The Manila galleon (; ), originally known as La Nao de China, and Galeón de Acapulco, refers to the Spanish trading ships that linked the Spanish Crown's Viceroyalty of New Spain, based in Mexico City, with its Asian territories, collectively known as the Spanish East Indies, across the Pacific Ocean. The ships made one or two round-trip voyages per year between the ports of Acapulco and Manila from the late 16th to early 19th century. The name of the galleon changed to reflect from which city the ship sailed, setting sail from Cavite, in Manila Bay, at the end of June or first week of July, starting the return journey (tornaviaje) from Acapulco in March–April of the next calendar year, and returning to Manila in June–July.

The term Manila galleon can also refer to the trade route itself between Acapulco and Manila that was operational from 1565 to 1815.

The galleons sailed the Pacific, bringing to the Americas cargoes of Chinese and other Asian luxury goods such as spices and porcelain in exchange for New World silver. In addition, Filipino slaves known as "chinos esclavos" ("Chinese slaves") came across the Pacific to Mexico in what is known as the trans-Pacific slave trade. The route also fostered cultural exchanges that shaped the identities and the culture of the countries involved.

The Manila galleons were known in New Spain as La Nao de China ("The China Ship") on their voyages from the Spanish East Indies because they carried mostly Chinese goods shipped from Manila. The Manila Galleon route was the first instance of globalization, as it marked the earliest period in history when a trade route from Asia crossed to the Americas, thereby connecting all the world's continents in one global silver trade.

The Spanish inaugurated the Manila galleon trade route in 1565 after the Augustinian friar and navigator Andrés de Urdaneta pioneered the tornaviaje or return route from the Philippines to Mexico. Urdaneta and Alonso de Arellano made the first successful round trips that year. The trade using "Urdaneta's route" lasted until 1815, when the Mexican War of Independence broke out.

In 2015, the Philippines and Mexico began preparations for the nomination of the Manila–Acapulco Galleon Trade Route in the UNESCO World Heritage List with backing from Spain, which has also suggested the tri-national nomination of the archives on the Manila–Acapulco Galleons in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register.

History

Discovery of the route

In 1521, a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan sailed west across the Pacific using the westward trade winds. The expedition discovered the Mariana Islands and the Philippines and claimed them for Spain. Although Magellan was killed by natives commanded by Lapulapu during the battle of Mactan, one of his ships, the Victoria, made it back to Spain by continuing westward.

To settle and trade with these islands from the Americas, an eastward maritime return path was necessary. The Trinidad, which tried this a few years later, failed. In 1529, Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón also tried sailing east from the Philippines, but could not find the eastward-blowing winds (the "westerlies") across the Pacific. In 1543, Bernardo de la Torre also failed. In 1542, however, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo helped pave the way by sailing north from Mexico to explore the Pacific coast, reaching as far north as the Russian River, just north of the 38th parallel. The frustration of these failures is shown in a letter sent in 1552 from Portuguese Goa by the Spanish missionary Francis Xavier to Simão Rodrigues asking that no more fleets attempt the New Spain–East Asia route, lest they be lost.

The Manila–Acapulco galleon trade finally began when Spanish navigators Alonso de Arellano and Andrés de Urdaneta discovered the eastward return route in 1565. Sailing as part of the expedition commanded by Miguel López de Legazpi to conquer the Philippines in 1564, Urdaneta was given the task of finding a return route. Reasoning that the trade winds of the Pacific might move in a gyre as the Atlantic winds did, they sailed north, going all the way to the 38th parallel north, off the east coast of Japan, before catching the westerlies that would take them back across the Pacific. He commanded a vessel which completed the eastward voyage in 129 days; this marked the opening of the Manila galleon trade.

Reaching the west coast of North America, Urdaneta's ship, the San Pedro, hit the coast near Santa Catalina Island, California, then followed the shoreline south to San Blas and later to Acapulco, arriving on October 8, 1565. Most of his crew died on the long initial voyage, for which they had not sufficiently provisioned. Arellano, who had taken a more southerly route, had already arrived.

The English privateer Francis Drake also reached the California coast, in 1579. After capturing a Spanish ship heading for Manila, Drake turned north, hoping to meet another Spanish treasure ship coming south on its return from Manila to Acapulco. He failed in that regard, but staked an English claim somewhere on the northern California coast. Although the ship's log and other records were lost, the officially accepted location is now called Drakes Bay, on Point Reyes south of Cape Mendocino.

By the 18th century, it was understood that a less northerly track was sufficient when nearing the North American coast, and galleon navigators steered well clear of the rocky and often fogbound northern and central California coast. According to historian William Lytle Schurz, "They generally made their landfall well down the coast, somewhere between Point Conception and Cape San Lucas ... After all, these were preeminently merchant ships, and the business of exploration lay outside their field, though chance discoveries were welcomed".

The first motivation for land exploration of present-day California was to scout out possible way stations for the seaworn Manila galleons on the last leg of their journey. Early proposals came to little, but in 1769, the Portola expedition established ports at San Diego and Monterey (which became the administrative center of Alta California), providing safe harbors for returning Manila galleons.

The Manila galleon and California

Monterey, California, was about two months and three weeks out from Manila in the 18th century, and the galleon tended to stop there 40 days before arriving in Acapulco. Galleons stopped in Monterey prior to California's Spanish settlement in 1769; however, visits became regular between 1777 and 1794 because the Crown ordered the galleon to stop in Monterey.

Trade

Trade with Ming China via Manila served a major source of revenue for the Spanish Empire and as a fundamental source of income for Spanish colonists in the Philippine Islands. Galleons used for the trade between East and West were crafted by Filipino artisans. Until 1593, two or more ships would set sail annually from each port. The Manila trade became so lucrative that Seville merchants petitioned king Philip II of Spain to protect the monopoly of the Casa de Contratación based in Seville. This led to the passing of a decree in 1593 that set a limit of two ships sailing each year from either port, with one kept in reserve in Acapulco and one in Manila. An "armada", or armed escort of galleons, was also approved. Due to official attempts at controlling the galleon trade, contraband and understating of ships' cargoes became widespread.

The galleon trade was supplied by merchants largely from port areas of Fujian, such as Quanzhou, as depicted in the Selden Map, and Yuegang (the old port of Haicheng in Zhangzhou, Fujian), who traveled to Manila to sell the Spaniards spices, porcelain, ivory, lacquerware, processed silk cloth and other valuable commodities. Cargoes varied from one voyage to another but often included goods from all over Asia: jade, wax, gunpowder and silk from China; amber, cotton and rugs from India; spices from Indonesia and Malaysia; and a variety of goods from Japan, the Spanish part of the so-called Namban trade, including Japanese fans, chests, screens, porcelain and lacquerware.

In addition, slaves of various origins, including East Africa, Portuguese India, the Muslim sultanates of Southeast Asia, and the Spanish Philippines, were transported from Manila and sold in New Spain. African slaves were categorized as negros or cafres while all slaves of Asian origin were called chinos. The lack of detailed records makes it difficult to estimate the total number of slaves transported or the proportions of slaves from each region.

Galleons transported the goods to be sold in the Americas, namely in New Spain and Peru, as well as in European markets. East Asia trading primarily functioned on a silver standard due to Ming China's use of silver ingots as a medium of exchange. As such, goods were mostly bought by silver mined from New Spain and Potosí.

The cargoes arrived in Acapulco and were transported by land across Mexico. Mule trains would carry the goods along the China Road from Acapulco first to the administrative center of Mexico City, then on to the port of Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico, where they were loaded onto the Spanish treasure fleet bound for Spain. The transport of goods overland by porters, the housing of travelers and sailors at inns by innkeepers, and the stocking of long voyages with food and supplies provided by haciendas before departing Acapulco helped to stimulate the economy of New Spain.

The trade of goods and exchanges of people were not limited to Mexico and the Philippines since Guatemala, Panama, Ecuador, and Peru also served as supplementary streams to the main one between Mexico and Philippines.

Around 80% of the goods shipped back from Acapulco to Manila were from the Americas – silver, cochineal, seeds, sweet potato, corn, tomato, tobacco, chickpeas, chocolate and cocoa, watermelon seeds, vines, and fig trees. The remaining 20% were goods transshipped from Europe and North Africa such as wine and olive oil, and metal goods such as weapons, knobs and spurs.

This Pacific route was the alternative to the trip west across the Indian Ocean, and around the Cape of Good Hope, which was reserved to Portugal according to the Treaty of Tordesillas. It also avoided stopping over at ports controlled by competing powers, such as Portugal and the Netherlands. From the early days of exploration, the Spanish knew that the American continent was much narrower across the Panamanian isthmus than across Mexico. They tried to establish a regular land crossing there, but the thick jungle and tropical diseases such as yellow fever and malaria made it impractical.

