The Old Presbyterian Meeting House is a Christian church located at 321 South Fairfax Street in the Old Town neighborhood of  Alexandria, Virginia. It is part of the National Capital Presbytery and the Synod of the Mid-Atlantic of the Presbyterian Church (USA).

The meeting house was originally built in 1775 in the Early Republic style, but was largely destroyed by fire in 1835. It was rebuilt in 1836, and a bell tower was added in 1843 and granite entrance stairs were installed in 1853. The campus was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2001.  The church also lies within the bounds of the Alexandria Historic District.

History
The heritage of the Meeting House dates from the early eighteenth century. Scottish Presbyterians were among the early European settlers of Northern Virginia and were involved in establishing Alexandria as a port in 1749. The Society of Presbyterians worshiped publicly in the city from the 1760s, and the congregation's first installed minister arrived in 1772.  The Meeting House was erected in 1775. Largely destroyed by fire in 1835, it was subsequently rebuilt, maintaining a Reformed Protestant plain-style appearance.  Except for a bell tower added in 1843 and granite entrance stairs installed in 1853, it remains little altered to the present day.

Alexandrians have gathered at the Meeting House for public worship many times over the years. Among other such services that George Washington attended here was one conducted by the Rev. Dr. James Muir for the National Day of Solemn Humiliation, Fasting, and Prayer in 1798. Alexandria's memorial services for George Washington in 1799 were held in this sanctuary. The church bell tolled in mourning during the four days between his death and burial.

The Meeting House remained open for worship throughout the Civil War, but the congregation dwindled afterward. In 1899 the building was closed for worship, and all of the church property was entrusted to Second Presbyterian Church, which accepted responsibility for maintaining it.

For the next half-century, it served as both a museum and a place of worship. In 1949, a new congregation, taking the name of "the Old Presbyterian Meeting House," was established here.

Music has been part of the Meeting House heritage from the earliest days, and the church has served as a venue for public concerts for more than two centuries.  Its first pipe organ, built by Jacob Hilbus and installed in 1817, was—according to church historian Julius Melton—the first pipe organ installed in a Presbyterian church in the United States.  The Hilbus organ was destroyed in the 1835 fire. The pipe organ in the apse, by Henry Erben, dates from 1849.  The pipe organ in the rear gallery was installed in 1997 by the Lively-Fulcher Organ Company.

Grounds
Adjoining the Meeting House is a Burial Ground and several buildings: Flounder House, a building with a shed roof and built in 1787, was originally a parsonage; Elliot House (1844) was originally a private residence; and the Education Building was constructed in 1957.

Burial Ground
The Burial Ground is the final resting place of many patriots of the Revolutionary War, including one unidentified soldier who is honored by the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier of the American Revolution. Among the more than 300 persons buried in this graveyard are John Carlyle, founder and first overseer of Alexandria; Dr. James Craik, Physician General of the Continental Army and close friend of George Washington; William Hunter, Jr., mayor of Alexandria and founder of the Saint Andrew's Society, and Daniel Douglass, merchant and flour inspector of the Port of Alexandria.

Presbyterian Cemetery
The Meeting House also maintains and operates the Presbyterian Cemetery on Hamilton Lane, about a mile west of the church and adjacent to Alexandria National Cemetery and other historic cemeteries.  Opened in 1809, the cemetery is the final resting place of 17 patriots of the American Revolution, men killed in the War of 1812, and 62 Confederate veterans and a number of Union soldiers from the Civil War.  Over the years, the Presbyterian Cemetery has provided burial space for merchants, ship captains, the Reverend Elias Harrison—the fourth pastor of the Meeting House, who died during the Civil War—a half dozen of Alexandria's mayors, numerous representatives of the city's governing council, a number of prominent businessmen and philanthropists, and at least one member of the U.S. House of Representatives.

Congregation today

A congregation of the Presbyterian Church (USA), the Old Presbyterian Meeting House today is led by the Reverend Dr. Robert R. Laha, Jr., Senior Pastor and Head of Staff; the Reverend Katherine A. Stanford, Associate Pastor; the Reverend Ann Herlin Staley, Associate Pastor; and a Session (governing body) of 26 ruling elders. The church has a vibrant congregation of more than 1,000 members that is very much engaged in the contemporary world.  It is an inclusive, justice-seeking congregation welcoming members and visitors for worship, service, education, and fellowship.  The church supports a variety of programs and ministries for people of all ages, from pre-school age through teenagers and working adults to older adults in retirement homes.

Music plays an important role in worship and broader aspects of life at the Meeting House. Worship services feature both the Lively-Fulcher pipe organ and the choir, which includes both professional and volunteer members.  Special services may also feature the Erben organ, brass ensembles, the children's choirs, or other vocal or instrumental groups. "Concerts With A Cause," held periodically throughout the year, feature talented local artists, and a free-will offering collected at intermission benefits a designated local charity.  During the Advent season, a half-hour program of "Noonday Noels," held on Wednesdays at noon, provides a brief musical offering and scripture reading.

Through the Presbyterian Church, the Meeting House maintains a very active local, regional, national, and worldwide mission and outreach program.  Among other needs, it provides support each year for the Alexandria Tutoring Consortium, the Fund for Alexandria's Child, the Arlandria Health Center, the Family to Family program, which assists families in meeting their monthly bills, the Rebuilding Together Alexandria program, designed to help impoverished residents of the city make necessary property improvements using volunteer help, Alive!—Alexandrians Involved Ecumenically—and the Greater Washington Interfaith Power + Light program. The congregation also conducts annual mission projects with The Shack Neighborhood House in Scotts Run, West Virginia and has active mission partnerships with groups in Reynosa, Mexico; Islamabad, Pakistan; Pignon, Haiti; and Kenya.  In recent years, the congregation has been actively involved in social justice advocacy on issues such as affordable housing and improved health services for the poor through the interdenominational Virginians Organized for Interfaith Community Engagement (VOICE). In 2011, the Meeting House launched a program to provide online access to Virginia prisons, permitting the families of prisoners from Northern Virginia to conduct video visitations with loved ones at distant facilities.

Among the several buildings adjoining the Meeting House, Flounder House now provides classrooms, meeting space, the church archives, and space for a local non-profit; the Elliot House now houses the church offices; and the Education Building includes classrooms, a large meeting room, and the Meeting House pre-school.

While the burial ground on the church property is no longer active, the well-kept Presbyterian Cemetery, which has been in continuous use for more than two centuries, continues to function as an active cemetery. In 2008, the Cemetery opened a columbarium to accommodate the interment of cremated remains.

See also
 National Register of Historic Places listings in Alexandria, Virginia

References

A Chronology of Events in the History of the Old Presbyterian Meeting House
A History of the Old Presbyterian Meeting House

External links

Old Presbyterian Meeting House Official Site
Presbyterian Church (USA) Denomination Official Site
Presbyterian Cemetery
Presbyterian Meetinghouse, 321 South Fairfax Street, Alexandria, Independent City, VA at the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS)

Churches completed in 1835
Georgian architecture in Virginia
Federal architecture in Virginia
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia
Churches in Alexandria, Virginia
Presbyterian churches in Virginia
Scottish-American culture in Virginia
National Register of Historic Places in Alexandria, Virginia
Historic American Buildings Survey in Virginia

Old Presbyterian Meeting House


Graciela Prior Marín (born in Veracruz, Mexico in 1949), better known as Grace Renat is a Mexican vedette, actress  and dancer. She was one of the most popular Mexican vedettes during the 1970s and 1980s.

Biography
Renat was born in the Port of Veracruz, Mexico. At fourteen, she ran away from home with her first boyfriend. It was precisely her sisters, who convinced her to enter the world of entertainment by supplanting a chorus girl from a set where they danced. With this group, Renat undertook a tour through all Mexico. Already with a son in tow, Grace achieved fame as vedette in the city of Tijuana.

In 1973 was named "Goddess of the Night" by the Mexican Actor's Guild. She worked for several seasons at the famous Blanquita Theater in Mexico City, as well as in the famous cabaret El Capri, at the Hotel Regis in the same city. She debuted in cinema in 1974 in the film El desconocido. In 1976 she was part of the cast of the film Zona Roja, directed by Emilio Fernández. In 1979 she gained popularity by its participation in the film Estas ruinas que ves, of Julian Pastor.

In the 1980s, she starred in comedy programs on Televisa as Mis huéspedes and Papá soltero.

In theater, Renat participated in diverse montages, including the comedy El tenorio comico, with the comedian Manuel Valdés.

In 1999, Renat participated in the theater show Las inolvidables de la noche, with the also vedettes Rossy Mendoza, Wanda Seux, Amira Cruzat and Malú Reyes. In 2017, Renat co-starred in the play Divas por siempre, next to comedians Shanik Berman, Manuel Valdés and also vedettes Lyn May, Wanda Seux and Princesa Yamal.

Filmography

Films
 El desconocido (1974)
 Albures mexicanos (1975)
 Zona Roja (1976)
 Muerte a sangre fría (1978)
 Que te vaya bonito (1978)
 Guerra de sexos (1978)
 Perro callejero II (1979)
 Llámenme Mike (1979)
 Estas ruinas que ves (1979)
 4 hembras y un macho menos (1979)
 Sexo contra sexo (1980)
 Hilario Cortés, el rey del talón (1980)
 Mírame con ojos pornográficos (1980)
 Las cabareteras (1980)
 El hombre sin miedo (1980)
 Cuentos colorados (1980)
 La cosecha de mujeres (1981)
 Las muñecas del "King Kong" (1981)
 La furia de los karatecas (1982)
 El puño de la muerte (1982)
 Las computadoras (1982)
 El sexo de los pobres (1983)
 Terror en los barrios (1983)
 Se me sale cuando me río (1983)
 Las perfumadas (1983)
 Perico el de los palotes (1984)
 Llegamos los fregamos y nos fuimos (1985)
 Las limpias (1987)
 Más buenas que el pan (1987)
 Piquete que va derecho (1988)
 Mi pistola y tus esposas (1989)
 E pajaro tata (1991)

Television
 Variedades de media noche (1977)
 Mis huéspedes (1980)
 Hogar dulce hogar (1982)
 Soltero en el aire (1984)
 Salón de belleza (1985)
 Papá soltero (1992)

References

External links

 Grace Renat in AbandoMoviez

Living people
Burlesque performers
Mexican female dancers
Mexican film actresses
Mexican vedettes
People from Veracruz (city)
1949 births

Grace Renat


The  Greater Saint Louis Air & Space Museum is a museum with the mission to preserve and display historic air and space craft and artifacts, and provide educational programs.

