The Battle of Midway was an important naval battle of World War II, between the United States and the Empire of Japan. It took place from 4 June 1942 to 7 June 1942. This was about a month after the Battle of the Coral Sea, and six months after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

The United States Navy defeated a Japanese attack against Midway Atoll (northwest of Hawaii) and destroyed four Japanese aircraft carriers and a heavy cruiser.

The battle was a decisive victory for the Americans. It was the most important naval battle of the Pacific area in World War II. The battle weakened the Imperial Japanese Navy for the rest of the war. Japan could not build up its forces again. The United States replaced their lost ships and planes with better ones very quickly. Japan could only make a few poor quality replacements.

The Japanese planned to bring America's carriers into a trap and sink them. The Japanese also tried to take Midway Atoll to build defenses far from their homeland and prepare to invade Fiji, Samoa, and Hawaii.

The Midway operation, like the attack on Pearl Harbor, was made to destroy the American strength in the Pacific Ocean. This way, Japan could become the biggest power in the area and unify Asia under its control. It was also hoped that another defeat would force the U.S. to ask for peace soon.

After the defeat, Imperial Japanese Navy forces retired. Japan lost four out of their six carriers, and hundreds of their best air pilots. This stopped the expansion of the Japanese Empire in the Pacific, and the Americans began to slowly advance towards Japan.

Background

Japan had reached its first goals quickly, taking the Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia).  This gave Japan petroleum, which it needed to make more war. Planning for a second part of the operations started in January 1942. However, disagreements between the Imperial Army and Imperial Navy, and among naval commanders, prevented finishing the plan until April 1942. Admiral Yamamoto said he would quit if his plan for the Central Pacific was not accepted. It was accepted.

Yamamoto's main goal was to destroy America's carrier forces, which he saw as the main threat to the Pacific campaign. This concern was increased by the Doolittle Raid on 18 April 1942. In this raid, 16 US Army Air Forces B-25 Mitchell bombers launched from  bombed targets in Tokyo and several other Japanese cities.  The raid, while militarily unimportant, showed that American bombers could reach Japanese territory. This and other successful raids by American carriers showed that they were still a threat.

Yamamoto thought that another attack on the U.S Naval base at Pearl Harbor would make all of the American fleet to sail out to fight, including the carriers. However, because of the many American land-based airplanes on Hawaii, he thought that it was too risky to attack directly. Instead, he decided to attack Midway, a tiny atoll at the northwest end of the Hawaiian Island chain, approximately  from Oahu. The Japanese didn't need Midway but they felt the Americans would try hard to defend it.

The U.S. did consider Midway to be important. After the battle, they set up a submarine base on Midway. That meant submarines operating from Pearl Harbor could refuel and get new supplies, so they could go  farther west. Midway's airstrips were also used for bomber attacks on Wake Island.

Yamamoto's plan: Operation MI

Like most Japanese naval planning during World War II, Yamamoto's battle plan was very complex.  His was also based on incorrect (wrong) information.  He thought that  and  were the only carriers available to the U.S. Pacific Fleet. In May 1942, during the Battle of the Coral Sea,  had been sunk and  so badly damaged that the Japanese thought she had been sunk. The Japanese also knew that  was being repaired on the US West Coast after getting torpedo damage from a submarine.  and  were in the Atlantic, but the Japanese were not sure this was so.

Yamamoto thought that the Americans had been demoralized by their defeats in the last six months.  He thought a trick would lure the U.S. fleet into a dangerous situation. He spread out his ships, especially his battleships, so that they would be hard to find. Yamamoto's battleships and cruisers went behind Vice-Admiral Chūichi Nagumo's carrier force by several hundred miles.  Japan's heavy surface forces would wait for the U.S. ships to come to defend Midway, and destroy them.

The plan was for Nagumo's carriers to cause so much harm to US ships that the Japanese could fire on them by daylight.

Yamamoto did not know that the U.S. had broken the main Japanese naval code. Yamamoto's choice to spread out his ships meant that none of his groups of ships could support each other. The only warships larger than the 12 destroyers that protected Nagumo's fleet were two battleships, two heavy cruisers, and one light cruiser.

Aleutian invasion
The Japanese attacks in the Aleutian Islands (Operation AL) took away yet more ships that could have attacked Midway.  Many histories once saw the Aleutians attack as a feint to draw American forces away.  Early twenty-first century research shows that AL was supposed to be launched at the same time as the attack on Midway. However, a one-day delay in the sailing of Nagumo's ships resulted in Operation AL beginning a day before the Midway attack.

Prelude to battle

American reinforcements

To battle with an enemy expected to have four or five carriers, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas, needed every U.S. carrier he could get. He already had Vice Admiral William Halsey's two-carrier (Enterprise and Hornet) force. Halsey was sick with psoriasis and had to be replaced by Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance. Nimitz also called back Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher's force, including the carrier Yorktown (which had major damage at Coral Sea), from the South West Pacific Area. It reached Pearl Harbor just in time to sail.

The damaged Yorktown however, was not completely crippled. The Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard worked all day and all night, and in 72 hours she was ready to battle for two or three weeks. Her flight deck was patched, sections of internal frames were replaced, and several squadrons of aircraft were taken from Saratoga. The pilots did not get time to train. Repairs on Yorktown continued even as she sailed out.

On Midway, by 4 June the USN had stationed four groups of PBYs—31 aircraft in total—for long-range reconnaissance duties, and six new Grumman TBF-1 Avengers. The Avengers were taken from Hornets VT-8. The Marine Corps had 19 Douglas SBD Dauntlesses, seven Grumman F4F-3 Wildcats, 17 Vought SB2U-3 Vindicators, and 21 Brewster F2A-3s. The USAAF sent a group of 17 B-17 Flying Fortresses and eight B-26 Marauders with torpedoes: in total 126 aircraft.

Japanese shortcomings

During the Battle of the Coral Sea one month earlier, the Japanese light carrier Shōhō had been sunk and the fleet carrier  had three bomb hits, and was in drydock undergoing repairs. Although the carrier  was undamaged, she had lost almost half her airplanes and was in port in Kure awaiting new planes and pilots. No new pilots were available because none had been trained. Flight instructors were used in an effort to make up the missing aircrew.

Japan's two most advanced aircraft carriers were not available and Admiral Nagumo would therefore have only four fleet carriers:  and ;  and .  At least part of this was due to overwork; Japanese carriers had been constantly operating since 7 December 1941, including raids on Darwin and Colombo.

The main Japanese carrier-based aircraft were the Aichi D3A1 dive bomber and the Nakajima B5N2, which was used either as a torpedo bomber or as a bomber.  However, production of the D3A had been reduced, while production of the B5N had been stopped.  None were available to replace losses.  In addition many of the aircraft being used during the June 1942 operations had been operating since late November 1941; many were almost worn out and had become increasingly unreliable.  These factors meant that all carriers of the Kido Butai had fewer aircraft than normal and there were not enough spare aircraft or parts. I
Japan's main carrier fighter was the fast Mitsubishi A6M2 "Zero".

Japanese scouting before the battle was disorganized. A line of Japanese submarines was late getting into position. This let the American carriers reach their meeting point northeast of Midway (known as "Point Luck") without being found by the subs. A second attempt at scouting, using four-engine Kawanishi H8K flying boats to fly to Pearl Harbor prior to the battle and see whether the American carriers were there did not work out because Japanese subs could not refuel the planes. Japan did not know where the American carriers were before the battle.

Japanese radios did pick up more American submarine activity and messages. Yamamoto knew this before the battle, but Japanese plans were not changed. Yamamoto, at sea on , assumed that Nagumo had received the same message from Tokyo, and he did not send the message, because he did not want the US to hear the message. Nagumo's radio antennas could not get the message from Tokyo.

Allied code-breaking
Admiral Nimitz had one advantage: code experts had broken the Japanese Navy's JN-25b code. Since the early spring of 1942, the US had been decoding messages stating that there would soon be an operation at objective "AF". They guessed that it was Midway and sent an uncoded radio message that Midway needed fresh water. The code breakers then picked up a Japanese message that "AF was short on water." HYPO was also able to determine the date of the attack as either 4 or 5 June, and to tell Nimitz exactly which Japanese ships were coming. Japan had a new codebook, but it was not used for several days. The new code, which had not yet been figured out, was used shortly before the attack began, but the important information had already been figured out.

Americans knew where, when, and in what strength the Japanese would arrive at Midway. Nimitz knew that the Japanese had ruined their advantage in number of ships by dividing their ships into four groups, all too separated to be able to support each other. Nimitz calculated that the aircraft on his three carriers, plus those on Midway Island, gave the U.S. rough parity with Yamamoto's four carriers, mainly because American carrier air groups were larger than Japanese ones. The Japanese, by contrast, remained almost totally unaware of their opponent's true strength and dispositions even after the battle began.

Battle

Initial air attacks
At about 09:00 on 3 June, a US Navy patrol plane spotted the Japanese Occupation Force  to the west-southwest of Midway. Three hours later, the Americans found the Japanese transport group  to the west. They attacked, but none of the bombs hit and no major damage resulted. Early the following morning the Japanese oil tanker Akebono Maru was hit by a torpedo from an attacking PBY. This was the only successful air-launched torpedo attack by the U.S. during the entire battle.

At 04:30 on 4 June, Nagumo launched his attack on Midway. It consisted of 36 dive bombers 36 torpedo bombers, escorted by 36 Mitsubishi Zero fighters. At the same time he launched a defensive combat air patrol. His eight search planes launched 30 minutes late.