It took at least four months to sail across the Pacific Ocean from Manila to Acapulco, and the galleons were the main link between the Philippines and the viceregal capital at Mexico City and thence to Spain itself. Many of the so-called "Kastilas" or Spaniards in the Philippines were actually of Mexican descent, and the Hispanic culture of the Philippines is influenced by Spanish and Mexican culture in particular. Soldiers and settlers recruited from Mexico and Peru were also gathered in Acapulco before they were sent to settle at the presidios of the Philippines. Even after the galleon era, and at the time when Mexico finally gained its independence, the two nations still continued to trade, except for a brief lull during the Spanish–American War.

In Manila, the safety of ocean crossings was commended to the virgin Nuestra Señora de la Soledad de Porta Vaga in masses held by the Archbishop of Manila. If the expedition was successful the voyagers would go to La Ermita (the church) to pay homage, and offer gold and other precious gems or jewelries from Hispanic countries to the image of the virgin. So it came to be that the virgin was named the "Queen of the Galleons".

Economic shocks due to the arrival of Spanish-American silver in China were among the factors that led to the end of the Ming dynasty.

End of the galleons
In 1740, as part of the administrative changes of the Bourbon Reforms, the Spanish crown began allowing the use of registered ships or navíos de registro in the Pacific. These ships traveled solo, outside the convoy system of the galleons. While these solo voyages would not immediately replace the galleon system, they were more efficient and better able to avoid being captured by the Royal Navy of Great Britain.

In 1813, the Cortes of Cádiz decreed the suppression of the route and the following year, with the end of the Peninsular War, Ferdinand VII of Spain ratified the said dissolution. The last ship to reach Manila was the San Fernando or Magallanes, which arrived empty, as its cargo had been requisition in Mexico.

The Manila–Acapulco galleon trade ended in 1815, a few years before Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821. After this, the Spanish Crown took direct control of the Philippines, and governed directly from Madrid. Sea transport became easier in the mid-19th century after the invention of steam powered ships and the opening of the Suez Canal, which reduced the travel time from Spain to the Philippines to 40 days.

Galleons

Construction

Between 1609 and 1616, nine galleons and six galleys were constructed in Philippine shipyards. The average cost was 78,000 pesos per galleon and at least 2,000 trees. The galleons constructed included the San Juan Bautista, San Marcos, Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe, Angel de la Guardia, San Felipe, Santiago, Salbador, Espiritu Santo, and San Miguel. "From 1729 to 1739, the main purpose of the Cavite shipyard was the construction and outfitting of the galleons for the Manila to Acapulco trade run."

Due to the route's high profitability but long voyage time, it was essential to build the largest possible galleons, which were the largest class of European ships known to have been built until then. In the 16th century, they averaged from 1,700 to 2,000 tons, were built of Philippine hardwoods and could carry 300–500 passengers. The Concepción, wrecked in 1638, was  long and displacing some 2,000 tons. The Santísima Trinidad was  long. Most of the ships were built in the Philippines and only eight in Mexico.

Crews
Sailors averaged age 28 or 29 while the oldest were between 40 and 50. Ships' pages were children who entered service mostly at age 8, many orphans or poor taken from the streets of Seville, Mexico and Manila. Apprentices were older than the pages and if successful would be certified a sailor at age 20. Because mortality rates were high with ships arriving in Manila with a majority of their crew often dead from starvation, disease and scurvy, especially in the early years, Spanish officials in Manila found it difficult to find men to crew their ships to return to Acapulco. Many indios of Filipino and Southeast Asian origin made up the majority of the crew. Other crew were made up of deportees and criminals from Spain and the colonies. Many criminals were sentenced to serve as crew on royal ships. Less than a third of the crew was Spanish and they usually held key positions aboard the galleon.

At port, goods were unloaded by dockworkers, and food was often supplied locally. In Acapulco, the arrival of the galleons provided seasonal work, as for dockworkers who were typically free black men highly paid for their back breaking labor, and for farmers and haciendas across Mexico who helped stock the ships with food before voyages. On land, travelers were often housed at inns or mesones, and had goods transported by muleteers, which provided opportunities for Indigenous people in Mexico. By providing for the galleons, Spanish colonial America was tied into the broader global economy.

Shipwrecks
The wrecks of the Manila galleons are legends second only to the wrecks of treasure ships in the Caribbean. In 1568, Miguel López de Legazpi's own ship, the San Pablo (300 tons), was the first Manila galleon to be wrecked en route to Mexico. Between the years 1576 when the Espiritu Santo was lost and 1798 when the San Cristobal (2) was lost there were twenty Manila galleons wrecked within the Philippine archipelago. In 1596 the San Felipe was wrecked in Japan.

At least one galleon, probably the Santo Cristo de Burgos, is believed to have wrecked on the coast of Oregon in 1693. Known as the Beeswax wreck, the event is described in the oral histories of the Tillamook and Clatsop, which suggest that some of the crew survived.

Captures
Between 1565 and 1815, 108 ships operated as Manila galleons, of which 26 were captured or sunk by the enemy during wartime, including the Santa Ana captured in 1587 by Thomas Cavendish off the coast of Baja California; the San Diego, which was sunk in 1600 in Bahía de Manila by Oliver Van Noort; Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación captured by Woodes Rogers in 1709; Nuestra Senora de la Covadonga captured in 1743 by George Anson; Nuestra Senora de la Santisima Trinidad captured in 1762 by HMS Panther and HMS Argo at the Action of 30 October 1762 in the San Bernardino Strait; San Sebastián and Santa Ana captured in 1753–54 by George Compton; and Nuestra Señora de la Santísima Trinidad, in 1762, by Samuel Cornish.

Possible contact with Hawaii
Over 250 years, there were hundreds of Manila galleon crossings of the Pacific Ocean between present-day Mexico and the Philippines, with their route taking them just south of the Hawaiian Islands on the westward leg of their round trip and yet there are no records of contact with the Hawaiians. British historian Henry Kamen maintains that the Spanish did not have the ability to properly explore the Pacific Ocean and were not capable of finding the islands which lay at a latitude 20° north of the westbound galleon route and its currents. However, Spanish exploration in the Pacific was paramount until the late 18th century. Spanish navigators discovered many islands including Guam, the Marianas, the Carolines and the Philippines in the North Pacific, as well as Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Solomon Islands, New Guinea, and Easter Island in the South Pacific. Spanish navigators also discovered the Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos during their search for Terra Australis in the 17th century.

This navigational activity poses the question as to whether Spanish explorers did arrive in the Hawaiian Islands two centuries before Captain James Cook's first visit in 1778. Ruy López de Villalobos commanded a fleet of six ships that left Acapulco in 1542 with a Spanish sailor named Ivan Gaetan or Juan Gaetano aboard as pilot. Depending on the interpretation, Gaetano's reports seem to describe either the discovery of Hawaii or the Marshall Islands in 1555. If it was Hawaii, Gaetano would have been one of the first Europeans to find the islands.

The westward route from Mexico passed south of Hawaii, making a short stopover in Guam before heading for Manila. The exact route was kept secret to protect the Spanish trade monopoly against competing powers, and to avoid Dutch and English pirates. Due to this policy of discretion, if the Spanish did find Hawaii during their voyages, they would not have published their findings and the discovery would have remained unknown. From Gaetano's account, the Hawaiian islands were not known to have any valuable resources, so the Spanish would not have made an effort to settle them. This happened in the case of the Marianas and the Carolines, which were not effectively settled until the second half of the 17th century. Spanish archives contain a chart that depicts islands in the latitude of Hawaii but with the longitude ten degrees east of the Islands (reliable methods of determining longitude were not developed until the mid-eighteenth century). In this manuscript, the Island of Maui is named "La Desgraciada" (the unhappy, or unfortunate), and what appears to be the Island of Hawaii is named "La Mesa" (the table). Islands resembling Kahoolawe, Lanai, and Molokai are named "Los Monjes" (the monks).

The theory that the first European visitors to Hawaii were Spanish is reinforced by the findings of William Ellis, a writer and missionary who lived in early 19th century Hawaii, and recorded several folk stories about foreigners who had visited Hawaii prior to first contact with Cook. According to Hawaiian writer Herb Kawainui Kane, one of these stories:
concerned seven foreigners who landed eight generations earlier at Kealakekua Bay in a painted boat with an awning or canopy over the stern. They were dressed in clothing of white and yellow, and one wore a sword at his side and a feather in his hat. On landing, they kneeled down in prayer. The Hawaiians, most helpful to those who were most helpless, received them kindly. The strangers ultimately married into the families of chiefs, but their names could not be included in genealogies".