Architecture
The museum is housed in the Curtiss Wright Hangar number two at St. Louis Downtown Airport, Cahokia Heights, Illinois. The adjacent Hangar one and two are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

The Hangar was completed in March 1930 on the newly opened Curtiss-Stienburg airport. The brick structure featured a cast Curtiss Wright emblem across the doorway. The first occupant of Hangar 2 was St.Louis based Union Electric Company. Its Ford 4-AT-B was used for corporate transport and line patrols, and is now part of the National Naval Aviation Museum. Later it was used for the East St. Louis Flying School. In 1939, Oliver Parks expanded his flight operations to the airport for the Civilian Pilot Training Program. Parks College used the hangar for flight operations until the mid-1990s.

History
The Saint Louis Air & Space Museum was incorporated in July 1982.
The original site for the museum was located at Spirit of St. Louis Airport. The Museum relocated to Cahokia Illinois into the Curtiss-Wright Hangar number two.

Directors

Mark Nankivil...President
Richard (Rick) Rehg...1st Vice President
Carmelo Turdo...2nd Vice President
Albert White...Board Member
Michael Burke...Curator/Board Member
Bob Crandell...Security System Contact/Board Member
Joe Gutknecht...Board Member
Keith Mueller...Board Member
Jean Murry...Treasurer/Board Member
Jack Abercrombie...Honorary Board Member
Tom Ahillen...Docent Coordinator/Board Member
John "Woody" Almind...Board Member
Mark Badasch...Museum Director/Board Member

Gallery of exhibits

 Schempp-Hirth Standard Austria
 Bede BD-5
 Link Trainer
 Lockheed JetStar
 Meyers OTW
 Mini-MAX

See also
List of aerospace museums

References

External links

Aerospace museums in Illinois
Museums in St. Clair County, Illinois

Greater Saint Louis Air & Space Museum


"Proposition Infinity" is the fourth episode of the sixth season of Futurama. It aired on Comedy Central in the USA on July 8, 2010. In the episode Amy Wong and Bender fall in love and begin a bad culturally taboo with the term Robosexual. The title is a parody of Proposition 8. This episode is known for LGBT content. The title is also known is "Proposition ∞". This episode was written by Michael Rowe and directed by Crystal Chesney-Thompson. The theme of the episode revisits the social taboo of robosexual relationships whitch was presented in earlier episodes such as "Space Pilot 3000" and "I Dated a Robot". The opening caption for this one is dictated but not read.

Plot
Kif Kroker became unhappy that Amy Wong likes dating bad boys. He broke up with her. She started dating and having sex with Bender. The Planet Express crew is unhappy of the two's robosexual relationship. Amy was brought to Mars by her parents and Bender was brought to the Church of Robotology where they try to stop being robosexuals. Bender decides to marry Amy, to Farnsworth's frustration given that robosexual marriage is illegal with the exception of Space Massachusetts. The two decide to create Proposition Infinity to legalize robosexual marriage. Professor Farnsworth opposed the proposition and he and Bender started a debate. Farnsworth remembered dating a scientist named Eunice and saw her sleeping with a robot. He revealed that Eunice was actually a robot named Unit 47. As a result, Farnsworth gave up the debate and robosexual marriage became legal.

Reception
It is one of Executive producer David X. Cohen's favorite episodes.

2010 television episodes
Futurama episodes

Proposition Infinity


F103 is the internal designation for a series of car models produced by Auto Union GmbH (after merger with NSU Motorenwerke in 1969: Audi NSU Auto Union) in West Germany from 1965 to 1972, derived from the earlier DKW F102. To signify the change from a two-stroke to four-stroke engine, the DKW marque was dropped in favour of Audi, a name that had been dormant since before the Second World War.

Models
The first model was launched simply as the  Audi, later being renamed the Audi 72 (72 being the nominal power output of the engine in PS).

The more powerful Audi 80 and Audi Super 90 sports saloons (with 80 and 90 PS respectively) appeared in 1966: in 1968 the arrival of the less powerful Audi 60 completed the range. Breaking somewhat with the naming pattern, the Audi 60 has , although export versions produce .

The Audi 75 replaced both the Audi 72 and the Audi 80 from 1969 onwards.

In 1972 the F103 series was discontinued in favour of the "B1" Audi 80.

Engines
The F103 series were equipped exclusively with the M118 four-cylinder four-stroke engine. These were longitudinally mounted. This combination of front-wheel drive, which Auto Union's DKW brand had pioneered during the 1930s, and the longitudinal positioning of a four-cylinder engine would provide the basic template for Volkswagen's successful new Passat as well as the Audi models Audi 80 and Audi 100 after Volkswagenwerk AG acquired the Auto Union from Daimler-Benz late in 1964. Since the chassis on the F103 was taken from the DKW F102 with a three-cylinder two-stroke engine, the longer engine meant that the cooling system had to be offset to the left of the engine instead of the normal position in front of it. Because of the radiator's location, the front cylinder of the engine had a tendency to run cooler than the other three and as a consequence the spark plug tended to foul up, particularly if the engine was often used in city traffic. To avoid this, it was often recommended to run a hotter spark plug (with a lower heat range) in the front cylinder than in the other three.

The engines of the F103 series were developed by Daimler-Benz as part of a military project that never came to fruition. They were dubbed the Mitteldruckmotor (medium-pressure engines) because of their unusually high BMEP (mean effective pressure, as calculated from brake torque) values, which led to a good thermodynamic efficiency. The engines had spiral-formed intake channels that gave the fuel-air mixture a good swirl. The engine had Heron-type combustion chambers with broad squish bands, further enhancing the mixture swirl and aiding good combustion. These features made it possible to use very high compression ratios for the time. The initial engine version had a compression ratio of 11:1 for 98 RON fuel and even the engines intended for 92 RON fuel had a compression of 9:1, which was a very unusually high value for the time.

Running gear
The car came with a four-speed manual transmission.

Inboard mounted front disc brakes were featured, which was still unusual in the mid-size car market at this time.  The rear brakes followed the more conventional drum configuration.

Bodywork

The F103 bodyshell was a development of the earlier DKW F102. The engine compartment had to be extended so that the new four-cylinder engine could be accommodated. The front and tail were also cosmetically revised: Audi F103s sold in Europe all featured quasi-rectangular headlamps which were becoming fashionable at the time, whereas the F102 had used round headlamp units.

All Audi F103 models were offered as sedans with two and four doors. The two-door saloon/sedan, however, was not sold in markets such as Italy and Britain with little demand for two-door cars of this size.

With the exception of the Audi Super 90, the F103 series were available also as three-door station wagon models. Making its debut at the Geneva Motor Show in March 1966, this was called, like the Volkswagen estate/station wagon models, Variant.

Evolution
Initial changes were concentrated under the hood/bonnet where during the first two years of production the specification for the Solex carburetor was changed twice and in September 1967 the very high compression ratio was reduced from a (then) eye watering 11.2:1 to 9.1:1 which addressed serious "teething problems" with the engine as originally launched.

In September 1967 servo-assistance for the brakes became an option, the brakes on all but the basic model now being controlled using twin braking circuits, and by (in Germany) the final months of 1968 the range had settled down to three models, with the entry level Audi 60 powered by a 55 PS motor, the less basic Audi 75 producing 75 PS and the Audi Super 90 with 90 PS, able to challenge the performance image of some of the smaller BMWs.

Visually the car changed very little, but keen eyed observers would have noticed a discreetly modernised rear from August 1970, with slightly larger rear lights and a reshaped bumper.   The fuel filler moved from its location to the right of the license plate on the rear panel to a position on the right hand wing of the car, and following a general trend of the period was now shielded by a flap that was flush with the bodywork. Inside the 1970 upgrade also involved a reconfigured dashboard.

Sales
During the early 1960s, Auto Union was in commercial retreat: the Audi F103 was a relative success when compared with recent Auto Union products, even if its commercial success was trumped by subsequent Audi models.   In July 1967, it was reported that 100,000 Audis had been completed: production of the F103 had by now built up to a rate of almost 40,000 per year and the company was moved to deny speculation that another new Audi model would be presented at the Frankfurt Motor Show in the Autumn / Fall of 1967. (The Audi 100 was introduced only towards the end of 1968.)

Specifications
Manufacturer's figures except where stated

References

External links

 Good overview of the development of the DKW F103 to the Audi 60 (in German)
 A Super 90 at a vintage rally
 Website Audi60.com

F103
Executive cars
Mid-size cars
Sedans
Station wagons
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
Cars introduced in 1965
1970s cars

Audi F103


Eugene Thomas Long (March 16, 1935 – March 13, 2020) was born in Richmond, Virginia. He was the author of Jaspers and Bultmann: A Dialogue Between Philosophy and Theology (1968), Existence, Being and God: An Introduction to the Philosophical Theology of John Macquarrie (1985) and Twentieth Century Western Philosophy of Religion:1900-2000 (2000).

Life and Career
Long was born in Richmond, Virginia. He is the first son of Eugene Thomas Long, Jr. and Emily Barker Long. He is a graduate of Randolph-Macon College in Virginia (BA), Duke University (BD) and the University of Glasgow, Scotland (Ph.D). He was a student of John Macquarrie and Ronald Gregor Smith.

