Firebreather is a comic book created by Phil Hester and Andy Kuhn and published by Image Comics. Set in the Image Universe, the series focuses on the life of a teenage half-dragon Duncan Rosenblatt. The story has been told in a mini-series (2003) and a one-shot (2004). An ongoing series started in May 2008, and a film based on the series aired on Cartoon Network on November 24, 2010. Following the publication of a crossover series, The Pact, Duncan was incorporated into Invincible as a supporting character.

Publication history
The character was originally part of a Young Avengers proposal that Hester put together for Marvel Comics, initially conceived to be the son of Fin Fang Foom, a concept later referenced in the Marvel Comics series The Unbelievable Gwenpool.

It was reworked into a miniseries at Image Comics in 2003. A one-shot followup, The Iron Saint was published in 2004. The character returned in an ongoing series in 2008. Only two issues of the ongoing series were published, leaving the story unfinished.

Plot

Early life
Duncan Rosenblatt is the son of the human Margaret Rosenblatt and the 100 ft. dragon Belloc who rules over the monsters. This makes Duncan a hybrid of both species.

Firebreather Volume 1: (Firebreather #1–4)
Duncan begins his first day at yet another new school, trying to fit in despite his unusual physical appearance. However, there are great many obstacles to this goal, particularly his new principal and a bully named Troy. He does make a few friends amongst other outcasts. At his father Belloc's place, Duncan goes through rough training for the weekend. Belloc is training him not only to be powerful, but he wants Duncan to learn things the hard way. Duncan goes back to school where he has a principal that doesn't want him there and a jerk that won't get off his case. So for a little payback, Troy tries to set Duncan up by hiding a gun. It works, but the reaction is far more than what Troy wanted. This leads to Duncan seriously thinking about his control over his emotions and if he truly belongs in the world with humans.

When he returns home, it is demolished and Margaret is missing. He tracks down his mother and her kidnapper, a monster from Monster Island. He and the monster have a brutal fight which ends (at least as far as Duncan is concerned) with Duncan blasting the monster with flame, leaving the monster badly burned but alive. This changes when Belloc arrives on the scene and impales the monster with his tail. Duncan figures out that Belloc arranged the kidnapping to test him and threatens to kill him if he ever endangers his mother again. After Duncan flies away, Belloc smiles to himself, saying, "That's my boy".

Firebreather: The Iron Saint
Duncan's class is taken abroad by "Mr. M" the Spanish teacher, who shows them the sights of London, before making their way to Spain. While in London, the group hears the story of "The Iron Saint", a long forgotten being that was created to fight, and survive, the King of the Monsters. The suit of armor has been passed down for generations and generations, and now it's just a museum piece. Duncan learns of its history, and its connection to him, and can't help but be curious. When he and his friend investigate, they find that the suit has been brought back to life and it's out to get Duncan. The wearer of the armor turns out to be Mr. M, who is revealed to be not only an S.O.S. escort but a survivor of an attack on a Cuban village. He attempts to use the armor to kill Duncan as revenge. However, Duncan is saved due to his half-human heritage, since the armor cannot draw human blood or else it will be destroyed, and kill humanity, and all life on Earth.

The Pact
In the first issue, Shadowhawk, Invincible, Firebreather, and Zephyr Noble, come together to fight Belloc who was going to see his son on Father's Day.

In other media
An animated CGI film adaptation based on the comics aired November 24, 2010, on Cartoon Network. The film starred the voices of Jesse Head as Duncan Rosenblatt, Dana Delany as Margaret Rosenblatt, Kevin Michael Richardson as King Belloc, Josh Keaton as Troy, Gary Anthony Williams as Principal Dave, Reed Diamond as "Blitz" Barnes, and Amy Davidson as Jenna Shwartzendruber.

Collections
 Firebreather, Vol 1 (collects v1, #1–4 and "Iron Saint" one-shot)
 Firebreather, V2: All the Best Heroes Are Orphans (collects v2, #1–4)
 Firebreather, V3: Holmgang (collects "Holmgang" 1–4) (unpublished)

References

External links

 Firebreather at Comic Vine
 Review of Firebreather #1, Comics Bulletin

2003 comics debuts
Image Comics characters with superhuman strength
Image Comics titles
Image Comics superheroes
Works about dragons
American comics adapted into films

Firebreather (comics)


Accra amanica is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in Tanzania.

The wingspan is about 15 mm. The ground colour of the forewings is greyish green and the costa and termen are ochreous, as well as an edge and row of blackish dots along the apex. The markings are red. The hindwings are brown, but paler basally.

References

Moths described in 2005
Tortricini
Moths of Africa

Accra amanica


Walter Lippmann  (September 23, 1889 – December 14, 1974) was an American writer, reporter, and political commentator. With a career spanning 60 years, he is famous for being among the first to introduce the concept of the Cold War, coining the term "stereotype" in the modern psychological meaning, as well as critiquing media and democracy in his newspaper column and several books, most notably his 1922 Public Opinion.

Lippmann also played a notable role as research director of Woodrow Wilson's post-World War I board of inquiry. His views on the role of journalism in a democracy were contrasted with the contemporaneous writings of John Dewey in what has been retrospectively named the Lippmann-Dewey debate. Lippmann won two Pulitzer Prizes, one for his syndicated newspaper column "Today and Tomorrow" and one for his 1961 interview of Nikita Khrushchev.

He has also been highly praised with titles ranging from "most influential" journalist of the 20th century to "Father of Modern Journalism". Michael Schudson writes that James W. Carey considered Walter Lippmann's book Public Opinion as "the founding book of modern journalism" and also "the founding book in American media studies".

Early life and education
Lippmann was born on New York's Upper East Side as the only child of Jewish parents of German origin. According to his biographer Ronald Steel, he grew up in a "gilded Jewish ghetto". His father Jacob Lippmann was a rentier who had become wealthy through his father's textile business and his father-in-law's real estate speculation. His mother, Daisy Baum, cultivated contacts in the highest circles, and the family regularly spent its summer holidays in Europe. The family had a Reform Jewish orientation; averse to "orientalism", they attended Temple Emanu-El. Walter had his Reform Jewish confirmation instead of the traditional Bar Mitzvah at the age of 14. Lippmann was emotionally distanced from both parents, but had closer ties to his maternal grandmother. The political orientation of the family was Republican.

From 1896 Lippmann attended the Sachs School for Boys, followed by the Sachs Collegiate Institute, an elite and strictly secular private school in the German Gymnasium tradition, attended primarily by children of German-Jewish families and run by the classical philologist Julius Sachs, a son-in-law of Marcus Goldmann from the Goldman-Sachs family. Classes included 11 hours of ancient Greek and 5 hours of Latin per week.

Shortly before his 17th birthday, he entered Harvard University where he wrote for The Harvard Crimson and studied under George Santayana, William James, and Graham Wallas, concentrating upon philosophy and languages (he spoke German and French). He took only one course in history and one in government. He was a member of the Phi Beta Kappa society, though important social clubs rejected Jews as members.

Lippmann became a member, alongside Sinclair Lewis, of the New York Socialist Party. In 1911, Lippmann served as secretary to George R. Lunn, the first Socialist mayor of Schenectady, New York, during Lunn's first term. Lippmann resigned his post after four months, finding Lunn's programs to be worthwhile in and of themselves, but inadequate as socialism.

Career

Lippmann was a journalist, a media critic and an amateur philosopher who tried to reconcile the tensions between liberty and democracy in a complex and modern world, as in his 1920 book Liberty and the News. In 1913, Lippmann, Herbert Croly, and Walter Weyl became the founding editors of The New Republic.

During World War 1, Lippmann was commissioned a captain in the Army on June 28, 1918, and was assigned to the intelligence section of the AEF headquarters in France. He was assigned to the staff of Edward M. House in October and attached to the American Commission to negotiate peace in December. He returned to the United States in February 1919 and was immediately discharged.

Through his connection to House, Lippmann became an adviser to Wilson and assisted in the drafting of Wilson's Fourteen Points speech. He sharply criticized George Creel, whom the President appointed to head wartime propaganda efforts at the Committee on Public Information. While he was prepared to curb his liberal instincts because of the war, saying he had "no doctrinaire belief in free speech," he nonetheless advised Wilson that censorship should "never be entrusted to anyone who is not himself tolerant, nor to anyone who is unacquainted with the long record of folly which is the history of suppression."

Lippmann examined the coverage of newspapers and saw many inaccuracies and other problems. He and Charles Merz, in a 1920 study entitled A Test of the News, stated that The New York Times''' coverage of the Bolshevik Revolution was biased and inaccurate. In addition to his newspaper column "Today and Tomorrow", he wrote several books.

Lippmann was the first to bring the phrase "cold war" to a common currency, in his 1947 book by the same name.

It was Lippmann who first identified the tendency of journalists to generalize about other people based on fixed ideas. He argued that people, including journalists, are more apt to believe "the pictures in their heads" than to come to judgment by critical thinking. Humans condense ideas into symbols, he wrote, and journalism, a force quickly becoming the mass media, is an ineffective method of educating the public. Even if journalists did better jobs of informing the public about important issues, Lippmann believed "the mass of the reading public is not interested in learning and assimilating the results of accurate investigation." Citizens, he wrote, were too self-centered to care about public policy except as pertaining to pressing local issues.

 Political thought
Lippmann saw nationalist separatism, imperialist competition, and failed states as key causes of war. He envisioned the eventual decline of the nation-state and its replacement with large inclusive and democratic political units.

As solution to the problem of failed states, he proposed the creation of regional authorities to provide political control, as well as education of public opinion to build support for these regional governments. He called for the creation of international organizations for each crisis region in the world: "there should be in existence permanent international commissions to deal with those spots of the earth where world crises originate."

He saw the creation of the United States in 1789 as a model for a proposed World State or supranational government, as it was possible to create a constitution to bring order to an otherwise anarchic area. Commerce and regular interactions between people from different nations would alleviate the adverse aspects of nationalism.

Later life
After the fall of the British colony Singapore in February 1942, Lippmann authored an influential Washington Post column that criticized empire and called on western nations to "identify their cause with the freedom and security of the peoples of the East" and purge themselves of "white man's imperialism".