Some scholars, particularly American, have dismissed these claims as lacking credibility. Debate continues as to whether the Hawaiian Islands were actually visited by the Spanish in the 16th century with researchers like Richard W. Rogers looking for evidence of Spanish shipwrecks.

Preparations for UNESCO nominations
In 2010, the Philippines foreign affairs secretary organized a diplomatic reception attended by at least 32 countries, for discussions about the historic galleon trade and the possible establishment of a galleon museum. Various Mexican and Filipino institutions and politicians also made discussions about the importance of the galleon trade in their shared history.

In 2013, the Philippines released a documentary regarding the Manila galleon trade route.

In 2014, the idea to nominate the Manila–Acapulco Galleon Trade Route as a World Heritage Site was initiated by the Mexican and Filipino ambassadors to UNESCO. Spain has also backed the nomination and suggested that the archives related to the route under the possession of the Philippines, Mexico, and Spain be nominated as part of another UNESCO list, the Memory of the World Register.

In 2015, the Unesco National Commission of the Philippines (Unacom) and the Department of Foreign Affairs organized an expert's meeting to discuss the trade route's nomination. Some of the topics presented include the Spanish colonial shipyards in Sorsogon, underwater archaeology in the Philippines, the route's influences on Filipino textile, the galleon's eastward trip from the Philippines to Mexico called tornaviaje, and the historical dimension of the galleon trade focusing on important and rare archival documents.

In 2017, the Philippines established the Manila–Acapulco Galleon Museum in Metro Manila, one of the necessary steps in nominating the trade route to UNESCO.

In 2018, Mexico reopened its Manila galleon gallery at the Archaeological Museum of Puerto Vallarta, Cuale.

In 2020, Mexico released a documentary regarding the Manila galleon trade route.

See also

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

 Bjork, Katharine (1998). "The Link that Kept the Philippines Spanish: Mexican Merchant Interests and the Manila Trade, 1571–1815." Journal of World History vol. 9, no. 1, 25–50.
 Carrera Stampa, Manuel (1959). "La Nao de la China." Historia Mexicana 9 no. 33, pp. 97-118.
 Gasch-Tomás, José Luis (2018). The Atlantic World and the Manila Galleon: Circulation, Market, and Consumption of Asian Goods in the Spanish Empires, 1565-1650. Leiden: Brill.
 Giraldez, Arturo (2015). The Age of Trade: The Manila Galleons and the Dawn of the Global Economy. Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield.
 Luengo, Josemaria Salutan (1996). A History of the Manila-Acapulco Slave Trade, 1565–1815. Tubigon, Bohol: Mater Dei Publications.
 McCarthy, William J. (1993). "Between Policy and Prerogative: Malfeasance in the Inspection of the Manila Galleons at Acapulco, 1637." Colonial Latin American Historical Review 2, no. 2, pp. 163–83.
 Oropeza Keresey, Deborah (2007). "Los 'indios chinos' en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la Nao de China, 1565–1700." PhD dissertation, El Colegio de México, Centro de Estudios Históricos.
Rogers, R. (1999). Shipwreck of Hawai'i: a maritime history of the Big Island. Haleiwa, Hawaii: Pilialoha Publishing.
Schurz, William Lytle. (1917) "The Manila Galleon and California", Southwestern Historical Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 107–126
Schurz, William Lytle (1939). The Manila Galleon. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc.

External links

Findings from the wreck of Nuestra Senora de la Concepcion in the Marianas, 1638
Metropolitan Museum: Manila Galleon
Manila Galleons along the Californian coasts
Asociación Cultural Galeón de Manila, Spanish-Philippine research group based in Madrid (in Spanish)

Galleons
Spanish East Indies
History of the Philippines (1565–1898)
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Age of Sail ships of Spain
Naval ships of Spain
Military history of the Pacific Ocean
History of Manila
History of New Spain
Colonial Mexico
Pacific Coast of Mexico
Sea lanes
Merchant sailing ship types
New Spain
1565 establishments in Spain
1565 establishments in New Spain
1810s disestablishments in Spain
19th-century disestablishments in New Spain
16th century in the Spanish East Indies
17th century in the Spanish East Indies
18th century in the Spanish East Indies
19th century in the Spanish East Indies
Early Modern economics

Manila galleon


James Etheldred Williams (January 16, 1826 – April 10, 1900) was an American politician who served as a two-term mayor of Atlanta, Georgia, during Reconstruction.

Born in Grainger County, Tennessee, the second of ten children, he began working in Knoxville in the post office and, with his cousins, operated a line of steamboats on the Tennessee River from that city to Decatur, Alabama.

He moved to Atlanta in October 1851, and with his Tennessee connections was able to set up a prosperous warehousing business. He built a larger warehouse on Decatur Street in Atlanta with an upper floor that was used as the popular theater of the time, the Atheneum. He ran both until their destruction in 1864 during the burning of Atlanta in the Civil War. Williams was not physically fit for active service during the Civil War. but after his warehouse was destroyed, he became a fireman under Captain Samuel B. Sherwood.

Politically, he was "Always a Democrat, strongly opposed to Whiggery, Know-Nothingism and Abolitionism" and was a staunch secessionist.
He served on the Atlanta city council before and after the war, and served as two terms as mayor (the second was extended to 1868 by order of the commandant of the post of Atlanta, Major General John Pope).

He then began independent trading, but retired from active business in 1880.

References

Mayors of Atlanta
People of Georgia (U.S. state) in the American Civil War
1826 births
1900 deaths
19th-century American politicians

James E. Williams (Atlanta mayor)


Rugby League Week (frequently abbreviated to RLW) was the highest selling Australian rugby league magazine, ahead of major competitor Big League. It was published weekly (on Wednesdays) during the Australian rugby league season, which runs from March to late September (roughly corresponding to the southern hemisphere autumn and winter). The magazine was headquartered in Sydney.

History
Rugby League Week was launched in 1970. In 2001 the magazine's name was changed to League Week, to avoid confusion with rugby union. It reverted to Rugby League Week in 2003. It is owned by Bauer Media Group. The former owner was ACP Magazines. The last edition was published on 27 March 2017.

Content
The magazine contained news coverage of Australian rugby league, focused primarily on the first-grade NRL competition (previously the NSWFL) but with coverage also devoted to lower-level competitions. There were usually also several profiles of rugby league players in each edition. A number of league personalities, including Mark Geyer, Stacey Jones and Wally Lewis, had regular columns; unconfirmed rumours and miscellaneous gossip are reported in a column written by 'The Mole'.

Each edition contains previews of the games to be played in the next NRL round, running from Friday to Monday. Details of every match from the previous round are also included: the games are assessed and each player who took the field, as well as the referee, is given a rating. Details of when and by whom points were scored are also included. (Before the formation of the Brisbane Broncos, these ratings and details were also given for the Brisbane Rugby League competition.) Results, but not ratings, are published for most notable rugby league competitions in Australia, as well as major competitions in New Zealand and England.

Player of the Year
Related to the rating of players ever since Rugby League Week was first published during the 1970 NSWRFL season has been its Player of the Year award.

Since 1978, players have been rated out of ten for every game. To deal with absences from club rugby due to interstate and Test duty, the five lowest scores of every player are deleted from their final score. After these five lowest scores are removed, the player with the highest score wins the award.

From 1970 to 1977, the method of judging was the same except that players were awarded points out of five instead of ten.

The Immortals

In 1981 Rugby League Week named 'The Immortals', four players that they considered to be the greatest in Australian history. In 1999 another two were added and in 2003 another one. At the end of the 2012 NRL season it was decided that Andrew Johns would become the eighth immortal. Currently numbering eight, The Immortals are:
Arthur Beetson
Clive Churchill
Bob Fulton
Reg Gasnier
Graeme Langlands
Wally Lewis
Johnny Raper
Andrew Johns

Ten out of Ten
Since the 1978 NSWRFL season, Rugby League Week has rated each player in each premiership and representative game on a scale of 1-10. There have been 17 players since 1978 to achieve the rare feat of being rated 10/10 for a game. Manly-Warringah second row forward Terry Randall had the honour of being the first player to be rated 10/10 in the opening round of the 1978 season. Parramatta halfback Peter Sterling is the only player to achieve this twice while Brad Fittler is the only player to receive 10/10 in a representative game having done so in the second test of the 1995 Trans-Tasman Test series against New Zealand.