He was a Professor of Philosophy at Randolph Macon College between 1964 and 1970. He was a Professor of Philosophy at the University of South Carolina between 1970 and 2002. During that time he was Chair of the Department of Philosophy (1972-1987). He retired in 2002 as Distinguished Professor of Philosophy Emeritus.

He was elected President of The Metaphysical Society of America and President of the Society for Philosophy of Religion. He served as Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal for Philosophy of Religion (1990-2010) and the Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion.

The major focus of Long's work is the dialogue between philosophy and theology and he is often characterized both as a philosophical theologian and philosopher of religion. Attracted in his early days to the work of Hegel and British and American Idealism, he is influenced in particular by the work of Karl Jaspers, Martin Heidegger, Paul Tillich and John Macquarrie.  Appealing to the theories of experience in the tradition of so-called radical empiricism, Long argues for transcendent dimensions of general human experience to bridge the gap between specifically religious and ordinary experience.

Long died on March 13, 2020 at the age of 84.

References

Pages created with the Article Wizard from 2018
1935 births
Writers from Richmond, Virginia
2020 deaths

Eugene Thomas Long


A tercio (), Spanish for "[a] third") was a military unit of the Spanish Army during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs and the Spanish Habsburgs in the early modern period. They were the elite military units of the Spanish Monarchy and the essential pieces of the powerful land forces of the Spanish Empire, sometimes also fighting with the navy. The Spanish tercios were one of the finest professional infantries in the world due to the effectiveness of their battlefield formations and were a crucial step in the formation of modern European armies, made up of professional volunteers, instead of levies raised for a campaign or hired mercenaries typically used by other European countries of the time.

The internal administrative organization of the tercios and their battlefield formations and tactics, grew out of the innovations of Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba during the conquest of Granada and the Italian Wars in the 1490s and 1500s, being among the first to effectively mix pikes and firearms (arquebuses). The tercios marked a rebirth of battlefield infantry comparable to the Macedonian phalanxes and the Roman legions. Such formations distinguished themselves in famous battles such as the Battle of Bicocca (1522) and the Battle of Pavia (1525). Following their formal establishment in 1534, the reputation of the tercio was built upon their effective training and high proportion of "old soldiers" (veteranos), in conjunction with the particular elan imparted by the lower nobility who commanded them. The tercios were finally replaced by regiments in the early eighteenth century.

From 1920, the name of tercio was given to the formations of the newly created Spanish Legion; professional units then created to fight colonial wars in North Africa, similar to the French Foreign Legion. These formations are actually regiments bearing the name of tercio as an honorary title.

History

During the Granada War (1482–1491), the soldiers of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain were divided into three classes: pikemen (modelled after the Swiss), swordsmen with shields, and crossbowmen supplemented with an early firearm the arquebus. As shields disappeared and firearms replaced crossbows, Spain won victory after victory in Italy against powerful French armies, beginning under the leadership of Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba (1453–1515), nicknamed El Gran Capitán (The Great Captain). The military organizational and tactical changes made by Córdoba to the armies of Spanish monarchs are seen as the precursors of the tercios and their methods of warfare. The combat effectiveness of the Spanish pike and shot armies pioneered by Córdoba was based on an armament system that effectively united the pike with the compact firepower of the arquebus. An advantage of the Spanish pike and shot formation over the Swiss compact frame that had inspired it was in its ability to divide into mobile units and even individual melee without the loss of cohesion.

Initially, the term tercio denoted not a combat unit, but an administrative unit under a general staff, commanding garrisons throughout Italy for battles on various distant fronts. This peculiar character was maintained when it mobilized to fight the Protestant rebels in Flanders. Command of a tercio and its companies of soldiers was granted directly by the king, and companies could easily be added or removed and moved to and from other tercios. By the middle of the 17th century, the tercios began to be raised by nobles at their own expense, patrons who appointed the captains and were effective owners of the units, as in other contemporaneous European armies.

From the conquest of Granada in 1492 to the campaigns of El Gran Capitán in the kingdom of Naples in 1495, three ordinances laid the foundations of Spanish military administration. In 1503, the Great Ordinance reflected the adoption of the long pike and the distribution of infantry in specialized companies. In 1534, the first official tercio was created, that of Lombardy, and a year later it helped in the conquest of the Duchy of Milan. The tercios of Naples and Sicily were created in 1536, thanks to the Genoa ordinance of Charles V.

At the Battle of Mühlberg in 1547, the imperial troops of Charles V defeated a league of Protestant princes in Germany, thanks mainly to the action of the Spanish tercios. In 1557, the Spanish army completely defeated the French at the Battle of San Quentin, and again in 1558 at Gravelines, which led to a peace greatly favoring Spain. In all these battles, the effectiveness of the tercio units stood out.

The origin of the term tercio is doubtful. Some historians believe the name was inspired by the tercía, a Roman Legion of Hispania. Some think that it designated the threefold division of the Spanish forces in Italy. Others trace it to the three types of combatants (pikemen, harquebusiers, musketeers). According to an ordinance for "people of war" of 1497, where the formation of the infantry is changed into three parts.
The pawns [the infantry] were divided into three parts. The one tercio with spears, as the Germans brought them, which they called pikes; and the other had the name of shields [people of swords]; and the other, of crossbowmen and spit bearers. [later replaced by arquebusiers].

Yet others derive the name from the three thousand men mustered in the first units. This last explanation is supported by the field master Sancho de Londoño in a report to the Duke of Alba in the 16th century:
The tercios, although they were instituted in imitation of the [Roman] legions, in few things can be compared to them, that the number is half, and although formerly there were three thousand soldiers, for which they were called tercios and not legions, already it is said like this even if they do not have more than a thousand men.

Composition and characteristics

Although other powers adopted the battle formations and tactics perfected by the tercios, their armies fell short of the fearsome reputation of the Spanish army, which possessed a core of experienced professional soldiers. This army was further supplemented by "an army of different nations", a reference to the varied origins of the troops from the German and Italian states and the Spanish Netherlands and smaller units from other countries such as Ireland. In 1621, for example, of the 47 military units of the Spanish army, counting together the larger Spanish, Spanish Netherlands and Italian tercios, and the much smaller German, Burgundian and Irish regiments, only seven were manned by troops of Spanish origin. Such international musters were characteristic of European warfare before the levies of the Napoleonic Wars. However, the core Spanish troops were Spanish subjects, admired for their cohesiveness, superior discipline and overall professionalism.

 Organization
Initially, each tercio that served in Italy and the Spanish Netherlands was organized into:

 10 companies of 300 soldiers each led by captains, in which
 8 were pikemen's companies and
 2 were of arquebusier companies

The companies were later reduced to 250 men and the ratio of arquebusiers (later musketmen) to pikemen steadily increased.

During the early actions in the Netherlands, the tercios were reorganized into three coronelias ("colonelcies"), led by coronels ("colonels") each composed of a headquarters unit and four companies each (the predecessor of today's battalions), but as a whole continued to be subdivided into the same 10 companies of 250 personnel each: two of arquebusiers and 8 of pikemen. Colonels were also of royal appointment.

 Staff

 Maestre de Campo – colonel
 Coronel – colonel/lieutenant colonel
 Sargento mayor – major
 Furriel mayor – quartermaster
 Capellán mayor – chaplain
 Pifano mayor – fife major
 Tambor mayor – drum major

 Company
 1 Capitán – captain
 1 Alférez – ensign
 Abanderado – standard-bearer
 Sargento – sergeant
 Capellán – chaplain
 Furriel – quartermaster
 Tambor – drummer
 Pifano – fifer
 Barbero – barber surgeon
 Cabos de escuadra – corporals
 150 piqueros – pikemen
 100 arcabuceros – arquebusiers (later musketeers)
 40 coseletes – sword-and-buckler men

 Leadership of the tercio

Similar to military organization today, a tercio was led by a maestre de campo (commanding officer) appointed by the king, with a guard of eight halberdiers. Assisting the maestre was the sergeant major and a furir major in charge of logistics and armaments. Companies were led by a captain (also royally appointed), with an ensign in charge of the company color.

The company non-commissioned officers were sergeants, furrieles (furirs) and corporals. A sergeant served as second-in-command of a company and transmitted the captain's orders; furrieles provided weapons and munitions, as well as additional manpower; corporals led groups of 25 (similar to today's platoons), watching for disorder in the unit.

Each company had corps of drums made up of drummers and fifers, sounding duty calls in battle, with the drum major and fife major being provided by the tercio headquarters.

The tercio staff included a medical component (made up of a professional medic, a barber, and surgeons), chaplains and preachers, and a judicial unit, plus military constables enforcing order. They all reported directly to the maestre de campo.

Battle formations

Within a tercio's squares, ranks of pikemen assembled into a hollow pike square (cuadro) containing swordsmen – typically with short sword, buckler, and javelins. As firearms rose in prominence, the swordsmen were phased out. The arquebusiers (later, musketeers) were usually split up in several mobile groups called "sleeves" (mangas), typically deployed with one manga at each corner of the cuadro. By virtue of this combined-arms approach, the formation simultaneously enjoyed the staying power of its pike-armed infantry, the ranged firepower of its arquebusiers, and the striking power of its sword-and-buckler men. However, as the formation matured in practice, the number of swordsmen was reduced and then eliminated and the ratio of gunmen to pikemen increased over time. In addition to its defensive ability to repulse cavalry and other forces along its front, the long-range fire of its arquebusiers could be easily shifted to the flanks, making it versatile in both attack and defense.

Groups of squares were typically arrayed in dragon-toothed formation, staggered, with the leading edge of one unit level with the trailing edge of the preceding, similar to hedgehog defence. This enabled enfilade lines of fire and somewhat defiladed the army units themselves. Odd units stood forward, alternating with even units stepped back, providing gaps for an unwary enemy to enter and expose its flanks to raking crossfire from the guns of three separate squares. Tercio companies also conducted particular operations independently of the main formations.