Japanese reconnaissance plans were poor, with too few aircraft to cover the search areas. Yamamoto's decisions had now become a serious problem.

As Nagumo's bombers and fighters were taking off, 11 PBYs were leaving Midway to search for Japanese ships. They reported sighting two Japanese carriers with empty decks, which meant an air strike was on its way. American radar picked up the enemy at a distance of several miles, and planes were sent off to defend Midway. Bombers headed off to attack the Japanese carrier fleet. US fighters remained behind to defend Midway. At 06:20 Japanese carrier aircraft bombed and heavily damaged the U.S. base. Midway-based Marine fighter pilots, flying F4Fs and obsolescent F2As, intercepted the Japanese and had many losses. Most of the U.S. planes were shot down in the first few minutes; several were damaged, and only two could fly. In all, 3 F4Fs and 13 F2As were shot down. American anti-aircraft fire was accurate damaging many Japanese aircraft and destroying four.

Of the 108 Japanese aircraft involved in this attack, 11 were destroyed, 14 were heavily damaged, and 29 were damaged. The initial Japanese attack did not destroy Midway: American bombers could still use the airbase to refuel and attack the Japanese invasion force. Most of Midway's land-based defenses were intact. Another air attack to destroy Midway's defences would be necessary if troops were to be able to go ashore by 7 June.

American bombers based on Midway made several attacks on the Japanese carrier fleet. These included six Grumman Avengers from the s VT-8 (Midway was the first combat mission for the VT-8 airmen, and it was the first combat of the TBF), Marine Scout-Bombing Squadron 241 (VMSB-241), consisting of eleven SB2U-3s and sixteen SBDs, plus four USAAF B-26s, armed with torpedoes, and fifteen B-17s. The Japanese fought off these attacks. The US lost two fighters, five TBFs, two SB2Us, eight SBDs and two B-26s.

One B-26, after being seriously damaged by anti-aircraft fire, dove straight toward the Akagi. The plane just missed the carrier's bridge, which could have killed Nagumo and his command staff. This may have made Nagumo decide to launch another attack on Midway, against Yamamoto's order to keep the reserve force for anti-ship operations.

Nagumo's decision
Admiral Nagumo had kept half of his aircraft in reserve. These were two squadrons of dive bombers and torpedo bombers. At 07:15 Nagumo ordered his reserve planes to be re-armed with bombs for use against land targets. At 07:40 a scout plane from Tone saw a big American naval force to the east. It seems that Nagumo did not receive the report until 08:00. Nagumo reversed his order, but it took 40 minutes before Tones scout finally radioed that there was a carrier in the American force. This was one of the carriers from TF 16; the other carrier was not sighted.

Nagumo was now unsure of what to do. Rear Admiral Tamon Yamaguchi recommended that Nagumo strike with the forces at hand: 18 Aichi D3A dive bombers each on Sōryū and Hiryū, and half the cover patrol aircraft. Nagumo's opportunity to hit the American ships, however, was now limited. The Midway strike force would be returning shortly and needed to land or crash into the sea. Because of the constant flight deck activity, the Japanese did not get their reserve planes on the flight deck for launch. The few aircraft that were ready were defensive Fighter aircraft. Launching aircraft would have required at least 30 to 45 minutes. By launching right away, Nagumo would be using some of his reserve without proper anti-ship weapons. He had just seen how easily unescorted American bombers had been shot down. Poor discipline caused many of the Japanese bombers to get rid of their bombs and attempt to fight intercepting F4Fs. Japanese carrier rules preferred full strikes, and since Nagumo did not know the American force included a carrier, his response followed Japanese rules. In addition, the arrival of another American air strike at 07:53 made Nagumo want to attack the island again. Nagumo decided to wait for his first strike force to land, then launch the reserve, which would by then be armed and ready.

Fletcher's carriers had launched their planes beginning at 07:00, so the aircraft that attacked Nagumo were already on their way. There was nothing Nagumo could do about it. This was the flaw with Yamamoto's plans.

Attacks on the Japanese fleet

The Americans had already launched their carrier aircraft against the Japanese. Admiral Fletcher, in command aboard Yorktown, and having PBY sighting reports from the early morning, ordered an attack on the Japanese as soon as possible. He held Yorktown in reserve in case any other Japanese carriers were found. (Fletcher's directions to Spruance were sent by Nimitz, who had remained ashore.)

Spruance thought that even though the range was far, an attack could succeed. He gave the order to launch the attack at around 06:00. Fletcher, upon completing his own scouting flights, followed at 08:00 from Yorktown.

Admiral Fletcher, commanding the Yorktown task force, along with Captain Elliott Buckmaster,Yorktowns commanding officer, and their staffs had experience in doing a full strike against an enemy force in the Coral Sea. But they could not pass on what they had learned to Enterprise and Hornet which were ordered to launch the first strike. Spruance ordered the aircraft to go to the target right away, since destroying enemy carriers was important to the safety of his ships. Spruance decided it was more important to attack as soon as possible, rather than coordinate the attack by aircraft of different types and speeds (fighters, bombers, and torpedo bombers). American squadrons went to the target in several different groups. He hoped that he would find Nagumo with his flight decks full of planes.

American carrier aircraft had difficulty locating the target. The strike from Hornet, led by Commander Stanhope C. Ring, did not fly in the right direction. Air Group Eight's dive bombers missed the Japanese carriers. Torpedo Squadron 8 flew in the correct direction. However, the 10 F4Fs from Hornet had run out of fuel and had to crash into the ocean. Waldron's squadron saw the enemy carriers and began attacking at 09:20, followed by Torpedo Squadron 6 (VT-6, from Enterprise) whose Wildcat fighter escorts also ran low on fuel and had to turn back at 09:40. Without fighter escort, all fifteen TBD Devastators of VT-8 were shot down without being able to do any damage, with Ensign George Gay the only survivor. VT-6 lost 10 of their 14 Devastators, and 10 of Yorktown's VT-3's 12 Devastators were shot down with no hits. Part of the problem was the poor performance of the Mark 13 torpedoes. Senior Navy and Bureau of Ordnance officers never asked why six torpedoes, released so close to the Japanese carriers, produced no hits. The Japanese combat air patrol, flying Mitsubishi A6M2 Zeros shot down the unescorted, slow, under-armed TBDs. A few TBDs managed to get close enough to drop their torpedoes and shoot their machine guns at the enemy ships. This made the Japanese carriers to make sharp turns. The TBD Devastator was never again used in combat.

Despite their failure to get any hits, the American torpedo attacks made the Japanese carriers unable to prepare and launch their own strike. They also pulled the Japanese combat air patrol (CAP) out of position. As well, many Zeros ran low on ammunition and fuel. The appearance of a third torpedo plane attack from the southeast by Torpedo Squadron 3 (VT-3 from Yorktown) at 10:00 made the Japanese CAP fly to the southeast corner of the fleet. Better discipline and using more Zeroes for the CAP might have enabled Nagumo to prevent the damage caused by the coming American attacks.

Three squadrons of SBDs from Enterprise and Yorktown (VB-6, VS-6 and VB-3, respectively) were approaching from the southwest and northeast. The two squadrons from Enterprise were running low on fuel because of the time spent looking for the enemy. However, the squadron commander decided to continue the search. He spotted the Japanese destroyer Arashi. It was moving to rejoin Nagumo's carriers after having unsuccessfully depth-charged U.S. submarine . Nautilus had earlier unsuccessfully attacked the battleship . Some bombers were lost from lack of fuel before the attack started.

McClusky's decision to continue the search was a great help to the US carrier task force and the forces at Midway. All three American dive-bombers squadrons (VB-6, VS-6 and VB-3) arrived at the right time to attack. Most of the Japanese CAP were looking for the torpedo planes. Armed Japanese strike aircraft filled the hangar decks, fuel hoses lay on the decks and bombs and torpedoes were near the hangars, making the Japanese carriers very at risk of being damaged.

Beginning at 10:22, the two squadrons of Enterprises air group split up and attacked two targets. By accident, both groups attacked the Kaga. Lieutenant Commander Richard Halsey Best and two other planes headed north to attack Akagi. Coming under an attack from almost two full squadrons, Kaga was hit by four or five bombs, which caused heavy damage and starting fires that could not be put out. One of the bombs landed near the bridge, killing most of the senior officers.

Several minutes later, Best and two planes dove on the Akagi. Although Akagi getting one direct hit (dropped by Lieutenant Commander Best). It struck the deck elevator and went all the way through to the upper hangar deck. It exploded among the armed and fueled aircraft. Another bomb exploded underwater which bent the flight deck and caused rudder damage.

Yorktowns VB-3, commanded by Max Leslie, attacked Sōryū. They got at least three hits and caused a lot of damage. VT-3 targeted Hiryū, but got no hits.

Within six minutes, Sōryū and Kaga were on fire. Akagi was also seriously damaged. The Japanese hoped that Akagi could be saved or towed back to Japan. Eventually, all three carriers were eventually abandoned and sunk.

Japanese counterattacks

Hiryū, the sole surviving Japanese aircraft carrier attacked. Hiryū'''s first attack consisted of 18 dive bombers and six fighter escorts. They followed the retreating American aircraft and attacked the Yorktown, hitting her with three bombs, which blew a hole in the deck, put out her boilers, and destroyed several anti-aircraft guns. Despite the damage, repair teams were able to fix the flight deck and fix several boilers in an hour. Twelve Japanese dive bombers and four escorting fighters were lost in this attack.