Following the removal from office of Secretary of Commerce (and former Vice President of the United States) Henry A. Wallace in September 1946, Lippmann became the leading public advocate of the need to respect a Soviet sphere of influence in Europe, as opposed to the containment strategy being advocated at the time by George F. Kennan.

Lippmann was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1947 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1949.

Lippmann was an informal adviser to several presidents. On September 14, 1964, President Lyndon Johnson presented Lippmann with the Presidential Medal of Freedom. He later feuded with Johnson over his handling of the Vietnam War of which Lippmann had become highly critical.

He won a special Pulitzer Prize for journalism in 1958, as a nationally syndicated columnist, citing "the wisdom, perception and high sense of responsibility with which he has commented for many years on national and international affairs." Four years later he won the annual Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting citing "his 1961 interview with Soviet Premier Khrushchev, as illustrative of Lippmann's long and distinguished contribution to American journalism."

Lippmann retired from his syndicated column in 1967.

Lippmann died in New York City due to cardiac arrest in 1974.

Journalism

Though a journalist himself, Lippmann did not assume that news and truth are synonymous. For Lippmann, the "function of news is to signalize an event, the function of truth is to bring to light the hidden facts, to set them in relation with each other, and make a picture of reality on which men can act." A journalist's version of the truth is subjective and limited to how they construct their reality.  The news, therefore, is "imperfectly recorded" and too fragile to bear the charge as "an organ of direct democracy."

To Lippmann, democratic ideals had deteriorated: voters were largely ignorant about issues and policies and lacked the competence to participate in public life and cared little for participating in the political process. In Public Opinion (1922), Lippmann noted that modern realities threatened the stability that the government had achieved during the patronage era of the 19th century. He wrote that a "governing class" must rise to face the new challenges.

The basic problem of democracy, he wrote, was the accuracy of news and protection of sources. He argued that distorted information was inherent in the human mind. People make up their minds before they define the facts, while the ideal would be to gather and analyze the facts before reaching conclusions. By seeing first, he argued, it is possible to sanitize polluted information. Lippmann argued that interpretation as stereotypes (a word which he coined in that specific meaning) subjected us to partial truths. Lippmann called the notion of a public competent to direct public affairs a "false ideal." He compared the political savvy of an average man to a theater-goer walking into a play in the middle of the third act and leaving before the last curtain.

John Dewey in his book The Public and Its Problems, published in 1927, agreed about the irrationality of public opinion, but he rejected Lippmann's call for a technocratic elite. Dewey believed that in a democracy, the public is also part of the public discourse. The Lippmann-Dewey Debate started to be widely discussed by the late 1980s in American communication studies circles. Lippmann also figured prominently in the work Manufacturing Consent by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky who cited Lippmann's advocacy of "manufacture of consent" which referred "to the management of public opinion, which [Lippmann] felt was necessary for democracy to flourish, since he felt that public opinion was an irrational force."

Remarks about Franklin D. Roosevelt
In 1932, Lippmann infamously dismissed future President Franklin D. Roosevelt's qualifications and demeanor, writing: "Franklin D. Roosevelt is no crusader. He is no tribune of the people. He is no enemy of entrenched privilege. He is a pleasant man who, without any important qualifications for the office, would very much like to be President." Despite Roosevelt's later accomplishments, Lippmann stood by his words, saying: "That I will maintain to my dying day was true of the Franklin Roosevelt of 1932." He believed his judgment was an accurate summation of Roosevelt's 1932 campaign, saying it was "180 degrees opposite to the New Deal. The fact is that the New Deal was wholly improvised after Roosevelt was elected."

Influence on mass culture
Lippmann coined the phrase "Great Society" in 1921 (Essay: "The World Outside and the Pictures in Our Heads")

Lippmann was an early and influential commentator on mass culture, notable not for criticizing or rejecting mass culture entirely but discussing how it could be worked with by a government licensed "propaganda machine" to keep democracy functioning. In his first book on the subject, Public Opinion (1922), Lippmann said that mass man functioned as a "bewildered herd" who must be governed by "a specialized class whose interests reach beyond the locality." The elite class of intellectuals and experts were to be a machinery of knowledge to circumvent the primary defect of democracy, the impossible ideal of the "omnicompetent citizen".

Later, in The Phantom Public (1925), Lippmann recognized that the class of experts were also, in most respects, outsiders to any particular problem, and hence not capable of effective action. Philosopher John Dewey (1859–1952) agreed with Lippmann's assertions that the modern world was becoming too complex for every citizen to grasp all its aspects, but Dewey, unlike Lippmann, believed that the public (a composite of many "publics" within society) could form a "Great Community" that could become educated about issues, come to judgments and arrive at solutions to societal problems.

In 1943, George Seldes described Lippmann as one of the two most influential columnists in the United States.

From the 1930s to the 1950s, Lippmann became even more skeptical of the "guiding" class. In The Public Philosophy (1955), which took almost twenty years to complete, he presented a sophisticated argument that intellectual elites were undermining the framework of democracy. The book was very poorly received in liberal circles.

Legacy
The Walter Lippmann House at Harvard University, which houses the Nieman Foundation for Journalism, is named after him.

Almond–Lippmann consensus
Similarities between the views of Lippmann and Gabriel Almond produced what became known as the Almond–Lippmann consensus, which is based on three assumptions:

 Public opinion is volatile, shifting erratically in response to the most recent developments. Mass beliefs early in the 20th century were "too pacifist in peace and too bellicose in war, too neutralist or appeasing in negotiations or too intransigent"
 Public opinion is incoherent, lacking an organised or a consistent structure to such an extent that the views of US citizens could best be described as "nonattitudes"
 Public opinion is irrelevant to the policy-making process. Political leaders ignore public opinion because most Americans can neither "understand nor influence the very events upon which their lives and happiness are known to depend."Kris, Ernst, and Nathan Leites. 1947. "Trends in Twentieth Century Propaganda." In Psychoanalysis and the Social Sciences, ed. Geza Rheim, pp. 393–409. New York: International University Press.

Liberal/neoliberal debate

French philosopher Louis Rougier convened a meeting of primarily French and German liberal intellectuals in Paris in August 1938 to discuss the ideas put forward by Lippmann in his work The Good Society (1937). They named the meeting after Lippmann, calling it the Colloque Walter Lippmann. The meeting is often considered the precursor to the first meeting of the Mont Pèlerin Society, convened by Friedrich von Hayek in 1947. At both meetings discussions centered around what a new liberalism, or "neoliberalism", should look like.

 Private life
Lippmann was married twice, the first time from 1917 to 1937 to Faye Albertson (*23 March 1893 – 17 March 1975). Faye Albertson was the daughter of Ralph Albertson, a pastor of the Congregational Church. He was one of the pioneers of Christian socialism and the social gospel movement in the spirit of George Herron. During his studies at Harvard, Walter often visited the Albertsons' estate in West Newbury, Massachusetts, where they had founded a socialist cooperative, the (Cyrus Field) Willard Cooperative Colony.

Lippmann was divorced by Faye Albertson to be able to marry Helen Byrne Armstrong in 1938 (died 16 February 1974), daughter of James Byrne. She divorced her husband Hamilton Fish Armstrong, the editor of Foreign Affairs. He was the only close friend in Lippmann's life. The friendship and involvement in Foreign Affairs ended when a hotel in Europe accidentally forwarded Lippmann's love letters to Mr. Armstrong.

In popular culture
He was mentioned in the monologue before Phil Ochs' recording of "The Marines Have Landed on the Shores of Santo Domingo" on the 1966 album Phil Ochs in Concert.

 Bibliography

Articles
 "The Campaign Against Sweating". The New Republic, March 27, 1915.
 "What Program Shall the United States Stand for in International Relations?". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 66, July 1916, pp. 60–70.
 "The World Conflict in its Relation to American Democracy." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 72, July 1917, pp. 1–10.
 "The Basic Problem of Democracy: What Liberty Means," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 124, 1919, pp. 616.
 "Liberty and the News," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 124, 1919, pp. 779.
"Democracy, Foreign Policy and the Split Personality of the Modern Statesman." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 102, July 1922, pp. 190–193.
 "Today and Tomorrow." Washington Post, February 12, 1942. Full text available.
 "A Talk With Mr. K." November 10, 1958.
 "Nearing the Brink in Vietnam." Newsweek, April 12, 1965, pp. 25–46.

Book reviews
 Review of The Intimate Papers of Colonel House by Charles Seymour. Foreign Affairs, Vol. 4, No. 3, April 1926.

Essays
 "The Basic Problem of Democracy." November 1919, pp. 616–627 – this essay later became the first chapter Liberty and the News.
 "Concerning Senator Borah." Foreign Affairs, Vol. 4, No. 2, January 1926, pp. 211–222.
 "Vested Rights and Nationalism in Latin-America." Foreign Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 3, April 1927, pp. 353–363.
 "Second Thoughts on Havana." Foreign Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 4, July 1928, pp. 541–554.
 "Church and State in Mexico: The American Mediation." Foreign Affairs, Vol. 8, No. 2, January 1930. pp. 186–207.
 "The London Naval Conference: An American View." Foreign Affairs, Vol. 8, No. 4, July 1930, pp. 499–518.
 "Ten Years: Retrospect and Prospect." Foreign Affairs, Vol. 11, No. 1, October 1932, pp. 51–53.
 "Self-Sufficiency: Some Random Reflections." Foreign Affairs, Vol. 12, No. 2, January 1934, pp. 207–217.
 "Britain and America: The Prospects of Political Cooperation in the Light of Their Paramount Interests." Foreign Affairs, Vol. 13, No. 3, April 1936, pp. 363–372.
 "Rough-Hew Them How We Will." Foreign Affairs, Vol. 15, No. 4, July 1937, pp. 586–594.
 "The Cold War." Foreign Affairs, Vol. 65, No. 4, Spring 1987, pp. 869–884.

Reports
 "A Test of the News." The New Republic, Vol. 23, No. 296, August 1920. 42 pages.

