Ernakulam (; ISO: Eṟaṇākuḷaṁ) is one of the 14 districts in the Indian state of Kerala, and takes its name from the eponymous city division in Kochi. It is situated in the central part of the state, spans an area of about , and is home to over 9% of Kerala's population. Its headquarters are located at Kakkanad. The district includes Kochi, also known as the commercial capital of Kerala, which is famous for its ancient Churches, Hindu temples, synagogues and mosques. The district includes the largest metropolitan region of the state: Greater Cochin. Ernakulam is the district that yields the most revenue and the largest number of industries in the state. Ernakulam is the third most populous district in Kerala, after Malappuram and Thiruvananthapuram (out of 14 districts). The district also hosts the highest number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala state.

The most commonly spoken language in Ernakulam is Malayalam. English is widely used, mostly in business circles. Ernakulam became India's first district to have 100 percent banking or full "meaningful financial inclusion" in 2012.

Ernakulam has a high Human Development Index of 0.801 (UNHDP report 2005), which is one of the highest in India.

Etymology

History

Ernakulam has played a part in the political history of south India since ancient times. The Jews, Syrians, Arabs, Chinese, Dutch, British, and Portuguese seafarers followed the sea route to the Kingdom of Cochin and left their impressions on the town. The port at Kozhikode held superior economic and political position in medieval Kerala coast, while Kannur, Kollam, and Kochi, were commercially important secondary ports, where the traders from various parts of the world would gather. In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar, making it the first municipality in Indian subcontinent, which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in 18th century. In 1896, the Maharaja of Cochin initiated local administration by forming a town council in Ernakulam. Initially, The district's headquarters were located in the portion of the city known as Ernakulam, which gave the district its name; the headquarters was relocated afterwards to Kakkanad.

In the year 1998, Kuttampuzha village was added to the district from Idukki district following which the district got a political boundary with neighbouring state of Tamil Nadu. There is no interstate road that connects the district with the neighbouring state through this border.

Geography

The Ernakulam district covers an area of  on the Western Coastal Plains of India. It is surrounded by the Thrissur District to the north, the Idukki District to the east, Alappuzha and Kottayam districts to the south and the Laccadive Sea to the west. The Anamalais occupy a large part of the district, consisting of the forest areas around Pooyamkutty and the Idamalayar Dam. The range also extends into Thrissur, Palakkad, and Idukki districts, as well as Coimbatore and Tiruppur districts of Tamil Nadu. The district is divided geographically into highland, midland, and coastal area. The altitude of the highlands is about . The Periyar River, Kerala's longest, flows through all the taluks except Muvattupuzha. The Muvattupuzha River and a branch of the Chalakkudy River also flow through the district. The average yearly rainfall in the district is . The district has a moderate climate and mostly falls within the Malabar Coast moist forests ecoregion, while the highlands are part of the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests ecoregion. The Anamudi is the tallest peak in South India, on the border of Ernakulam and Idukki districts. Some parts of the Idamalayar Reserve Forest and Mankulam Forest Division have Sholas but these parts are inaccessible by road. The Idamalayar Reserve Forest, and Edamalakkudy. Many types of sand, soil, and rocks are abundant here. Cochin International Airport is located in the northern part of the district at Nedumbassery, Kochi.

The district houses two Urban Agglomerations, Kochi and Kothamangalam. Kochi is the largest city in the state, and 17th most populous in the country according to the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs rankings based on the 2011 Census, with an area of over 843km2 and 2.12 million population.

Topography

The district is divided into three parts: lowland, midland, and the highland that consist of seaboard, plains, and hills and forests respectively. 20 percent of the total area are lowlands. The forests in the eastern part of the district are mostly remote, forming a part of the Anamalais. The highest peak is the Anamudi. The midland consists mainly of plain land and a group of islands that naturally drain water via backwaters and canals. The hilly or eastern portion is formed by a section of the Western Ghats. Muvattupuzha and Kothamangalam taluks, which were initially parts of the Kottayam district and constitute the highlands. Muvattupuzhayar and Periyar are the main rivers, of which the latter flows through Muvattupuzha, Aluva, Kunnathunad and Parur taluks. During the rainy season these rivers are full and heavy floods affect the low-lying areas on the banks, but in the summer season, they generally go dry and narrow. The Periyar is stretched over a length of .

Forest and wildlife

The flora of this district is tropical. The heavy rainfall combined with moderate temperatures and fertile soil support abundant vegetation. Many of the common plants are found in the coastal area, which forms the lowland region. The midland region is occupied by coconut palms, paddy, tapioca, pepper, pineapple and pulses. The lower slopes of the highland region have teak and rubber.

Mangalavanam Bird Sanctuary

Mangalavanam Bird Sanctuary is located at the centre of Kochi. It covers , supports many species of mangroves and is a nesting ground for a variety of migratory birds. The Managalavanam is called the "green lung of Kochi", considering its role in controlling the city's air pollution.

Thattekad Bird Sanctuary
Thattekad Bird Sanctuary lies on the northern bank of the Periyar River and covers about . It was founded by ornithologist Salim Ali. The sanctuary is  from Kochi. Birds found here include falcons, jungle fowl, water hens, and hornbills. The flora of this area consists mainly of plantations of teak, rosewood, and mahogany. Further on the road, Pooyamkutty forest of the Anamalais is reached.

Climate

Economy

Ernakulam district is the richest district in Kerala and is the biggest commercial centre in the state of Kerala. It contributes the most to the state exchequer in terms of GSVA and tax revenues. It has the highest literacy rate as well as the highest per capita income in the state, along with having the greatest number of commercialised banks, startups and large-scale industries & MSMEs in the state.
Its M.G. Road is home to some of Kerala's most prestigious enterprises. Kochi is also the headquarters of some large companies like Federal Bank, Geojit,  V-Guard, and Muthoot.

The sea along the entire coast of the district and its backwaters are the habitat of various kinds of fish that supply both marine and inland fisheries.

Agriculture

The eastern part of Ernakulam is primarily agrarian in nature. Rice is the principal crop cultivated in the wetlands. The district is the largest producer of nutmeg and pineapple in the state: more than 55% of pineapples produced in the state is cultivated in the district. Rubber is the most cultivated plantation crop in the district and the district is the second-largest producer of rubber in the state behind Kottayam. Other important crops cultivated in the district are tapioca, black pepper, areca nut, coconut, turmeric, banana, and plantain.

Education

Ernakulam is the first district in India to have 100 percent literacy by 1990. In fact Kochi has the highest literacy rate for any city in the country with over 20 lakhs population. Pothanikkad is the first village in India that achieved 100 percent literacy according to state literacy programme is in this district.

There are three prominent universities in Ernakulam: Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit in Kalady, Cochin University of Science and Technology in Kalamassery, and Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies in Kochi. The district has the most educational institutions in the state; as of 2019, there are 476 fully high-tech schools in Ernakulam.

In 2017, Ernakulam district administration launched the Roshni project, which aims to provide Malayalam education to migrant children. It supported 1,265 migrant workers' children from lower primary to high school.

Divisions

There are two revenue divisions: Fort Kochi and Muvattupuzha. The municipal corporation is in Kochi.

Taluks

The district has the most taluks in the state. The district is divided by two revenue divisions with seven taluks.

 Paravur
 Aluva
 Kunnathunad
 Muvattupuzha
 Kochi
 Kanayannur
 Kothamangalam

Municipalities

Interestingly, Ernakulam district has the most municipalities in the state.