Approximately one hour later, Hiryūs second attack was made. It consisted of ten torpedo bombers and six escorting A6Ms. The US repair efforts had been so well done that the Japanese assumed she must be a different, undamaged carrier. In the attack, Yorktown was struck by two torpedoes; she lost all power and developed a tilt to port, which put her out of action. Admiral Fletcher moved his command staff to the heavy cruiser . Neither of the carriers of Spruance's Task Force 16 was damaged.

News of the two strikes, with the reports each had sunk an American carrier (actually Yorktown in both cases), greatly improved morale in the Kido Butai. Its few surviving aircraft were all recovered aboard Hiryū where they were prepared for an attack against what was believed to be the only remaining American carrier.

American counterattack
Late in the afternoon, a Yorktown scout aircraft located Hiryū. Enterprise launched a strike of dive bombers (including 10 SBDs from Yorktown). Despite Hiryū being defended by more than a dozen Zero fighters, the attack by Enterprise was successful: four, possibly five bombs hit Hiryū, leaving her on fire and unable to operate aircraft. (Hornets strike aimed at the escort ships but it did not get any hits.) After hopeless attempts to control the fire, most of the crew remaining on Hiryū were taken off the ship. The rest of the fleet continued sailing northeast to catch the American carriers. Hiryū stayed afloat for several more hours. She was discovered by an aircraft from the light carrier Hōshō. This led to hopes she could be saved or towed back to Japan. However, soon after being spotted, Hiryū sank. Rear Admiral Yamaguchi chose to go down with his ship, costing Japan her best carrier officer.

As darkness fell, both sides thought about the situation and made plans for action. Admiral Fletcher had to abandon the Yorktown. He felt he could not command from a cruiser. He gave command to Spruance. Spruance knew the United States had won a great victory, but he was still unsure of what Japanese forces remained. He wanted to protect Midway and his carriers. He followed Nagumo during the day and continued to follow as night fell. Finally, fearing a possible night battle with Japanese ships and believing Yamamoto still intended to invade, Spruance pulled back to the east. He turned back west towards the enemy at midnight. Yamamoto decided to continue the attacks and sent his remaining ships searching eastward for the American carriers. He also sent a cruiser raiding force to bomb the island. The Japanese ships failed to make contact with the Americans due to Spruance's decision to pull back eastward, and Yamamoto ordered a withdrawal to the west.

Spruance failed to regain contact with Yamamoto's forces on 5 June even though he made many searches. Towards the end of the day he launched an attack on any ships from Nagumo's carrier force. This strike missed Yamamoto's main group of ships. It did not hit a Japanese destroyer. The strike planes returned to the carriers after nightfall. Spruance to ordered Enterprise and Hornet to turn on their lights to aid the landings.

At 02:15 on the night of 5/6 June, Commander John Murphy's , in the water  west of Midway, made the second of the submarine force's major contributions to the battle's outcome. Sighting several ships, neither Murphy nor his executive officer, Ray Spruance, Jr., could identify them. Considering that they might be US ships, Murphy did not fire, but reported the ships to Admiral Robert English, Commander, Submarine Force, Pacific Fleet (COMSUBPAC). This report was sent to Nimitz, who then sent it to Spruance. Spruance assumed this was the invasion force and moved to block it while staying  northeast of Midway.

The ships sighted by Tambor were the four cruisers and two destroyers Yamamoto had sent to bomb Midway. At 02:55 these ships received Yamamoto's order to pull back and changed course. At about the same time as the course change, Tambor was sighted, and to avoid a submarine attack  and  hit into each other, causing serious damage to Mogamis bow. The less severely damaged Mikuma slowed to . This was the most damage any of the 18 submarines deployed for the battle achieved. Only at 04:12 did the sky brighten enough for Murphy to be certain the ships were Japanese, by which time staying surfaced was hazardous, and he dived to approach for an attack. The attack was unsuccessful, and at around 06:00 he finally reported two westbound Mogami-class cruisers.

Over the following two days, first Midway and then Spruance's carriers launched several attacks. Mikuma was sunk by Dauntlesses, while Mogami survived damage and returned home for repairs. The destroyers Arashio and Asashio were also bombed and machine-gunned during the last of these attacks.

The Yorktown was towed by USS Vireo. In the late afternoon of 6 June, however,  fired torpedoes; two struck Yorktown, but a third struck and sank destroyer , which had been providing power to Yorktown. Hammann broke in two with the loss of 80 lives. Yorktown sank just after 05:00 on 7 June.

Japanese casualties

By the time the battle ended, 3,057 Japanese had died. Casualties aboard the four carriers were:Akagi: 267; Kaga: 811; Hiryu: 392; Soryu: 711; a total of 2,181. The heavy cruisers Mikuma (sunk; 700 casualties) and Mogami (badly damaged; 92) accounted for another 792 deaths.

In addition, the destroyers Arashio (bombed; 35) and Asashio (strafed by aircraft; 21) were both damaged during the air attacks which sank Mikuma and caused further damage to Mogami. Floatplanes were lost from the cruisers Chikuma (3) and Tone (2). Dead aboard the destroyers Tanikaze (11), Arashi (1), Kazagumo (1) and the fleet oiler Akebono Maru (10) made up the remaining 23 casualties.

Aftermath
After winning a victory, and as pursuing the Japanese ships became too dangerous near Wake, The American forces pulled back. Spruance pulled back to the east to refuel his destroyers and meet with the carrier Saratoga, which was carrying replacement aircraft. The American carriers eventually returned to Pearl Harbor. Historian Samuel E. Morison wrote in 1949 that Spruance was criticized for not pursuing the retreating Japanese, allowing their fleet to escape. Clay Blair argued in 1975 that had Spruance followed Yamamoto, he would have been unable to launch his aircraft after nightfall, and his cruiser escorts would have been destroyed by Yamamoto's larger and more powerful ships, including the battleship , with 18-inch guns.

On 10 June, the Japanese Navy gave an account of the results of the battle that did not tell the whole story. Nagumo's battle report was given to the high command on 15 June. It was intended only for the highest officers in the Japanese Navy and government. It was guarded closely throughout the war. Nagumo stated that the enemy was not aware of our plans. The Japanese public, and much of the military, were not told about the defeat: Japanese news announced a great victory. Only Emperor Hirohito and the highest Navy officers were told about the carrier and pilot losses. Army planners continued to believe that the fleet was in good condition.

On the return of the Japanese fleet to Hashirajima on 14 June the wounded were transferred to naval hospitals. Most were called "secret patients" and kept away from other patients and their families. The Navy did this to keep this major defeat secret. The remaining officers and men were quickly spread out to other units of the fleet and sent to the South Pacific, where the majority were killed. None of the flag officers or staff of the Combined Fleet was penalized, with Nagumo later being placed in command of the rebuilt carrier force.

The Japanese Navy learned some lessons from Midway. Aircraft were refueled and re-armed on the flight deck, rather than in the hangars. All unused fuel lines were drained. The new carriers being built with only two flight deck elevators and new firefighting equipment. More carrier crew members were trained in damage-control and firefighting techniques. The losses later in the war of , , and  showed that there were still problems in this area. Replacement pilots went through a short training program, meeting the short-term needs of the fleet. This led to a decline in the quality of training. These inexperienced pilots were sent into front-line units, while the veterans who remained after Midway and the Solomons campaign were kept flying continually. As a result, Japanese naval air groups declined in quality during the war.

War crimes
Three U.S. airmen, Ensign Wesley Osmus (pilot, Yorktown), Ensign Frank O'Flaherty (pilot, Enterprise) and Aviation Machinist's Mate B. F. (or B. P.) Bruno Gaido (radioman-gunner of O'Flaherty's SBD) were captured by the Japanese during the battle. Osmus was held on the Arashi, with O'Flaherty and Gaido on the cruiser Nagara (or destroyer Makigumo, sources vary), and later killed. O'Flaherty and Gaido were tied to five-gallon kerosene cans filled with water and dumped overboard several days after the battle.

Impact
The Battle of Midway has been called "the turning point of the Pacific". However, even after Midway, the Japanese continued to try to get more territory in the South Pacific. The U.S. did not become the more powerful navy until after several more months of hard combat. Midway was the Allies' first major victory against the Japanese.

However, it did not change the course of the war by itself. It was the combined effects of the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway that reduced Japan's ability to do major attacks. In addition Midway helped make US landings on Guadalcanal possible. The prolonged attrition warfare (a type of battle in which each side tries to wear down the other side) of the Solomon Islands campaign allowed the Allies to take an offensive stance for the rest of the Pacific War. Finally, Midway bought the United States time until the first of the new Essex-class fleet carriers became available at the end of 1942.

The battle also showed the worth of pre-war naval code breaking and intelligence-gathering. These efforts continued in both the Pacific and Atlantic areas of war. There were many successes. Navy code breaking made possible the shooting down of Admiral Yamamoto's airplane.

Some authors have stated heavy losses in carriers and veteran aircrews at Midway permanently weakened the Imperial Japanese Navy. Parshall and Tully, however, have stated that the losses in veteran aircrew, while heavy (110, just under 25% of the aircrew embarked on the four carriers), were not as bad for the Japanese naval air-corps as a whole. The Japanese navy had 2,000 carrier-qualified aircrew at the start of the Pacific war. A few months after Midway, the JNAF sustained similar casualty rates at both the Battle of the Eastern Solomons and Battle of Santa Cruz. It was these battles, combined with the constant death of veterans during the Solomons campaign, which weakened Japan. However, the loss of four large fleet carriers, and over 40% of the carriers' aircraft mechanics and technicians, plus the flight-deck crews were very damaging to the Japanese carrier fleet. After the battle  and  were the only large carriers of the original Pearl Harbor strike-force left for offensive actions. Of Japan's other carriers,  was the only Fleet carrier that could be used with Shōkaku and Zuikaku, while , , and , were second-rate ships. By the time of the Battle of the Philippine Sea, while the Japanese had somewhat rebuilt their carrier forces, the planes were flown by inexperienced pilots.