Books
 A Preface to Politics. Mitchell Kennerley, 1913. . Audiobook available.
 Drift and Mastery. University of Wisconsin Press, 1914. . Full text available.
 The Stakes of Diplomacy. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1915.
 The Political Scene. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1919.
 Liberty and the News. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Howe, 1920.
 Public Opinion. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1922. . Audiobook available.
 The Phantom Public. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1925.
 Men of Destiny. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1927. . Excerpts available.
 American Inquisitors. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1928.
 A Preface to Morals. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1929.
 Interpretations, 1931-1932. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1932.
 The United States in World Affair, 1931. New York: Harper & Bros, 1932.
 The United States in World Affairs, 1932. New York: Harper & Bros, 1933.
 The Method of Freedom. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1934.
 Interpretations, 1933-1935. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1936.
 The Good Society. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1937.
 U.S. Foreign Policy: Shield of the Republic. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1943.
 U.S. War Aims. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1944.
 The Cold War. New York: Harper & Row, 1947.
 The Public Philosophy, with William O. Scroggs. New York: New American Library, 1955.
 The Coming Tests With Russia. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1961.

Pamphlets
 Notes on the Crisis (No. 5). New York: John Day, 1932. 28 pages.
 A New Social Order (No. 25). John Day, 1933. 28 pages.
 The New Imperative. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1935. 52 pages.

See also

 Harold Lasswell
 Edward Bernays
 Progressivism
 Liberal democracy

References

Further reading
Articles
 Baker, Matt. "Walter Lippmann: How to Cure Liberal Democracy, Then and Now" The American Interest, November 19, 2019.
 Clavé, Francis. "Comparative Study of Lippmann's and Hayek's Liberalisms (or Neo-liberalisms)." The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought, Vol. 22, Issue 6, 2015, pp. 978–999.
 Goodwin, Craufurd D. "The promise of expertise: Walter Lippmann and the policy sciences." Policy Sciences 28.4 (1995): 317-345. online
 Gorbach, Julien. "The Non-Jewish Jew: Walter Lippmann and the Pitfalls of Journalistic 'Detachment'." American Journalism 37.3 (2020): 321-345. online
 Jackson, Ben. "Freedom, the Common Good, and the Rule of Law: Lippmann and Hayek on Economic Planning." Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 72, 2012, pp. 47–68.
 Lacey, Robert J. "Walter Lippmann: Unlikely Conservative." in Lacey, Pragmatic Conservatism (Palgrave Macmillan, 2016) pp. 63–107.
 Logevall, Fredrik. "First Among Critics: Walter Lippmann and the Vietnam War." Journal of American-East Asian Relations (1995): 351-375 online.
 Porter, Patrick. "Beyond the American Century: Walter Lippmann and American Grand Strategy, 1943–1950." Diplomacy & Statecraft, Vol. 22, No. 4, 2011, pp. 557–577.
  Seyb, Ronald P. "What Walter Saw: Walter Lippmann, the New York World, and Scientific Advocacy as an Alternative to the News-Opinion Dichotomy." Journalism History, Vol. 41, No. 2, 2015, pp. 58+.
Van Rythoven, E. (2021). "Walter Lippmann, emotion, and the history of international theory." International Theory Whitfield, Stephen J. "Part IV: The Journalist as Intellectual. Walter Lippmann: A Career in Media's Rays." Journal of Popular Culture, Vol. 15, No. 1, 1981, pp. 68–77.

Books
 Adams, Larry Lee. Walter Lippmann. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1977. , short biography
 Blum, D. Steven. Walter Lippmann: Cosmopolitanism in the Century of Total War (1984), scholarly biography
 Edwards, Mark Thomas. Walter Lippmann: American Skeptic, American Pastor (Oxford University Press, 2023).
 Forcey, Charles. The Crossroads of Liberalism: Croly, Weyl, Lippmann, and the Progressive Era, 1900-1925. New York: Oxford University Press, 1961.
 Goodwin, Craufurd D. Walter Lippmann: Public Economist. Harvard University Press, 2014.
 Riccio, Barry D. Walter Lippmann: Odyssey of a Liberal. Transaction Publishers, 1994.
 Schapsmeier, Edward L. and Frederick H. Schapsmeier.  Walter Lippmann: philosopher-journalist (Washington: Public Affairs Press, 1969), scholarly biography
 Steel, Ronald. Walter Lippmann and the American Century. Little, Brown & Co., 1980. , a major scholarly biography
 Foreign Affairs online review.
 Wasniewski, Matthew A. "Walter Lippmann, Strategic Internationalism, the Cold War, and Vietnam, 1943-1967" (Ph.D. dissertation). University of Maryland, 2004.
 Wellborn, Charles. Twentieth Century Pilgrimage: Walter Lippmann and the Public Philosophy. LSU Press, 1969.

Primary sources
 Public Philosopher: Selected Letters of Walter Lippmann. New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1985.
 Rossiter, Clinton, and James Lare (eds.). The Essential Lippmann: A Political Philosophy for Liberal Democracy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963.

External links

 Articles by Walter Lippmann at The Atlantic Articles by Walter Lippmann at Foreign Affairs Books by Walter Lippmann at HathiTrust
 Works by Walter Lippmann at JSTOR

 Public Opinion (1922) from American Studies at the University of Virginia.
 * Walter Lippmann Papers (MS 326). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
 Walter Lippmann, "The Mental Age of Americans", New Republic 32, no. 412 (October 25, 1922): 213–15; no. 413 (November 1, 1922): 246–48; no. 414 (November 8, 1922): 275–77; no. 415 (November 15, 1922): 297–98; no. 416 (November 22, 1922): 328–30; no. 417 (November 29, 1922): 9–11.
 "Writings of Walter Lippmann" from C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History''
 The American Presidency Project – Remarks at the Presentation of the 1964 Presidential Medal of Freedom Awards – September 14, 1964
 Walter Lippmann, Patriotism and state sovereignty (1929)

 Robert O. Anthony Collection of Walter Lippmann (MS 766) – Yale University Library

1889 births
1974 deaths
American columnists
American foreign policy writers
American magazine editors
American magazine founders
American male journalists
American male non-fiction writers
American people of German-Jewish descent
American political writers
Harvard University alumni
Jewish American writers
Journalists from New York City
Member of the Mont Pelerin Society
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Peabody Award winners
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Progressive Era in the United States
Pulitzer Prize winners for journalism
Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting winners
The New Republic people

Walter Lippmann


Peter Benjamin Parker, also known by his alter ego Spider-Man, is a fictional superhero portrayed by Tobey Maguire that is based on the comic book character of the same name. He is the protagonist of Sam Raimi's Spider-Man film in 2002, its two sequels, video games, and an animated series designed to be set within that continuity (in which he is voiced by Neil Patrick Harris). This version of the character was followed by Andrew Garfield's portrayal in Marc Webb's The Amazing Spider-Man duology (2012–2014), with a further iteration being portrayed by Tom Holland set within the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) (2016–present). Maguire reprised his role as a supporting character in the MCU film Spider-Man: No Way Home (2021), appearing as an older version of himself alongside his two successors' versions of the character. To distinguish himself from the two other versions of himself, he is nicknamed "Peter-Two" by them, referred to by Marvel's official website as the Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man, and in the film's script as "Raimi-Verse Peter" and "Raimi-Verse Spider-Man" (in honor of Sam Raimi).

The narrative of Raimi's trilogy focuses on Peter Parker's growth from high school to college, and his troubled relationship with his childhood best friend Harry Osborn, as well as his relationship with Mary Jane Watson, Parker's childhood crush and girlfriend. The narrative follows his struggles with his dual life as a college student and young adult, often to the disappointment of his avuncular college teacher Dr. Curt Connors, as well as his job as a freelance photographer for the Daily Bugle, under the snarky and abrasive editor-in-chief J. Jonah Jameson, who despises Spider-Man and constantly prints defamatory articles about the vigilante. Parker's secret life leads to many encounters with various super-human criminals such as Green Goblin and Doctor Octopus who threaten the peace and lives of civilians in New York City.

Maguire was chosen by Raimi and was officially cast following his screen test, with acknowledging performances from his previous films. Maguire began his physical training for Spider-Man, and even sought to learn the typical movements of spiders in his spare time. Costume designer James Acheson began forming several concepts for Spider-Man's suit designs and claimed that the suit left Maguire feeling claustrophobic, preferring only to wear the suit if a scene did not require him to put on the mask. Maguire's portrayal of the character received largely positive responses from critics and fans alike, along with receiving praise from Garfield and Holland. A number of video game adaptations were attributed to the character from Raimi's movies, alongside an animated series that was designed to be set within the trilogy's continuity.

Creation and conception

Execution

David Koepp is the original screenwriter of the character outside of many attempted scripts to bring to life a Spider-Man film. Maguire was cast as Peter in July 2000, having been Raimi's primary choice for the role after he saw The Cider House Rules. The studio was initially hesitant to cast some actors, as Leonardo DiCaprio, Freddie Prinze Jr., Jude Law, Chris O'Donnell, Chris Klein, Wes Bentley and Heath Ledger, while Jake Gyllenhaal (who almost replaced Maguire from his injuries, and later cast as Mysterio in Spider-Man: Far From Home) was considered for the role in the second film, who did not seem to fit the ranks of "adrenaline-pumping, tail-kicking titans," but Maguire managed to impress studio executives with his audition. The actor was signed for a deal in the range of $3 to $4 million with higher salary options for two sequels. Maguire was trained by a physical trainer, a yoga instructor, a martial arts expert, and a climbing expert, taking several months to improve his physique.

Following the success of the first film, 2003 saw disparaging scenes between lead actor Tobey Maguire and the executives of distributor company Sony, as Maguire was close to being released from his contract following a dispute between the pair. Maguire had finished filming a now multi nominated Oscar production in the form of Seabiscuit, and had complained of the physical strain during his last two films. Sony executives believed that this was merely "part of Maguire's negotiating tactics", as a last attempt to bargain for a more lucrative paycheck; a statement quickly dismissed by Maguire's publicist.

Remaining a constant in all the rewrites was the "organic web shooter" idea from the Cameron "scriptment." Raimi felt he would stretch the audience's suspension of disbelief too far to have Peter invent mechanical web shooters.

Following the release of the third installment of the series, and its subsequent success at the box office, the now billion dollar franchise had been put into disarray, after director Sam Raimi had become unhappy with the script of his planned Spider-Man 4, leaving the movie to fall past its projected May 2011 release date. Further details were released after a statement made by Raimi explaining "the studio and Marvel have a unique opportunity to take the franchise in a new direction, and I know they will do a terrific job". Later reports confirmed that both Maguire and Raimi had left their respective roles. Sony proceeded with a reboot of the series titled The Amazing Spider-Man, starring Andrew Garfield as Peter Parker. The reboot was released in the United States on July 3, 2012.