 North Paravur
 Piravom
 Muvattupuzha
 Koothattukulam
 Perumbavoor
 Aluva
 Angamaly
 Thripunithura
 Kalamassery
 Kothamangalam
 Eloor
 Maradu
 Thrikkakara

A criticism that has been centered around this fact is that despite municipalities like Aluva, Kalamassery, Thrikkakara, Maradu, Tripunithura and Eloor becoming assimilated into Kochi city, they still exist as individual municipalities instead of being under Kochi Corporation. Surprisingly the corporation has not amended its limits for over half a century, since 1967 to be precise. The corporation was the largest in area and population when it was formed, and all these regions were panchayaths back then. Instead of adding them to the corporation when these regions started developing due to the urban expansion of Kochi city, they were made into separate municipalities thus largely handicapping the corporation. Now the call to expand these outdated limits for a better unified administration for the entire city of Kochi is a strong public demand.

Parliamentary Constituencies

 Ernakulam Parliamentary Constituency
 Chalakudy Parliamentary Constituency (partially)
 Idukki Parliamentary Constituency (parts of Muvattupuzha taluk and Kothamangalam taluk)
 Kottayam Parliamentary Constituency (parts of Muvattupuzha taluk and Kanayannur taluk)

Assembly Constituencies

Piravom
Angamaly
Aluva
Kalamassery
North Paravur
Vypeen
Kochi
Ernakulam
Thrikkakara
Thripunithura
Perumbavoor
Kunnathunad
Moovattupuzha
Kothamangalam

Demographics

According to the 2018 Statistics Report, Ernakulam has a population of 3,427,659. The 2011 Census of India reports that the district is ranked 104th most populous in India out of 640. The district has a population density of . Its population growth rate in 2001–2011 was 5.69%. Ernakulam has a sex ratio of 1027 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 95.89%. 68.07% of the population lives in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 8.18% and 0.50% of the population respectively.

According to the 2011 census, 96.70% of the population spoke Malayalam, 0.97% Konkani and 0.94% Tamil as their first language.

This district is listed as the "most advanced" district in Kerala. It had a resident population of 3,105,798 as of 2001, excluding the commuters from neighbouring districts.

According to the 2011 Census of India, Ernakulam District also houses the largest city (UA) in the state (17th largest in the country) - Kochi Urban Agglomeration. Kochi UA spans across 843km2 with a population of 2,119,724 (2.12 million), thereby housing approximately two thirds of the population of Ernakulam District. Government of Kerala have also marked Kochi UA as the only "first order UA" in the state, which has its influence spread across the entire state unlike the other smaller cities.

The district also houses another smaller urban agglomeration - Kothamangalam, which has an area of 81.42 km2 housing over 1,14, 639 people. The towns of Kothamangalam and Muvattupuzha form a major chunk of the Kothamangalam UA.

Religion

Hindus (46%) accounts for the largest community, followed by Christians (38%) (Latin Catholic, Syro-Malabar, Jacobites, Pentecostals and Malankara Orthodox) and Muslims (15.7%). A small population of Jains, Jews, and Sikhs reside in Kochi. Ernakulam once had a vibrant Jewish population, with several synagogues, known as the Malabar Jews who used to dominate the trade and commercial activities in the district. After the state of Israel was formed in 1945, the entire community made aliyah to Israel in the 1950s. Today they number 8000 in Israel but very few Jews remain in the district. After a direct flight service was established between Kochi and Tel Aviv they have retained ties with the state with annual visits and gatherings.

Ernakulam also has a significant Konkani Hindu population who migrated from Goa during the Goa Inquisition. There is a small Jain community in Ernakulam district, concentrated mainly in Kochi city. The Sikh community in Ernakulam is also concentrated mainly in Kochi. There are more than 25 Sikh families in Kochi and there is one gurdwara.

Culture

Festivals and traditions

The Aluva Sivarathri festival at the Aluva Mahadeva Temple (situated on the banks of river Periyar) in Aluva attracts people from around the country.

St. Mary's Orthodox Syrian Cathedral, Piravom is believed to be founded in 405 A.D. and was the headquarters of Archdeacon and St Thomas until the 18th century.

Adi Shankaracharya was born in Kalady, which is considered to be a major pilgrimage centre for Hindus around the world.

Kallil Kshethram is a famous Jain temple near Perumbavoor.

Puthencruz is the regional seat of Syriac Orthodox Church in India, and is where Saint Thomas Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Malayattoor is located.

The eight-day lent (Ettunombu) festival at St Mary's Jacobite Syrian Valiyapally, Thamarachal attracts many people from all over the state. St. George Orthodox Syrian Church at Kadamattam near Muvattupuzha is very old and was founded by Mar Abo Syrian Metropolitan in the 5th century A.D. He brought a cross from Persia, which is preserved in the church. The festival at the Latin church of Vallarpadam on 24 September attracts people belonging to all religions. The icon of Virgin Mary in this church is credited with many miracles. St. George's Syro-Malabar Catholic Forane Church, Edappally was founded in 593 A.D.

Important pilgrimage sites in Ernakulam are Koonan Kurish St George Orthodox Pilgrim church, Mattancherry; Vadakken Paravoor St Thomas Catholic Church, Malayattoor Pally; and Mor Thoman Jacobite Church, Kothamangalam; and Thrikkunnathu St Mary's Seminary Church, Aluva. The relics of Gregorios Abdul Jaleel are preserved at the St. Thomas Jacobite church North Paravur. Thousands of pilgrims from Kerala culminate on 27 April for the Dhukrono of the Saint. The Feast of Eldho Mor Baselios is celebrated in the tomb church Mor Thoman Church at Kothamangalam every year on 2 and 3 October. The Feast of Paulose Mar Athanasius on 26 January at Thrikkunnathu St Mary's Seminary Church, Aluva, where he is entombed, also attracts thousands.

Gheevarghese Mar Gregorios of Parumala, also known as Parumala Thirumeni, the first saint of Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church from India was born and brought up in Mulanthuruthy.

Places of interest

Marine Drive, Kochi
Kadavumbhagam Mattancherry Synagogue
Kadavumbhagam Ernakulam Synagogue
Paradesi Synagogue: Constructed in 1567, only active synagogue in the Kochi.
Chinese Fishing Nets (Cheena Vala)
Hill Palace, Tripunithura
Bolgatty Island
Willingdon Island
Dutch Palace: Made in 1568 by the Portuguese. Later re-structured by the Dutch.
St. Francis Church, Kochi: Originally built in 1503, the oldest European church in India
Kodanad: Elephant training centre is located here.
Pareekshit Thampuran Museum
Kerala Historical Museum: Located at Edappally
Chendamangalam, a village
 Palium Palace
Vypeenakotta Seminary
Bhoothathankettu, a scenic dam site
St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Malayattoor: The only international shrine in Asia. Believed to have been visited by St. Thomas, the apostle.
Wonder La, Kakkanad: Amusement park
Cherai Beach.
Kuzhippilly Beach
Fort Kochi Beach
Paniyeli Poru
Ezhattumugham

Transport

Road connectivity
The three major national highways passing through Ernakulam are the Cochin-Mumbai Highway (NH 66), Salem-Kanyakumari (NH 47 part of NSEW corridor), and Cochin-Dhanushkodi highway (NH 49).

Railway station
Ernakulam has 17 railway stations. The Ernakulam Junction, Ernakulam Town and Aluva are the major stations. The other stations are Angamaly, Thripunithura, Edapally, Mulamthuruthy, Cochin Harbour Terminus, Karakutty, Chowara, Kalamassery, Nettoor, Kumbalam, Mattancherry H., Chottanikkara road, Kanjiramattom and Piravom road. The rail routes travel via Thrissur, Kottayam, Cochin H.T., Alappuzha, and Vallarpadam. The Angamaly-Erumely Sabarimala route passes through the district. Kochi Metro runs in Kochi.

Airport
Ernakulam district has two airports: Naval airport in W.island (Old Cochin airport) and Cochin International Airport (CIAL). CIAL is the fourth largest airport in the country after Mumbai, Delhi, and Chennai, and serves International passengers.

Water transport
Ernakulam lies in the flat delta region of the Periyar and Moovattupuzha rivers. Water transport is prominent in the district via rivers and lagoons.