Tercios and the Spanish Empire
Tercios were deployed all over Europe under the Habsburg rulers. They were made up of volunteers and built up around a core of professional soldiers and were highly trained. Sometimes later tercios did not stick to the all-volunteer model of the regular Imperial Spanish army – when the Habsburg king Philip II found himself in need of more troops, he raised a tercio of Catalan criminals to fight in Flanders, a trend he continued with mostly Catalan criminals for the rest of his reign. A large proportion of the Spanish army (which by the later half of the 16th century was entirely composed of tercio units: The Tercio of Savoy and the Tercio of Sicily were deployed in the Netherlands to quell the increasingly difficult rebellion against the Habsburgs. Ironically, many units of the Spanish tercios became part of the problem rather than the solution when the time came to pay them: with the Spanish coffers depleted by constant warfare, unpaid units often mutinied. For example, in April 1576, just after winning a major victory, unpaid tercios mutinied and occupied the friendly town of Antwerp, in the so-called Spanish Fury at Antwerp, and sacked it for three days. Completely reliant on his troops, the Spanish commander could only comply.

Specialized tercios
On 24 February 1537, the Tercio de Galeras (Tercio of Galleys) was created. Today, the Real Infantería de Marina (Spanish Marine Infantry) consider themselves successors of the legacy and heritage of the Galleys Tercios making it the oldest currently operating marines unit in the world. There were other units of naval tercios such as Tercio Viejo de Armada (Old Navy Tercio) or Tercio Fijo de la Mar de Nápoles (Permanent Sea Tercio of Naples). Such specialized units were needed for the protracted war with the Ottoman Empire over the entire Mediterranean.

Naming conventions
Most tercios were named according to the place where they were raised or first deployed: thus they were Tercio de Sicilia, de Lombardía, de Nápoles (Tercio of Sicily, of Lombardy, of Naples) and so on. Other tercios were named for their commanding officer, such as Tercio de Moncada for its commander Miguel de Moncada (whose most famous soldier was Miguel de Cervantes). Some tercios were named by their main function, such as  Galeras or Viejo de Armada.

Colours

The Portuguese terços

Portugal adopted the Spanish model of tercio in the 16th century, calling it terço'''. In 1578, under the reorganization of the Portuguese Army conducted by King Sebastian, four terços were established:  the Terço of Lisbon, the Terço of Estremadura, the Terço of Alentejo, and the Terço of Algarve.  Each had about 2,000 men, formed into eight companies.

The infantry of the army organized for the expedition to Morocco in 1578 was made up of these four terços together with the Terço of the Adventurers (totally made up of young nobles), three mercenary terços (the German, the Italian, and the Castilian), and a unit of elite sharpshooters of the Portuguese garrison of Tangier.  This was the Portuguese force which fought the Battle of Alcácer Quibir.

While united with the Spanish Crown, from 1580 to 1640, Portugal kept the organization of terços, although the Army had declined. Several Spanish tercios were sent to Portugal; the principal of them, the Spanish infantry Tercio of the City of Lisbon, occupied the main fortresses of the Portuguese capital. The Terço of the Navy of the Crown of Portugal, the ancestor of the modern Portuguese Marines, was created in this period.

After the restoration of Portuguese sovereignty in 1640, the Army was reorganized by King John IV of Portugal.  The terços remained the basic units of the Portuguese infantry.  Two types of terços were organized: the paid terços (first line permanent units) and the auxiliary terços (second line militia units). Portugal won the Restoration War with these terços.

At the end of the 17th century, the terços were already organized as modern regiments. However, the first line terços were only transformed into regiments in 1707, during the War of the Spanish Succession – after the Spanish tercios were transformed into regiments in 1704. The second line terços were only transformed into militia regiments in 1796. Some of the old terços are direct ancestors of modern regiments of the Portuguese Army.

Evolution and replacement

The first real challenge to the dominance of the Spanish tercios on the open battlefield came at the Battle of Nieuwpoort (1600). The victor of Nieuwpoort, the Dutch stadtholder Maurice, Prince of Orange, believed he could improve on the tercio by combining its methods with the organisation of the Roman legion. These shallower linear formations brought a greater proportion of available guns to bear on the enemy simultaneously. The result was that the tercio squares at Nieuwpoort were badly damaged by the weight of Dutch firepower. Yet the Spanish army very nearly succeeded in spite of internal dissensions that had compromised its regular command. The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) in the Low Countries continued to be characterized by sieges of cities and forts, while field battles were of secondary importance. Maurice's reforms did not lead to a revolution in warfare, but he had created an army that could meet the tercios' battle formations on an even basis and that pointed the way to future developments. During the Thirty Years War (1618–1648) tercio style battle formations of the Holy Roman Empire suffered major defeats at the hands of more linear formations created and led by the Swedish soldier-king Gustavus Adolphus. However, the tried-and-true tactics and professionalism of the Spanish tercios played a decisive role in defeating the Swedish army at the Battle of Nördlingen.

Throughout its history, the tercios' composition and battlefield formations and tactics evolved to meet new challenges. The classic pike and shot square formations fielded by the Spanish tercios and good cavalry support continued to win major battles in the 17th century, such as Wimpfen (1622), Fleurus (1622), Breda (1624), Nördlingen (1634), Thionville (1639), and Honnecourt (1641). It was not until Rocroi (1643) that the Spanish tercio's reputation of invincibility in open battle was shattered. Still, the Rocroi defeat was precipitated by the collapse of the supporting cavalry rather than the failure of the tercios' infantry. Even then, the tercios continued to win battles immediately after Rocroi, such as at Tuttlingen (1643) and Valenciennes (1656), although their composition and battlefield style had continued to evolve. In this period steady improvements in firearms and field artillery were increasingly favoring the linear style. By the late 17th century the tercios had adopted so much of the linear style that their battlefield formations and tactics often had little resemblance to the battle formations and tactics a century earlier.

In 1675 The Academia Militar del Ejército de los Países Bajos (also known as the Royal Military and Mathematics Academy of the Netherlands or Academia Militar de Bruselas) was founded in Brussels (1675-1706) by its sole director Don Sebastián Fernández de Medrano (Mora, 1646 - Brussels, February 18, 1705), Maestro de Campo, Battle General, General of the Artillery, General Prefect, Alferez and Master of Mathematics, at the request of the Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands, Carlos de Aragón de Gurrea, 9th Duke of Villahermosa, in order to correct the shortage of artillerymen and engineers from the Spanish Tercios. This Royal Military Academy of Flanders was renowned for the diverse origin of its officer cadets, for the innovative features of its plan of studies produced by Medrano, the theoretical and practical basis of its learning process apart from the relevant assignments given to its officer cadets who were also known as the "Great Masters of War" coined by the treatise writer, Count of Clonard. It was created in Brussels to train the most distinguished officers in the peninsula in the Art of War.

It is necessary to admit the success and quality of the academy by the demand made by the Holy Roman Emperor, the King of England, both the Princes of the League and Dukes and other distinguished figures; as a repeated fact that students were sent from various points to be instructed and trained under Medrano's direction. The Royal Military Academy of Flanders was an educational institution to train military engineers with various fields of education such as arithmetic, geometry, artillery, fortification, algebra, cosmography, astronomy, navigation, etc.

In 1704, the regular Spanish tercios were transformed into regiments and the pikeman as an infantry type was dropped. Those of the reserves and the militia would later be transformed into similar organisations.

Famous battles

Victories
Pre-official nomenclature
 Cerignola (1503)
 Garigliano (1503)
 La Motta (1513)
 Noáin (1521)
 Bicocca (1522)
 Sesia (1524)
 Pavia (1525)
 Rome (1527)
 Landriano (1529)
 Vienna (1529)

Official nomenclature
 Tunis (1535)
 Serravalle (1544)
 Muhlberg (1547)
 St. Quentin (1557)
 Gravelines (1558)
 Great Siege of Malta (1565)
 Lannoy (1566)
 Dahlen (1566)
 Oosterweel (1567)
 Jemmingen (1568)
 Jodoigne (1568)
 Lepanto (1571)
 Mons (1572)
 Goes (1572)
 Haarlem (1573)
 Mook (1574)
 Valkenburg (1574)
 Schoonhoven (1575)
 Oudewater (1575)
 Zierikzee (1576)
 Gembloux (1578)
 Borgerhout (1579)
 Maastricht (1579)
 Noordhorn (1581)
 Terceira (1582)
 Steenbergen (1583)
 Empel (1585)
 Antwerp (1585)
 Neuss (1586)
 Rheinberg (1590)
 Relief of Paris (1590)
 Craon (1592)
 Doullens (1595)
 Calais (1596)
 White Mountain (1620)
 Fleurus (1622)
 Wimpfen (1622)
 Breda (1625)
 Cádiz (1625)
 Genoa (1625)
 Salvador de Bahia (1625)
 Nordlingen (1634)
 Leuven (1635)
 Venlo (1637)
 Kallo (1638)
 Thionville (1639)
 Honnecourt (1642)
 Tuttlingen (1643)
 Valenciennes (1656)

Defeats
 Ravenna (1512)
 Castelnuovo (1539)
 Algiers (1541)
 Ceresole (1544)
 Leiden (1574)
 Rijmenam (1578)
 Alcácer Quibir (1578)
 Arques (1589)
 Ivry (1590)
 Caudebec (1592)
 Morlaix (1594)
 Fort Crozon (1594)
 Fontaine-française (1595)
 Amiens (1597)
 Turnhout (1597)
 Zaltbommel (1599)
 Nieuwpoort (1600)
 Kinsale (1601)
 Sluis (1604)
 Les Avins (1635)
 Tornavento (1636)
 Schenkenschans (1636)
 Turin (1640)
 Montjuïc (1641)
 Lleida (1642)
 Rocroi (1643)
 Lens (1648)
 Arras (1654)
 The Dunes (1658)
 The Lines of Elvas (1659)
 Ameixial (1663)
 Castelo Rodrigo (1664)
 Montes Claros (1665)

 See also
 Pike and shot
 Musketeer
 Captain Alatriste Military history
 Spanish Navy Marines units are called tercios The units of the modern Spanish Legion are also called tercios.