In the time it took Japan to build three carriers, the U.S. Navy commissioned more than two dozen fleet and light fleet carriers, and numerous escort carriers. By 1942 the United States was already three years into a shipbuilding plan which aimed make the navy larger than Japan's. The greater number of USN aviators survived the Battle of Midway and subsequent battles of 1942, and combined with growing pilot training programs, the US had many skilled pilots.

 Codebreaking success
Yamamoto did not know that the U.S. had broken the main Japanese naval code (JN-25). This let the U.S. fleet go to the right place at the right time.

Yamamoto scattered his forces to keep the attack secret, but that meant his formations could not help each other. For instance, Nagumo's fleet had few big ships. When the carrier planes were carrying out the strikes, the carriers were relatively undefended. By contrast, the flotillas of Yamamoto and Kondo had more big ships, none of which saw any action at Midway''. Their distance from Nagumo's carriers also meant he could not use their reconnaissance planes, so he knew little of what was happening.

References

Other websites

 WW2DB: Battle of Midway
 The course to Midway: turning point in the Pacific
 After Midway: the fates of the U.S. and Japanese warships by Bryan J. Dickerson
 Animated history of The Battle of Midway

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Battle of Midway


The Ayres L. Bramble House is a historic residence on the eastern side of Cincinnati, Ohio, United States.  Built in the Greek Revival style of architecture in 1815, it is primarily a wooden building, featuring weatherboarded walls and other elements of wood.  Two stories tall, the house features a Neoclassical entrance portico with fluted columns in the Doric order.  Although built in the vernacular plan of an I-house, it features many other Greek Revival elements, such as the decorative molding and ornate plaster casts.

Ayres Bramble himself was a large-scale hog farmer; his operation was significant enough that it attracted notice in many different periodicals of the day.  Besides raising hogs, Bramble eventually entered the business of killing them: he opened a slaughterhouse in Plainville that processed more than 36,000 animals in only one year.  In Bramble's day, Cincinnati was known as "Porkopolis" due to its place as the leading center of pork packing in the United States; his operation was smaller than some in the city, but it was larger than any other slaughterhouse in the remnant portions of Hamilton County.

In 1982, the Ayres L. Bramble House was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, both because of its historically significant architecture and its place as the home of a leading local citizen.

References

Houses completed in 1810
Greek Revival houses in Ohio
Houses in Cincinnati
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Ohio
National Register of Historic Places in Cincinnati

Ayres L. Bramble House


Paul Richard Charles Gray,  (born 2 August 1948) is a British former civil servant who was chairman of HM Revenue & Customs until he resigned on 20 November 2007.

Early career
Paul Gray joined the Civil Service in 1969 as an economist at HM Treasury. During his time there he variously worked on agriculture, industry, and employment issues, and co-ordinated the Public Expenditure Survey process. Except for two years working for Booker McConnell Ltd in the late 1970s as a corporate planner, he remained at the Treasury until 1988, when he was appointed private secretary for economic affairs to the prime minister, Margaret Thatcher.

After two years, Gray returned to the Treasury in 1990, where he worked on monetary policy, serving as a member of the EU Monetary Committee. From 1995 to 1998 he was director of budget and public finances, taking overall responsibility for the Finance Bill process.

Department for Work and Pensions
Gray transferred to the Department of Social Security (DSS) in 1998 as group director and head of policy. He played a major role in forming the Department for Work and Pensions (DWP), a department created by merging the DSS, the Employment Service, and parts of the former Department for Education and Skills. He later became Second Permanent Secretary and managing director, pensions and disability. Whilst at the DSS he was appointed to be a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the Birthday Honours List, 2000.

HM Revenue and Customs
In September 2004, Gray was appointed deputy chairman of both the Inland Revenue and HM Customs and Excise, as those organisations prepared to merge following the O'Donnell Review. He was subsequently appointed as deputy chairman of HM Revenue & Customs. On 1 September 2006 Paul Gray was appointed acting chairman of HMRC, following the resignation of Sir David Varney (who moved to the Treasury). His position was confirmed as permanent in February 2007, until his resignation on 20 November 2007 following the loss of 25 million child benefit records.

Sources

Living people
Members of HM Government Economic Service
Civil servants in HM Treasury
British civil servants
Civil servants in the Department of Social Security
Private secretaries in the British Civil Service
Second Permanent Under-Secretaries of State for Work and Pensions
Chairmen of HM Revenue and Customs
Companions of the Order of the Bath
1948 births

Paul Gray (civil servant)


Stanley James Brock (born June 8, 1958) is an American former football player and coach. He played professionally as a tackle in the National Football League (NFL) for the New Orleans Saints and the San Diego Chargers.

Brock played college football for the Colorado Buffaloes and was selected in the first round of the 1980 NFL Draft with the 18th overall pick. After his playing career, he served as the head football coach at United States Military Academy from 2007 to 2008. Brock was fired on December 12, 2008, after compiling a 6–18 record in two years as head coach.

Playing career

College
Brock played football at Jesuit High School in his hometown of Portland before attending the University of Colorado at Boulder where he played under coaches Bill Mallory and Chuck Fairbanks. He was selected to the first team All-American by The Sporting News. as a senior in 1979. He was also selected as first team all Big Eight Conference and the John Mack Award winner, Colorado's award for offensive MVP.

NFL
Brock played for the New Orleans Saints from 1980 to 1992. He finished his career with the San Diego Chargers from 1993 to 1995. He played in Super Bowl XXIX for the Chargers. Stan's older brother Pete also played in the NFL for the Patriots, starting at center in Super Bowl XX, which coincidentally was played in New Orleans.

Brock was inducted into the New Orleans Saints Hall of Fame in 1997.

Coaching career
After his playing career, Brock became a coach in the Arena Football League (AFL), where he served as the head coach of the Portland Forest Dragons (1997–1999) and the Los Angeles Avengers (2000–2001). He also was a color analyst for radio broadcasts of Saints games for several seasons, succeeding Archie Manning, who resigned position when son Peyton entered the NFL with the Indianapolis Colts.

On January 29, 2007, he was named the head coach at Army after the resignation of Bobby Ross. During his time as head coach, the Black Knights posted a 6–18 record and lost twice to Navy by a combined score of 72–3. On December 8, 2008, Brock was fired by the USMA on December 12, 2008, after two years as head coach, and six days after the Black Knights completed their 2008 season with a 34–0 loss to archrival Navy.

Development and implementation of the "Brock Bone" offense
Following a 3–9 record in his first season as Army's head coach, Brock and his staff decided to change his offensive system from the pro set to something more similar to Navy's triple option, something Brock had once described as "a stupid idea." During spring training for the 2008 season, Brock elected to close spring practices to implement his new offense. The offense Brock developed was dubbed "the Brock Bone" by ESPN commentator Shaun King. The Brock Bone seems to employ a higher percentage of fullback dives than are ordinarily seen in a triple option offense.  Coach Brock has commented, "People think that we're just calling fullback dive, but when that's what they give you, that's what they give you." Army ran the Brock Bone during the 2008 NCAA Division I FBS football season and finished the season ranked 110th out of 119 NCAA Division I FBS teams in total offense.

Broadcasting career
On January 14, 2015, Portland, Oregon television station KOIN hired Brock as sports anchor.

Family
Brock and his wife, Lori, have four daughters:  Sarah, Jessica, Rachel and Emily.

Head coaching record

College

References

1958 births
Living people
American football offensive linemen
Oklahoma Wranglers coaches
Army Black Knights football coaches
Colorado Buffaloes football players
National Football League announcers
New Orleans Saints announcers
New Orleans Saints players
Sportspeople from Portland, Oregon
Players of American football from Portland, Oregon
San Diego Chargers players
Jesuit High School (Beaverton, Oregon) alumni
Los Angeles Avengers coaches

Stan Brock


Overview
Jennifer Ann Openshaw is an American financial innovator, author, and commentator.

She is currently the CEO of Girls with Impact, a program that she founded to train girls to lead and build next generation talent. She is perhaps best known for starting Women's Financial Network - the first online financial firm created for women and a trendsetter in the financial industry. She was named among the Internet's Top 25 Rising Stars.  She speaks nationwide on wealth, women and technology, and has appeared as a financial expert on Oprah, CNN, ABC, NBC, CBS, CNBC  etc.

Early life
When she was five years old, her parents divorced and she was raised by her mother. At the age of seven, she began caring for her two younger brothers while her mother worked two full-time jobs as a waitress. She took her first job as a maid in a motel at the age of 14 to earn extra money.

Education

UCLA
Openshaw attended three undergraduate colleges as she struggled to pay her way through. She graduated from UCLA with a BA and an MBA in finance. She also studied at  Monash University in Melbourne, Australia, which she attended as a Rotary Scholar. She then attended the UCLA Anderson School of Management, specializing in finance.

Active student entrepreneur
As an undergraduate student, Openshaw was named Finance Director of UCLA's Internship Association, where she broke the fundraising record and launched two new businesses - an annual furniture fair ("The Bruin Bear Market") and a cookbook of politicians' recipes, which was recognized in the San Jose Mercury News. Funds raised were used to lower the cost of student internships. Her mentor, Dean Alex White, formerly of Yale, played a critical role in her early career.