RLW's 10/10 ratings since 1978 include:
Terry Randall (Manly-Warringah) vs St George, 26 March 1978 at Brookvale Oval
Geoff Foster (Western Suburbs) vs St George, 2 April 1978 at Lidcombe Oval
Larry Corowa (Balmain) vs Newtown, 2 April 1978 at Leichhardt Oval
Graham Murray (Parramatta) vs St George, 23 July 1978 at Cumberland Oval
Rocky Laurie (South Sydney) vs St George, 29 March 1980 at Kogarah Oval
John Dowling (St George) vs North Sydney, 27 April 1980 at North Sydney Oval
Johnny Gibbs (Manly-Warringah) vs Cronulla-Sutherland, 9 August 1981 at Endeavour Field
Greg Brentnall (Canterbury-Bankstown) vs Manly-Warringah, 19 June 1982 at Brookvale Oval
Kevin Hastings (Eastern Suburbs) vs Penrith, 3 April 1983 at Penrith Park
Peter Sterling (Parramatta) vs St George, 16 March 1986 at Parramatta Stadium
Peter Sterling (Parramatta) vs Eastern Suburbs, 26 May 1987 at Parramatta Stadium
Bradley Clyde (Canberra) vs Western Suburbs, 11 August 1991 at Bruce Stadium
Brad Fittler (Australia) vs New Zealand (Test match), 7 July 1995 at Sydney Football Stadium
Greg Florimo (North Sydney) vs Manly-Warringah, 30 June 1997 at North Sydney Oval
Brett Kimmorley (Cronulla-Sutherland) vs Newcastle, 11 August 2002 at Endeavour Field
Andrew Johns (Newcastle) vs Melbourne, 30 July 2005 at Hunter Stadium
Jarryd Hayne (Parramatta) vs Brisbane, 23 July 2007 at Lang Park

See also
Big League
Rugby League Review

References

External links

1970 establishments in Australia
2017 disestablishments in Australia
Sports magazines published in Australia
Weekly magazines published in Australia
Bauer Media Group
Defunct magazines published in Australia
Magazines established in 1970
Magazines disestablished in 2017
Magazines published in Sydney
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Rugby League Week


De Telegraaf (; ) is the largest Dutch daily morning newspaper. Paul Jansen has been the editor-in-chief since August 2015. De Telegraaf is based in Amsterdam. The paper is owned by the Belgian company Mediahuis.

History

19th century
De Telegraaf was founded by Henry Tindal, who simultaneously started another paper De Courant (). The first issue appeared on 1 January 1893.

20th century
Following Tindal's death on 31 January 1902 the printer HMC Holdert, with backing from financiers, took over De Telegraaf and De Courant on 12 September 1902. This proved to be a good investment, particularly with regard to De Courant, enabling Holdert between 1903 and 1923 to take over one newspaper after another, suspending publication as he went. He added the name Amsterdamsche Courant ("Amsterdam Gazette") as a subtitle to De Telegraaf, and Het Nieuws van den Dag ("The News of the Day") to De Courant.

During World War I, when the Netherlands was officially neutral, Holdert's French sympathies and his pro-British standpoint caused De Telegraaf to be the focus of some controversy, as the Netherlands were usually pro-German at the time.

In 1926, Holdert began construction of a new printing facility at the Nieuwezijds Voorburgwal in Amsterdam, designed by J. F. Staal and G. J. Langhout. Construction was completed and the building occupied in 1930.

During World War II, the Telegraaf companies published pro-Nazi German papers, which led to a thirty-year ban on publishing after the war. The prohibition was lifted in 1949 and De Telegraaf flourished anew to become the biggest newspaper in the Netherlands.

At one point, in June 1966, the Telegraaf building was besieged by angry construction workers and Provo followers, after a false report that a victim of a labour dispute had been killed not by the police but by a co-worker. In 1974, De Telegraaf moved to a new location on the Basisweg.

In 1995–1996 De Telegraaf had a circulation of 760,000 copies, making it the best-selling paper in the country.

De Courant/Nieuws van de Dag ceased publication in 1998. In 1999, the circulation of the paper was 808,000 copies, making it the ninth best-selling European newspaper.

21st century
De Telegraaf was the eighth top European newspaper with a circulation of 807,000 copies in 2001. It added a Sunday edition on 21 March 2004. The Sunday edition was dropped on 27 December 2009. Circulation was 488,902 copies in 2013. De Telegraaf changed from broadsheet to tabloid in October 2014. In 2014, was , dropping to  in 2015. Distribution had been reduced to 393,537 in 2017.

On 26 June 2018, a delivery van intentionally rammed into the office building of De Telegraaf, catching fire afterwards which was probably started by the driver who made his getaway with another car. The building took considerable damage. Police believe the attack was done within organized crime circles; four days earlier the building of Panorama was also a target, possibly because both publications write about serious crime.

Editorial content
The newspaper contains many sensational and sports-related articles, and one or more pages supplied by the gossip-magazine Privé ("Private"). The financial news coverage is more serious in tone. The paper targets a broad audience, mostly in a conservative and populist style.

References

External links

1893 establishments in the Netherlands
Dutch-language newspapers
Mass media in Amsterdam
Daily newspapers published in the Netherlands
Newspapers established in 1893

De Telegraaf


Antennaria geyeri is a North American species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae known by the common name pinewoods pussytoes or mountain pussytoes. It is native to the western United States where it grows in woodland and scrub very often on the forest floor under pine trees. It is found in Washington, Oregon, northern California, and northwestern Nevada.

Antennaria geyeri is a small perennial herb growing up to about 14 centimeters tall. It produces several erect stems from a branching, woody base, and there is no basal rosette of leaves. The leaves along the stem are lance-shaped, a few centimeters long, and coated in long woolly hairs. The inflorescence bears up to 25 flower heads with coats of woolly white fibers and pink-tipped phyllaries. The species is dioecious, with male plants bearing staminate flowers in their heads and female plants bearing pistillate. The fruit is a hairy achene up to a centimeter long including its long, soft pappus.

The species is named for German botanist Karl Andreas Geyer (1809-1853), who initially discovered the species near Spokane.

References

External links
Jepson Manual Treatment
United States Department of Agriculture Plants Profile
Calphotos Photo gallery, University of California

geyeri
Flora of the Western United States
Plants described in 1849
Flora without expected TNC conservation status

Antennaria geyeri


The International Equestrian Sports Complex () is the largest horse racing hippodrome in Turkmenistan. The total area of the complex is 90 hectares. The complex was opened on 29 October 2011, at a cost of US$106,800,000. The hippodrome was constructed by the Turkish company Etkin.

The circuit allows both jumps and races to take place. It is located in Ashgabat on Kopetdag Avenue, situated near the National Museum of Wildlife of Turkmenistan. It has stables for 600 horses. Along with the race track and stables, there are also 57 two-storied cottages and two family houses for 114 owners, kindergarten for 160 children, 2 markets, a playground and sports fields, as well as a social-cultural center.

With the completion of the development of the equestrian village in April 2016, the International Equestrian Sports Complex has been renamed the International Akhalteke Equestrian Complex.

References

 International Equestrian Sports Complex

Sport in Turkmenistan
Sports venues completed in 2011

International Equestrian Sports Complex


Chester Arthur Brewer (January 14, 1907 – March 26, 1990) was an American right-handed pitcher in baseball's Negro leagues. Born in Leavenworth, Kansas, he played for the Kansas City Monarchs, and from 1957 to 1974 he scouted for the Pittsburgh Pirates.

Brewer toiled on the mounds of black baseball for twenty-four years with an assortment of teams throughout the world, including China, Japan, the Philippines, Hawaii, Canada, Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, Haiti, Santo Domingo, and in forty-four of the forty-eight continental United States.

While with the Kansas City Monarchs, Brewer was a part of legendary starting rotations including Satchel Paige and Bullet Rogan. Brewer had a lively fastball and a devastating overhand "drop ball," which was especially tough on left-handed hitters. He also threw an emery ball (learned from Emory Osborne and Ted "Double Duty" Radcliffe.) when such practice was legal.

Brewer's career covered a wide experiential range, including playing against major leaguers in exhibition games. In 1934 he pitched against an all-star team that included Jimmie Foxx and Heinie Manush, and later was manager of the Kansas City Royals, who played in the California Winter League against Bob Feller and other major leaguers.  In 1945, he managed the Kansas City Royals of the California Winter League, coaching among other players a young Jackie Robinson, already destined for the Brooklyn Dodgers' organization.

In 1952 Brewer was a player-manager for the Porterville Comets of the Southwest International League,
becoming one of the first black managers in Minor League Baseball history, as he joined Sam Bankhead, who a year earlier played and managed for the Farnham Pirates of the Provincial League. At 45, Brewer posted a 6–5 record in 24 pitching appearances (seven starts), posting a 3.38 ERA for the fourth-best in the league.
1985-1990 Chet Brewer and his staff also coached Los Angeles Inner City athletes on weekends, players such as: George Hendrick, Ellis Valentine, Reggie Smith, infielder turned CBS Sports Broadcaster Rich Perez and Don Newcombe's son participated as well.