 References

 Bibliography

 Christon I. Archer, John R. Ferris, Holger H. Herwig, Timothy H. E. Travers – For a history of Spanish arms in the 16th and 17th centuries.
 Davies, T. R. (1961). The Golden Century of Spain 1501–1621. London: Macmillan & Co. – Brief description of the birth of the Spanish tercio.
 López, Ignacio J.N. The Spanish Tercios 1536–1704. Osprey Publishing – The history of the tercio from its antecedents to its decline and ultimate realignment into a regimental system in 1704.
Spanish Tercio Tactics
Renaissance Armies: The Spanish (myArmoury.com article)
Spanish web site – Honors Alonso Pita da Veiga the most heroic Spaniard at the Battle of Pavia (Italy) 1525.
  Non-Official Web siteof the Modern "Spanish Marines" (in existence since 1537 few years after Battle of Pavia (Italy) 1525 and well before the Battle of Lepanto (Greece) 1571).
The Spanish Army of the Thirty Years' War
List of Tercios
 Lorraine White – The Experience of Spain's Early Modern Soldiers: Combat, Welfare and Violence
 Pierre de Bourdeille, Gentilezas y bravuconadas de los españoles (r/p Mosand, Madrid, 1996)
 Marcos de Isaba, Cuerpo enfermo de la milicia española Ministry of Defence, Madrid (Brussels, 1589)
 Sancho de Londoño, El discurso sobre la forma de reducir la disciplina militar a mejor y antiguo estado Ministry of Defence, Madrid (Brussels, 1589)
 Bernardino de Escalante, Diálogos del arte militar Ministry of Defence, Madrid (1583)
 Martín de Eguiluz, Milicia, Discurso y Regla militar Ministry of Defence, Madrid (pre-1591)
 Diego de Salazar, Tratado de Re Militari Ministry of Defence, Madrid(1590)
 Serafín María de Soto, Conde de Clonard, Album de la infantería española (1861)
 Rene Quatrefages, Los Tercios (Madrid, ediciones Ejército, 1983)
 Inspección de Infantería, La infantería en torno al siglo del oro (Madrid, ediciones Ejército, 1993)
 Julio Albi de la Cuesta, De Pavia a Rocroi: los Tercios de Infantería española en los siglos XVI y XVII (Madrid, Balkan, 1999)
 Enrique Martínez Ruiz, Los soldados del Rey (Madrid, Actas, 2008)
 Pierre Picouet, Les Tercios Espagnols 1600–1660'' (in French – Auzielle, LRT, 2010)

Infantry units and formations
Military units and formations of the Early Modern period
Military units and formations of Spain
Military strategy
Military tactics
Spanish Empire
House of Habsburg
Military units and formations of the Italian Wars
Spanish inventions

Tercio


USS Inchon (LPH/MCS-12) was an  of the United States Navy in service from 1970 to 2002. Following a major fire, she was laid up and sunk as a target in 2004.

History
Inchon was laid down on 8 April 1968 by Ingalls Shipbuilding, in Pascagoula, Mississippi, US with the hull classification number LPH-12. She was named for the Battle of Inchon, a turning point of the Korean War. The ship was launched on 24 May 1969 and commissioned on 20 June 1970.

Service history

Vietnam War

In 1972–1973, Inchon circumnavigated the globe and returned to Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia. In February 1973, Inchon was attached to Task Force 78 for Operation End Sweep, the U.S. Navy's effort to clear U.S. mines from North Vietnamese waters after the signing of the Paris Peace Accords. Those operations were suspended from 17 April through 17 June. They resumed 18 June and End Sweep was completed on 18 July.

On 9 July 1975, more than 100 sailors and marines from Inchon and amphibious transport dock  fought a fire on board a Spanish merchant vessel at Palma de Mallorca, Spain. On 16 December, Inchon and oiler  were in a minor collision during refueling in rough seas west of Italy.

On 5 February 1980, while involved in an underway refueling with  in the Atlantic, the two vessels collided, with Inchons helicopter elevator ripping through a Marine berthing space on Spiegel Grove and destroying one of that ship's 50-ton cranes. There were no injuries, however.

On 29 September 1981 LCDR Kenneth Wessel, Inchon's Aircraft Handling Officer, was killed when the UH-1 Huey he was flying crashed off the coast of Virginia Beach. Three other crew members on the helicopter were rescued.

 On 7 October 1981, Inchon suffered a boiler explosion while preparing to get underway from Naval Station Norfolk.

Multinational Force – Beirut, Lebanon
From 29 October 1982 to 15 February 1983 Inchon earned the Navy Unit Commendation and the Navy Expeditionary Medal serving as the flagship of Amphibious Squadron 6, on station at Beirut, Lebanon.
The Citation for the Navy Unit Commendation reads:
For exceptionally meritorious service from 29 October 1982 to 15 February 1983 in a mission of great national and international importance while serving as the United States Forces Ashore Lebanon and supporting forces of the Multinational Force peace initiatives in Lebanon. on 29 October 1982, Mediterranean Amphibious Ready Group 3-82 and Marine Amphibious Unit 24 conducted a combined surface and helo landing across Black Beach and the International Airport of Beirut, Lebanon and immediately commenced coordinated motorized and foot patrols with other Multinational Force contingents throughout the City of Beirut. Simultaneously with operations ashore, Amphibious Task Force helicopters provided special support to the U.S. Ambassador to Lebanon and special Presidential envoys, and provided major logistics lifts from Air Support Head at Larnaca, Cyprus, to Beirut. Their superior performance and tireless devotion contributed significantly to the national objectives of world peace and Middle East stability. By their resolute determination, unrelenting perseverance, and steadfast dedication to duty, the officers and enlisted personnel of Mediterranean Amphibious Ready Group 3-82 and Marine Amphibious Unit 24 reflected great credit upon themselves and upheld the highest traditions of the Marine Corps and the United States Naval Service.

On 13 August 1986, Inchon suffered a casualty to the ship's evaporators while underway to Morehead City, North Carolina, causing the ship to return to Norfolk for two days of repairs. In November 1989 a fire in the hangar deck of Inchon injured 31 people while the ship was docked for maintenance in Norfolk.

Inchon played a key role in Operation Sharp Edge in 1990, performing evacuation operations during Liberia's civil war. Shortly afterwards, Inchon patrolled the southern Mediterranean in preparation for emergency evacuations in support of Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm.

In 1994, Inchon deployed to the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean to conduct Operation Continue Hope off the coast of Somalia and Operation Deny Flight off the coast of Bosnia. Following a six-month deployment, Inchon remained in home port for only two weeks, before she was called upon to assist in Operation Uphold Democracy off the coast of Haiti.

Mine countermeasures ship
On 1 March 1995, Inchon was re-classed as a mine countermeasures ship MCS-12 and commenced a 15-month conversion/overhaul by Ingalls Shipbuilding. In July 1996, Inchon changed homeports to Ingleside, Texas, home of the U.S. Navy's Mine Warfare Center of Excellence. Sustaining extended mine countermeasures operations at forward deployed locations required extensive command and control and logistics capabilities. Inchon provided both a landing platform for Sikorsky MH-53E Sea Dragon mine-sweeping helicopters and repair and re-supply facility for Avenger-class mine countermeasures ships and Osprey-class coastal minehunters. Inchon was assigned to the Active Naval Reserve Force, 30 September 1996. From March to July 1997, Inchon made her first deployment in her new capacity. Inchon once again deployed in 1999, from April through August, and the crew provided critical heavy lift support to Operation Shining Hope, the humanitarian relief effort for Kosovar refugees in the Balkans.

Inchons final deployment began in April 2001. On 19 October 2001, Inchon suffered an oil fire in the main boiler room while conducting inport steaming for engineering trials and assessments. A fuel oil leak had sprung from a faulty gasket on one of the main fuel pumps. This resulted in fuel oil leaking into the bilge. At some unknown point the bilge caught fire. The actual cause of the ignition to the fuel oil remains unknown. The entire bilge caught fire, and the space immediately filled with smoke. Of the nine enlisted men operating in the space, eight made it out. Petty Officer Third Class Ronnie Joe Palm Jr. of Houston, succumbed to smoke inhalation just after helping one of his fellow sailors escape. He was posthumously awarded for his heroism with the highest peacetime honor the Navy could bestow, the Navy and Marine Corps Medal.

Decommissioning and fate
Since severe damage occurred to her boiler plant the Navy made the decision at that time to decommission rather than repair the ship. Inchon was decommissioned, 20 June 2002, at NS Ingleside, Texas.

Inchon was towed by USNS Mohawk  from Ingleside to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania where she was laid up in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet. She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register 24 May 2004 and sunk on 5 December 2004 at , in 2,150 fathoms (3.9 km) of water,  east of Virginia Beach, Virginia.

List of awards, citations and campaign ribbons

 Navy Unit Commendation with 2 awards
 Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation with 3 awards
 Navy E Ribbon with 5 awards
 Marjorie Sterrett Battleship Fund Award
 Navy Expeditionary Medal with 3 awards
 National Defense Service Medal with 2 awards
 Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal
 Vietnam Service Medal
 Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal
Navy Battle "E" with 5 awards
Sea Service Overseas Ribbon with 3 awards

Gallery

Notes

References

External links

 navsource.org: USS Inchon
                            USS Inchon Association

1969 ships
Cold War amphibious warfare vessels of the United States
Gulf War ships of the United States
Iwo Jima-class amphibious assault ships
Mine countermeasures support ships of the United States Navy
Ships built in Pascagoula, Mississippi
Ships sunk as targets
Vietnam War amphibious warfare vessels of the United States

USS Inchon


The Council of Toulouse (1229) was a Council of the Roman Catholic Church called by Folquet de Marselha, the Bishop of Toulouse, in 1229 AD. The council forbade lay people to read vernacular translations of the Bible. The Council of Toulouse was a local council held by a local church, not an ecumenical council possessing binding authority over the entire Catholic Church.