In December 2017, Phil Lord and Christopher Miller said that an adult Peter Parker / Spider-Man would appear in the 2018 animated feature film Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse as a mentor to Miles Morales. In February 2019, Maguire was confirmed to have been considered to be cast to reprise his role from the Sam Raimi Spider-Man trilogy, but the idea was dropped so as not to confuse the audience with the concept of the "Spider-Verse", with Jake Johnson cast in his place in April 2018; despite this, references throughout the film and an archival recording of Cliff Robertson as Uncle Ben from Spider-Man 2 are used to indicate Johnson's portrayal of Parker to still be the same incarnation as Maguire's.

Following the release of The Amazing Spider-Man 2, after Garfield was allegedly let go of the role of Spider-Man according to documents released in the aftermath of the 2014 Sony Pictures hack, leaked information from the hack indicated Sony to have previously been in talks with Sam Raimi to have him direct Spider-Man vs. The Amazing Spider-Man, a multiversal crossover film featuring Garfield's Spider-Man encounter Tobey Maguire's Spider-Man (with Maguire reprising his role), as well as a new film trilogy starring Maguire (following Garfield's firing) as a middle-aged Spider-Man; and to also be in talks with Marvel Studios about integrating a rebooted version of Spider-Man into the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), beginning with Captain America: Civil War (2016), a deal was reached in early 2015 between the two studios to make the latter official, effectively cancelling The Amazing Spider-Man franchise.

Despite both reboots of the Spider-Man film series, Maguire reprises his role in Spider-Man: No Way Home (2021), a film set in the MCU, appearing alongside Garfield's iteration of the character as a supporting character to the new MCU iteration of Spider-Man played by Tom Holland. It was reported in 2020 that Maguire would reprise his role as his version of Peter Parker alongside the other cinematic iterations of the character in the third MCU Spider-Man film; however, these reports were never confirmed by Sony or Marvel Studios and publicly denied by both Holland and Garfield several times prior to the film's release.

Design

Although Spider-Mans suit wound up being faithful to the Spider-Man comics, many designs were made. One concept that costume designer James Acheson became fond of was the idea of having a red emblem over a black costume. Another, which would eventually lead to the final product, featured an enlarged logo on the chest and red stripes going down the sides of the legs. To create Spider-Man's costume, Maguire was fitted for the skintight suit, being covered with layers of substance to create the suit's shape. It was designed as a single piece, including the mask. A hard shell was worn underneath the mask to make the shape of the head look better and to keep the mask tight while keeping the wearer comfortable.  For scenes where he would take off his mask, an alternate suit where the mask was a separate piece was made. The webbing, which accented the costume, was cut by computer. The mask's eye-lenses were designed to have a mirror look. Dykstra said the biggest difficulty of creating Spider-Man was that as the character was masked, it immediately lost a lot of characterization. Without the context of eyes or mouth, a lot of body language had to be put in so that there would be emotional content. Raimi wanted to convey the essence of Spider-Man as being "the transition that occurs between him being a young man going through puberty and being a superhero." Dykstra said his crew of animators had never reached such a level of sophistication until giving subtle hints of making Spider-Man feel like a human being. When two studio executives were shown shots of the computer-generated character, they believed it was actually Maguire performing stunts.

Costume designer James Acheson made numerous subtle changes to Spider-Man's costume in Spider-Man 2, although keeping the design relatively the same. The colors were made richer and bolder. The spider emblem was given more elegant lines and enlarged, the eye-lenses were somewhat smaller, and the muscle suit underneath was made into pieces, to give a better sense of movement. The helmet Maguire wore under his mask was also improved, with better movement for the false jaw and magnetic eyepieces, which were easier to remove.

In Spider-Man 3, Peter has two variations of his suit: his traditional one and one colored in black that forms due to an alien symbiote bonding to him. The symbiote suit worn in the comics by Spider-Man was a plain black affair with a large white spider on the front and back. Initially, the design for the symbiote suit for the film was made of latex and looked more faithful to the one in the comics, but it was rejected by the producers. The final design was changed for the film to become a black version of Spider-Man's traditional costume, complete with webbing motif. It also had a slightly different spider symbol. As a consequence of this, the suit Topher Grace wore as Venom also bore the webbing motif; as producer Grant Curtis noted, "it's the Spider-Man suit, but twisted and mangled in its own right." Additionally, the motif gave a sense of life to the symbiote, giving it the appearance of gripping onto the character's body.

Themes and analysis

The first film characterizes Peter Parker as an intelligent, bookish, and level-headed yet lonely and isolated teenager, focusing on his personality as a shy and bashful outsider before he gains his powers and subsequent struggles of deciding between using his newfound abilities for personal gain or for the betterment of others. By overcoming these struggles, Peter uses his abilities to help people after his uncle Ben is killed by a robber during a robbery, for which Peter was indirectly responsible. Inspired by Ben's last words, Peter is motivated to use his super-human abilities for a more noble cause under the persona of a masked vigilante: "Spider-Man". However, even after taking up the persona of Spider-Man, Peter still retains his socially-inept, awkward and dorky, yet endearingly good-hearted nature, and develops a sarcastic and witty sense of humor in his Spider-Man guise. Peter deals with all his personal struggles, all while wrestling with his feelings for his childhood crush and close friend Mary Jane Watson and handling his close relationship with his best friend Harry Osborn.

In Spider-Man 2, director Sam Raimi felt that the film had to thematically explore Peter's internal conflict with his personal wants against his responsibility, the positives and negatives of his chosen path, and how he ultimately decides that he can be happy as a heroic figure. Raimi stated the story was partly influenced by Superman II, which also explored the titular hero giving up his responsibilities. The sequel's story is mainly taken from the comic book series The Amazing Spider-Man No. 50, "Spider-Man No More!" According to Raimi, Peter Parker's story is about "a life out of balance". Peter is caught between a life where he tries to help people and atone for his uncle's death with his Spider-Man alter-ego and another where he tries to balance his studies, occupation as a photographer and his relationship with his family and friends. Peter acknowledges that he cannot be with Mary Jane without endangering her, due to his Spider-Man alter-ego; fearing that if his enemies would ever find out about his true identity, they would target his loved ones. As a result, Peter distances himself from Mary Jane, but eventually rekindles his relationship with her after she finds out about his dual life, and struggles he has faced.

In Spider-Man 3, Raimi intended to further develop Peter's character with the planned film focusing on Peter learning that he is not a sinless vigilante and that there can also be humanity in those he considers criminals, especially as the Venom symbiote brings out the darker aspects of Peter's personality upon bonding with him. Raimi himself quoted: "The most important thing Peter right now has to learn is that this whole concept of him as the avenger or him as the hero, he wears this red and blue outfit, with each criminal he brings to justice he's trying to pay down this debt of guilt he feels about the death of Uncle Ben. He considers himself a hero and a sinless person versus these villains that he nabs. We felt it would be a great thing for him to learn a little less black and white view of life and that he's not above these people." Raimi based his ideas out of the original comic books.

Appearances

Spider-Man trilogy

Spider-Man (2002)

Peter is introduced as a 18-year-old shy, bespectacled outsider at Midtown High School in New York City with a longtime crush on his neighbor Mary Jane Watson. Prior to a school field trip to Columbia University, Peter meets up with his best friend Harry Osborn, who introduces him to his father Norman, the CEO of Oscorp whom Peter idolizes. As Peter, Harry, Mary Jane, and their classmates tour a genetics laboratory at the university, Mary Jane notes one of 15 genetically modified super-spiders in an exhibit missing. The spider in question drops onto Peter as he takes a picture of MJ for the school newspaper and bites him. Peter falls ill upon returning home and passes out in his room.

The next morning, Peter finds he is no longer near-sighted and that his body is now at peak physical condition. He also discovers he has developed spider-like superpowers, which allow him to avoid injury during a confrontation with rival and bully Flash Thompson, Mary Jane's ex-boyfriend, and Peter knocks Flash out with one punch, though he later apologizes to Mary Jane for the confrontation. After noticing Flash's new car, Peter considers impressing Mary Jane with his own car. Brushing off his Uncle Ben's advice that "with great power comes great responsibility", he enters an underground wrestling tournament to raise the money and wins his first match, but the promoter cheats him of his earnings. When a robber suddenly robs the promoter's office, Peter retaliates against the promoter by allowing the robber to escape. Moments later, he discovers Ben was carjacked and killed with a pistol. Enraged, Peter pursues and confronts the carjacker, only to realize it was the robber he let escape. After Peter disarms him, the carjacker attempts to flee but dies after falling out a window.

Upon graduating, Peter, finally taking Ben's words to heart out of guilt, begins using his abilities to fight crime, donning a costume and the persona of Spider-Man. This does not impress J. Jonah Jameson, publisher of the Daily Bugle newspaper, and he begins a smear campaign against the wall-crawler. Jameson hires Peter as a freelance photographer, as Peter is the only person providing clear images of Spider-Man. Peter moves into an apartment with Harry paid for by Norman upon starting college. He keeps his identity as Spider-Man secret from Harry, who likewise keeps his dating relationship with Mary Jane, who had broken up with Flash, a secret from Peter until she reveals it to him.

Peter is assigned by Jameson to take pictures at the World Unity Fair, which Mary Jane and Harry attend together with the Oscorp board of directors. Suddenly, the Green Goblin, who is actually Norman with a crazed second personality, attacks the fair and assassinates the board of directors, endangering Mary Jane and Harry. Peter changes into his Spider-Man suit, saving several civilians from the Goblin before rescuing Mary Jane after she falls from a balcony. The Goblin takes note of Spider-Man and proposes a truce to work together. When Spider-Man later refuses, the two fight in a burning building, leaving Spider-Man with a cut on his arm.