Hall of Fame hopeful, Chet Brewer died at age 83 in Whittier, California.

Notes and references

External links
 and Seamheads
Baseball Hall of Fame candidate biography

 Chet Brewer at SABR (Baseball BioProject)

1907 births
1990 deaths
African-American baseball managers
Alijadores de Tampico players
American expatriate baseball players in Mexico
Baseball players from Kansas
Brooklyn Royal Giants players
Chicago American Giants players
Cleveland Buckeyes players
Kansas City Monarchs players
Louisville Buckeyes players
Minor league baseball managers
New York Cubans players
Sportspeople from Leavenworth, Kansas
Philadelphia Stars players
Pittsburgh Crawfords players
Porterville Comets players
Visalia Cubs players
Washington Pilots players
American expatriate baseball players in Panama
Carman Cardinals players
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
20th-century African-American sportspeople
Diablos Rojos del México players

Chet Brewer


The German Army (, ; ) was the land forces component of the Wehrmacht, the regular armed forces of Nazi Germany, from 1935 until it effectively ceased to exist in 1945 and then was formally dissolved in August 1946. During World War II, a total of about 13.6 million soldiers served in the German Army. Army personnel were made up of volunteers and conscripts.

Only 17 months after Adolf Hitler announced the German rearmament programme in 1935, the army reached its projected goal of 36 divisions. During the autumn of 1937, two more corps were formed. In 1938 four additional corps were formed with the inclusion of the five divisions of the Austrian Army after the Anschluss in March. During the period of its expansion under Hitler, the German Army continued to develop concepts pioneered during World War I, combining ground and air assets into combined arms forces. Coupled with operational and tactical methods such as encirclements and "battle of annihilation", the German military managed quick victories in the two initial years of World War II, a new style of warfare described as Blitzkrieg (lightning war) for its speed and destructive power.

Structure

The  (OKH) was Nazi Germany's Army High Command from 1936 to 1945. In theory, the  (OKW) served as the military general staff for the Reich's armed forces, co-ordinating the Wehrmacht's (Heer, Kriegsmarine, Luftwaffe, and the Waffen-SS) operations. In practice, the OKW acted in a subordinate role to Hitler's personal military staff, translating his ideas into military plans and orders, and issuing them to the three services. However, as World War II went on, the OKW found itself exercising an increasing amount of direct command authority over military units, particularly in the west. This meant that by 1942, the authority of the Army High Command (OKH) was limited to the Eastern Front.

The Abwehr was the army intelligence organisation from 1921 to 1944. The term Abwehr (German for "defence", here referring to counterintelligence) had been created just after World War I as an ostensible concession to Allied demands that Germany's intelligence activities be for defensive purposes only. After 4 February 1938, the name Abwehr was changed to the Overseas Department/Office in Defence of the Armed Forces High Command ().

Germany used a system of military districts (German: Wehrkreis) in order to relieve field commanders of as much administrative work as possible and to provide a regular flow of trained recruits and supplies to the field forces. The method the OKW adopted was to separate the Field Army (OKH) from the Home Command (Heimatkriegsgebiet) and to entrust the responsibilities of training, conscription, supply, and equipment to Home Command.

Organisation of field forces

The German Army was mainly structured in army groups (Heeresgruppen) consisting of several armies that were relocated, restructured, or renamed in the course of the war. Forces of allied states, as well as units made up of non-Germans, were also assigned to German units.

For Operation Barbarossa in 1941, the army forces were assigned to three strategic campaign groupings:
 Army Group North with Leningrad as its campaign objective
 Army Group Centre with Smolensk as its campaign objective
 Army Group South with Kiev as its campaign objective

Below the army group level forces included field armies – panzer groups, which later became army level formations themselves, corps, and divisions. The army used the German term Kampfgruppe, which equates to battle group in English. These provisional combat groupings ranged from corps size, such as Army Detachment Kempf, to commands composed of companies or even platoons. They were named for their commanding officers.

Select arms of service

 Afrika Korps (Africa Corps)
 Brandenburgers (Special Forces)
 Feldgendarmerie (Field Military Police)
 Feldjägerkorps (Field Police Corps)
 Gebirgsjäger (Mountain Troops)
 Geheime Feldpolizei (Secret Field Police)
 Osttruppen (Eastern Troops)
 Panzergrenadier (Mechanized Infantry)
 Panzerjäger (Anti-Tank Troops)
 Panzerwaffe (Armoured Forces)

Doctrine and tactics
The German operational doctrine emphasized sweeping pincer and lateral movements meant to destroy the enemy forces as quickly as possible. This approach, referred to as Blitzkrieg, was an operational doctrine instrumental in the success of the offensives in Poland and France. Blitzkrieg has been considered by many historians as having its roots in precepts developed by Fuller, Liddel-Hart, and Hans von Seeckt, and even having ancient prototypes practised by Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, and Napoleon. Recent studies of the Battle of France also suggest that the actions of either Erwin Rommel or Heinz Guderian or both of them (both had contributed to the theoretical development and early practices of what later became Blitzkrieg prior to World War II), ignoring orders of superiors who had never foreseen such spectacular successes and thus prepared much more prudent plans, were conflated into a purposeful doctrine and created the first archetype of Blitzkrieg, which then gained a fearsome reputation that dominated the Allied leaders' minds. Thus 'Blitzkrieg''' was recognised after the fact, and while it became adopted by the Wehrmacht, it never became the official doctrine nor got used to its full potential because only a small part of the Wehrmacht was trained for it and key leaders at the highest levels either focused on only certain aspects or even did not understand it.

Max Visser argues that the German Army focused on achieving high combat performance rather than high organisational efficiency (like the US Army). It emphasised adaptability, flexibility, and decentralised decision making. Officers and NCOs were selected based on character and trained towards decisive combat leadership. Good combat performance was rewarded. Visser argues this allowed the German Army to achieve superior combat performance compared to a more traditional organisational doctrine like the American one; while this would be ultimately offset by the Allies' superior numerical and materiel advantage, Visser argues that this allowed the German Army to resist far longer than if it had not adopted this method of organisation and doctrine. Peter Turchin reports a study by US colonel Trevor Dupuy found that German combat efficiency was higher than both the British and US armies – if a combat efficiency of 1 was assigned to the British, then the Americans had a combat efficiency of 1.1 and the Germans of 1.45. This would mean British forces would need to commit 45% more troops (or arm existing troops more heavily to the same proportion) to have an even chance of winning the battle, while the Americans would need to commit 30% more to have an even chance.

Tactics

The military strength of the German Army was managed through mission-based tactics (Auftragstaktik) (rather than detailed order-based tactics), and an almost proverbial discipline. Once an operation began, whether offensive or defensive, speed in response to changing circumstances was considered more important than careful planning and co-ordination of new plans.

In public opinion, the German military was and is sometimes seen as a high-tech army, since new technologies that were introduced before and during World War II influenced its development of tactical doctrine. These technologies were featured by Nazi propaganda, but were often only available in small numbers or late in the war, as overall supplies of raw materials and armaments became low. For example, lacking sufficient motor vehicles to equip more than a small portion of their army, the Germans chose to concentrate the available vehicles in a small number of divisions which were to be fully motorised. The other divisions continued to rely on horses for towing artillery, other heavy equipment and supply-wagons, and the men marched on foot or rode bicycles. At the height of motorisation only 20 per cent of all units were fully motorised. The small German contingent fighting in North Africa was fully motorised (relying on horses in the desert was near to impossible because of the need to carry large quantities of water and fodder), but the much larger force invading the Soviet Union in June 1941 numbered only some 150,000 trucks and some 625,000 horses (water was abundant and for many months of the year horses could forage – thus reducing the burden on the supply chain). However, the production of new motor vehicles by Germany, even with the exploitation of the industries of occupied countries, could not keep up with the heavy loss of motor vehicles during the winter of 1941–1942. From June 1941 to the end of February 1942 German forces in the Soviet Union lost some 75,000 trucks to mechanical wear and tear and combat damage – approximately half the number they had at the beginning of the campaign. Most of these were lost during the retreat in the face of the Soviet counteroffensive from December 1941 to February 1942. Another substantial loss was incurred during the defeat of the German 6th Army at Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943. These losses in men and materiel led to motorised troops making up no more than 10% of total Heer forces at some points of the war.