Background
The Council was called by the local bishop to address the perceived threat from the rapid growth of the Albigensian movement in 13th century southern France. The council resolved that a search in each parish was to be made for heretics (Albigensian and Cathar) and that if found their houses should be destroyed and that non-Latin translations of the Bible be destroyed and likewise for other unauthorised copies.

The Council pronounced: "We prohibit also that the laity should be permitted to have the books of the Old and the New Testament; unless anyone from the motives of devotion should wish to have the Psalter or the Breviary for divine offices or the hours of the blessed Virgin; but we most strictly forbid their having any translation of these books."

Legacy
Folquet de Marselha, Bishop of Toulouse died two years later in 1231, but in 1234 another council was held at Tarragona to regulate the procedure of the Inquisition, which was already in Toulouse in 1233 and to also ratify the findings of the Toulouse Council.

Canon two of this Tarragona council restated: "No one may possess the books of the Old and New Testaments, and if anyone possesses them he must turn them over to the local bishop within eight days, so that they may be burned".

References

Toulouse
Toulouse
13th-century Christianity

Council of Toulouse


Bibliotheca Corviniana was one of the most renowned libraries of the Renaissance world, established by Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, in Buda Castle between 1458 and 1490. The books were stolen and taken  to Istanbul after the Hungarian defeat by the Ottomans in the Battle of Mohács in 1526.

History
Matthias, one of the most powerful rulers of the age, started to collect the books from about 1460. At the king's death in 1490, the library consisted of about 3,000 codices or "Corvinae" which included about four to five thousand various works, many of classical Greek and Latin authors. It represented the literary production and reflected the state of knowledge and arts of the Renaissance and included works of philosophy, theology, history, law, literature, geography, natural sciences, medicine, architecture, and many others. The codices moved to Istanbul after the Turkish conquest of Hungary in the 16th century. Only about 216 Corvinae survived, today preserved in several libraries in Hungary and Europe.

North of the Alps, Matthias's library was the largest in Europe, and its vast contents was only second to the Vatican Library in the whole of Europe, according to contemporary accounts. It was the greatest collection of science writings in its time. In 1489, Bartolomeo della Fonte of Florence wrote that Lorenzo de Medici founded his own Greek-Latin library encouraged by the example of the Hungarian king.

Nearly two-thirds of the surviving volumes had not been printed before the king's death. Some of them contained the sole copy of the works in them, like the book of Constantine Porphyrogennetos on the habits in the court of the Byzantine emperor, or the church history of Nikephoros Kallistos. Some lost Corvinae works are also known, with which the only copy of ancient books perished, including the full works of Hypereides, and writings by Flavius Cresconius Corippus, Procopius, as well as by Matthias's contemporary  Cuspinianus.

Hungary's National Széchényi Library is working on projects to restore the Corvina library in digital form.

Items from the Bibliotheca Corviniana were inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2005 in recognition of their historical significance.

References

Further reading
 Csapodi, Csaba & Csapodiné Gárdonyi, Klára: Bibliotheca Corviniana (Budapest, 1976.)

External links
 The Carbo codex from the collection of the Library and Information Centre, Hungarian Academy of Sciences

Libraries in Hungary
15th-century establishments in Europe
Memory of the World Register
Libraries established in the 15th century

Bibliotheca Corviniana


Philipp I, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe (18 July 1601 – 10 April 1681) was the founder of the Schaumburg-Lippe line.

He was born in Lemgo the son of Simon VI, Count of Lippe (1555–1613) and his second wife Countess Elisabeth of Holstein-Schaumburg (1566–1638).

Following the death of his father in 1613, he inherited Lippe-Alverdissen, which he ruled until the creation of Schaumburg-Lippe in 1640.

Schaumburg-Lippe was founded after the Thirty Years' War, when Otto V, Count of Schaumburg died without children. Following his death the County of Schaumburg went to his mother, Countess Elisabeth of Lippe as the legal heir. In 1640 she transferred her rights to her brother Philipp, who then became the first Count of Schaumburg-Lippe. He reigned as count until his death, when he was succeeded by his son Friedrich Christian. His second son Philipp Ernest received Lippe-Alverdissen.

Marriage and children
He was married on 13 October 1644 at Stadthagen to Landgravine Sophie of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) (1615–1670), they had ten children.

Countess Elisabeth (1646–1646)
Countess Sophie (1648–1671)
Countess Johanna Dorothea (1649–1696)
Countess Luise (1650–1731)
Count Wilhelm Bernard (1651–1651)
Countess Elisabeth Philippine (1652–1703)
Countess Charlotte Juliana (1658–1684)
Count Frederick Christian (1655–1728)
Count Karl Hermann (1656–1657)
Count Philip Ernest (1659–1753) founder of the Schaumburg-Lippe-Alverdissen line

External links
Schaumburg-Lippe Nobility

1601 births
1681 deaths
People from Lemgo
People from Schaumburg-Lippe
Counts of Lippe
House of Lippe

Philip I, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe


George Bernard Roskell (1850–1926) was an architect in Queensland, Australia. Some of his works are now heritage-listed.

Early life
Roskell was born in 1850 in Calcutta, West Bengal, India, the son of sea captain Nicholas Wilfred Roskell and his wife Mary Charlotte Agnes (née Jones).

Architectural career
Roskell was articled to architect EW Pugin in Dublin, Ireland. Pugin and his architect father Augustus Pugin were responsible for the design of a large number of Gothic Revival ecclesiastical buildings in Britain and Western Europe.

Roskell migrated to Sydney in 1881. In Sydney, he worked in partnership with John Bede Barlow between 1885 and 1891. The 1887 Church of St Canice in Rushcutters Bay and the 1889 St Francis of Assisi Church in Paddington, designed by the practice are both on the Sydney Local Heritage Register. Roskell then went to New Zealand, working for two firms known for their ecclesiastical projects.

Roskell relocated to Queensland as an employee of the Department of Public Works in 1907. Living in Dalby from 1909, he worked as clerk of the Dalby Town Council and also ran an architectural practice responsible for the Dalby National Bank (1910), the Dalby Hospital (1914) and the Wambo Shire Council offices (1916).

Later life
Roskell died on 28 January 1926, at Parramatta, Sydney, aged 76 years old after a short illness.

Significant works
 1913: St Columba's Convent, Dalby

References

Attribution

Architects from Queensland
Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register
1850 births
1926 deaths
British people in colonial India
British emigrants to colonial Australia

George Bernard Roskell


Albany Street is a short street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City.  The street runs west-to-east from the Battery Park City Esplanade along the Hudson River to Greenwich Street, passing through South End Avenue and West Street on the way.  The street has a walkway connection to the Rector Street Bridge which crosses West Street.

History
According to maps drawn by David Valentine, the street did not exist before 1782. By 1789, it was a small extension of Thames Street. In 1797, the first pier on the west side of the island was built. The pier was used as the dock for the ferry between New York and Albany, hence the street leading to the pier was named "Albany Street".

In the early 1850s, it was proposed that the street be extended through the yard next to Trinity Church in order to connect the street to Broadway. The proposition became the center of a heated debate between the Municipal Corporation of New York and the Religious Corporation of Trinity Church.

When Battery Park City was built on landfill in the Hudson River in the 1980s, the street was extended west of West Street into the new development.

Buildings
The Deutsche Bank Building was located on the north side of the street, but was heavily damaged in the September 11 attacks in 2001.  The Alliance for Downtown New York and the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation in 2014 redeveloped part of that site into a new public open space, the Albany Street Plaza.

Buildings on Albany Street include the 90 West Street (1907), also known as the West Street Building, a New York City designated landmark designed by Cass Gilbert, and 130 Cedar Street, formerly the 12-story Green Exchange Building, designed by Renwick, Aspinwall & Guard and completed in 1931. The building was devastated in the September 11 attacks, and redeveloped into the 19-story Club Quarters hotel, which opened in 2000. Other hotels on Albany Street are the W New York Downtown at 8 Albany Street, the New York Marriott Downtown, located at 85 West Street at the corner of Albany Street, and the World Center Hotel at 144 Washington Street at Albany Street.

Also of note are the town house apartments at 320-340 Albany Street and the Hudson Tower Apartments at No. 350, both built in 1986 and both designed by Davis, Brody & Associates.  Both buildings are mentioned in the AIA Guide to New York City.

References

External links

Financial District, Manhattan
Streets in Manhattan
1780s establishments in New York (state)

Albany Street (Manhattan)


Gil Parris is an American Grammy-nominated rock, blues, jazz and pop guitarist.  He graduated from Ardsley High School in 1976.  After briefly attending the Berklee School of Music, Parris left to tour Europe as part of a musical troupe performing Jesus Christ Superstar before becoming a recording artist. Parris has released six solo albums and played collaboratively with over 20 other groups/artists. Parris is known for his blending of blues, jazz, rock and smooth jazz in his work. He has recorded and toured both as a solo artist and as a sideman with major artists including Dr. John, Blood, Sweat & Tears, Diane Schuur, David Mann, Jimmy Savile, Bobby Caldwell and Nickelback.