Notable people

Adi Sankaracharya (Saint Advaita)
Abraham Barak Salem (Jewish Gandhi))
Ajay Kudua (cricketer)
Swami Chinmayananda (Indian spiritual leader and geetacharya )
Geevarghese Mar Gregorios of Parumala (Syrian Orthodox Saint)
Paulose Mar Athanasius (Syrian Orthodox Saint)
Shadkala Govinda Marar (Carnatic musician)
Sahodaran Ayyappan (social reformer and former minister of Kochi State)
K J Yesudas (singer)
Changampuzha (poet)
Malayattoor ramakrishnan (novelist)
NS Madhavan (writer)
N. A. Naseer (photographer, activist and author)
Sebastian Paul (politician)
Simon Britto Rodrigues (politician)
Feroze V Rasheed (cricketer)
K Jayaraman (cricketer)
G. Sankara Kurup (poet)
P K Vasudevan Nair (former chief minister)
Balachandran Chullikad (poet and actor)
Sreesanth (cricketer)
K. V. Thomas (politician)
Asin Thottumkal (actress)
Jayasurya (actor)
Cochin Haneefa (actor)
Sreejesh Ravindran (hockey player)
Sankaradi (actor)
Salim Kumar (actor)
T. K. Narayana Pillai (former chief minister of Kerala)
Jayaram (actor)
Lalu Alex (actor)
Hibi Eden (politician)
K. M. George (politician)
Francis George (politician)
Johnny Nellore (politician)
T. M. Jacob (politician)
Anoop Jacob (politician)
Jose Thettayil (politician)
Nivin Pauly (actor)
Lal (actor)
Rajeev Ravi (director and cinematographer)
 Subi Suresh (actress and comedian)

Gallery

See also
Arayankavu
Edathala
Kizhakkambalam
Kizhakkumbhagom
Malayattoor
Payyal
Perumpalloor
Thuthiyoor

References

Further reading

External links

1958 establishments in Kerala
Districts of Kerala

Ernakulam district


The ECOWAS passport is a common passport document for several countries in West Africa.

Member states of ECOWAS — the Economic Community of West African States — have implemented the common design for the passport. It was created to facilitate the intra-regional travel of member states' citizens for periods of unlimited duration. The passport can be used within the sub-region and is also recognized for international travel.

Types

There are three types of ECOWAS passports:

 Ordinary passport  These passports are issued to citizens and are intended for occasional travel, such as vacations and business trips. They contain 32 pages, and are valid for 5 years.

 Official/Service passport  These passports are issued to officials attached to government institutions who have to travel on official business.

 Diplomatic passport  Issued to diplomats and consuls for work-related travel, and to their accompanying dependents.

Common design features

Overall format
Paper size B7 (ISO/IEC 7810 ID-3, 88 mm × 125 mm)
32 pages (passports with more pages can be issued to frequent travelers)
Colour of cover: green, blue and burgundy (depending on type of passport)

Cover
The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) itself does not issue passports, but the passports issued by its 15 members share certain design features. These include the green coloured cover for ordinary passports, blue colored cover for service passports, and burgundy colored cover for diplomatic passports, as well as common security features and biometrics.

Additional common features include the inscription of the words ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS), French: COMMUNAUTÉ ÉCONOMIQUE DES ÉTATS DE L'AFRIQUE DE L'OUEST (CEDEAO), depending on the language of the issuing state. While the emblem of the ECOWAS community is emblazoned on the cover page of some passports, it is possible to notice some ECOWAS passports of certain countries with the respective state's emblem on the cover instead. The name of the issuing country is usually the only distinguishing factor between passports issued by the various sovereign nations of the sub-region.

Near the bottom of the passport cover, depending on the official language of the issuing state, the words PASSPORT, French: PASSEPORT are inscribed on ordinary passports, OFFICIAL PASSPORT or SERVICE PASSPORT, French: PASSEPORT DE SERVICE on service passports; and DIPLOMATIC PASSPORT, French: PASSEPORT DIPLOMATIQUE on diplomatic passports.

Identification page
The following information is printed on the identification page, in both English and French:

 Type
 Code of Issuing State
 Passport No.
 Surname
 Given name(s)
 Nationality
 Date of birth
 Sex
 Place of birth
 Date of issue
 Date of expiry
 Authority

Overview of passports issued by the ECOWAS states

See also
African Union Passport

References

Economic Community of West African States
Passports

ECOWAS passport


Darkdevil (Reilly Tyne) is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by Tom DeFalco and Pat Olliffe, the character first appeared in Spider-Girl #2 (November 1998). Darkdevil primarily appears in the Marvel Comics 2 future of the Marvel Universe.

Publication history
Darkkdevil debuted in Spider-Girl #2 (November 1998), by writer Tom DeFalco and artist Pat Olliffe. He appeared in the 2000 Darkdevil series, his first solo comic book series. He appred in the 2005 Last Hero Standing series.

Fictional character biography
Reilly Tyne is the son of Ben Reilly (Spider-Man's clone) and Elizabeth Tyne. Before he reached his teens, his inherited powers began to manifest but brought with them clonal degeneration. Kaine, the degenerated first clone of Peter Parker, found him, and placed him within a regeneration tank to slow the process. Kaine's efforts were for two goals: to resurrect Daredevil, who had previously died saving Kaine, and to heal Tyne. Kaine summoned the demon Zarathos, which attempted to possess Tyne, but he was saved by the soul of Daredevil, who drove out Zarathos, although both Daredevil's soul and a piece of the demon remained within Tyne, and he was left with a demonic appearance and certain demonic abilities. Through meditation and concentration, Tyne eventually learned to project a human appearance, but he now looked to be in his twenties, almost twice his actual age. Following in both of Daredevil's paths, he studied law and became an attorney, while taking on a costume bearing a resemblance to Daredevil's and using his demonic abilities to fight crime as Darkdevil.  He apparently has access to at least some of Daredevil's memories, since he knows Spider-Man's secret identity.

Darkdevil has fought alongside Spider-Girl several times, as well as the semi-retired Spider-Man. Neither Spider-Man nor Spider-Girl are aware of his genetic relation to them, but Darkdevil has hinted that he owes his existence to the original Daredevil, Spider-Man, and Kaine. Mary Jane noticed Reilly at Normie Osborn and Brenda Drago's wedding party and attempted to point out to her husband the boy that resembled him. Peter Parker cluelessly mentions that Reilly resembles Tobey Maguire, a sly nod by writers to the fact that Maguire played Spider-Man in four films.

When Doc Magus, Sorcerer Supreme (successor to Doctor Strange), delved into Darkdevil's mind, he found it had three inhabitants: Reilly himself as a young teen, Daredevil, and Zarathos in the form of Ghost Rider.

Recently he has been seen working alongside Kaine, going as far as to refer to the man as Uncle Kaine, thus confirming that he is fully aware of his relation to both Kaine, Spider-Girl and her father Peter Parker. During a clone debacle which resulted in there being two May Parkers (one being a symbiote hybrid), Darkdevil assists Spider-Girl in her rescue attempt only to be confronted by the Goblin Queen and the clone Spider-Girl. Darkdevil was also present with the New Warriors and American Dream battling Silvio Barraca/Silverback.

After the Spider-Verse event, Darkdevil was later seen with the New Warriors (and Uncle Ben/Spider-Man of Earth-3145) on helping Spider-Girl (now known as Spider-Woman) stopping Hope Pym/Red Queen and Entralla by freeing mind controlled A-Next. During the battle, Entralla's powers were ineffective against Darkdevil, due to his own demonic powers, and Mayday Parker/Spider-Woman is aware of her family relations with Reilly Tyne/Darkdevil, as she referred to him as "coz".

Powers and abilities
Darkdevil possesses superhuman attributes, such as superhuman strength, speed, and agility. He has the ability to summon solid flaming constructs. His regenerative healing factor allows him to heal quickly. Darkdevil has an ability similar to Spider-Man's "Spider-sense" that allows him to detect immediate danger to himself. He possesses the power to climb walls. He can also teleport.