Early career
In 1986, Openshaw began working for the Los Angeles City Controller while attending UCLA full-time. She purchased women's clothes from a national designer and resold them as another revenue stream to fund her college. In 1988, while still recovering from back surgery, she ran the volunteer operation for two assembly districts in Los Angeles during the Presidential election.  She returned to the City Controller's Office, while working weekends at the NBC-TV affiliate in Bakersfield, California. In 1990, she was named press secretary to Kathleen Brown's run for California State Treasurer. After a successful win, she became press secretary for the Treasurer's Office, responsible for 12 financing commissions and a $70B+ investment portfolio.  In 1994, Openshaw was asked to join Brown's bid for Governor, running communications for the campaign against Governor Pete Wilson.

Financial Innovator

Financial institution
While completing business school, she moved to the private sector, serving first in Bank of America's Investment Management Group and then joining Wilshire Associates, where she worked closely with CEO & Founder, Dennis Tito. At Wilshire, she advocated to turn the Wilshire 5000 Index, a barometer of the market, into a real-time index. She then struck a partnership with CNBC to use it in its daily programming.

In 1999, she left Wilshire to start Women's Financial Network (WFN) in Silicon Valley. She went to then CEO of MarketWatch Larry Kramer to fund her business. That would begin a 15-year+ partnership where Openshaw became a regular columnist on finance and tech. Amid the dot-com bubble, she successfully sold WFN to Siebert Financial (NYSE:SIEB), led by Muriel Siebert. She remained there as Vice Chair while working with Microsoft Money, where she was a product advisor and national educator and spokesperson for the "Realize Your Potential" financial education campaign for women.

In 2002, she met JP Morgan CEO Jamie Dimon after sending him a letter. She served as Senior Vice President, working on innovations, solutions for the Latino community, and partnerships.

In 2004, she started Family Financial Network, to deliver consumer financial software, tools and a new model of low-cost financial planning. Her consumer products, made free to the public, were endorsed by Dr. Phil.

In 2014, she was selected as only the second Executive Director of the 60-year-old Financial Women's Association. As part of efforts to modernize and boost membership, she implemented a student program, developed digital education, and conducted its first research and advocacy efforts.

In 2015, she became a partner at Mercer, a global consulting firm, to evolve the 'When Women Thrive' research platform and lead efforts at the World Economic Forum in Davos.

TV shows/ Radio
Openshaw has contributed as follows;

1998 - "Money Expert" for CBS-TV, Los Angeles

2000 - Financial columnist for MarketWatch

2002 - Appeared on Oprah

2005 - What's Your Net Worth? (Perseus), (from the book which she wrote)

2006 - Named AOL's Family Financial Editor

2007 - The Millionaire Zone (Hyperion)

2005 - Host of ABC Radio's "Winning Advice with Jennifer Openshaw"

Finance expert on CNBC, CNN, Bloomberg, ABC, CBS, NBC, Good Morning America, Nightly News, Today Show, CBS Early Show

Author
2001 - What's Your Net Worth?(Perseus)

2004 - The Free Quick & Easy Budget Kit - endorsed by Dr. Phil.

2007 - The Millionaire Zone: 7 Winning Steps to a Seven-Figure Fortune

2014 - The Socially Savvy Advisor: Compliant Social Media for the Financial Industry (Wiley)

Professor at NYU
Taught personal finance at the graduate school of engineering.

Active Entrepreneur & Educator in female education

Women's Financial Network
In 1999, she started "Women's Financial Network", developing business plans, raised capital and managed 30 for nation's first online financial services firm for women.

Microsoft Money as advisor
She served as "Realize Your Potential" spokesperson, educating women across the country.

Financial Women's Association
She was named the executive director of the Financial Women's Association.

SuperFutures
In 2009, developed online career readiness program to help high school students, including those at LA Alliance of Public Ready Schools.

Girls with Impact
In 2016, Openshaw founded this programme to help "create the first generation of women who will lead from the top - women who will think nothing of creating a business or being the next CEO of their own business."

Personal
She is married to Durant ("Randy") Schwimmer. They met in a pastry shop in Florence, Italy.  They have two children: Elizabeth and Gianna.

External links
 Girls with Impact website
 Financial Women's Association website

References

American radio personalities
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Jennifer Openshaw


The DRG Class 89.0 was a goods train tank engine of standard design (see Einheitsdampflokomotive) built for the Deutsche Reichsbahn (DRG).

History
It was the smallest standard locomotive in service with the Reichsbahn. Whilst numbers 89 001 - 89 003 were supplied as saturated steam engines, the remaining seven were superheated locomotives. After the Second World War half the machines went to the Polish State Railway (PKP) and half to the East German Deutsche Reichsbahn (DR). The last engine 89 008 was taken out of service in 1968 at Dresden-Altstadt locomotive depot (Bahnbetriebswerk or Bw) and remains preserved in the Dresden Transport Museum as a heritage locomotive. Since 1992 the engine has been in the ownership of the Mecklenburg Railway Friends (Mecklenburgischen Eisenbahnfreunde) in Schwerin.

Although this engine was never in service with the Deutsche Bundesbahn, it is in the DB's transport directory.

Model railway
A Z scale model of the Class 89.0 locomotive has been used as the symbol for this model track gauge.

There has also been a model by the firm of Märklin for decades in H0 scale. The DB variant of this model has no real prototype, however, because this engine was never in the DB's fleet.

See also
 List of DRG locomotives and railbuses

References

89.0
0-6-0T locomotives
89
Henschel locomotives
Railway locomotives introduced in 1934
Berliner locomotives
Standard gauge locomotives of Germany
C n2t locomotives
C h2t locomotives
Shunting locomotives

DRG Class 89.0


James Hewett Ledlie (April 14, 1832 – August 15, 1882) was a civil engineer for American railroads and a general in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He is best known for his dereliction of duty at the Battle of the Crater during the Siege of Petersburg.

Early life
Ledlie was born in Utica, New York. His obituary in the New York Times claimed he graduated from Union College, in Schenectady, New York, but the college has no record of his attendance there. Ledlie worked as a civil engineer on the Erie Canal and in railroad construction.

Civil War
Shortly after the start of the Civil War, Ledlie was appointed major of the 19th New York Infantry, which was subsequently renamed the 3rd New York Artillery regiment. The history of this regiment was marred by a mutiny at the expiration of its original term of service. Ledlie was promoted to colonel in December 1861, and was promoted to brigadier general in command of the Artillery Brigade of the Department of North Carolina in December 1862. (His appointment expired in March 1863 for lack of Senate confirmation, but he was reappointed in October 1863 and later confirmed.) For the next year and a half, he served primarily in garrison positions with North Carolina coastal artillery emplacements and in the Department of Virginia and North Carolina.

Just after the start of Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's Overland Campaign in 1864, Ledlie transferred to the Army of the Potomac, commanding a brigade in Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside's IX Corps. On June 9, he was put in command of the 1st Division to succeed Brig. Gen Thomas G. Stevenson, who had been killed a few weeks earlier during the Battle of Spotsylvania. It was in this command that his brief military career was ruined.

During the Siege of Petersburg, former coal miners in Burnside's corps devised an ingenious plan to lift the stalemate by digging a 511-foot tunnel under the Confederate lines, and filling the end of the tunnel with four tons of gunpowder. On July 30, 1864, they detonated the explosives, creating a crater some 135 feet in diameter that remains visible to this day. Some 250 to 350 Confederate soldiers were instantly killed in the blast. The Union plan was to exploit the explosion by sending well-rehearsed African-American troops of Edward Ferrero's division into the gap and driving for critical objectives deep in the Confederate rear area. However, Maj. Gen George Meade, the commander of the Army of the Potomac, ordered a column of white troops to make the lead assault on the crater instead of Ferrero's division of African American troops, who were trained specifically for the task.  The change in battle formation was approved by General Ulysses S. Grant.  In his later testimony before the Committee on the Conduct of the War, Meade claimed that he changed the order because the white troops were more experienced, not because he lacked faith in the capabilities of the African American troops.  Burnside, despondent at the change in plans, resorted to a lottery to select a replacement division. Ledlie drew the short straw and disaster resulted. His division was the smallest and weakest in the IX Corps, and he did not brief his troops beforehand and they entered the crater out of curiosity instead of moving safely around its rim, as Ferrero's division had been trained to do. Unable to exit the steep sides of the crater, they were slaughtered by Confederates firing down on them. 3,798 Union troops were casualties in the ill-fated battle that achieved none of its objectives. Most damning for Ledlie's reputation was the fact that he did not lead, or even accompany, his men into battle, and a few weeks earlier, during the attacks on Confederate entrenchments at Cold Harbor, he had run and hidden for cover, an event that the enlisted men did not forget, but which managed to escape Burnside's attention. During the Battle of the Crater, Ledlie and Ferrero were observed behind the lines in a bunker, drinking liquor.

Ledlie was criticized by a court of inquiry into his conduct that September, and in December he was effectively dismissed from the service by Maj. Gen. Meade, on orders from Gen. Grant. He formally resigned his commission on January 23, 1865.

Postbellum career
Ledlie resumed his career as a railroad civil engineer in the West and South. He participated in the construction of the transcontinental railroad as an employee of the Union Pacific. He also worked on constructing the Nevada Central Railroad line from Battle Mountain to Austin, Nevada, racing to get the 92-mile line built in half a year to meet a deadline before a bond issue expired. His crews got within two miles of the city limits of Austin before the deadline, and at the last minute town officials quickly extended the city limits to meet the tracks.