During Thanksgiving dinner with Peter, his Aunt May, MJ, and Harry, Norman notices the cut on Peter's arm and deduces his secret identity as Spider-Man. He later attacks and hospitalizes May in an attempt to "attack [Peter]'s heart". While visiting Peter and May at the hospital, Mary Jane admits to Peter she is infatuated with Spider-Man, who saved her once again from thugs in an alley, and she asks Peter if Spider-Man had ever asked about her. As Peter indirectly reveals his feelings for her, Harry walks in on the two as they are holding hands. Devastated, Harry confides in his father that Mary Jane loves Peter, inadvertently revealing Spider-Man's true weakness. The Goblin kidnaps MJ and holds her and a Roosevelt Island Tramway car full of children hostage along the Queensboro Bridge, forcing Spider-Man to choose whom to save before dropping them. Peter saves both with assistance from a tugboat as the Goblin is jeered by the civilians who side with Spider-Man.

The Goblin grabs Peter, throws him into an abandoned building, and brutally beats him. When Goblin boasts about how he will later kill Mary Jane, an enraged Peter overpowers Goblin. Norman reveals himself to Peter by taking off his helmet and begs for mercy, trying to reason that his Goblin personality made him commit crime, but covertly controls the jet glider to stab Peter. Warned by his spider-sense, Peter dodges the attack, and the glider fatally impales Norman instead. With his dying breath, Norman asks Peter not to reveal his identity as the Green Goblin to Harry. Peter returns Norman's body to the Osborn house and hides the Goblin's suit and equipment, but Harry arrives to find him standing over his father's body. Harry seizes a gun, intent on shooting Spider-Man, but he escapes.

At Norman's funeral, Harry swears vengeance toward Spider-Man, whom he deems responsible for his father's death, and asserts that Peter is all the family he has left. Mary Jane confesses to Peter she is in love with him. Peter, however, feels he must protect her from the unwanted attention of his enemies, so he hides his true feelings and tells Mary Jane that they can only be friends. As Peter leaves the funeral, he recalls Ben's words and accepts his responsibility as Spider-Man.

Spider-Man 2 (2004)

Two years later, Peter struggles to maintain his personal life while serving as Spider-Man, getting fired from a second job he takes as a pizza delivery boy while also struggling with his studies at Columbia University and finances. He is also growing distant from his two friends, Harry and Mary Jane, who have found success as the new CEO of Oscorp and a Broadway actress, respectively, and discovers Aunt May is facing foreclosure of her home after his surprise birthday party.

Harry introduces Peter to his idol Dr. Otto Octavius, whose research Oscorp is funding, prior to a demonstration of Octavius' work on fusion power. During the demonstration, Octavius dons a harness with four robotic arms and artificial intelligence. Despite a successful start, the demonstration becomes unstable. Octavius ignores Harry's demands to shut it off while Peter dons his suit to unplug it, but not before the resulting explosion kills Octavius' wife and assistant Rosalie and fuses the harness to his spine, also destroying the inhibitor chip that keeps Octavius in control of the arms.

As Peter and May go to a bank to argue against her foreclosure, Octavius, now increasingly influenced by the arms and dubbed "Doctor Octopus" or "Doc Ock" by Jameson, robs the bank in an attempt to finance a second attempt at his experiment. Peter dons his suit again and takes on Doc Ock as he holds May hostage. Spider-Man manages to rescue May despite letting Doc Ock flee with the money. After discovering that Mary Jane is getting engaged to Jameson's son John and getting into a fight with a drunken Harry during a party, Peter suffers an emotional breakdown over his inability to balance his life, losing his powers as a result. He decides to give up being Spider-Man after consulting with a doctor, throwing away his suit, which a garbage man discovers and delivers to Jameson.

Peter begins to succeed in his studies and turn his life around, beginning to mend his friendship with Mary Jane. He also reveals to Aunt May his role in inadvertently causing Uncle Ben's death, though May forgives him after initial shock. While Peter helps May move out of her home, she advises him about the hope Spider-Man gives to the people in spite of the sacrifices he must make. This encourages Peter to attempt a comeback as Spider-Man due to increased crime in New York, though his powers remain lost.

Octavius visits Harry and threatens him to give him the isotope tritium. Harry agrees in exchange for Spider-Man, and tells Octavius to seek Peter, who Harry believes is friends with Spider-Man, but tells Octavius not to harm him. As Mary Jane invites Peter to a café to discuss whether or not he loves her, Octavius locates Peter, tells him to find Spider-Man, and captures Mary Jane. Her endangerment leads to Peter's powers resurrecting. As Jameson admits that he was wrong about Spider-Man, Peter steals his suit back from the Bugle (which causes Jameson to immediately recant his statements) and goes after Octavius. As Peter battles Octavius, they fall onto a New York City Subway train. Octavius sabotages the controls and leaves Peter to save the passengers, which he does at a great physical toll. When he faints from exhaustion, the grateful passengers save him from falling and bring him into the train, seeing his unmasked face but promising to keep their knowledge hidden. They unsuccessfully try to protect him when Octavius returns to capture Peter, whom Octavius delivers to Harry.

After giving Octavius the tritium, Harry prepares to kill Spider-Man, only to be shocked to see Peter under the mask. Peter convinces Harry to direct him to Octavius' lair, as bigger things are at stake. As Peter arrives at the doctor's waterfront laboratory and attempts to rescue Mary Jane discreetly, Octavius discovers him, and they battle as the nuclear reaction swells and starts threatening the city. Peter ultimately subdues Octavius, reveals his identity, and persuades Octavius to let his dream go for the greater good. Octavius commands the tentacles to obey him, and gives his life to destroy the experiment. Mary Jane sees Peter's true identity and feelings, which he says is why they cannot be together. Peter returns Mary Jane to John and leaves. However, Mary Jane leaves John at the altar during their wedding and runs to Peter's apartment, declaring she is willing to accept any risks that come with being in a relationship with Peter. The two finally become a couple, and Mary Jane sees Peter off as he swings into action as Spider-Man to assist emergency services.

Spider-Man 3 (2007)

A year and a half later, Peter finally finds stability and success in both his personal life and exploits as Spider-Man. He and Mary Jane are happily dating, and after attending her performance in a new play, he spends time with her at Central Park. A meteor lands nearby and a goo-like alien symbiote oozes out and attaches itself to Peter's moped. After sending Mary Jane home, he talks to Aunt May, who gives him the engagement ring given to her by Uncle Ben, about proposing to MJ. On his way home, Peter is ambushed by Harry, who has utilized his father's equipment and Goblin serum and intends on avenging Norman's death, despite Peter mentioning the truth of Norman's demise. An aerial chase ensues, resulting in Harry getting knocked out cold when Peter sets a trap for him. Having suffered amnesia and forgotten his vendetta against Spider-Man, Harry wakes up in the emergency room, re-embracing Peter and Mary Jane as his best friends.

Mary Jane is upset by a negative review of her performance, and Peter unsuccessfully tries to relate to her using his experience as Spider-Man. She later neglects to inform him when she loses her role in the play. At work at the Daily Bugle, Peter finds that a rival freelance photographer, Eddie Brock, has also begun taking pictures of Spider-Man and Jameson pits the two photographers against each other for a staff job. He later finds out about a ceremony in which Spider-Man would be given the key to the city for rescuing Gwen Stacy, the daughter of NYPD commissioner George Stacy and also Peter's college lab partner. Peter, who dons his suit and persona for the ceremony, basks in the crowd's cheers and gives Gwen an upside-down kiss reminiscent of his first kiss with Mary Jane. This upsets Mary Jane, leading to an argument with Peter, who postpones his plans to propose to her.

Peter also encounters Flint Marko, also known as "Sandman". Upon discovering that Marko was the one who fatally shot Ben, not the carjacker as previously believed, Peter develops a vendetta against Marko and upon falling asleep while listening to police radio, the symbiote oozes out from Peter's closet and bonds with his suit, turning it black. Empowered by the new suit's abilities and with his anger amplified, Peter dons it while confronting Marko in the subway tunnels, leading to Marko's apparent demise when a deluge of water reduces him to mud. When Peter tells May about Marko's apparent death at Spider-Man's hands, she is not amused and warns him about the adverse effects of revenge.

Meanwhile, Harry regains his memory and vendetta after experiencing a flood of emotions triggered by spending time with Mary Jane. Experiencing another vision of his father, who entices him to attack Peter's heart, Harry blackmails Mary Jane into breaking up with Peter and claiming she had "fallen in love with someone else". Harry claims to Peter he is the "other guy", enraging Peter, who later confronts Harry at his penthouse wearing the black suit underneath. The former friends engage in a brutal fistfight and Peter emerges on top, bullying Harry by mocking his relationship with his father. Harry throws a pumpkin bomb at Peter in a last-ditch attack, but Peter effortlessly throws the bomb back at Harry's face and leaves.

Peter thwarts an attempt by Eddie to claim the job at the Bugle, leading to Brock's dismissal and subsequent falling out with Gwen, whom he was dating at the time. Peter then gains the staff job with his own picture of Spider-Man, and under influence from the symbiote, begins to act more arrogantly. He takes Gwen to a jazz club where Mary Jane had taken up work and interrupts her performance with his own dance routine. Gwen catches onto Peter's true intentions and leaves, and the resulting fight with the club's bouncers results in Peter inadvertently hitting Mary Jane when she intervenes. Coming to his senses after he sees a horrified MJ, Peter leaves and gets rid of the symbiote suit by utilizing church bells to stun the symbiote. The symbiote falls onto and bonds with Brock, who, unbeknownst to Peter, is at the church praying for God to kill him. This creates a new enemy, Venom, as Brock now knows Spider-Man's secret identity.

After May visits Peter encouraging him not to give up on Mary Jane, Venom and Sandman join forces against Spider-Man, kidnapping Mary Jane and dangling her from a skyscraper construction site to get Peter's attention. Peter pleads with Harry to help him, but a broken-spirited Harry, whose face was disfigured from the bomb, declines. Peter encounters Venom in his regular suit and tries to free Mary Jane but is ambushed by Sandman. As Peter is savagely beaten by Sandman, Harry, having discovered the truth of his father's death, arrives in his New Goblin persona to aid his old friend. Peter and Harry form a formidable tandem, defeating Sandman and rescuing Mary Jane, but face difficulty in subduing Venom, who attempts to impale Peter with Harry's glider, but Harry takes the blade for Peter. Remembering the symbiote's weakness to sound, Peter weakens Venom by creating sonic frequencies and pulls Eddie out from the symbiote, preparing to destroy it with a bomb, but Eddie jumps back to the symbiote and is killed with it when the bomb explodes.