Reception

Critical response
Darby Hart of Screen Rant included Darkdevil in their "9 Best Daredevil Variants From Marvel Comics" list.

References

External links
 Darkdevil biography at DD Resource
 Profile at a Spider-girl fansite
 Synopsis and Reviews of Darkdevil miniseries at spiderfan.org

Characters created by Tom DeFalco
Comics characters introduced in 1998
Fictional characters with precognition
Fictional clubfighters
Marvel Comics demons
Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Marvel Comics characters who can teleport
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Marvel Comics mutates
Marvel Comics superheroes
Marvel Comics titles
Marvel Comics 2

Darkdevil


Forever Reign is first studio album by One Sonic Society. Essential Worship Records released the album on 17 January 2012. One Sonic Society worked with Matt Bronleewe, in the production of this album.

Background
These songs are all from the three extended plays, One in 2010, Sonic in 2010, and Society in 2011, that preceded this studio album's release. The single, "Forever Reign", charted on two Billboard magazine charts.

Critical reception

Awarding the album three stars from CCM Magazine, Grace S. Aspinwall states, "the philosophy behind this entire album, it's a truly beautiful thing." Robert Ham, giving the album two and a half stars at AllMusic, writes, "it should come as little surprise that this trio has concocted a collection of songs that seems sometimes a little too radio- and worship-service ready." Rating the album three stars for Jesus Freak Hideout, Tincan Caldwell says, "In the end, Forever Reign, though it is pleasant and at times soaring, suffers from the fate common to 'super group' albums. The collaborative skill of all those involved is usually good enough to deliver a few great songs, but after that, the ones that remain often feel tossed off."

Jeremy Armstrong, awarding the album five stars by Worship Leader, describes, "Forever Reign is the collection of the best of the EPs all in one place." Giving the album an eight out of ten from Cross Rhythms, Paul S. Ganney states, "The choruses are very singable, very uplifting, very easy to pick up." Michael Dalton, rating the album a four out of five at The Phantom Tollbooth, writes, "They wisely recognize that it is better to worship a transcendent God than to foster the illusion of being a super-group."

Giving the album four stars for Indie Vision Music, Jonathan Andre says, "Well done for a good debut album!" Dave Wood, awarding the album four stars from Louder Than the Music, describes, "With an extremely strong arsenal of songs already penned and powerful song writing and musical talents in their armory, One Sonic Society may be one of the quietest, most unassuming, yet amply gifted bands in worship music." Rating the album a 4.25 out of five at Christian Music Zine, Joshua Andre states, "With such a well received quiver of anthems under their belt that have been widely accepted in the church, One Sonic Society may just be the quiet achievers of 2012."

Track listing

References

2012 debut albums
One Sonic Society albums
Essential Records (Christian) albums

Forever Reign (One Sonic Society album)


Sancho Garcés VI (; 21 April 1132 - 27 June 1194), called the Wise (, ) was King of Navarre from 1150 until his death in 1194. He was the first monarch to officially drop the title of King of Pamplona in favour of King of Navarre, thus changing the designation of his kingdom. Sancho Garcés was responsible for bringing his kingdom into the political orbit of Europe. He was the eldest son of García Ramírez, the Restorer and Margaret of L'Aigle.

Biography

Sancho VI inherited a debilitated kingdom, subject of frequent raids by the Kingdom of Castile of Alfonso VII and by the County of Barcelona of Ramon Berenguer IV, also king of Aragon, who in 1140 had agreed the partition of the kingdom in the Treaty of Carrión.

He tried to repair the borders of his kingdom, which had been reduced by the Treaties of Tudején and Carrión, which he had been forced to sign with Castile and Aragón in his early reign. By the Accord of Soria, Castile was eventually confirmed in its possession of conquered territories. In the face of a possible Castilian military takeover of further western Navarrese territories, Sancho VI re-asserted royal authority by founding several towns in 1181, including San Sebastián, Vitoria and Treviño, among others.

He was hostile to Count Raymond Berengar IV of Barcelona, but Raymond's son King Alfonso II of Aragon divided the lands taken from Murcia with him by treaty of Sangüesa in 1168.  In 1190, the two neighbours again signed a pact in Borja of mutual protection against Castilian expansion.

He died on 27 June 1194, in Pamplona, where he is buried.

Marriage and family

On 20 July 1153, Sancho Garcés married Sancha of Castile, daughter of Alfonso VII, King of León and Castile and his wife Berengaria of Barcelona. They had six children:

 Berengaria Sánchez, who became Queen consort of England after her marriage in 1191 to Richard I. She died childless.
 Sancho Sánchez, nicknamed the Strong, who succeeded his father and ruled as King of Navarre from 1194 to 1234, married first to Constance of Toulouse and then a second time to a woman believed to have been daughter of Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor or, according to other sources, of Yusuf II, caliph of Morocco.
 Blanche Sánchez, who became Countess of Champagne after her marriage to Theobald III and Count regent after his death. Her son Theobald would become King of Navarre after the death of his uncle.
 Fernando Sánchez, buried at the Abbey of Santa María la Real de Las Huelgas.
 Teresa Sánchez
 Constanza Sánchez, buried in Marcilla.

References

Sources

External links
 Geni - Sancho VI el Sabio, rey de Navarra

1132 births
1194 deaths
12th-century Navarrese monarchs
House of Jiménez

Sancho VI of Navarre


An anchor is a device, normally made of metal, used to secure a vessel to the bed of a body of water to prevent the craft from drifting due to wind or current. The word derives from Latin , which itself comes from the Greek  ().

Anchors can either be temporary or permanent. Permanent anchors are used in the creation of a mooring, and are rarely moved; a specialist service is normally needed to move or maintain them. Vessels carry one or more temporary anchors, which may be of different designs and weights.

A sea anchor is a drag device, not in contact with the seabed, used to minimise drift of a vessel relative to the water. A drogue is a drag device used to slow or help steer a vessel running before a storm in a following or overtaking sea, or when crossing a bar in a breaking sea.

Overview

Anchors achieve holding power either by "hooking" into the seabed, or weight, or a combination of the two. Permanent moorings use large masses (commonly a block or slab of concrete) resting on the seabed. Semi-permanent mooring anchors (such as mushroom anchors) and large ship's anchors derive a significant portion of their holding power from their weight, while also hooking or embedding in the bottom. Modern anchors for smaller vessels have metal flukes that hook on to rocks on the bottom or bury themselves in soft seabed.

The vessel is attached to the anchor by the rode (also called a cable or a warp). It can be made of rope, chain or a combination of rope and chain. The ratio of the length of rode to the water depth is known as the scope (see below).

Holding ground
Holding ground is the area of sea floor that holds an anchor, and thus the attached ship or boat. Different types of anchor are designed to hold in different types of holding ground. Some bottom materials hold better than others; for instance, hard sand holds well, shell holds poorly. Holding ground may be fouled with obstacles. An anchorage location may be chosen for its holding ground. In poor holding ground, only the weight of an anchor matters; in good holding ground, it is able to dig in, and the holding power can be significantly higher.

History

Evolution of the anchor

The earliest anchors were probably rocks, and many rock anchors have been found dating from at least the Bronze Age. Pre-European Maori waka (canoes) used one or more hollowed stones, tied with flax ropes, as anchors. Many modern moorings still rely on a large rock as the primary element of their design.  However, using pure weight to resist the forces of a storm works well only as a permanent mooring; a large enough rock would be nearly impossible to move to a new location.

The ancient Greeks used baskets of stones, large sacks filled with sand, and wooden logs filled with lead. According to Apollonius Rhodius and Stephen of Byzantium, anchors were formed of stone, and Athenaeus states that they were also sometimes made of wood. Such anchors held the vessel merely by their weight and by their friction along the bottom.