Discography

Solo releases
Gil Parris - 1998
Blue Thumb - 2002
Jam This -2003
Live at the Next Door Cafe - 2005
Strength - 2006
Gil Parris and Friends Live DVD - 2007
A Certain Beauty - 2009

Collaborations
Syndicate of Soul - Who's Snakin' Who? (with Dr. John, Corery Glover and others)
Bluesiana Hurricane - Halfsteppin (with Bill Doggett, Lester Bowie and others)
Skallelujah - with Joe Ferry
Strength - with Toko Furuuchi
Secrets - with Toni Braxton
In Front of My Eyes - with Bakithi Kumalo
Harris Bros Horns - with Joel Rosenblatt, Robert Aires and Dave Anderson
A Woman's Love - with Vanesse Thomas
BIG SKA - with Joe Ferry
I'll Take Care of You - with Chuck Jackson and Cissy Houston
Let the Feeling Flow - with Matt Jordan and Kelli Sae
Poseidon's Son - with Kati Mac
Nicole Hart Live NRG! - with Nicole Hart
The Christmas Album - with David Clayton Thomas
Blues for a Sunday Morning - 2000 - Various Artists (Compilation)
Public Domain - 2000 - Various Artists (compilation - Gil Parris was nominated for a Grammy in 2001 for his creative solo guitar arrangement of "Pop Goes the Weasel")
iBod - with Ivan "Funkboy" Bodley
Arenal - with Ronnie Dinoto
In Joy - Gordon James
Live-Terry Silverlight (w/Will Lee, Chris Hunter, Rob Aires, Clifford Carter, etc...)

References

External links
 Myspace for Gil Parris
 Reverend Gil Parris Guitar Setup and demo

Living people
1977 births
American male guitarists
American pop guitarists
American rock guitarists
American blues guitarists
21st-century American guitarists
21st-century American male musicians

Gil Parris


Pluck Lake is a lake to the east of Swansea city centre in the Morfa area north of Kilvey Hill. It forms part of Kilvey Community Woodland. Pluck Lake, is a refuge for blue-tailed damselfly and the emperor dragonfly. In April 2008 a crocodile was supposedly sighted in the waters of the lake attracting some attention from the media and members  from The Centre for Fortean Zoology and was nicknamed the Morfadile or Pluck Ness Monster.

References

External links
BBC South West Wales - Kilvey Community Woodland
"Down The Pluck", inspired by Pluck Lake Swansea, South Wales - Art, Stories and Photography.

Bon-y-maen
Lakes of Swansea

Pluck Lake


Aretino was an American record label. It was in business from about 1907 to 1914. Aretino was started by Arthur J. O'Neill. He started many record and phonograph businesses in the Chicago area. O'Neill named this company in honor of Guido Aretino, an 11th-century Italian monk.

Aretino is an odd type of record because the hole in the center is very large compared to the normal size.  It is the largest ever for a record that was made for people to use in their houses. Like many of O'Neill's other companies, Aretino was run as a premium scheme. A phonograph (record player) was offered for not much money. However, this record player could only play Aretino records because it came with a 3-inch spindle.  O'Neill also offered adapters for Aretino discs. These allowed the discs to be played on record players that had normal spindles, or even on a Busy Bee machine (another O'Neill brand) which had two spindles instead of one.

Aretino did not make any of its own recordings: it borrowed masters from other companies. The first series of Aretino records had music on only one side of the disc. They were each given a catalog number beginning with the letter A. The music was recorded on them by Leeds & Catlin. Leeds and Catlin also made a group of records for Aretino with catalog numbers starting with the letter D.  These records have a recording on both sides.  They are very hard to find now.  Leeds & Catlin was later shut down by court order for patent infringement. After that, Aretino records were made for a short time by two record companies named Hawthorne & Sheble and Zonophone.  These companies kept making records which only had music on one side of the record. They also kept using catalog numbers beginning with "A".

It was not long after this that Columbia became the maker of these records.  No other companies made records for Aretino after Columbia began to make them.  These records have a catalog number that begins with the letter "D" and then numbers that are larger than 500.  They have music on both sides.  Of all Aretino records, these are the most common.  Most records from this time period have a diameter of 10 inches.  Columbia also made a group of records for Aretino that are 12 inches in diameter.  These are very hard to find.  They have catalog numbers with the letter "A" at the beginning. Aretino stopped making anything after the year 1914.

The music on the Aretino label was like most music from those years.  Some artists on Aretino are Henry Burr, William F. Denny, Byron G. Harlan, Ada Jones, Billy Murray, Vess Ossman, Steve Porter, Cal Stewart, and Bert Williams.

References

1907 establishments in the United States
1914 disestablishments
American record labels
1900s establishments in Illinois
1910s disestablishments in the United States
20th-century disestablishments in Illinois

Aretino Records


Jesse Philo Mortensen (April 16, 1907 in Thatcher, Arizona – February 19, 1962) was an NCAA champion track athlete and coach. Mortensen is one of only three men to win Division I Men's Outdoor Track and Field Championship team titles as both an athlete and coach.

Biography
Mortensen enrolled at the University of Southern California (USC) in 1928.  While at USC, he won eight varsity letters, three each in basketball and track and field and two in football.  In basketball, he was selected as an All-Pacific Coast Conference player in 1928 and 1930.  In football, he played at the left halfback position and was a member of the 1929 USC Trojans football team that defeated Pittsburgh in the 1930 Rose Bowl.  In  track and field, Mortensen was captain of the 1930 NCAA championship track team.  He won the 1929 NCAA javelin title and set a world record in the decathlon in 1931.

After graduating from USC, Mortensen held coaching positions at Riverside Junior College, with the United States Navy during World War II, and after the war at the University of Denver and the United States Military Academy. He returned to become coach of the USC track and field team in 1951. He led the USC Trojans to seven NCAA titles in his 11 years as coach (1951–1961). His teams never lost a dual meet (64-0) and never finished worse than second in the conference meet. He was an assistant U.S. men's track coach in the 1956 Olympics. He also served as an assistant football coach at USC from 1951 to 1955. He coached track at the University of Denver and the United States Military Academy.

Mortensen died on the 19th of February, 1962, at Good Samaritan Hospital.

Mortensen is a member of the University of Southern California Athletic Hall of Fame, the National Track and Field Hall of Fame and the U.S. Track & Field and Cross Country Coaches Association Hall of Fame.

Personal life
Mortensen was a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

References

External links

1907 births
1962 deaths
All-American college men's basketball players
American men's basketball players
Basketball players from Arizona
Junior college men's track and field athletes in the United States
People from Thatcher, Arizona
Track and field athletes from California
USC Trojans football coaches
USC Trojans football players
USC Trojans men's basketball players
USC Trojans track and field coaches
United States Navy personnel of World War II
Latter Day Saints from Arizona
Latter Day Saints from California
American Latter Day Saints
University of Southern California alumni
USC Trojans athletes
USC Trojans men's track and field athletes
American male javelin throwers
American male decathletes
American track and field athletics biography stubs

Jess Mortensen


Pieter Andreas Rijsbrack (1685 or 1690 – 1748) (sometimes Anglicized as Peter Rysbrack) was a Flemish painter of still lifes and landscapes who was active in England in the first half of the 18th century. He is particularly known for launching the vogue of topographical views of English country houses and gardens.  He was the older brother of the sculptor John Michael Rysbrack.

Life
Pieter Andreas Rijsbrack was born in Paris as the son of the Antwerp landscape painter Pieter Rijsbraeck and his wife Genoveva Compagnon. His father had been working in Paris since c. 1678. Pieter Andreas moved with his parents to Antwerp around 1692.  He learned to paint with his father and became a member of the Guild of St. Luke in Antwerp in 1711.  He married the same year in Antwerp to Maria Anna van de Wee, the widow of the printmaker Cornelis Vermeulen. His wife died in 1718.

Pieter Andreas moved with his younger brother, the sculptor John Michael Rysbrack, to London around 1720. Pieter Andreas had more brothers who also became painters.  One of these, the still life painter Gerard, joined him and John Michael in England.

John Michael Rysbrack became one of the leading sculptors in England and was particularly known for his portraits. As a sculptor to the elite, he was able to build a network of relationships with influential people in England. This served his brothers well as they were able to use these connections to gain commissions from prominent patrons.

One of Pieter Andreas most important commissions was the one he received from Lord Burlington to paint a series of country house portraits of Chiswick House. Rijsbrack thus took his place in a long tradition of Flemish painters who made topographical paintings of the estates of the British nobility which includes artists such as Jan Siberechts, Peter Tillemans and Hendrik Frans de Cort.

Rijsbrack died in London in October 1748, possibly of consumption.

Work
He is known for his landscapes and still lifes.  His still lifes cover the whole range of animal paintings, game pieces, fish pieces and fruit pieces. The still lifes and game pieces where in the Flemish style.  An example is the Still Life of Vegetables, a Pineapple and Other Fruit with a Silver Platter on a Ledge (Corpus Christi College, Cambridge).

He also established a reputation with his topographical landscapes and portraits of country houses and gardens.  He made two series of paintings of Chiswick House and Gardens upon the commission by Lord Burlington. The purpose of the paintings was to serve as a reminder to Lord Burlington of the progress of the work on the Palladian villa and its setting, which Burlington had designed himself.  Work on Chiswick House and Gardens had commenced in 1717 and was completed in 1729.  The paintings were probably displayed in Lord Burlington's various other properties such as Burlington House and at his Yorkshire country seat.  The series of paintings had an important influence on the fashion for sets of garden views that emerged in the second quarter of the 18th century and gained further popularity with the rise of the picturesque movement.

Rijsbrack's work was also significant for its use of innovative ways of depicting the subject.  He portrayed the house and gardens from different angles magnifying certain segments and adopting a somewhat exaggerated perspective. He could thus better illustrate the scenographic and topographical variety of the site.  He also included scenes of animals, gardeners and 'polite society' in the landscape thus introducing French influences into English painting and adding an element of social discourse. Among his followers are John Rocque and Jacques Rigaud who both also worked at Chiswick.  Rijsbrack's painting series forms an important historical document showing various phases of Lord Burlington's remodelling of the grounds at Chiswick before William Kent's interventions of the 1730s.