Ledlie died in New Brighton, Staten Island in 1882, and is buried in Forest Hill Cemetery in Utica.

See also

List of American Civil War generals (Union)

References

 Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher. Civil War High Commands. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
 Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1964. .
 Obituary, New York Times, http://localhistory.morrisville.edu/sites/gar_post/ledlie.html

Further reading
 Trudeau, Noah Andre. The Last Citadel: Petersburg, Virginia, June 1864 – April 1865. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1991. .

External links

1832 births
1882 deaths
Union Army generals
People of New York (state) in the American Civil War
Military personnel from Utica, New York
Burials at Forest Hill Cemetery (Utica, New York)

James H. Ledlie


Parfait ( ,  , ; meaning "perfect") is either of two types of dessert. In France, where the dish originated, parfait is made by boiling cream, egg, sugar and syrup to create a custard-like or meringue-like puree which is then frozen. The American version consists of layers differentiated by the inclusion of such ingredients as granola, nuts, yogurt and liqueurs, topped off with fruits or whipped cream.

French parfait is usually served in thick, decorated slices on a plate.  American parfait is typically served in tall glassware together with a long spoon known as a parfait spoon. The classical parfait glass is stemware, with a short stem and a tall slender bowl, often tapered towards the  bottom, also used for serving milkshakes. In South Asia (particularly Bangladesh), parfaits are made in bowl containers, rather than tall glasses.

History
A recipe for "parfait au café", a coffee-flavoured ice cream dessert made using a "parfait-mould" (un moule à parfait), was included in Le livre de cuisine by Jules Gouffé, first published in 1867, and translated into English as The Royal Cookery Book by his brother Alphonse Gouffé in 1869.

France
In France, parfait refers to a frozen dessert made from a base of sugar syrup, egg, and cream. A parfait contains enough fat, sugar, alcohol, and to a lesser extent, air, to allow it to be made by stirring infrequently while freezing, making it possible to create in a home kitchen without specialist equipment. The fat, sugar, alcohol or air interferes with the formation of water crystals, which would otherwise give the ice cream an uncomfortable texture in the mouth. The formation of ice crystals is managed in the making of regular ice cream by agitating the ice cream constantly while it freezes or chemically by adding glycerol. Neither should be necessary when making a high-quality parfait.

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, parfait can refer either to the French dessert or to a very smooth meat paste (or pâté), usually made from liver (chicken, duck or goose) and sometimes sweetened with liqueurs.

United States
In the United States, parfait refers to either the traditional French-style dessert or to a popular variant, the American parfait, made by layering parfait cream, ice cream, and sometimes fruit. It is  usually served in a tall clear glass, but can also be served in a short and stubby glass. The clear glass allows the layers of the dessert to be seen. A topping is usually created with whipped cream, fresh or canned fruit, or liqueurs.

Recent trends in the United States have introduced parfaits without cream or liqueurs.  These are made by simply layering yogurt with granola, nuts, and/or fresh fruits (such as peaches, strawberries, or blueberries).  This version is sometimes called a yogurt parfait or fruit parfait.

See also
 Semifreddo
 Sundae
 List of custard desserts
 List of French desserts

References

External links
 Allrecipes.com: Parfait Recipes

Sundaes
Yogurt-based dishes
French desserts

Parfait


Home Quarters Warehouse (HQ) was an American chain of "big-box" home improvement stores, originally based in Virginia Beach, Virginia. In 1984, the chemical manufacturing company W.R. Grace & Co. announced its intentions to enter the home improvement retail business, hiring Bernard R. Kossar and Frank Doczi to head the new chain.

History
The first Home Quarters stores opened in February 1985 in Virginia Beach and Hampton, Virginia. Grace spun off HQ in 1986, and in October 1987 HQ was in the midst of doing an IPO when "Black Monday" occurred. The SEC put a moratorium on any IPO until the stock market stabilized. In December 1987, Hechinger agreed to buy HQ for $66 million (~$ in ). The merger was completed in February 1988, with Frank Doczi left in charge of the Home Quarters division (Kossar moves on to found OW Office Warehouse, an office supply store that used a logo and branding similar to that of HQ). Under Hechinger, HQ expanded to much of the United States as a viable competitor to Home Depot, Lowe's, and Builders Square.

However, by 1995 its parent company Hechinger had been hit with financial trouble and began to scale back its operations, including moving HQ's headquarters from Virginia Beach to Hechinger's main office in Landover, Maryland. The Hechinger family sold the company to Los Angeles investors Leonard Green & Partners for $507 million (~$ in ) in July 1997, and the management launched new, smaller concept stores called Better Spaces and Wye River Hardware & Home searching for a niche. In September, Hechinger/HQ was merged with San Antonio, Texas-based Builders Square, formerly owned by Kmart.

After several rounds of store closings, Hechinger Co. and Home Quarters Warehouse filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on June 11, 1999, but the reorganization failed. That September, Hechinger's assets were liquidated, including its 117 remaining stores.

References
 Golubovskis, George. "Hechinger no longer our hometown store," Washington Business Journal, July 18, 1997
 "Post 200: Hechinger Co.," The Washington Post, April 28, 1997.
  "100 JOBS LOST IN HECHINGER OVERHAUL," The Virginian-Pilot August 24, 1995.

External links
Bathroom Remodel Ideas
Bathroom Remodel & Renovation

Home improvement retailers of the United States
Defunct retail companies of the United States
Defunct companies based in Virginia
Companies based in Virginia Beach, Virginia
American companies established in 1984
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1999
Retail companies established in 1984
Retail companies disestablished in 1999
1984 establishments in Virginia
1999 disestablishments in Virginia

Home Quarters Warehouse


Lynda Newton (born May 25, 1957) is an American naturopath and retired professional wrestling valet and professional wrestler, better known by her ring name, Dark Journey.

Early life
Newton was born in Los Angeles, California. She was raised by her grandparents in Brockton, Massachusetts, until the age of nine, when she began living with her mother. Newton attended Brockton High School, leaving in the middle of her senior year. She lived in California and Florida before moving to Atlanta, Georgia.

Professional wrestling career

Mid-South Wrestling/Universal Wrestling Federation (1985–1987)
In 1985, Newton met professional wrestler Dick Slater while working as a stripper in Atlanta. Slater introduced her to professional wrestling, bringing her into Mid-South Wrestling as his valet under the ring name "Dark Journey".

Dark Journey was initially a villainous character. As a biracial woman in the socially conservative Southern United States, her relationship with Slater attracted controversy. Dark Journey assisted Slater in his feuds with opponents such as Butch Reed, Jake Roberts and Jim Duggan.

In 1986, Newton ended her romantic relationship with Slater, who left Mid-South Wrestling (by then renamed the Universal Wrestling Federation) shortly thereafter. Dark Journey turned face and became a valet for the newly-arrived The Missing Link. In mid-1986, the duo began a feud with John Tatum and his valet, Missy Hyatt. Dark Journey and Hyatt would regularly engage in catfights at ringside. In September and October 1986, Dark Journey and The Missing Link faced Tatum and Hyatt in a series of mixed tag team matches. In early 1987, The Missing Link and Dark Journey began feuding with The Fabulous Freebirds and their valet Sunshine. On April 11, 1987, Dark Journey faced Nickla Roberts, Hyatt and Sunshine in a four way bout at "Superblast at the Superdome", held in the Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana.

Jim Crockett Promotions (1987)
In April 1987, the Universal Wrestling Federation was acquired by the Charlotte, North Carolina-based Jim Crockett Promotions. Newton's contract was transferred over to Jim Crockett Promotions, and she became a valet for Tully Blanchard, a member of The Four Horsemen. Following The Great American Bash tour in July 1987, Newton was released from Jim Crockett Promotions, subsequently retiring from professional wrestling.

Naturopathy career
After retiring from professional wrestling, Newton returned to Los Angeles. She worked in a number of jobs before becoming the manager of a clothing store. In the late-1990s, she opened her own chain of stores in Los Angeles County. In the early-2000s, she began working in naturopathy, gaining certification as a massage therapist and colon hydrotherapist.

Personal life
Newton is married to Brent, with whom she has a son, Zane.

References

External links

African-American female professional wrestlers
Multiracial affairs in the United States
American female erotic dancers
American erotic dancers
American female professional wrestlers
Living people
Naturopaths
Professional wrestlers from California
Professional wrestling managers and valets
Sportspeople from Los Angeles
The Four Horsemen (professional wrestling) members
1957 births
21st-century African-American people
21st-century African-American women
20th-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American women
Brockton High School alumni
20th-century female professional wrestlers

Dark Journey (wrestling)


Southrepps is a village and a civil parish in the English county of Norfolk. The village is   southeast of Cromer,  north of Norwich and  north of London. The village lies northeast of the A149 between Kings Lynn and Great Yarmouth. The nearest railway station is at Gunton for the Bittern Line which runs between Sheringham, Cromer and Norwich. The nearest airport is Norwich International Airport. The village is close to the sea and surrounded by rich agricultural land.

Upper and Lower Southrepps
The village is in two halves, separated by a mile of farmland. The halves are known as Upper Southrepps and Lower Southrepps (Upper Street and Lower Street on Ordnance Survey maps).

Geography
Southrepps is built on a low-rise mix of glacial sands and gravels, with expanses of rich till formed from the so-called Cromer Forest Bed created in a warmer period when a great meandering river fringed rank forest vegetation. This surface geology makes for well-drained and fertile soils. Beneath these younger rocks lie chalk beds which come to the surface in a line stretching south from Weybourne and can also be seen on the village's nearest beach at low tide in a chalk pavement between Trimingham and Sidestrand. The beach here is littered with flint cobbles formed into nodules by chemical replacement of the chalk and eroded into cobbles by wave action. These durable and abundant flint cobbles were collected from the beaches and used as decorative and structural materials in village buildings. Local clays and imported orange pantiles from the Low Countries were used for roofing.