Fluked anchors

Iron was afterwards introduced for the construction of anchors, and an improvement was made by forming them with teeth, or "flukes", to fasten themselves into the bottom. This is the iconic anchor shape most familiar to non-sailors.

This form has been used since antiquity. The Roman Nemi ships of the 1st century AD used this form. The Viking Ladby ship (probably 10th century) used a fluked anchor of this type, made of iron, which would have had a wooden stock mounted perpendicular to the shank and flukes to make the flukes contact the bottom at a suitable angle to hook or penetrate.

Admiralty anchor

The Admiralty Pattern anchor, or simply "Admiralty", also known as a "Fisherman", consists of a central shank with a ring or shackle for attaching the rode (the rope, chain, or cable connecting the ship and the anchor). At the other end of the shank there are two arms, carrying the flukes, while the stock is mounted to the shackle end, at ninety degrees to the arms. When the anchor lands on the bottom, it generally falls over with the arms parallel to the seabed. As a strain comes onto the rope, the stock digs into the bottom, canting the anchor until one of the flukes catches and digs into the bottom.

The Admiralty Anchor is an entirely independent reinvention of a classical design, as seen in one of the Nemi ship anchors. This basic design remained unchanged for centuries, with the most significant changes being to the overall proportions, and a move from stocks made of wood to iron stocks in the late 1830s and early 1840s.

Since one fluke always protrudes up from the set anchor, there is a great tendency of the rode to foul the anchor as the vessel swings due to wind or current shifts. When this happens, the anchor may be pulled out of the bottom, and in some cases may need to be hauled up to be re-set. In the mid-19th century, numerous modifications were attempted to alleviate these problems, as well as improve holding power, including one-armed mooring anchors. The most successful of these patent anchors, the Trotman Anchor, introduced a pivot at the centre of the crown where the arms join the shank, allowing the "idle" upper arm to fold against the shank. When deployed the lower arm may fold against the shank tilting the tip of the fluke upwards, so each fluke has a tripping palm at its base, to hook on the bottom as the folded arm drags along the seabed, which unfolds the downward oriented arm until the tip of the fluke can engage the bottom.

Handling and storage of these anchors requires special equipment and procedures. Once the anchor is hauled up to the hawsepipe, the ring end is hoisted up to the end of a timber projecting from the bow known as the cathead. The crown of the anchor is then hauled up with a heavy tackle until one fluke can be hooked over the rail. This is known as "catting and fishing" the anchor. Before dropping the anchor, the fishing process is reversed, and the anchor is dropped from the end of the cathead.

Stockless anchor

The stockless anchor, patented in England in 1821, represented the first significant departure in anchor design in centuries. Although their holding-power-to-weight ratio is significantly lower than admiralty pattern anchors, their ease of handling and stowage aboard large ships led to almost universal adoption. In contrast to the elaborate stowage procedures for earlier anchors, stockless anchors are simply hauled up until they rest with the shank inside the hawsepipes, and the flukes against the hull (or inside a recess in the hull).

While there are numerous variations, stockless anchors consist of a set of heavy flukes connected by a pivot or ball and socket joint to a shank. Cast into the crown of the anchor is a set of tripping palms, projections that drag on the bottom, forcing the main flukes to dig in.

Small boat anchors
Until the mid-20th century, anchors for smaller vessels were either scaled-down versions of admiralty anchors, or simple grapnels. As new designs with greater holding-power-to-weight ratios were sought, a great variety of anchor designs has emerged. Many of these designs are still under patent, and other types are best known by their original trademarked names.

Grapnel anchor / drag

A traditional design, the grapnel is merely a shank (no stock) with four or more tines, also known as a drag. It has a benefit in that, no matter how it reaches the bottom, one or more tines are aimed to set. In coral, or rock, it is often able to set quickly by hooking into the structure, but may be more difficult to retrieve. A grapnel is often quite light, and may have additional uses as a tool to recover gear lost overboard. Its weight also makes it relatively easy to move and carry, however its shape is generally not compact and it may be awkward to stow unless a collapsing model is used.

Grapnels rarely have enough fluke area to develop much hold in sand, clay, or mud. It is not unknown for the anchor to foul on its own rode, or to foul the tines with refuse from the bottom, preventing it from digging in. On the other hand, it is quite possible for this anchor to find such a good hook that, without a trip line from the crown, it is impossible to retrieve.

Herreshoff anchor
Designed by yacht designer L. Francis Herreshoff, this is essentially the same pattern as an admiralty anchor, albeit with small diamond-shaped flukes or palms. The novelty of the design lay in the means by which it could be broken down into three pieces for stowage. In use, it still presents all the issues of the admiralty pattern anchor.

Northill anchor
Originally designed as a lightweight anchor for seaplanes, this design consists of two plough-like blades mounted to a shank, with a folding stock crossing through the crown of the anchor.

CQR plough anchor

Many manufacturers produce a plough-type anchor, so-named after its resemblance to an agricultural plough. All such anchors are copied from the original CQR (Coastal Quick Release, or Clyde Quick Release, later rebranded as 'secure' by Lewmar), a 1933 design patented in the UK by mathematician Geoffrey Ingram Taylor.

Plough anchors stow conveniently in a roller at the bow, and have been popular with cruising sailors and private boaters. Ploughs can be moderately good in all types of seafloor, though not exceptional in any. Contrary to popular belief, the CQR's hinged shank is not to allow the anchor to turn with direction changes rather than breaking out, but actually to prevent the shank's weight from disrupting the fluke's orientation while setting. The hinge can wear out and may trap a sailor's fingers. Some later plough anchors have a rigid shank, such as the Lewmar's "Delta".

A plough anchor has a fundamental flaw: like its namesake, the agricultural plough, it digs in but then tends to break out back to the surface. Plough anchors sometimes have difficulty setting at all, and instead skip across the seafloor. By contrast, modern efficient anchors tend to be "scoop" types that dig ever deeper.

Delta anchor
The Delta anchor was derived from the CQR. It was patented by Philip McCarron, James Stewart, and Gordon Lyall of British marine manufacturer Simpson-Lawrence Ltd in 1992. It was designed as an advance over the anchors used for floating systems such as oil rigs. It retains the weighted tip of the CQR but has a much higher fluke area to weight ratio than its predecessor. The designers also eliminated the sometimes troublesome hinge. It is a plough anchor with a rigid, arched shank. It is described as self-launching because it can be dropped from a bow roller simply by paying out the rode, without manual assistance. This is an oft copied design with the European Brake and Australian Sarca Excel being two of the more notable ones. Although it is a plough type anchor, it sets and holds reasonably well in hard bottoms.

Danforth anchor

American Richard Danforth invented the Danforth Anchor in the 1940s for use aboard landing craft. It uses a stock at the crown to which two large flat triangular flukes are attached. The stock is hinged so the flukes can orient toward the bottom (and on some designs may be adjusted for an optimal angle depending on the bottom type). Tripping palms at the crown act to tip the flukes into the seabed. The design is a burying variety, and once well set can develop high resistance. Its lightweight and compact flat design make it easy to retrieve and relatively easy to store; some anchor rollers and hawsepipes can accommodate a fluke-style anchor.

A Danforth does not usually penetrate or hold in gravel or weeds. In boulders and coral it may hold by acting as a hook. If there is much current, or if the vessel is moving while dropping the anchor, it may "kite" or "skate" over the bottom due to the large fluke area acting as a sail or wing.

The FOB HP anchor designed in Brittany in the 1970s is a Danforth variant designed to give increased holding through its use of rounded flukes setting at a 30° angle.

The Fortress is an American aluminum alloy Danforth variant that can be disassembled for storage and it features an adjustable 32° and 45° shank/fluke angle to improve holding capability in common sea bottoms such as hard sand and soft mud. This anchor performed well in a 1989 US Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA) test and in an August 2014 holding power test that was conducted in the soft mud bottoms of the Chesapeake Bay.

