4%, Rapa Nui; 0.1%, Kawésqar and 0.1%, Yaghan. 1.3% identified with another and 3.1% identified as indigenous but it has not been said which.

Religion

Culture

The folk culture of Chile has mostly Spanish origins, especially the huaso culture of the central part of the country, as it arose in the colonial period due to cattle ranching. It could therefore be considered an offshoot of Spanish popular culture of the 17th an 18th centuries as are the folk cultures of the rest of Latin America and also, its direct descendants, Andalusian and Castilian folk cultures. The Andalusian forms in the huaso dress is apparent to Europeans and the music and dances show Spanish origins, even though both have been adapted and are distinct from dress, music and dance in Spain today.

The ranches called fundos, where the huasos lived and worked show strong similarity with Spanish vernacular architecture, especially in the canal roofs and the interior courtyards. The fundo is now thought of as traditional Chilean architecture and is associated with the huaso.

As well as the huaso culture of the central part of the country can be seen the German, Chilote, Croatian and Magallanic culture in the south, and the Andean culture in the north.

Chile's Nueva Canción movement in modern Chilean folk culture is adapted from the folk music of the north, not of the brass bands but of the panpipes and quenas. The traditional Chilean folk music of the huasos were also popularized, particularly the tonadas, folk songs sung with a guitar, mainly on the topics of love. Several folk groups who dress in huaso costume became famous nationwide.

The folk culture that is mainly associated with the Chilean national identity is that of the huasos as that is where the Chilean state was formed and it spread northwards and southwards in the late 19th century.

Emigration of Chileans
Emigration of Chileans has decreased during the last decade: It is estimated that 857,781 Chileans live abroad, 50.1% of those being in Argentina (the highest number), 13.3% in the United States, 8.8% in Brazil, 4.9% in Sweden, and around 2% in Australia, with the rest being scattered in smaller numbers across the globe. Other Chilean refugees settled (not ranked by order of size) in Spain, Mexico, Costa Rica, United Kingdom, Canada, France, Germany, New Zealand, and Italy.

Many pro-Allende refugees in the 1970s fled to East Germany, including president Michelle Bachelet, who also lived in Australia. Anti-Pinochet refugees formed a large expatriate community in Europe and a smaller community in North America (the US and Canada). The Chilean-Swedish population is estimated at 56,000 people, a result of migration that began with the political refugees from the 1973 coup d'état.

Over 100,000 Chileans fleeing from both regimes in the 1970s and 1980s settled in the US, a small number compared to other Latino groups. The highest number settled in Miami, Florida, but smaller enclaves are in Washington, D.C.; New York City; and California (the Los Angeles area – Beverly Hills and Long Beach; and San Francisco – San Mateo County).

Approximately 2,500 Chilean exiles fled to the UK in the early 1970s and by most recent estimates the Chilean British population is in its tens of thousands, and represents a significant proportion of the UK's Latin American community. By far the largest concentration of Chileans can be found in London with significant other communities being Birmingham, Sheffield and the Manchester–Liverpool Metropolitan area.

Historic emigration took place in the early 19th century when Chilean ranchers went to Mexico after their independence. Thousands of miners from Chile went to California, the U.S. during the 1850s California Gold Rush, as well in other gold rushes in Colorado (1870s) and the Yukon (1890s). Small numbers of Chilean miners also migrated to South Africa and Australia for the same reason.

See also

 Anti-Chilean sentiment
 Chilean American
 Chilean Argentine
 Chilean Australian
 Chilean Brazilian
 Chilean British
 Chilean German
 Chilean Italian
 Chilean Spanish
 Chilean Swedes
 Swiss Chilean
 Chilean Mexicans
 White Latin Americans

References

Ethnic groups in Chile
South American people by nationality

Chileans