Being in the east, sheltered from most of the extreme weather of the Atlantic, from where most of Britain's rainfall comes, Southrepps has amongst the lowest rainfall in the UK, at less than 500 mm per year. The area has a mean temperature of 10 °C, second only to southwest and southeast England. With a south to west wind blowing in summer the temperature easily surpasses 20 °C and exceeds 30 °C on at least a few days every year. Severe frosts are rare because of the proximity of the sea, although in December 2011 the village recorded a low of −13.8 °C. With over 1,550 hours of sunshine annually, it is behind only the south-coast counties and Suffolk, though it can be plagued by low sea cloud in spring and early summer when water vapour held in warm, moist continental air from the east condenses into fog over the comparatively cold North Sea. The village can be in bright sunshine while the lanes to the coast at Trimingham or Overstrand are shrouded in thick mist. The village has several weather stations, one of which is on the Met Office website.

Climate and geology have combined to make the area highly productive in various forms of agriculture, arable and sheep farming being predominant from the Middle Ages, though the Black Death and Great Plague led to serious falls in activity. During the Second World War agriculture rapidly intensified, and it has remained very intensive since with the establishment of large fields for cereal and root crop growing. Many uprooted trees and hedgerows, however, have been systematically replaced, restoring the traditional appearance of the landscape, due to the efforts of a small number of local farmers and landowners.

Village amenities
The village has two shops and one public house. Its village hall provides a venue for a number of regular users and special events such as receptions for weddings, christenings and funerals, annual village events and other celebrations. It is the meeting place for the Southrepps Society of local historians. The parish church, St James, provides for a range of different worship styles.

Southrepps has a primary school, Antingham & Southrepps CP.

Organisations
The Southrepps and District Branch of the Royal British Legion has a membership of some 30 plus. It meets quarterly at the Vernon Arms.

Local bell-ringers meet and practise at 7.30 pm on Wednesday at the parish church.

The Southrepps Society was formed in 1979 to celebrate and conserve all that is best in Southrepps. The Memories Project started in 2006, its objective to present the Society's archive in an easily accessible form and to engage the village in these community-based Memories Events and Exhibitions. Its current project is a detailed survey of the history of agricultural land use in the area which the local school is participating in.

There is a long-established Southrepps and District Women's Group. The group meets on the third Tuesday of every month at nearby Thorpe Market Village Hall. There is also a Women's Reading Group.

The Village Fayre Committee came together to organise the highly acclaimed Summer Fayres of 2007 and 2009, the first for a number of years. They succeeded in attracting a huge number of visitors and raised substantial funds for local charities and for pump-priming other events aimed at bringing villagers together, such as the Carols-Round-The-Four-Village-Trees event during December which itself raises funds for a local children's hospice.

Every summer the Southrepps Classical Music Festival brings international singers and players to the village to showcase a wide repertoire of classical genres. The musicians are hosted by 30 village families.

Southrepps Common

Southrepps Common is a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest and a Local Nature Reserve. It covers an area of 12.4 hectares. It can be found in Lower Southrepps. The site supports woodland, reedbeds and many species of grass and wild flowers. There is an 800-metre boardwalk which allows access to the most interesting and important parts of the reserve for wheelchairs and all other members of the public. The diverse habitats support an exceptional range of species and it also has "Special Area of Conservation" status. Across the site there are over 160 plant species including some small orchid species.

List of plants include:
Parnassus grass (Parnassia)
Bog pimpernel (Anagallis tenella)
Flea sedge (Carex pulicaris)
Common cottongrass (Eriophorum angustifolium)
Marsh helleborine (Epipactis palustris)
Bogbean (Menyanthes)
Marsh marigold (Caltha palustris)

There is a large variety of nesting birds across the reserve such as reed warblers, reed bunting, and sedge warbler. The woodland areas are habitat of such birds as greater spotted woodpecker, nuthatch, treecreeper, barn owl and tawny owl. The stream that runs through the common is called Fox's Beck. The stream is shallow, free-flowing and supports several species of snail, caddis fly and dragonfly, with water voles living along the banks. Fox's Beck and the common until quite recently had common rights attached to certain properties in the Southrepps and other rights of common included turbary (peat cutting), estovers (firewood and bedding for livestock) and piscary (fishing). Livestock could be grazed and many other natural resources were exploited, such as reed cutting for thatch; alder and hazel were coppiced for tool handles, twigs were collected for the use of broom heads and willow was cut for use in screens.

Notable people
John Dolphin (1837–1899), cricketer and clergyman, born at Southrepps

References

Villages in Norfolk
Southrepps Common
Local Nature Reserves in Norfolk
Civil parishes in Norfolk
North Norfolk

Southrepps


The local authority of Conwy is located in North Wales and borders Gwynedd and Denbighshire. The County includes some of North Wales's largest settlements such as Llandudno, Colwyn Bay and Conwy town. It has holds 4% of Wales's total population at 111,273 for mid-2006 according to the national assembly for Wales (2006). Industry in this county has changed considerably over the last 2 centuries as during the industrial revolution slate quarrying was a big industry as stated by Day (2002, PP36) "The most distinctive economic feature of north-west Wales was its unique slate quarrying industry". However, in recent times there has been a big emphasis on tourism, especially in seaside resorts such as Llandudno. But one big questioned raised by many in recent years is how is sustainability being implemented in Conwy? This article will focus on sustainable approaches in which Conwy as a local authority are implementing over the next couple of years. This report assesses the sustainability of Conwy in regards to environmental, social, cultural and economic considerations in this region but also looking at Conwy's LDP and corporate plan for 2017-2022.

Environmental Sustainability
Conwy being located on the North Wales Coast and stretching into the Snowdonia National Park has very impressive and outstanding scenery. Although as mentioned earlier slate quarrying in some of these areas has left scaring on the landscape with "entire mountains chiseled away" Day (2002, PP36) in some areas. It is therefore crucial that Conwy is enlisting schemes to help preserve its environment for future generations. In 2016 the Welsh assembly government published the Environment for Wales act (2016). This act applies to all the public bodies in wales and aims to help Welsh local authorities by up to 80% by 2050 - Conwy Council (2017) and this features in both the corporate plan and the LDP for Conwy.
 Outcome six of Conwy Borough Councils corporate plan is to ensure People in Conwy live in a sustainable environment.
They plan to do this by a number of objectives including implementing sustainable coastal and flooding defenses so properties and the coastline at risk are protected by a scheme, which is fit for purpose. Also the CBCC (2017) is aiming to improve recycling facilities and working with the Welsh government to increase recycling and reduce their Carbon footprint by investing in more renewable energies. In regards to renewable energy in this county they are trying to promote the development of a tidal lagoon in Colwyn Bay. This project would not only produce renewable low carbon energy for North Wales but can act as a coastal defense on the Conwy coastline and has potential to be used as a recreational facility. The County are also looking into other renewable energy schemes for the future decades. Leading on from this the CBCC (2017) state in there LDP that they are focusing on improving the landscape of areas that have been scared because of quarrying as mentioned earlier. This is in conjunction with the environment for Wales act (2016) and mentions that they are introducing agricultural grading to their land to ensure it returns its essential nutrients and increasing peat productions. Another scheme which is CBCC are looking to implement is a green wedge scheme. This involves promoting and encouraging the amount of green space available in the county and this is incorporated in both their LDP and corporate plan.

Cultural sustainability
Cultural sustainability is the adapting beneficial parts of a specific nation's history and culture to help the development for the future and present generations. Aspects such as language and historical buildings reflect tradition values of past cultures and can therefore be used as a means to measure sustainability. In the 2011 census published by the Conwy County Borough Council, that in Conwy:
 27.4% of the population over the age of three were fluent Welsh speakers, which is slightly higher than the national average in Wales of 19%.
 49.2% of the welsh speaking population were between the ages of 5 and 15 (which is due to a push of the Welsh language in compulsory education in schools in attempt to 'sustain' the language).

Studies in China show that among those living in China there was strong evidence of residents having a specific connection to building that represent their history and past culture. Even though this is a study that was conducted in China, examples of this can also be seen everywhere in the world including Conwy.  This sense of longing for historical styled building is evident in Wales in terms of listed buildings.

In Wales (and England) buildings with significant historical interest are often classified into either Grade I or Grade II buildings. Grade I listed buildings are buildings with significant historic relevance whereas Grade II listed buildings are buildings which are important in reflection to past history and culture but with less significance than Grade I buildings. Accorded to the British Listed Building website Conwy has a total of 254 listed buildings (both Grade I and Grade II), which is the second highest in the whole of Wales, second to Llandudno which has 394 and then followed by Abergele which has 81. The listed buildings in Conwy range from Grade I listed buildings such as:
 Bodysgallen Hall, Caernarfonshire (listed on September 23rd 1950)
 Conwy Castle, Caernarfonshire (listed on September 23rd 1950)

Grade II buildings such as:
 The Conwy war memorial in Caernarfonshire, which was listed on December30th 2005
 Llanrhos Church Hall, Caernarfonshire, which was listed on March 16th 1976.
Buildings can also be used to view the national identity of the area through the eyes of those living there and those visiting as in recent years culture has played an important part of tourism and is increasingly in demand from tourists which is reflected in the Conwy Culture Centre. The development of this cultural centre was funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund in 2015 and a planning application was approved in 2017 which allows building and development to start. The Centre was planned to provide a safe space for youths to meet as well as a place to hold and display historic collections as well as offer training programmes and volunteer opportunities to locals who live in the area to improve their quality of live and the job aspects etc they are able to get. These aspects are all insightful of the 'Conwy County Borough Council annual report 2016/17' which explains how they had created a new strategy to increase the number of Welsh speakers (as well as the quality of the language that people who can speak the language were confident that they were able to speak). It also said that they had gained enough funding to be able to begin to develop the centre. As well as this it stated that heritage tourism within Conwy was increasing as a result of the changes that they made and that the volunteering support that was bring provided by the Conwy Culture Centre was worthwhile as two of the volunteers who took part were awarded with well-known awards (BBC Sports Wales young volunteer of the year).