In offensive operations the infantry formations were used to attack more or less simultaneously across a large portion of the front so as to pin the enemy forces ahead of them and draw attention to themselves, while the mobile formations were concentrated to attack only narrow sectors of the front, breaking through to the enemy rear and surrounding him. Some infantry formations followed in the path of the mobile formations, mopping-up, widening the corridor manufactured by the breakthrough attack and solidifying the ring surrounding the enemy formations left behind, and then gradually destroying them in concentric attacks. One of the most significant problems bedeviling German offensives and initially alarming senior commanders was the gap created between the fast moving "fast formations" and the following infantry, as the infantry were considered a prerequisite for protecting the "fast formations" flanks and rear and enabling supply columns carrying fuel, petrol, and ammunition to reach them.

In defensive operations the infantry formations were deployed across the front to hold the main defense line and the mobile formations were concentrated in a small number of locations from where they launched focused counterattacks against enemy forces who had broken through the infantry defense belt. In autumn 1942, at El Alamein, a lack of fuel compelled the German commander, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, to scatter his armoured units across the front in battalion-sized concentrations to reduce travel distances to each sector rather than hold them concentrated in one location. In 1944 Rommel argued that in the face of overwhelming Allied air power, the tactic of employing the concentrated "fast formations" was no longer possible because they could no longer move quickly enough to reach the threatened locations because of the expected interdiction of all routes by Allied fighter-bombers. He therefore suggested scattering these units across the front just behind the infantry. His commanders and peers, who were less experienced in the effect of Allied air power, disagreed vehemently with his suggestion, arguing that this would violate the prime principle of concentration of force.

Campaigns

The infantry remained foot soldiers throughout the war; artillery also remained primarily horse-drawn. The motorided formations received much attention in the world press in the opening years of the war, and were cited as the main reason for the success of the German invasions of Poland (September 1939), Denmark and Norway (1940), Belgium, France, and the Netherlands (May 1940), Yugoslavia (April 1941), and the initial stages of Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union (June 1941). However, their motorised and tank formations accounted for only 20% of the Heer's capacity at their peak strength. The army's lack of trucks (and of petroleum to run them) severely limited infantry movement, especially during and after the Normandy invasion when Allied air-power devastated the French rail network north of the Loire. Panzer movements also depended on the rail, since driving a tank long distances wore out its tracks.

Personnel

Equipment

Contrary to popular belief, the German Army in World War II was not a mechanised juggernaut as a whole. In 1941, between 60 and 70 percent of their forces were not motorised, relying on railroad for rapid movement and on horse-drawn transport cross country. The percentage of motorisation decreased thereafter. In 1944 approximately 85 percent of the Army was not motorised. The standard uniform used by the German Army consisted of a Feldgrau (field grey) tunic and trousers, worn with a Stahlhelm.

War crimes

Nazi propaganda had told German soldiers to wipe out what were variously called Jewish Bolshevik subhumans, the Mongol hordes, the Asiatic flood, and the red beast. While the principal perpetrators of the killings of civilians behind the front lines amongst German armed forces were the Nazi German "political" armies (the SS-Totenkopfverbände, the Waffen-SS, and the Einsatzgruppen), the army committed and ordered war crimes of its own (e.g. the Commissar Order), particularly during the invasion of Poland and later in the war against the Soviet Union.

Propaganda

The German Army was extensively promoted by Nazi propaganda.

See also
 Army Personnel Office (Wehrmacht)
 Bribery of senior Wehrmacht officers
 General der Nachrichtenaufklärung Glossary of German military terms
 Military production during World War II
 Ranks and insignia of the German Army (1935–1945)
 Waffenamt''
 War crimes of the Wehrmacht

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

 The Nazi German Army 1935-1945 (Heer)
 "The Role of the German Army during the Holocaust: A Brief Summary.": —lecture by Geoffrey P. Megargee, via the official channel of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

1935 establishments in Germany
1945 disestablishments in Germany
Disbanded armies

Military history of Germany during World War II
Military units and formations established in 1935
Military units and formations disestablished in 1945

German Army (1935–1945)


John Holland Thow (October 6, 1949 – March 4, 2007) was an American music composer. Thow produced an extensive and diverse body of work comprising solo, chamber, vocal, choral, operatic and orchestral repertoire.

Born in Los Angeles in 1949, Thow grew up in Ventura, California.  As a child he studied flute and piano, and later studied composition with Adolph Weiss, a pupil of Schoenberg's, and conductor Frank Salazar. At University of Southern California he pursued his Bachelor of Music, studying composition with Ingolf Dahl.  He continued his studies at Harvard with Earl Kim and Leon Kirchner, where he received his Ph.D. in composition in 1977.

Thow received a Fulbright Fellowship, which allowed him to travel to Rome for the first time in 1973 to study composition with Luciano Berio, who would become an important mentor and influence. Thow later returned to Italy as a recipient of the prestigious Rome Prize. During that time he also studied with Luigi Dallapiccola and Franco Donatoni.

After teaching at Boston University, Thow joined the University of California, Berkeley faculty in 1981, specializing in composition, orchestration, counterpoint, theory, in addition to teaching courses on American and European music of the 20th century. Some of his composition students include Keeril Makan, Dwight Banks, Richard Dudas, Yiorgos Vassilandonakis, Hubert Ho, and Dmitri Tymoczko.

A master of orchestration with a passion for literature and indigenous musical traditions, Thow produced a series of works featuring unusual instrumental combinations and vivid texts.  His Chumash Songs for clarinet, violin, percussion and piano (2000), commissioned by the Ventura Chamber Music Festival, incorporated melodic and rhythmic elements of the Southern California Chumash Indian tribe. Musica d'amore is a trio for oboe d'amore, viola d'amore and harp; Summer Solstice (2005) sets contemporary Greek poetry. Three Echoes (2001) was written for the five-hole Lakota Sioux flute; Three Pieces for Carillon was performed at the International Carillon Festival at UC Berkeley's Campanile, and Six Duets for baroque flutes (2006) was premiered in London.

Thow received commissions from the San Francisco Symphony, Berkeley Opera, San Francisco Contemporary Music Players, Boston Musica Viva, Alea III, Earplay, Ventura Chamber Music Festival and Detroit Chamber Winds, among others.  His compositions were performed at the Tanglewood and Edinburgh festivals, and by the L'Orchestra della RAI in Rome, Speculum Musicae and the Brooklyn Philharmonic.  His lyrical and richly colored music has been consistently championed by the finest contemporary performers.

Thow's relationship with the San Francisco Symphony began with a 1986 performance of his Resonance. The Symphony subsequently commissioned the three-movement Into the Twilight from Thow in 1988, and Bellini Sky, a concerto for English horn inspired by the paintings of the 15th-century artist Giovanni Bellini, in 2005.

His late work for soprano and orchestra titled Eros and Dust (2003), based on texts by Matthew Arnold, Edwin Arlington Robinson, W. H. Auden and Rumi, was influenced by the September 11, 2001 attacks on Manhattan.

Thow received grants from the American Academy of Arts and Letters, the National Endowment for the Arts and the American Music Center, a Guggenheim Fellowship and the Rome Prize.  He was artist-in-residence at the Yaddo, Djerassi, Temecula Arts, and Wurlitzer Foundations.

References

External links
Kozinn, Allan. "John Thow, 57, Composer, Dies", The New York Times (March 14, 2007)

American male classical composers
American classical composers
American opera composers
1949 births
2007 deaths
USC Thornton School of Music alumni
Harvard University alumni
Boston University faculty
University of California, Berkeley faculty
Musicians from Los Angeles
People from Ventura, California
20th-century American composers
Classical musicians from California
20th-century American male musicians

John Thow


Rolf Retschlag (born 3 November 1940) is a former East German football player. He played in the DDR-Oberliga with 1. FC Magdeburg and won the 1972 Oberliga championship as well as two cup titles with the club.

Career
Retschlag began to play football at the small local BSG Aufbau Börde Magdeburg.
His first competitive match for SC Aufbau Magdeburg came at age 20 on 17 September 1961 in the Oberliga match against SC Wismut Karl-Marx-Stadt—a nil-all draw on neutral ground in Schkopau. He was subbed in for Knut Wittenbecher 75 minutes into the game. Three years later Retschlag could celebrate his first title when Magdeburg beat SC Leipzig to win the 1964 FDGB-Pokal on 13 June 1964. When Magdeburg defended the trophy in the following season, Retschlag was missing from the line-up, but he played in four of the six matches in the European Cup Winners' Cup. Retschlag had to play in the second-tier DDR-Liga after his club had been relegated, and playing in 26 matches out of 30 he had a large part in Magdeburg winning immediate promotion. After a surprisingly good third place in the 1967-68 season, 1. FC Magdeburg won their third cup title in 1969. This time Retschlag was part of the squad who beat FC Karl-Marx-Stadt 4–0. In his final season at the club, Retschlag won his most prestigious title when Magdeburg won the championship for the first time in 1972. 31-year-old Retschlag had helped the club with three appearances. After the 1971-72 season, Retschlag left the Oberliga team and was seen off in a friendly on 10 June 1972.