In 1735 Rijsbrack painted An Exact Draught and View of Mr Pope's House at Twickenham.  He was possibly the first artist to paint Alexander Pope's villa from across the river. An engraved View of Mr Pope's House at Twickenham by Nathaniel Parr – the only print of Alexander Pope's Thames-side villa to be issued in the poet's lifetime – was made in 1735 after this painting or a drawing (untraced) by Rijsbrack.

Rijsbrack also received from Lord Burlington a commission to paint three views of Tottenham Park.  The earliest one predates Burlington's reworking of the site, while the other two comprise a large bird-view prospect and a smaller view showing the Inigo Jones inspired rear portico.

Rijsbrack painted a bird-eye view of Richmond Ferry (Orleans House Gallery, London). The painting depicts the view from the Town Wharf next to the White Cross Inn.

At international auctions landscape paintings of Rijsbrack more reminiscent of the classicizing style of his father are regularly offered for sale.  An example is the Travellers in a classical landscape.  A work in a similar style entitled A Southern Landscape with Muleteers is part of the collection at the National Trust, Hatchlands.

References

External links

1685 births
1690 births
1748 deaths
Flemish still life painters
Flemish landscape painters
18th-century Flemish painters
Painters from Antwerp
Belgian expatriates in England

Pieter Andreas Rijsbrack


Nicolae Breban (; born February 1, 1934, in Baia Mare, Maramureș County, Transylvania, Socialist Republic of Romania) is a Romanian novelist and essayist of partial German descent.

Biography
He is the son of Vasile Breban, a Greek Catholic priest in the village of Recea, Maramureș County. His mother, Olga Constanţa Esthera Breban, born Böhmler, descended from a family of German merchants who emigrated from Alsace-Lorraine. In 1951, he was expelled from school on account of his social origin when in the penultimate year at the "Coriolan Brediceanu" High School in Lugoj. He worked as an office clerk in Oradea, and finally passed the graduation exams at the "Oltea Doamna" High School. As he intended to study at the Polytechnical Institute, he had to work first as an apprentice at the "23 August" Works in Bucharest. He enrolled in the Faculty of Philosophy by "forging personal documents" as he candidly admitted in Confesiuni violente ("Violent Confessions"). His reading of Nietzsche and Schopenhauer made him, in fact, suspicious in the eyes of Dean Athanase Joja. He made his literary debut in "Viaţa studenţească" (no. 5, May 1957), with the sketch Doamna din vis ("The Lady in the Dream").

At the 10th Congress of the Romanian Communist Party, held between 6 and 12 August 1969, he was elected a substitute member of the Central Committee. Beginning with issue no. 20 of 14 May 1970, he was editor-in-chief of the literary review România literară, around which he attracted some of Romania's most important writers. In 1971, the première of the movie Printre colinele verzi/Among the Green Hills (written and directed by Nicolae Breban), the film version of Sick Animals, took place. The communist authorities were quite annoyed by this movie, but it was nevertheless included in the official selection for the International Festival of Cannes. While in Paris, Nicolae Breban remained shocked by the so-called "July Theses", by means of which Nicolae Ceauşescu, following the Maoist model, was trying to start some kind of Cultural Revolution. The writer publicly repudiated the cultural policy of the Romanian regime in a number of interviews published in the Western media, and, in protest, resigned his position as editor-in-chief of "România literară". Back home, in 1972, the communist authorities regarded him as an outcast. He was therefore marginalized, watched by the police, and not allowed to travel abroad again until 1975, despite having also acquired German citizenship that year. Without actually becoming an exile, he lived mostly in Paris with his wife, Cristina, between 1986 and 1989. He returned to Romania, and in 1990 launched a new series of the literary review "Contemporanul. Ideea europeană". On 24 October 1997, he became a corresponding member of the Romanian Academy, and on 14 January 2009, a full member.

Published works

Novels
 Francisca, 1965
 În absenţa stăpânilor (When the Masters are Away), 1966
 Animale bolnave (Sick Animals), 1968
 Îngerul de gips (The Plaster Angel), 1973
 Bunavestire (The Annunciation), 1977
 Don Juan, 1981
 Drumul la zid (The Back to the Wall), 1984
 Pândă şi seducţie (Still hunt and Seduction), 1991
 Amfitrion (Amphitryon), vol. I, Demonii mărunţi/The Lesser Demons, vol. II, Procuratorii/The Procurators, vol. III, Alberta, 1994
  Ziua şi noaptea  (The Day and the Night), 1998
  Voinţa de putere  (The Will to Power), 2001
 Puterea nevăzută  (The Unseen Power), 2004
 Jiquidi, 2007
 Singura cale (The Only Path), 2011

Novels translated in other languages
 Franciska, translated by Huszár Sándor, Bucharest, Irodalom Könyvkiádó, 1968
 Franciska, translated by Ivan Krstev Vlah, Sofia, Profizdet, 1968
 Franciska, translated by Jurij Koževnikov, Moscow, Progress, 1969
 Franciska, translated by Juozas Vaisnoras, Vilnius, Vaga, 1970
 Franciska, translated by Janis Bunduls, Riga, Liesma, 1971
 Kranke Tiere (Sick Animals), translated by Georg Scherg, Bucharest, Kriterion, 1973
 When the Masters are Away (Ebbi en Kvinna med karaktär), translated by Barbro Andersson into Swedish, René Coeckelberghs' Publishing House, 1975
 When the Masters are Away (En l'absence des maîtres), translated by Virgil Tănase into French, Paris, Publishing House Flammarion, 1983
 Annunciation (L'Annonciation), translated by Dorina Radu and Marcel Péju, Paris, Publishing House Flammarion, 1985
 Don Juan, translated by Marcel Péju and Daniel Pujol, Paris, Publishing House Flammarion, 1993
 When the Masters are Away (In assenza dei padroni), translated by Maria Floarea Pop, Siena, Edizioni Cantagalli, 2013

Short stories
 Orfeu în infern (Orpheus in the Underwold), 2008

Essays, diaries
 Confesiuni violente (Violent Confessions), 1994
 Riscul în cultură (Taking Chances in Culture), 1997
 Spiritul românesc în faţa unei dictaturi (The Romanian Spirit Facing Dictatorship), 1997
 Stricte amintiri literare (Rigorous Literary Memoirs), 2001
 Sensul vieţii (Memorii I-IV) (The Meaning of Life), 2003–2007
 Friedrich Nietzsche, Maxime comentate (Commented Morals), 2004
 Vinovaţi fără vină (Innocent Culprits), 2006

Plays
Bătrâna doamnă şi fluturele (The Old Lady and the Butterfly), 1984
Culoarul cu şoareci (A Corridor Ridden with Mice), 1990 (the première of the play is performed at "Vasile Alecsandri" National Theater in Iaşi in 1993)
 Ursul şi ştiuca (The Bear and the Pike), 2000

Poems
Elegii parisiene (Parisian Elegies), 1992
 Gesänge, 2021 - Übersetzt von Christian W. Schenk, mit Kupferstichen von den Erste deutschen Künstlern, XVI-XVIII, Dionysos Verlag, Boppard am Rhein Germany, Erste deutsche Ausgabe,

Translation
 Rainer Maria Rilke, Duino Elegies, 2006; 2008

Filmography
(as screenplay writer)
Răutăciosul adolescent (A Woman for a Season) (directed by: Gheorghe Vitanidis), 1969

(as screenplay writer and director)
Printre colinele verzi (Among the Green Hills, the film version of Sick Animals), 1971

Awards
 The "Ion Creangă" Award of the Romanian Academy (1965)
 The Romanian Writers' Union Award (1968)
 The Romanian Writers' Union Award (1994)
 The Romanian Writers' Union Award "Opera Omnia" (2000)

Further reading
 Marian Victor Buciu, Breban. Eseu despre stratagemele supravieţuirii narative (Breban. An Essay on the Stratagems of Narrative Survival), Craiova, Editura Sitech, 1996
 Laura Pavel, Antimemoriile lui Grobei. Eseu monografic despre opera lui Nicolae Breban (The Antimemoires of Grobei. A Monographic Essay on the Oeuvre of Nicolae Breban), Bucharest, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, "Akademos", 1997, the 2nd edition, Bucharest, Editura Ideea Europeană, 2004
 Liviu Maliţa, Nicolae Breban, micromonography, Braşov, Editura Aula, colecţia "Canon", 2001
 Dicţionarul scriitorilor români (The Dictionary of the Romanian Writers), edited by Mircea Zaciu, Marian Papahagi, Aurel Sasu, A-C, Bucharest, Editura Fundaţiei Culturale Române, 1995
 Dicţionarul esenţial al scriitorilor români (The Essential Dictionary of the Romaniana Writers), Bucharest, Editura Albatros, 2000
 Dicţionarul general al literaturii române (The General Dictionary of the Romanian Literature), edited by: Eugen Simion, A-B, Bucharest, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 2004
 Dicţionar analitic de opere literare româneşti (Analytical Dictionary of Romanian Literary Works), edited by: Ion Pop, final edition, Cluj, Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, 2007

References
 Interview by Edgar Reichmann, in "UNESCO Courier", June, 1995
  Laura Pavel, in "Apostrof", no. 10, October 2005
  Ion Simuţ,  in "România literară", no. 40, October 12, 2007
   Review by Gabriel Dimisianu, in "România literară", no. 8, February 29, 2008

External links
 Revista Contemporanul
 Editura Polirom
 Contemporary Romanian Writers

1934 births
Living people
20th-century Romanian novelists
Romanian male novelists
Romanian magazine editors
Romanian essayists
Romanian translators
Titular members of the Romanian Academy
Romanian dissidents
Romanian people of German descent
People from Baia Mare
20th-century translators
Male essayists
International Writing Program alumni
20th-century essayists
20th-century Romanian male writers
România Literară editors

Nicolae Breban