Social Sustainability
One of the four main indicators which are usually used to measure successful sustainability is the social aspects available in an area. Often studies into social sustainability include "housing, household structure, paid domestic work, material cultures of home and homelessness". In attempt to reduce the rate of homelessness in Conwy, Conwy County Borough Council have made a five year strategy in 2013 (Local Housing Strategy). The aims of this strategy included making housing more affordable in attempt to allow the working population, those most likely to be renting homes, to remain in the area as housing is hard to afford. 2,200 homes in Conwy in 2015 were overcrowded as families could not afford large enough houses.  Conwy County Borough Council (2015) also reveal that homelessness began to decrease in 2005, however overall, the rate of homeless in Conwy is lower than the national average for Wales. The Conwy Housing Solutions has an online help guide for those who are affected by homelessness and those that are expected to become homeless within 8 weeks and explains how Part 2 of the 2014 Housing (Wales) Act and Conwy County Borough Council (CCBC) can offer help. As well as homelessness in general studies have shown that there is often more homeless females than males and that this pattern is not being investigated enough and also that often, as women have different needs to men, women who are homeless suffer more from the effects of homelessness than men do.

Unemployment levels in Conwy in 2005 were 4% which was higher than the average for Wales at the time. One possible explanation for this could be due to the fact that in many places women still struggle to get jobs in 'male-dominated' fields such as farming and building therefore they often aren't able to get training or if they already have the necessary training they can find anyone to hire them. To try to change the problem with gender inequality in Conwy, CCBC have formed a 'Strategic Equality Plan' which was put into action in 2016. This plan attempts to contest gender inequalities in employment, pay and training by 2020.

Economic Sustainability
Economic sustainability in Conwy is being planned by Conwy County Borough Council through the Conwy economic growth strategy 2017-2027. The creation of renewable energy has a great potential to increase the sustainable development of specific areas by creating a large selection of socioeconomic benefits such as improving regional and rural development opportunities, employment opportunities and the establishment of a domestic industry (del Río and Burguillo, 2009). There are five ambitions in Conwy's economic growth strategy 2017-2027, one of them being to facilitate the tidal lagoon as mentioned earlier and other renewable energy projects across the county Conwy Council 2018. The tidal lagoon will create employment opportunities for the people of Conwy improving the sustainability of the local economy. Sourcing from small businesses can also improve the economic sustainability of local economies. Buying from small businesses can add to the development of the local economy in a variety of ways such as providing innovative green products and services (Walker and Preuss, 2008).
 Outcome 5 of Conwy Borough Councils corporate plan 2017 to 2022: "People in Conwy live in a County which has a thriving economy" Conwy Council (2017).
Conwy council want the local economy to be confident, resilient and sustainable. Conwy council will encourage new ideas and will work proactively with businesses to promote conditions in which they can grow. This is evidence that Conwy Council are aiming to effectively improve their local economy through the enhancement of local businesses that will in turn increase the economic sustainability of Conwy. Sustainable tourism is important for sustainable economic development. Appropriate policies are being applied within the Principality of Wales through the Wales Tourist Board to ensure successful sustainable tourism development (Owen, Witt and Gammon, 1993). An ambition of the Conwy Economic Growth Strategy 2017-2027 is to create winter tourism offer across the county making Conwy a year-round visitor destination Conwy Council (2018). This is an appropriate policy for Conwy as the area faces problems associated with seasonal tourism. The improvement of winter tourism in Conwy aims to counteract these problems and make the county a year-round tourist destination. Tourism is an important part of Conwy's local economy and the creation of sustainable year-round tourism will further support the local economy, specifically in winter months. This will then improve the sustainable economic development of the County of Conwy. Higher education provides benefits to individuals and the society and must be considered when evaluating the economic sustainability of an area. Students who attend higher education obtain a wide range of personal and financial benefits (Baum et al, 2010). This would then support individuals in contributing to their local economy and its sustainable development. The Conwy County Borough council have recognised this and aim to establish a dedicated higher education presence in the county as outlined in the Conwy Economic Growth Strategy 2017-2027. This ambition will lay out a future for higher education institutions in the area and Wales as a whole. The increase in students attending higher education institutions shall then see a rise in financial benefits in Conwy County which will in turn promote the development of a sustainable economy in the area.

Summary
In Summary Conwy has introduced a variety of schemes to help preserve the county for future generations. It is good to see that sustainability features so much in both the council's Local development plan and corporate plan 2017-2022. It would be interesting to revisit this in the next five year and to see what goals featured in the corporate plan have been met and in particular developments on the proposed Tidal Lagoon in Colwyn Bay. For an area with such a diverse history and culture, it is good to see that both the council and communities want to preserve it for future generations.

References

Wales

Sustainability in Conwy


Helen Kirkpatrick (October 18, 1909 – December 29, 1997) was an American war correspondent during the Second World War.

Early life and career pre-World War II
Born in Rochester, New York, she graduated from The Masters School in Dobbs Ferry, New York and Smith College in 1931 and also obtained a degree in International Law from the University of Geneva and the Graduate Institute of International Studies. Returning to New York she worked at Macy's where she met her first husband, Victor H. Polacheck, Jr. In 1935 she returned to Europe working as a reporter for New York Herald Tribune in France; and after moving to the United Kingdom in 1937, worked as a freelance reporter for a number of newspapers including The Manchester Guardian, The Daily Telegraph as well as the New York Herald Tribune. During the Munich Crisis she was temporarily a diplomatic correspondent for the Sunday Times.

During her period in London, Kirkpatrick, along with two other journalists — Victor Gordon-Lennox and Graham Hutton — published a weekly newspaper The Whitehall News which was staunchly anti-appeasement and in opposition to the dictatorships in Germany and Italy.  Among the politicians who read The Whitehall News were the then British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden (later to resign over the British government's attitude to appeasement) and Winston Churchill.  Kirkpatrick expanded upon her anti-appeasement views in two books published in 1938 and 1939 — This Terrible Peace and Under the British Umbrella: What the English are and how they go to war.

Second World War
In 1939 Kirkpatrick applied to become a reporter on the staff of the Chicago Daily News.  The proprietor of the paper, Frank Knox, told her "We don't have women on the staff" to which Kirkpatrick replied "I can't change my sex. But you can change your policy." Knox hired her. Her first assignment for the paper was to interview the Duke of Windsor, well known for not giving interviews. Kirkpatrick managed to arrange a meeting with the Duke who explained to her that he did not give interviews but had no objection to him interviewing her.  This resulted in the first piece under her byline being an interview of her by the Duke of Windsor.

Kirkpatrick remained with the Chicago Daily News throughout the war.  She was based in London and reported on the London Blitz and in 1943 accompanied the US Army to Algeria and the Mediterranean theater.  Returning to England she accompanied the American forces during the Invasion of Normandy in June 1944 before becoming attached to the Free French Forces, the first war correspondent to be so assigned. In August 1944 she rode with the tanks of General Leclerc's 2nd Armored Division as the division liberated Paris. Afterwards, she becane the Daily News''' Paris Bureau Chief and a short time later, went on to report from Germany.

Her final wartime assignment was to visit Berchtesgaden — Hitler's mountain retreat in Bavaria where it is reported that she stole a frying pan from the kitchen.

 Post-war career
By 1946 Kirkpatrick had left the Chicago Daily News and joined the New York Post'' for which paper she covered the Nuremberg Trials and secured one of the first interviews with Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India.

Leaving journalism to work as an information officer for the Marshall Plan before returning to Washington, D.C. to work for an Advisor to Secretaty of State Dean Acheson in the European Bureau of the State Department between 1949 and 1953, Kirkpatrick then finally became secretary to the President of Smith College, her alma mater.

After retirement she was engaged in a number of civic activities, many of which were on behalf of the Democratic Party.

Personal life and death
Kirkpatrick divorced her first husband, Victor Polacheck, in 1936 and in 1954 married Robbins Milbank, a trustee of Smith College.  She remained married to Milbank until his death in 1985. Between 1983 and 1993, Kirkpatrick began gifting her papers to the Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College Special Collections.

After retirement to Williamsburg, Virginia, Kirkpatrick died on December 29, 1997.

Honors
For her wartime services, Kirkpatrick was awarded the Medal of Freedom, the French Legion of Honour and the Médaille de la Reconnaissance française and in later life the Rockefeller Public Service Award for her work for the US Government.

References

Notes

Sources

1909 births
1997 deaths
American women war correspondents
Writers from Rochester, New York
Smith College alumni
University of Geneva alumni
Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies alumni
American women journalists
American expatriates in Switzerland
Chicago Daily News people
New York Post people
New York Herald Tribune people
The Sunday Times people
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
Recipients of the Medal of Freedom
American women civilians in World War II
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers

Helen Kirkpatrick