Honors
 DDR-Oberliga: 1
 Winner DDR-Oberliga 1971–72
 FDGB-Pokal: 2
 Winner 1964, 1969

References

1940 births
Living people
German men's footballers
East German men's footballers
1. FC Magdeburg players
DDR-Oberliga players
Men's association football defenders

Rolf Retschlag


Georges (Jerzy) Nomarski (January 6, 1919 – 1997) was a Polish physicist and optics theoretician. Creator of differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy, the method is widely used to study live biological specimens and unstained tissues and in many languages bears his name.

Biography

Born in Nowy Targ, Nomarski was educated in Warsaw at the Warsaw University of Technology (known at that time as the Warsaw Polytechnic) and served in the Polish Resistance during World War II. Captured by German forces, he was a prisoner of war until March 1945. After the war when the Soviets supported communists installed their regime over Poland, Nomarski had to escape to Belgium as a political refugee. He studied there briefly before he moved to France for his permanent residence in 1947. He finished his education in France and received his diploma from l'Ecole Supérieure d'Optique Paris (Grande Ecole). In 1950, Nomarski established the Laboratoire de Microscopie Optique de L'Institut d'Optique and became a professor of microscopy and head of the department at his alma mater. He simultaneously conducted research at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), where the physicist rose to the Directorship of Research by 1965.

Honors
Fellow of the Optical Society of America (1972)
Honorary Fellow by the Royal Microscopical Society
Member of the Polish Society of Arts and Sciences Abroad
Abbe Medal recipient
SPIE Gold Medal (1995)

See also
Nomarski prism
Differential interference contrast microscopy

External links
Georges (Jerzy) Nomarski

1919 births
1997 deaths
20th-century Polish physicists
Fellows of the Royal Microscopical Society
Polish emigrants to France

Georges Nomarski


Burlington Memorial Auditorium is a 2,500-seat multi-purpose arena, in Burlington, Vermont, United States. It was built in 1927–28 to designs of local architect Frank Lyman Austin, and is operated by the Burlington Department of Parks and Recreation. As a convention center, it offers  of space. The main space contains a 27-by-80-foot proscenium stage.  The building also has two smaller event spaces. Since 2016, the building has been deemed structurally unsafe and has been closed to the public while the city determines how to renovate it and bring it up to modern building codes.

History

Initial Planning
The city of Burlington redeveloped a significant portion of its downtown district during the mayoral administration of Dr. Clarence Beecher of 1925–29. Its impetus was actually as a memorial to Burlington's native sons who had fought in all American wars up to that point, and in particular the First World War. As of 1925, the city had no commemorative markers to honor its natives who had participated in the recent European conflict. Hence, on 19 September 1925, the editor of the Burlington Free Press, John L. Southwick, issued the first in a series of calls for the construction of a new building that would not only honor their service, but also serve as a convention center, generate income for the city, and make Burlington a more popular travel destination hosting special events. The financial backing for constructing a new auditorium was provided by a $750,000 bond that the city had secured.

By January 1926, Beecher's administration had developed a plan for building a new city hall with an attached auditorium, on the site of Stannard Memorial Hall on Church Street. A large percentage of Burlington residents favored the construction of a completely separate auditorium building, however, and  by 3 February Beecher's office had developed a plan wherein $150,000 of the bond money could be used to build a standalone assembly space with a capacity of more than 3,000 people, to be designed by local architect Frank Austin, the author of numerous civic, institutional, and commercial buildings in Burlington, Middlebury, and surrounding communities. This proposal was approved through a referendum put to Burlington residents in early March. By April a site at the corner of Main and South Union Streets, the site of an old junior high school and an adjacent private house, had been purchased by the city for $14,000 and cleared for construction to begin.

Funding and Construction
However, it soon became apparent that the cost of the new auditorium would be significantly larger than the original $150,000 allotted by the bond. This issue caused Austin to revise his plans several times, eliminating certain details and shrinking the size of the building's footprint, but these cost-cutting measures would not bring the cost down to fit into the original budget. Construction did not start until  this issue was resolved, which continue to plague Beecher's administration throughout the remainder of 1926. Initially, estimates suggested another $30,000 from the original bond funds would need to be appropriated to cover the projected overruns, but by January 1926 the Burlington Free Press reported that these had increased to estimates of $50,000 or $60,000. Beecher's administration began to come under fire from the ex-mayor James E. Burke, who wrote an open letter to the editor in the Free Press on 20 January 1927 criticizing the cost of the new building. On 15 February Burke declared himself a candidate for mayor in the upcoming election, and eleven days later he issued a "Final Statement" in the newspaper, promising to air news of overdrafts taken by Beecher's administration to complete the arena and, on the other hand, to secure the additional necessary funds to complete the building.

On 2 March 1927, the Burlington Free Press publicly released Austin's plans for the auditorium, and during the next month and a half Beecher's administration determined that an extra $100,000 would be needed beyond the initial bond appropriation of $150,000 to complete the building as projected. On 15 April the issue for an extra bond was put to the voters of Burlington, who overwhelmingly approved the measure, supposedly with only one objection to the plan. A final estimate released four days later put the total cost of the building at $204,629 from the now $250,000 bond monies; the remainder would be retained by the city in case of further overruns and the bonds would be repaid at 4.5% interest within four years.

With funding secured, James E. Cashman was chosen as the building contractor, and work proceeded fairly swiftly. The roof was completed in December 1927 and the building ready for occupancy in early 1928. The building was inaugurated on 28 March 1928 with a dedication in front of a crowd of 3,000 people, attended by numerous Vermont dignitaries, which featured a speech by Governor John E. Weeks.

Subsequent Use
The auditorium predictably became a popular multipurpose space. In the first few months it hosted the Elks Charity Ball and the Burlington Firemen's Ball, concerts by the Burlington Symphony Orchestra and the 7th Field Artillery Military Band, a marionette show for children, and the Vermont Republican Party Caucus. On 18 May it hosted the University of Vermont Junior Prom.

Though equipped with a stage and proscenium, the building was also set up with a wood floor and basketball goals suitable for sporting events. The Northern District Basketball Tournament was held in 1938, while the Burlington Automobile Show was one of the earliest events held there in 1929. Dog shows and boxing matches took place in the basement. In June 1940 U.S. Presidential candidate Thomas E. Dewey spoke to a crowd reported as several thousand.

During the 1950s, the United States Immigration and Naturalization Service leased offices in the basement, presumably given Vermont's northern border with Canada not far away. Burlington's Welfare Department began distributing food to the needy from offices in the basement as well starting in March 1962.

During this time the arena also began to host big names in contemporary music. Bob Dylan performed at Memorial Auditorium; another performance by him in March 1967 was canceled and Simon & Garfunkel performed in his stead, returning for a second concert in October 1968. The latter performance was recorded and portions of it can be heard on Simon & Garfunkel's box set Old Friends, which, however, was not released until 1997. Before the latter show, the University of Vermont's Lane Series purchased a $5,000 concert shell to improve the acoustics. By the mid-1980s it had become a regular stop for most musical acts stopping in Burlington, including Chuck Berry, Alice Cooper and Motorhead, Ricky Scaggs, Twisted Sister and Little Feat.

For a time, Memorial Auditorium also served as one of the homes of the Vermont Frost Heaves, formerly of the PBL.

Historic Listing and Closure
In October 1988, Memorial Auditorium was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a contributing building to the Main Street – College Street Historic District, which had been designated as part of a larger effort to protect the city's distinctive mixed commercial and residential core in the face of the broader movement of urban renewal that swept much of the United States during the 1960s, '70s, and '80s. From the 1990s onwards, the city's commitment to maintenance and repairs to the building, which of course annually weathers the harsh Vermont winters, began to wane. By 2012, the needed repairs to the structure had mounted to an estimated US$4 million.

In July 2016, the structure was deemed structurally unsafe for use or occupancy by the city engineer, requiring the two groups leasing it (the 242 Main youth center and Burlington City Arts Project) to move out. The city is current considering several options for restoration and refurbishment and has set up a dedicated website for community involvement and input.

References

External links
 Official webpage
 YouTube video compilation of historical photos of events at Burlington Memorial Auditorium

American Basketball Association (2000–present) venues
Indoor arenas in Vermont
Sports venues in Vermont
1928 establishments in Vermont
Sports venues completed in 1928

Burlington Memorial Auditorium


Meuro is a village and a former municipality in Wittenberg district in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Since 1 July 2009, it is part of the town Bad Schmiedeberg.