Marko re-emerges behind Peter and explains that Ben's death was an accident rooted in a desperate attempt to save his terminally-ill daughter's life and that it has haunted him since. Peter forgives Marko and allows him to escape. He swings down to a mortally-wounded Harry, who is tended to by Mary Jane. Peter and Harry forgive each other and reaffirm their friendship before Harry dies from his injuries. Peter and Mary Jane attend Harry's funeral with several others and later begin to repair their relationship.

Marvel Cinematic Universe

Spider-Man: No Way Home (2021)

Many years later, Peter (dubbed "Peter-Two" during the events of the film) is accidentally transported to Earth-616 due to Doctor Strange's interrupted attempt to cast a spell and restore the secret identity of that universe's Peter Parker (dubbed "Peter-One") after it was exposed by Mysterio. Unbeknownst to Peter, his universe's Norman, Octavius, and Marko were also transported into this universe, among other villains. While there, Peter finds another version of himself transported from another universe (dubbed "Peter-Three"), who helps him console Peter-One after the death of his Aunt May at the hands of Norman's Goblin persona. Peter mentions that he lost Uncle Ben and regretted pursuing the man he thought killed him, warning Peter-One that killing Goblin will not help him cope with May's death, but Peter-One was averse to listening. Peter also mentions to Peter-Three that his relationship with Mary Jane became complicated after the death of his best friend Harry, but they eventually made it work after a long time.

Peter and the alternate Peters agree to save the villains by developing cures for them, then draw the villains towards the Statue of Liberty. During the skirmish, Peter fights Connors and Dillon, cures Marko, and happily reunites with an already-cured Octavius who steps in to help the three Peters. Peter witnesses an enraged Peter-One attempting to kill Goblin, and stops him from doing so. Goblin then stabs Peter in the back, though he survives, as the alternate Peters give Norman an anti-serum that Peter had developed for his old friend, curing the latter of his crazed Goblin persona for good. After all of the villains are defeated and cured, Peter says goodbye to his alternate selves, as he, Peter-Three, and their villains are returned to their home universes.

Comic appearances

Marvel tie-in comics
This version of Peter appears in the comics Spider-Man 3: Movie Prequel and Spider-Man 3: The Black, which the latter expands the birth of Venom after Peter rejects the symbiote.

Mainstream continuity
Although he does not physically appear, this version of Parker is referenced in the Marvel Comics event Spider-Verse which featured many interpretations of the character from many different media. Tobey Maguire's Spider-Man is mentioned as resembling "the guy from Seabiscuit", a film which Maguire also stars in.

In other media

Television

 After the success of Raimi's first film, a CGI animated series/spin-off was released in 2003, starring Neil Patrick Harris as the titular protagonist. This series served as a loose alternate sequel to the first Spider-Man film and was considerably darker, grittier, adult-oriented, and mature in tone and direction, compared to other Spider-Man adaptations. It received a generally positive reception from critics and audiences.
The animated series The Spectacular Spider-Man (2008–09) homaged various visual and storytelling elements from Raimi's films and their iteration of the character. The show's co-creator Greg Weisman, commented that the production team elected to use a more minimalist art style for the series' world and characters so that it would particularly benefit the likes of Spider-Man himself, who would then be able to animate fluidly while in motion and mimic many movements present in Raimi's incarnation of the character. He stated, "The movies raised the bar on the thrill of Spider-Man swinging through the city. So we wanted our cartoon to capture that, which meant we wanted the style to be very iconic, but it had to be clean enough that the animators could really make these characters move without the lines running all over the place." There are various references in the show to key moments with the film trilogy's version of Parker, such as a shot of Peter landing on the subway in an identical pose to when he initially confronted Doctor Octopus on the moving train in Spider-Man 2, in addition to stopping a stolen truck from colliding with an oncoming pedestrian by using his webbing to restrict movement, in a similar manner to how Raimi's Parker stopped the active subway in said film, as well as Sandman reconciling with Peter and vanishing in thin air, emulating Peter and Marko's final moments together in Spider-Man 3. The Daily Bugle also appears early in the series, with Parker seeking to work there in order to pay for the increase in Aunt May's debt to their residence; the building is modelled after the real-life Flatiron Building as it was previously depicted in the Sam Raimi films and the comics limited series Marvels.

Film

Prior to Sony's 2015 decision to collaborate with Marvel Studios and reboot the character of Spider-Man within the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Sony reportedly considered  the option of doing a crossover film between  Maguire's Spider-Man and the version of the character played by Andrew Garfield in The Amazing Spider-Man series with Sam Raimi reportedly asked to direct it. Sony also reportedly considered reviving the Raimi series outright following the critical and financial disappointment of the Webb/Garfield The Amazing Spider-Man 2 but this idea was ultimately not pursued by Sony.
Both versions of Peter Parker who appear in Sony Pictures Animation's 2018 CGI film Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse take inspiration from this incarnation of Spider-Man, continuing their storyline onwards from the events of Sam Raimi's Spider-Man trilogy. The older Peter Parker, voiced by Jake Johnson, is meant to evoke an older, more cynical version of Tobey Maguire's portrayal, outright referencing several iconic moments from these films as across his career and is generally down on his luck, while the younger Peter Parker from Miles Morales' dimension, voiced by Chris Pine, who undergoes identical escapades but is far more fortunate and successful in life, including a happy marriage with Mary Jane, while the older Peter also had this marriage, but reluctantly ended up divorced due to feeling unfit to be a father because of his risky calling, a concept originally conceived of for the unmade Spider-Man 4.
An unused scene involving a cameo consisting of Tobey Maguire, Andrew Garfield and Tom Holland, voicing their respective Spider-Men in the film was removed due to "being too convoluted".
 Maguire's "Webbed" suit from the video game Spider-Man (2018) appears in a deleted scene of Sony's Spider-Man Universe film Morbius (2022) as a graffiti, used as a reference to the ending of Spider-Man: Far From Home (2019).
 Maguire's Peter Parker appears through archive footage from Spider-Man in the Into the Spider-Verse sequel Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse (2023).

Video games

 The video game adaptations of Spider-Man, Spider-Man 2, and Spider-Man 3 all feature Tobey Maguire reprising his role as Parker in a vocal capacity. The trilogy of video games found their existence through a collaborative effort between (at the time) small-time video game publisher Activision and developer Treyarch. The first and second installments were met with favorable reviews by a large consumer base, earned upon each of their respective releases, with 2004's Spider-Man 2 garnering great success upon its arrival "with the PlayStation 2 version becoming the seventh-best-selling title of the year in the U.S.". The third installment of the video game trilogy did not live to the expectations of its predecessors, much like its film counterpart, as the game was met with lackluster reviews, leaving much to be desired about the title, although the Nintendo DS version received more positive reviews.
 The Spider symbol from Spider-Man 2 is used on Spider-Man's chest in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance and Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2.
 This version of Peter Parker appears in Spider-Man: Friend or Foe, voiced by James Arnold Taylor. In an alternate timeline where all of his villains survived their original deaths, Spider-Man is recruited by S.H.I.E.L.D. director Nick Fury to travel to different locations around the world to recover shards from the meteor the Venom symbiote arrived in, before they fall into the wrong hands. Along the way, he faces old and new enemies who have been placed under mind-control, and subsequently teams up with them, as well as with other heroes.
 Parker's suit from the trilogy is available as a bonus suit as part of the Rhino Challenge Pack DLC in The Amazing Spider-Man film game. The black suit from Spider-Man 3 is also available in-game and is unlocked if certain requirements are met, or can be immediately unlocked by taking photos of hidden spider graffiti in the city.
 The mobile version of the game features both the Human Spider suit and the black suit from Spider-Man 3 as purchaseable items in the in-game shop.
 Peter Parker's traditional suit from the trilogy, dubbed the "Webbed Suit" in-game, was made available in a post-launch update for Marvel's Spider-Man (2018), developed by Insomniac Games for PlayStation 4. It is available from the beginning in the game's remaster for PlayStation 5 and Windows.
 Parker's symbiote suit from Spider-Man 3 is an unlockable suit for Peter Parker / Spider-Man in Marvel's Spider-Man 2 (2023) for PlayStation 5. It is named the "Black Webbed Suit" in-game to distinguish it from the Black Suit, Symbiote Suit and Classic Black Suit variants.

Reception

Fans and critics

Maguire's portrayal of the character has received a largely positive critical reception. The actor's performance and portrayal of Spider-Man, along with Sam Raimi's characterization of the character, was subject to much of the praise towards Sam Raimi's Spider-Man film trilogy; being cited as true to the Spider-Man mythos as through capturing the socially-inept, endearingly awkward and nerdy aspects of the character's personality, along with his witty sense of humor and cheesy one-liners, underlying humanity, internal conflicts, relatability and struggles with his dual alter-ego and his normal life, praising the well-rounded, character-driven and faithful take on the titular character. The Hollywood Reporter placed Maguire's portrayal of Spider-Man as the tenth greatest superhero film portrayal of all time. Entertainment Weekly placed him as the tenth coolest hero of all time. Andrew Garfield, his successor to the role, has described Maguire as "my Spider-Man hero".

Nick Philpott of Comic Book Resources placed Maguire's version as the fourth best take on Spider-Man, this being lower than both Andrew Garfield's and Tom Holland's take on the web-slinger, opining that he has the effect of the comic book version despite being too old for the role of the character. The Hollywood Reporter thought Maguire's portrayal of Spider-Man had less wit than his comicbook counterpart, but still praised him for his sincere, depthful portrayal of the more flawed, human side of the character. Several have shown polarized responses to the character when he is possessed by the Venom symbiote in Spider-Man 3, particularly a scene in which he dances in the street. The possessed Peter has been nicknamed "Emo Peter" or "Bully Maguire" by fans and his scenes have become a popular internet meme. Raimi remarked, "I'm glad people find it funny! We wanted it to be fun."