Bruce or claw anchor

This claw-shaped anchor was designed by Peter Bruce from Scotland in the 1970s. Bruce gained his early reputation from the production of large-scale commercial anchors for ships and fixed installations such as oil rigs.  It was later scaled down for small boats, and copies of this popular design abound. The Bruce and its copies, known generically as "claw type anchors", have been adopted on smaller boats (partly because they stow easily on a bow roller) but they are most effective in larger sizes. Claw anchors are quite popular on charter fleets as they have a high chance to set on the first try in many bottoms. They have the reputation of not breaking out with tide or wind changes, instead slowly turning in the bottom to align with the force.

Bruce anchors can have difficulty penetrating weedy bottoms and grass. They offer a fairly low holding-power-to-weight ratio and generally have to be oversized to compete with newer types.

Scoop type anchors
Three time circumnavigator German Rolf Kaczirek invented the Bügel Anker in the 1980s. Kaczirek wanted an anchor that was self-righting without necessitating a ballasted tip. Instead, he added a roll bar and switched out the plough share for a flat blade design. As none of the innovations of this anchor were patented, copies of it abound.

Alain Poiraud of France introduced the scoop type anchor in 1996. Similar in design to the Bügel anchor, Poiraud's design features a concave fluke shaped like the blade of a shovel, with a shank attached parallel to the fluke, and the load applied toward the digging end. It is designed to dig into the bottom like a shovel, and dig deeper as more pressure is applied. The common challenge with all the scoop type anchors is that they set so well, they can be difficult to weigh.
 Bügelanker, or Wasi: This German-designed bow anchor has a sharp tip for penetrating weed, and features a roll-bar that allows the correct setting attitude to be achieved without the need for extra weight to be inserted into the tip.

 Spade: This is a French design that has proven successful since 1996. It features a demountable shank (hollow in some instances) and the choice of galvanized steel, stainless steel, or aluminium construction, which means a lighter and more easily stowable anchor. The geometry also makes this anchor self stowing on a single roller.

 Rocna: This New Zealand spade design, available in galvanised or stainless steel, has been produced since 2004. It has a roll-bar (similar to that of the Bügel), a large spade-like fluke area, and a sharp toe for penetrating weed and grass. The Rocna sets quickly and holds well.

Mantus: This is claimed to be a fast setting anchor with high holding power. It is designed as an all round anchor capable of setting even in challenging bottoms such as hard sand/clay bottoms and grass. The shank is made out of a high tensile steel capable of withstanding high loads. It is similar in design to the Rocna but has a larger and wider roll-bar that reduces the risk of fouling and increases the angle of the fluke that results in improved penetration in some bottoms.

 Ultra: This is an innovative spade design that dispenses with a roll-bar. Made primarily of stainless steel, its main arm is hollow, while the fluke tip has lead within it. It is similar in appearance to the Spade anchor.

Vulcan: A recent sibling to the Rocna, this anchor performs similarly but does not have a roll-bar. Instead the Vulcan has patented design features such as the "V-bulb" and the "Roll Palm" that allow it to dig in deeply. The Vulcan was designed primarily for sailors who had difficulties accommodating the roll-bar Rocna on their bow. Peter Smith (originator of the Rocna) designed it specifically for larger powerboats. Both Vulcans and Rocnas are available in galvanised steel, or in stainless steel. The Vulcan is similar in appearance to the Spade anchor.

Knox Anchor: This is produced in Scotland and was invented by Professor John Knox. It has a divided concave large area fluke arrangement and a shank in high tensile steel. A roll bar similar to the Rocna gives fast setting and a holding power of about 40 times anchor weight.

Other temporary anchors
 Mud weight: Consists of a blunt heavy weight, usually cast iron or cast lead, that sinks into the mud and resist lateral movement. It is suitable only for soft silt bottoms and in mild conditions. Sizes range between 5 and 20 kg for small craft. Various designs exist and many are home produced from lead or improvised with heavy objects. This is a commonly used method on the Norfolk Broads in England.
Bulwagga: This is a unique design featuring three flukes instead of the usual two. It has performed well in tests by independent sources such as American boating magazine Practical Sailor.

Permanent anchors
These are used where the vessel is permanently or semi-permanently sited, for example in the case of lightvessels or channel marker buoys. The anchor needs to hold the vessel in all weathers, including the most severe storm, but needs to be lifted only occasionally, at most – for example, only if the vessel is to be towed into port for maintenance. An alternative to using an anchor under these circumstances, especially if the anchor need never be lifted at all, may be to use a pile that is driven into the seabed.

Permanent anchors come in a wide range of types and have no standard form. A slab of rock with an iron staple in it to attach a chain to would serve the purpose, as would any dense object of appropriate weight (for instance, an engine block). Modern moorings may be anchored by augers, which look and act like oversized screws drilled into the seabed, or by barbed metal beams pounded in (or even driven in with explosives) like pilings, or by a variety of other non-mass means of getting a grip on the bottom. One method of building a mooring is to use three or more conventional anchors laid out with short lengths of chain attached to a swivel, so no matter which direction the vessel moves, one or more anchors are aligned to resist the force.

Mushroom

The mushroom anchor is suitable where the seabed is composed of silt or fine sand.  It was invented by Robert Stevenson, for use by an 82-ton converted fishing boat, Pharos, which was used as a lightvessel between 1807 and 1810 near to Bell Rock whilst the lighthouse was being constructed. It was equipped with a 1.5-ton example.

It is shaped like an inverted mushroom, the head becoming buried in the silt.  A counterweight is often provided at the other end of the shank to lay it down before it becomes buried.

A mushroom anchor normally sinks in the silt to the point where it has displaced its own weight in bottom material, thus greatly increasing its holding power. These anchors are suitable only for a silt or mud bottom, since they rely upon suction and cohesion of the bottom material, which rocky or coarse sand bottoms lack. The holding power of this anchor is at best about twice its weight until it becomes buried, when it can be as much as ten times its weight. They are available in sizes from about 5 kg up to several tons.

Deadweight
A deadweight is an anchor that relies solely on being a heavy weight. It is usually just a large block of concrete or stone at the end of the chain. Its holding power is defined by its weight underwater (i.e., taking its buoyancy into account) regardless of the type of seabed, although suction can increase this if it becomes buried. Consequently, deadweight anchors are used where mushroom anchors are unsuitable, for example in rock, gravel or coarse sand. An advantage of a deadweight anchor over a mushroom is that if it does drag, it continues to provide its original holding force. The disadvantage of using deadweight anchors in conditions where a mushroom anchor could be used is that it needs to be around ten times the weight of the equivalent mushroom anchor.

Auger
Auger anchors can be used to anchor permanent moorings, floating docks, fish farms, etc. These anchors, which have one or more slightly pitched self-drilling threads, must be screwed into the seabed with the use of a tool, so require access to the bottom, either at low tide or by use of a diver. Hence they can be difficult to install in deep water without special equipment.

Weight for weight, augers have a higher holding than other permanent designs, and so can be cheap and relatively easily installed, although difficult to set in extremely soft mud.

High-holding-types
There is a need in the oil-and-gas industry to resist large anchoring forces when laying pipelines and for drilling vessels.  These anchors are installed and removed using a support tug and pennant/pendant wire.  Some examples are the Stevin range supplied by Vrijhof Ankers.  Large plate anchors such as the Stevmanta are used for permanent moorings.

Anchoring gear

The elements of anchoring gear include the anchor, the cable (also called a rode), the method of attaching the two together, the method of attaching the cable to the ship, charts, and a method of learning the depth of the water.

Vessels may carry a number of anchors: bower anchors  are the main anchors used by a vessel and normally carried at the bow of the vessel.  A kedge anchor is a light anchor used for warping an anchor, also known as kedging, or more commonly on yachts for mooring quickly or in benign conditions.  A stream anchor, which is usually heavier than a kedge anchor, can be used for kedging or warping in addition to temporary mooring and restraining stern movement in tidal conditions or in waters where vessel movement needs to be restricted, such as rivers and channels.