Geography and transport
Meuro lies about 20 km southeast of Lutherstadt Wittenberg and about 5 km northwest of Bad Schmiedeberg on the northern edge of the Düben Heath, putting the community's more southerly areas in the Düben Heath Nature Park. West of the community runs the Federal Highway (Bundesstraße) B 2, which joins Berlin and Wittenberg, and to the north runs the B 187. The community is also crossed by a stream called the Flieth.

Subdivisions
Meuro consists of Ogkeln, Sackwitz, and Scholis.

Sightseeing

 Meuroer Fieldstone church
 Dübener Heide

External links
Dübener Heide Nature Park

Former municipalities in Saxony-Anhalt
Bad Schmiedeberg

Meuro


The Plot to Save Socrates is a time travel novel by Paul Levinson, first published in 2006. Starting in the near future, the novel also has scenes set in the ancient world and Victorian New York.

Summary

The Plot to Save Socrates deals primarily with the concept of time travel, and while the novel rarely discusses time travel directly, it poses several questions about its validity and possibility (or lack thereof). In particular, the characters are trapped in endless time loops, effectively deprived of free will and having no choice but to take an action which - due to time travel - they already know they have taken.

The story begins in Athens, Greece in 2042 with the main character, Sierra Waters, thinking to herself, at which point the rest of the story begins as a flashback (both in her head and in the sense that the characters constantly flash in and out of historic eras).

Sierra Waters, a graduate student, receives a copy of a previously unknown dialogue in which Socrates is being offered an escape from his death sentence in ancient Athens by a person named Andros offering to take him into the future and leave a clone behind.

The document appears to be genuine, and this takes Sierra onto a path that leads her to a time traveling adventure of her own. On her path she meets up with the great historic inventor Heron of Alexandria but soon realizes that not only is Heron a time traveler himself (from a future later than hers) but is a suspicious and ruthless character. Later on she would encounter the renowned Athenian general Alcibiades, help save his life at the time when history records his death in 404 BC, become his lover and fall deeply in love with him, and help set him on a very extensive and fruitful later long life which would remain unknown to historians.

Together with various fictional characters, the story also involves Plato, and of course Socrates - who only comes onstage in the last part - as well as the 19th Century publisher William Henry Appleton. There are scenes across time, placed in the Ancient Library of Alexandria,  Victorian New York City, and Roman London.

At various points it is mentioned that Sierra Waters would eventually become the famous mathematician Hypatia of Alexandria. This theme is taken up in a sequel, Unburning Alexandria, of which the first two chapters were published as a standalone novelette in the November 2008 issue of Analog Science Fiction and Fact. The full-length novel was published as a trade paperback and ebook in 2013, followed by the next novel in the series, Chronica, in December 2014.

Reception
Publishers Weekly found it "light (and) engaging", but warned that because of the constant use of time travel, "the plot threatens to fracture".

In Strange Horizons, Colin Harvey praised it as "delightfully old-fashioned", with a "cool, spare style" which he compared to that of Isaac Asimov; Harvey did, however, consider that the first half of the novel was "almost too bloodless", and overall noted its excessive infodumping, and characters who "accept the idea of time travel a little too readily" and show "too little fear". SF Signal lauded the intricate plotting (wishing for "a time-map of the leap-frogging made by the [characters], just to [see] its carefully crafted structure"), but observed that this came at the cost of characterization, emphasizing that Heron's motivation seems unclear and contradictory, and that Sierra's relationship with Alcibiades "somehow seemed unjustified".

Publication history

The Plot to Save Socrates was edited by David G. Hartwell and published by Tor Books. The first edition appeared in February 2006, and went into its third printing in August 2006. A trade paperback edition was released on February 20, 2007;  an ebook "author's cut" with an extended ending was released on December 11, 2012.

See also
Time travel in fiction
Fiction set in Ancient Greece

References

External links
 Paul Levinson's home page
  Review of The Plot to Save Socrates on "sfreviews.net"
 Review of The Plot to Save Socrates on "Curled Up with a Good Book"
 "Publication News about Unburning Alexandria - the sequel to The Plot to Save Socrates - Sierra Waters' story continues" (February 23, 2008)

2006 American novels
Novels about time travel
2006 science fiction novels
American science fiction novels
Novels set in New York City
Novels set in ancient Greece
Novels set in Athens
Fiction set in 2042
Tor Books books
Cultural depictions of Socrates
Cultural depictions of Plato
Cultural depictions of Hypatia

The Plot to Save Socrates


Sara Schaefer (born July 10, 1978) is an American stand-up comedian, writer, and author.

Personal life
Schaefer was raised in Midlothian, Virginia, the daughter of Billie and William "Bill" Schaefer. Her mother started the charity Pennies for Heaven, Inc. She attended Maggie Walker Governor's School, and went to college at William & Mary. Schaefer lives in Los Angeles.

Career
Following college, in 2000, Schaefer moved to New Orleans and participated in the theater scene. In 2001 Schaefer moved to New York City and began writing, producing and performing comedy. During that time she also worked as a damages analyst at a New York City law firm. In 2006 and 2007, she hosted an on-line comedy/music show for AOL called The DL, for which she made around 350 videos or segments with a varied assortment of noted and upcoming artists, musicians and performers, from Hulk Hogan and Aretha Franklin to Jimmy Fallon and Jamie Kennedy. In 2007, she was a featured performer at the HBO Comedy Arts Festival in Aspen, Colorado. In 2008, she was an editor for VH1's Best Week Ever blog.  She has appeared on E!, VH-1, Fuse and Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. In 2009 New York Magazine named Schaefer one of the "Ten new comedians that funny people find funny."

She was the Head Blogger for Late Night with Jimmy Fallon from 2009 to 2011, for which she won the Emmy Award for Creative Achievement in Interactive Media (non-fiction) in both 2009 and 2010. In 2011 she wrote for the game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire and was named one of the Huffington Post's "53 Favorite Female Comedians".

Sara's accolades include USA Today's "100 People of the Year in Pop Culture," Backstage Magazine Comics to Watch 2011, New York Post "Best Jests 2010," ECNY Award Nominee: Best Female Stand Up 2010, Comedy Central's Comics to Watch Showcase 2010, and New York Magazine's "10 Comedians to Watch" 2010.

From early 2011 to 2014, Schaefer hosted a podcast with comedian Nikki Glaser called You Had To Be There.

Nikki & Sara Live, a weekly talk show television series hosted by Schaefer and Glaser, premiered on January 29, 2013, on MTV. MTV cancelled the show after two seasons.

In 2013, Schaefer made her stand-up comedy television debut on John Oliver's New York Stand-Up Show. She has gone on to write for numerous television shows including Problematic with Moshe Kasher, The Fake News with Ted Nelms starring Ed Helms, The Mark Twain Prize for American Humor, and The History of Swear Words. In 2017, she created, produced and hosted the digital series Woman Online for Seriously.TV. Schaeffer's stand up show Little White Box debuted to a sold-out run at the 2017 Edinburgh Fringe Festival. Her scripted web series Day Job was named one of 100 Best Web Series by TimeOut New York. Her Comedy Central Stand-Up Presents half hour special aired in November 2019.

Schaefer's memoir Grand was published by Simon & Schuster imprint Gallery Books in August 2020.

Filmography

Work

References

External links

1978 births
American women podcasters
American podcasters
American women comedians
College of William & Mary alumni
Late night television talk show hosts
Living people
Writers from New York City
Writers from Richmond, Virginia
Comedians from New York City
People from Midlothian, Virginia
21st-century American comedians
Maggie L. Walker Governor's School for Government and International Studies alumni
21st-century American women
Writers Guild of America Award winners

Sara Schaefer


Listă alfabetică a orașelor din statul Kansas, SUA.

A

 Abbyville
 Abilene
 Admire
 Agenda
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 Albert
 Alden
 Alexander
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 Alma
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 Alta Vista
 Alton
 Altoona
 Americus
 Andale
 Andover

 Anthony
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 Athol
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 Axtell

B

 Baldwin City
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C

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D

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E

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F

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G

 Galatia
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H

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I

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J

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K

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L

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M

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N

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 Neosho Rapids
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O

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P

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 Peru
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Q
 Quenemo
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R

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 Riley
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 Rozel
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S

 Sabetha
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T

 Tampa
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U
 Udall
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V

 Valley Center
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 Vining
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W

 WaKeeney
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 Waverly
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 Wichita
 Willard
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 Willis
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 Wilmore

 Wilsey
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 Winona
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 Woodston

X
nu există

Y

 Yates Center

Z

 Zenda
 Zurich

 Orașe
Așezări
Kansas
Kansas

Listă de orașe din statul Kansas