Accolades

Future

#MakeRaimiSpiderMan4 movement
Maguire's appearance in No Way Home was met with a highly positive reception from both fans and critics. Subsequently, a fan campaign using the hashtag #MakeRaimiSpiderMan4 began on Twitter advocating for Sony to produce a fourth film in the Spider-Man series, with Maguire and Dunst reprising their roles along with Sam Raimi directing.

See also
 Spider-Man in film

Notes

References

External links

Alternative versions of Spider-Man
Characters created by David Koepp
Characters created by Sam Raimi
Fictional characters from Queens, New York
Fictional characters with precognition
Fictional college students
Fictional photographers
Fictional vigilantes
Film and television memes
Film characters introduced in 2002
Internet memes
Male characters in film
Marvel Cinematic Universe characters
Marvel Comics American superheroes
Marvel Comics characters with accelerated healing
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman senses
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Orphan characters in film
Spider-Man (2002 film series)
Spider-Man film characters
Spider-Man in other media
Superheroes who are adopted
Superheroes with alter egos
Teenage characters in film
Teenage superheroes

Peter Parker (Sam Raimi film series)


Max Holm is a former American football and basketball player and coach. He is credited with building one of the strongest defensive teams for NAIA football during his day. He is one of the few "modern era" college coaches to have been both the head basketball coach and the head football coach at the same school in the same calendar year.

Playing career
A native of Pittsburgh, Holm played as an end for Westminster College for the 1960 and 1961 seasons under Hall of Fame coach Harold Burry.  Holm completed his high school football play at Peabody High School in Pittsburgh.

Coaching career

Geneva basketball
Holm was the basketball coach for the Geneva College in Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania, for the 1971–72 season, and then resigned to take the head football coach position at the same school.  Prior to being head basketball coach, he was an assistant in the program for two seasons.

Geneva football
Holm became the 26th head football for Geneva and he held that position for two seasons, from 1972 to 1973, compiling a record of 12–6.

In his first year at Geneva, Holm led the charge of an exciting season that began among concerns of relying heavily on sophomores and ended with a record of 8 wins and 1 loss, with the sole loss coming on the last and highly anticipated game of the season against Westminster College.  The Golden Tornadoes were the nation's leading team against the rush while the Titans rushing attack was just average.  Before the final game of 1972, Geneva's opponents could only average 48.3 yards per game on the ground.

While at Geneva, he coached future National Football League player Bruce Craft, who played offensive tackle for the Dallas Cowboys.

Holm resigned his position after the conclusion of the 1973 season.

Head coaching record

Football

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American football ends
Basketball coaches from Pennsylvania
Geneva Golden Tornadoes football coaches
Geneva Golden Tornadoes men's basketball coaches
Players of American football from Pittsburgh
Sportspeople from Pittsburgh
Westminster Titans football players

Max Holm


The Andrew Jackson Centre,  also known as the Andrew Jackson Cottage, is the ancestral home of Andrew Jackson, 7th President of the United States. It is located in the village of Boneybefore in County Antrim, Northern Ireland.

The centre consists of a refurbished traditional thatched Ulster–Scots farmhouse, which is known to have been built in the 1750s and was home to Andrew Jackson's parents shortly before they emigrated to South Carolina in the United States. The interior of the farmhouse is effectively a small museum, consisting of original rooms decorated in the style of that period and featuring an extensive display on the life of Andrew Jackson.

The cottage's grounds feature the US Rangers Centre, which pays homage to the soldiers of the First Battalions of the elite US Rangers, which was first "activated" in the town Carrickfergus in 1942.

The Carrickfergus Borough Council made efforts to make the centre more accessible to tourists. These include the installation of new information plaques in the recent standardised style of those found elsewhere in Carrickfergus, as well as the installation of roadsigns that more clearly show its location. These changes were put in place in an attempt to promote the town's historical Ulster-Scots connection to the United States, a connection that many locals take a great deal of pride in.  The Carrickfergus Borough Council was consolidated in 2015 into the Mid and East Antrim Borough Council, who have since opened the cottage five days a week for public visits.

See also
 List of buildings and monuments honoring presidents of the United States in other countries

References

External links
 Mid and East Borough Antrim information on the Andrew Jackson Cottage
 Andrew Jackson and US Rangers Centres - Discover Northern Ireland
 Carrickfergus Borough information on the Andrew Jackson Cottage

Museums in County Antrim
Historic house museums in Northern Ireland
Jackson, Andrew
Military and war museums in Northern Ireland
Andrew Jackson

Andrew Jackson Centre


The Captain Enoch Lord House, also known as Red House, is a historic house at 17 Tantummaheag Road in Old Lyme, Connecticut.  Built about 1748, the house is significant both for its long historic association with the colonial Lord family, who were influential participants in the founding of both the Connecticut Colony and the Saybrook Colony, and for its transformation in the late 19th century into a summer estate.  The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2007.

Description and history
The Captain Enoch Lord House is located in northwestern Old Lyme, near the western end of Tantummaheag Road.  It is set on about  of land overlooking Lord's Cove, a bay on the Connecticut River, and includes a small island in the cove.  The house is  stories in height, of wood-frame construction, and is covered by a gambrel roof and clapboard siding.  The main facade is five bays wide, with a single-story porch extending from the leftmost bay around the left side, and another porch extending across the front of a recessed rightward ell.  The main entrance is in the center bay, flanked by pilasters and topped by a transom window.

The property was acquired in 1648 by William Lord, then one of the leading figures in the Saybrook Colony.  Lord was the son of Thomas Lord, one of the founding settlers of Hartford, Connecticut and the Connecticut Colony.  The younger Lord acquired large tracts of land on either side of the Connecticut River, but the family holdings were later consolidated on its east side near "Tatomheag", named for a local Mohegan farmer.

The house was built about 1748 by Enoch Lord, the great-grandson of William Lord, around the time of his marriage.  Originally located further north on Lord's Cove, it was moved to its present location in the 1860s by William M. Lord, and was transformed into a Colonial Revival summer house after its purchase in 1898 by Catherine and James Brown.  This included the addition of a number of features suitable for country living at the turn of the 20th century, such as French doors.  It also included the addition of a number outbuildings and a swimming pool.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in New London County, Connecticut

References

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Connecticut
Colonial Revival architecture in Connecticut
Houses completed in 1748
Old Lyme, Connecticut
Houses in New London County, Connecticut
National Register of Historic Places in New London County, Connecticut

Captain Enoch Lord House


The double-headed eagle is an iconographic symbol originating in the Bronze Age. A heraldic charge, it is used with the concept of an empire. Most modern uses of the emblem are directly or indirectly associated with its use by the late Byzantine Empire, originally a dynastic emblem of the Palaiologoi. It was adopted during the Late Medieval to Early Modern period in the Holy Roman Empire, Albania and in Orthodox principalities (Serbia and Russia), representing an augmentation of the (single-headed) eagle or Aquila associated with the Roman Empire. In a few places, among them the Holy Roman Empire and Russia, the motif was further augmented to create the less prominent triple-headed eagle.

The motif has predecessors in Bronze Age art, found in Illyria, Mycenaean Greece, and in the Ancient Near East, especially in Hittite iconography.  It re-appeared during the High Middle Ages, being adopted by the Palaiologos dynasty of the Byzantine Empire. 11th or 12th century representations have also been found originating from Islamic Spain, France and the Serbian principality of Raška. From the 13th century onward, it became even more widespread, and was used by the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and the Mamluk Sultanate within the Islamic world, and within the Christian world by the Holy Roman Empire, Serbia, Albania and Russia.

History

Bronze Age

Polycephalous mythological beasts are very frequent in the Bronze Age and Iron Age pictorial legacy of the Ancient Near East, especially in the Assyrian sphere. These latter were adopted by the Hittites. Use of the double-headed eagle in Hittite imagery has been interpreted as "royal insignia". A monumental Hittite relief of a double-headed eagle grasping two hares is found at the eastern pier of the Sphinx Gate at Alaca Hüyük. For more examples of double-headed eagles in the Hittite context see Jesse David Chariton, "The Function of the Double-Headed Eagle at Yazılıkaya."

In Mycenaean Greece, erroneous  evidence for the double-eagle motif was found in Grave Circle A, an elite Mycenaean cemetery; the motif was part of a series of gold jewelry, possibly a necklace with a repeating design of two birds sitting chest facing each other with their heads and faces turned in the opposite directions. Some found the motif to bear resemblance to the double-headed god symbol of Sumeria and BMAC culture of south central Asia.

Middle Ages
After the Bronze Age collapse, there is a gap of more than two millennia before the re-appearance of the double-headed eagle motif. The earliest occurrence in the context of the Byzantine Empire appears to be on a silk brocade dated to the 10th century, which was, however, likely manufactured in Islamic Spain; similarly early examples, from the 10th or 11th century, are from Bulgaria and from France.

Adoption in the Byzantine Empire

The early Byzantine Empire continued to use the (single-headed) imperial eagle motif.  The double-headed eagle appears only in the medieval period, by about the 10th century in Byzantine art, but as an imperial emblem only much later, during the final century of the Palaiologos dynasty. In Western European sources, it appears as a Byzantine state emblem since at least the 15th century.

A modern theory, forwarded by Zapheiriou (1947), connected the introduction of the motif to Byzantine Emperor Isaac I Komnenos (1057–1059), whose family originated in Paphlagonia.  Zapheiriou supposed that the Hittite motif of the double-headed bird, associated with the Paphlagonian city of Gangra (where it was known as Haga, ), might have been brought to the Byzantine Empire by the Komnenoi.

Adoption in the Muslim world

The double-headed eagle motif was adopted in the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm and the Turkic beyliks of medieval Anatolia in the early 13th century. A royal association of the motif is suggested by its appearance on the keystone of an arch of the citadel built at Konya (Ikonion) under Kayqubad I (r. 1220–1237). The motif appears on Turkomen coins of this era, notably on coins minted under Artuqid ruler Nasir al-Din Mahmud of Hasankeyf (r. 1200–1222). It is also found on some stone reliefs on the towers of Diyarbakır Fortress.

Later in the 13th century, the motif was also adopted in Mamluk Egypt; it is notably found on the pierced-globe handwarmer made for Mamluk amir Badr al-Din Baysari (), and in a stone relief on the walls of the Cairo Citadel.