Charts are vital to good anchoring. Knowing the location of potential dangers, as well as being useful in estimating the effects of weather and tide in the anchorage, is essential in choosing a good place to drop the hook. One can get by without referring to charts, but they are an important tool and a part of good anchoring gear, and a skilled mariner would not choose to anchor without them.

Anchor rode
The anchor rode (or "cable" or "warp") that connects the anchor to the vessel is usually made up of chain, rope, or a combination of those. Large ships use only chain rode. Smaller craft might use a rope/chain combination or an all chain rode. All rodes should have some chain; chain is heavy but it resists abrasion from coral, sharp rocks, or shellfish beds, whereas a rope warp is susceptible to abrasion and can fail in a short time when stretched against an abrasive surface. The weight of the chain also helps keep the direction of pull on the anchor closer to horizontal, which improves holding, and absorbs part of snubbing loads. Where weight is not an issue, a heavier chain provides better holding by forming a catenary curve through the water and resting as much of its length on the bottom as would not be lifted by tension of the mooring load. Any changes to the tension are accommodated by additional chain being lifted or settling on the bottom, and this absorbs shock loads until the chain is straight, at which point the full load is taken by the anchor. Additional dissipation of shock loads can be achieved by fitting a snubber between the chain and a bollard or cleat on deck. This also reduces shock loads on the deck fittings, and the vessel usually lies more comfortably and quietly.

Being strong and elastic, nylon rope is the most suitable as an anchor rode. Polyester (terylene) is stronger but less elastic than nylon. Both materials sink, so they avoid fouling other craft in crowded anchorages and do not absorb much water. Neither breaks down quickly in sunlight. Elasticity helps absorb shock loading, but causes faster abrasive wear when the rope stretches over an abrasive surface, like a coral bottom or a poorly designed chock.  Polypropylene ("polyprop") is not suited to rodes because it floats and is much weaker than nylon, being barely stronger than natural fibres. Some grades of polypropylene break down in sunlight and become hard, weak, and unpleasant to handle. Natural fibres such as manila or hemp are still used in developing nations but absorb a lot of water, are relatively weak, and rot, although they do give good handling grip and are often relatively cheap. Ropes that have little or no elasticity are not suitable as anchor rodes. Elasticity is partly a function of the fibre material and partly of the rope structure.

All anchors should have chain at least equal to the boat's length. Some skippers prefer an all chain warp for greater security on coral or sharp edged rock bottoms. The chain should be shackled to the warp through a steel eye or spliced to the chain using a chain splice. The shackle pin should be securely wired or moused. Either galvanized or stainless steel is suitable for eyes and shackles, galvanised steel being the stronger of the two. Some skippers prefer to add a swivel to the rode. There is a school of thought that says these should not be connected to the anchor itself, but should be somewhere in the chain. However, most skippers connect the swivel directly to the anchor.

Scope
Scope is the ratio of length of the rode to the depth of the water measured from the highest point (usually the anchor roller or bow chock) to the seabed, making allowance for the highest expected tide. The function of this ratio is to ensure that the pull on the anchor is unlikely to break it out of the bottom if it is embedded, or lift it off a hard bottom, either of which is likely to result in the anchor dragging. A large scope induces a load that is nearly horizontal.

In moderate conditions the ratio of rode to water depth should be 4:1 – where there is sufficient swing-room, a greater scope is always better. In rougher conditions it should be up to twice this with the extra length giving more stretch and a smaller angle to the bottom to resist the anchor breaking out.  For example, if the water is  deep, and the anchor roller is  above the water, then the 'depth' is 9 meters (~30 feet). The amount of rode to let our in moderate conditions is thus 36 meters (120 feet). (For this reason it is important to have a reliable and accurate method of measuring the depth of water.)

When using a rope rode, there is a simple way to estimate the scope: The ratio of bow height of the rode to length of rode above the water while lying back hard on the anchor is the same or less than the scope ratio. The basis for this is simple geometry (Intercept Theorem): The ratio between two sides of a triangle stays the same regardless of the size of the triangle as long as the angles do not change.

Generally, the rode should be between 5 and 10 times the depth to the seabed, giving a scope of 5:1 or 10:1; the larger the number, the shallower the angle is between the cable and the seafloor, and the less upwards force is acting on the anchor. A 10:1 scope gives the greatest holding power, but also allows for much more drifting due to the longer amount of cable paid out. Anchoring with sufficient scope and/or heavy chain rode brings the direction of strain close to parallel with the seabed. This is particularly important for light, modern anchors designed to bury in the bottom, where scopes of 5:1 to 7:1 are common, whereas heavy anchors and moorings can use a scope of 3:1, or less. Some modern anchors, such as the Ultra holds with a scope of 3:1; but, unless the anchorage is crowded, a longer scope always reduces shock stresses.

Anchoring techniques

The basic anchoring consists of determining the location, dropping the anchor, laying out the scope, setting the hook, and assessing where the vessel ends up. The ship seeks a location that is sufficiently protected; has suitable holding ground, enough depth at low tide and enough room for the boat to swing.

The location to drop the anchor should be approached from down wind or down current, whichever is stronger. As the chosen spot is approached, the vessel should be stopped or even beginning to drift back. The anchor should initially be lowered quickly but under control until it is on the bottom (see anchor windlass). The vessel should continue to drift back, and the cable should be veered out under control (slowly) so it is relatively straight.

Once the desired scope is laid out, the vessel should be gently forced astern, usually using the auxiliary motor but possibly by backing a sail. A hand on the anchor line may telegraph a series of jerks and jolts, indicating the anchor is dragging, or a smooth tension indicative of digging in. As the anchor begins to dig in and resist backward force, the engine may be throttled up to get a thorough set. If the anchor continues to drag, or sets after having dragged too far, it should be retrieved and moved back to the desired position (or another location chosen.)

There are techniques of anchoring to limit the swing of a vessel if the anchorage has limited room:

Using an anchor weight, kellet or sentinel
Lowering a concentrated, heavy weight down the anchor line – rope or chain – directly in front of the bow to the seabed behaves like a heavy chain rode and lowers the angle of pull on the anchor. If the weight is suspended off the seabed it acts as a spring or shock absorber to dampen the sudden actions that are normally transmitted to the anchor and can cause it to dislodge and drag. In light conditions, a kellet reduces the swing of the vessel considerably. In heavier conditions these effects disappear as the rode becomes straightened and the weight ineffective. Known as an "anchor chum weight" or "angel" in the UK.

Forked moor
Using two anchors set approximately 45° apart, or wider angles up to 90°, from the bow is a strong mooring for facing into strong winds. To set anchors in this way, first one anchor is set in the normal fashion. Then, taking in on the first cable as the boat is motored into the wind and letting slack while drifting back, a second anchor is set approximately a half-scope away from the first on a line perpendicular to the wind. After this second anchor is set, the scope on the first is taken up until the vessel is lying between the two anchors and the load is taken equally on each cable.
This moor also to some degree limits the range of a vessel's swing to a narrower oval. Care should be taken that other vessels do not swing down on the boat due to the limited swing range.

Bow and stern
(Not to be mistaken with the Bahamian moor, below.) In the bow and stern technique, an anchor is set off each the bow and the stern, which can severely limit a vessel's swing range and also align it to steady wind, current or wave conditions. One method of accomplishing this moor is to set a bow anchor normally, then drop back to the limit of the bow cable (or to double the desired scope, e.g. 8:1 if the eventual scope should be 4:1, 10:1 if the eventual scope should be 5:1, etc.) to lower a stern anchor. By taking up on the bow cable the stern anchor can be set. After both anchors are set, tension is taken up on both cables to limit the swing or to align the vessel.

Bahamian moor
Similar to the above, a Bahamian moor is used to sharply limit the swing range of a vessel, but allows it to swing to a current. One of the primary characteristics of this technique is the use of a swivel as follows: the first anchor is set normally, and the vessel drops back to the limit of anchor cable. A second anchor is attached to the end of the anchor cable, and is dropped and set. A swivel is attached to the middle of the anchor cable, and the vessel connected to that.