Adoption in Christian Europe

Adoption of the double-headed eagle in  Serbia, Russia and in the Holy Roman Empire begins still in the medieval period, possibly as early as the 12th century, but widespread use begins after the fall of Constantinople, in the late 15th century.

The oldest preserved depiction of a double-headed eagle in Serbia is the one found in the donor portrait of Miroslav of Hum in the Church of St. Peter and Paul in Bijelo Polje, dating to 1190. The double-headed eagle in the Serbian royal coat of arms is well attested in the 13th and 14th centuries.

An exceptional medieval depiction of a double-headed eagle in the West, attributed to Otto IV, is found in a copy of the  of Matthew of Paris (Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, Parker MS 16 fol. 18, 13th century).

Early Modern use

Serbia

In Serbia, the Nemanjić dynasty adopted a double-headed eagle by the 14th century (recorded by Angelino Dulcert 1339). The double-headed eagle was used in several coats of arms found in the Illyrian Armorials, compiled in the early modern period. The white double-headed eagle on a red shield was used for the Nemanjić dynasty, and the Despot Stefan Lazarević. A "Nemanjić eagle" was used at the crest of the Hrebeljanović (Lazarević dynasty), while a half-white half-red eagle was used at the crest of the Mrnjavčević. Use of the white eagle was continued by the modern Karađorđević, Obrenović and Petrović-Njegoš ruling houses.

Albania

{{multiple image
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 | caption1 = The tomb of the Albanian noble Costantino Castriota built in 1500, in Naples. Two Albanian eagles can be noticed in the left and right pillar
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 | caption2 = Trionfo di Mardocheo by Paolo Veronese in the church of San Sebastiano, Venice, 1556. According to a modern analysis of the painting, Skanderbeg who holds the Albanian flag is depicted as the Biblical hero Mordechai who saved the Hebrews in the Babylonian Empire.
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The Kastrioti family in Albania had a double-headed eagle as their emblem in the 14th and 15th centuries. Some members of the Dukagjini family and the Arianiti family also used double-headed eagles, and a coalition of Albanian states in the 15th century, later called the League of Lezhë, also used the Kastrioti eagle as its flag. The current flag of Albania features a black two-headed eagle with a crimson background. During John Hunyadi's campaign in Niš in 1443, Skanderbeg and a few hundred Albanians defected from the Turkish ranks and used the double-headed eagle flag. The eagle was used for heraldic purposes in the Middle Ages by a number of Albanian noble families in Albania and became the symbol of the Albanians. The Kastrioti's coat of arms, depicting a black double-headed eagle on a red field, became famous when he led a revolt against the Ottoman Empire resulting in the independence of Albania from 1443 to 1479. This was the flag of the League of Lezhë, which was the first unified Albanian state in the Middle Ages and the oldest Parliament with extant records..

 Russia

After the fall of Constantinople, the use of two-headed eagle symbols spread to Grand Duchy of Moscow after Ivan III's second marriage (1472) to Zoe Palaiologina (a niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos, who reigned 1449–1453), The last prince of Tver, Mikhail III of Tver (1453–1505), was stamping his coins with two-headed eagle symbol. The double-headed eagle remained an important motif in the heraldry of the imperial families of Russia (the House of Romanov (1613-1762)).

The double-headed eagle was a main element of the coat of arms of the Russian Empire (1721–1917), modified in various ways from the reign of Ivan III (1462–1505) onwards, with the shape of the eagle getting its definite Russian form during the reign of Peter the Great (1682–1725). It continued in Russian use until abolished (being identified with Tsarist rule) with the Russian Revolution in 1917; it was restored in 1993 after that year's constitutional crisis and remains in use up to the present, although the eagle charge on the present coat of arms is golden rather than the traditional, imperial black.

Holy Roman Empire

Use of a double-headed Imperial Eagle, improved from the single-headed Imperial Eagle used in the high medieval period, became current in the 15th to 16th centuries. The double-headed  was in the coats of arms of many German cities and aristocratic families in the early modern period. A distinguishing feature of the Holy Roman eagle was that it was often depicted with haloes. In the 16th century, the double-headed eagle was the most powerful heraldic mark up to that time, as it symbolized the union of the imperial dignity of the Holy Roman Empire (the Habsburg empire) with the Spanish Monarchy. The double-headed eagle would end up being the emblem of the Habsburgs in Madrid and Vienna, becoming universal with the global expansion of the Spanish empire.

After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the double-headed eagle was retained by the Austrian Empire, and served also as the coat of arms of the German Confederation. The German states of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen continued to use the double-headed eagle as well until they were abolished shortly after the First World War, and so did the Free City of Lübeck until it was abolished by the Nazi government in 1937. Austria, which switched to a single-headed eagle after the end of the monarchy, briefly used a double-headed eagle – with haloes – once again when it was a one-party state 1934–1938; this, too, was ended by the Nazi government. Since then, Germany and Austria, and their respective states, have not used double-headed eagles.

Mysore (India)

The Gandaberunda'' is a bicephalous bird, not necessarily an eagle but very similar in design to the double-headed eagle used in Western heraldry, used as a symbol by the Wadiyar dynasty of the Kingdom of Mysore from the 16th century. Coins (gold pagoda or gadyana) from the rule of Achyuta Deva Raya (reigned 1529–1542) depicted the Gandaberunda. Of similar age is a sculpture on the roof of the Rameshwara temple in the temple town of Keladi in Shivamogga. The symbol was in continued use by the Maharaja of Mysore into the modern period, and was adopted as the state symbol of the State of Mysore (now Karnataka) after Indian independence.

Modern use
Albania, Serbia, Montenegro and Russia have a double-headed eagle in their coat of arms. In 1912, Ismail Qemali raised a similar version of that flag.  The flag has gone through many alterations, until 1992 when the current flag of Albania was introduced.

The double-headed eagle is now used as an emblem by a number of Orthodox Christian churches, including the Greek Orthodox Church and the Orthodox Autocephalous Church of Albania. In modern Greece, it appears in official use in the Hellenic Army (coat of arms of Hellenic Army General Staff) and the Hellenic Army XVI Infantry Division,

The two-headed eagle appears, often as a supporter, on the modern and historical arms and flags of Austria-Hungary, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Austria (1934–1938), Albania, Armenia, Montenegro, Russia and Serbia. It was also used as a charge on the Greek coat of arms for a brief period in 1925–1926. It is also used in the municipal arms of a number of cities in Germany, Netherlands and Serbia, the arms and flag of the city and Province of Toledo, Spain, the arms of the town of Velletri, Italy, and the arms and flag of the city of Rijeka, Croatia.

An English heraldic tradition, apparently going back to the 17th century, attributes coats of arms with double-headed eagles to the Anglo-Saxon earls of Mercia, Leofwine and Leofric. The design was introduced in a number of British municipal coats of arms in the 20th century, such as the Municipal Borough of Wimbledon in London, the supporters in the coat of arms of the city and burgh of Perth, and hence in that of the district of Perth and Kinross (1975). The motif is also found in a number of British family coats of arms. In Turkey, General Directorate of Security and the municipality of Diyarbakır have a double-headed eagle in their coat of arms.

Scottish Rite of Freemasonry
The Double-Headed Eagle is used as an emblem by the Scottish Rite of Freemasonry which was introduced in France, in the early 1760s, as the emblem of the Kadosh degree.  The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry, adopted the 'Double Headed Eagle of Lagash' as its emblem since the 1758 establishment of the Masonic Chivalry Rite (Council of Emperors of the East and West), in Paris, France.  That council, with a Masonic rite of twenty-five degrees, set the foundation for what would evolve into the present masonic system Scottish Rite.  The successors of the "Council of Emperors of the East and West" are today the various Supreme Councils of the Thirty Third Degree in more than 60 countries.  The Double Headed Eagle was formally adopted from the personal emblem of King Frederick the Great, of Prussia, who in 1786 became the First Sovereign Grand Commander of the Supreme Council of the 33 Degree, subsequent to its formation following the adoption of seven additional degrees to the Masonic Rite.

Sports clubs insignia
Several sports clubs, mainly Greek and Turkish, have the double-headed eagle in their insignia. Some of them are: three football clubs of Turkey; Çorum FK, BB Erzurumspor and Konyaspor and the Greek sport clubs AEK (Athletic Union of Constantinople) and (since 1929 when it adopted the emblem of its parent association Enosis Konstantinopoliton Thessalonikis which was founded in 1923) P.A.O.K. (Panthesalonikios Athletic club of Constantinople). The Greek clubs use this symbol since both were founded by Greek refugees who moved to Greece from Constantinople in the 1920s. It is also the emblem of the Dutch clubs NEC and Vitesse Arnhem, the English football club AFC Wimbledon and Scottish side Saint Johnstone FC. The Gandabherunda insignia is used by the Indian club Bengaluru FC in their logo.

Gallery

Heraldry and vexillology

Artwork

See also
 Arms of Skanderbeg
 Coat of arms of Serbia and Montenegro
 Coat of arms of Austria-Hungary
 Crossed hands
 Hawk of Quraish
 Three-legged crow

References

External links

  Gallery 303.

Heraldic eagles
Imperial Eagle
National symbols of Albania
National symbols of Austria
National symbols of Austria-Hungary
National symbols of Greece
National symbols of Montenegro
National symbols of Russia
National symbols of Serbia
National symbols of Yugoslavia
Religious symbols
Fictional birds of prey
Birds in mythology

Double-headed eagle


A capital call (also known as a draw down or a capital commitment) is a legal right of an investment firm or an insurance firm to demand a portion of the money promised to it by an investor. A capital call fund would be the money that had been committed to the fund. The capital call is the act of actually transferring the promised funds to the investment target. A capital call agreement defines capital call terms.

For example, when an investor buys into a real estate fund, that fund's managers may wait some time before using the investor's money to buy real estate, either because they are waiting for real estate prices to be favorable, or because they are researching new deals. When they are ready to  buy real estate, the fund managers issue a capital call, requiring investors who have committed money to the fund to  transfer that money over.

The fund might also borrow funds instead of using the investor's money. This allows the fund to benefit from leverage. The financing of the real estate purchase is realized through borrowing from banks. When the fund has reached a certain level of return, capital calls are issued and the borrowing is paid off.

References

External links
Issuing a capital call — Notice — Insurer's duties — Rules.

Rights
Legal terminology

Capital call