The vessel now swings in the middle of two anchors, which is acceptable in strong reversing currents, but a wind perpendicular to the current may break out the anchors, as they are not aligned for this load.

Backing an anchor
Also known as tandem anchoring, in this technique two anchors are deployed in line with each other, on the same rode. With the foremost anchor reducing the load on the aft-most, this technique can develop great holding power and may be appropriate in "ultimate storm" circumstances. It does not limit swinging range, and might not be suitable in some circumstances. There are complications, and the technique requires careful preparation and a level of skill and experience above that required for a single anchor.

Kedging

Kedging or warping is a technique for moving or turning a ship by using a relatively light anchor.

In yachts, a kedge anchor is an anchor carried in addition to the main, or bower anchors, and usually stowed aft. Every yacht should carry at least two anchors – the main or bower anchor and a second lighter kedge anchor. It is used occasionally when it is necessary to limit the turning circle as the yacht swings when it is anchored, such as in a narrow river or a deep pool in an otherwise shallow area. Kedge anchors are sometimes used to recover vessels that have run aground.

For ships, a kedge may be dropped while a ship is underway, or carried out in a suitable direction by a tender or ship's boat to enable the ship to be winched off if aground or swung into a particular heading, or even to be held steady against a tidal or other stream.

Historically, it was of particular relevance to sailing warships that used them to outmaneuver opponents when the wind had dropped but might be used by any vessel in confined, shoal water to place it in a more desirable position, provided she had enough manpower .

Club hauling
Club hauling is an archaic technique. When a vessel is in a narrow channel or on a lee shore so that there is no room to tack the vessel in a conventional manner, an anchor attached to the lee quarter may be dropped from the lee bow.  This is deployed when the vessel is head to wind and has lost headway.  As the vessel gathers sternway the strain on the cable pivots the vessel around what is now the weather quarter turning the vessel onto the other tack.  The anchor is then normally cut away (the ship's momentum prevents recovery without aborting the maneuver).

Weighing anchor
Since all anchors that embed themselves in the bottom require the strain to be along the seabed, anchors can be broken out of the bottom by shortening the rope until the vessel is directly above the anchor; at this point the anchor chain is "up and down", in naval parlance. If necessary, motoring slowly around the location of the anchor also helps dislodge it. Anchors are sometimes fitted with a trip line attached to the crown, by which they can be unhooked from rocks, coral, chain, or other underwater hazards.

The term aweigh describes an anchor when it is hanging on the rope and is not resting on the bottom. This is linked to the term to weigh anchor, meaning to lift the anchor from the sea bed, allowing the ship or boat to move. An anchor is described as aweigh when it has been broken out of the bottom and is being hauled up to be stowed. Aweigh should not be confused with under way, which describes a vessel that is not moored to a dock or anchored, whether or not the vessel is moving through the water. Aweigh is also often confused with away, which is incorrect.

Anchor as symbol

An anchor frequently appears on the flags and coats of arms of institutions involved with the sea, both naval and commercial, as well as of port cities and seacoast regions and provinces in various countries. There also exists in heraldry the "Anchored Cross", or Mariner's Cross, a stylized cross in the shape of an anchor. The symbol can be used to signify 'fresh start' or 'hope'. The New Testament refers to the Christian's hope as "an anchor of the soul". The Mariner's Cross is also referred to as St. Clement's Cross, in reference to the way this saint was killed (being tied to an anchor and thrown from a boat into the Black Sea in 102). Anchored crosses are occasionally a feature of coats of arms in which context they are referred to by the heraldic terms anchry or ancre.

In 1887, the Delta Gamma Fraternity adopted the anchor as its badge to signify hope.

The Unicode anchor (Miscellaneous Symbols) is represented by: ⚓.

See also

"Anchors Aweigh", United States Navy marching song

References

Bibliography
 Blackwell, Alex & Daria; Happy Hooking – the Art of Anchoring, 2008, 2011, 2019 White Seahorse;
 Edwards, Fred; Sailing as a Second Language: An illustrated dictionary, 1988 Highmark Publishing;
 Hinz, Earl R.; The Complete Book of Anchoring and Mooring, Rev. 2d ed., 1986, 1994, 2001 Cornell Maritime Press;
 Hiscock, Eric C.; Cruising Under Sail, second edition, 1965 Oxford University Press;
 Pardey, Lin and Larry; The Capable Cruiser; 1995 Pardey Books/Paradise Cay Publications;
 Rousmaniere, John; The Annapolis Book of Seamanship, 1983, 1989 Simon and Schuster;
 Smith, Everrett; Cruising World's Guide to Seamanship: Hold me tight, 1992 New York Times Sports/Leisure Magazines

Further reading
 William N. Brady (1864). The Kedge-anchor; Or, Young Sailors' Assistant.
First published as The Naval Apprentice's Kedge Anchor. New York, Taylor and Clement, 1841.--The Kedge-anchor; 3rd ed. New York, 1848.--6th ed. New York, 1852.--9th ed. New York, 1857.

External links

 Anchor Tests: Soft Sand Over Hard Sand—Practical-Sailor
 The Big Anchor Project
 Anchor comparison

Heraldic charges
Nautical terminology
Sailboat components
Sailing ship components
Ship anchors
Watercraft components
Weights

Anchor


Fiestas de San Blas and Santa Águeda is a celebration of the municipality of Mequinenza in the province of Zaragoza, an autonomous community of Aragon that consists of a holiday that is part of the historical tradition of the town due to its age and continuity through time and for the originality and diversity of its acts, becoming a tourist phenomenon with great attraction of visitors. There is evidence of more than 300 years of celebration, with an active participation of the local population in both religious and festive celebrations. These parties include unique events such as the delivery of the baton, costume contests (both children and adults) as well as the elaboration of "coca" and "pa beneït". They take place during the first half of February, they are considered as the winter celebrations of the town and since 2018 they have been recognized as a Festival of Tourist Interest in Aragon.

Origin and history
It exists proof of at least three centuries of celebration of Saint Blas and Saint Águeda in Mequinenza, a tradition that stressed  when, with the construction of the reservoir of Riba-red in the years 70, the Old Village remained under the river Ebro and the urban core of the place had to move  to his current location to few kilometres water up, to river banks Segre. Historically, the procession of Saint Blas ran to charge of the men and the one of Saint Águeda to the women, but the natural evolution of the tradition has comported that in the actuality the Commissions of Saint Blas and Santa Águeda are exclusively formed by women that purchase a special leadership during the days of celebration. Saint Blas and Santa Águeda took importance during the Franco regime, since although it was forbidden to disguise, Mequinenza continued challenging the prohibition imposed by the authorities, a fact that boosted even more the popular rooting and the singular character of the tradition.

Festivity
The festivity initiates  with the delivery of the Clave of Control to the Commissions of Saint Blas and Santa Águeda, to continue the day 3 February with the religious celebrations of Saint Blas and the day 5 with the ones of Santa Águeda. The day concludes with the known contests of costumes artesanales for small and greater, at the same time that diverse and colourful rúas visit the population accompanied of music in direct. During the celebrations elaborate  "cokes", a sweet typical traditional to base of oil, flour and water, to which adds  a secret ingredient that knows only each Commission. The process of preparation of "cokes" transmits  of generation in generation through the members of the Commission of Saint Blas and Santa Águeda.

Tradition, party and colour join  during the parties, filling the population during these days of national visitors and foreigners attracted by the big espectacularidad of the handmade costumes. The groups parade by the streets of the place disguised with attires of historical characters, imaginary or of fiction to rhythm of musics varied. The works of preparation of the costumes initiate  months before the festivity with an intense work done entirely manually, fruit of the creativity and the wit in which it involves  all the population. The festivity of Saint Blas and Santa Águeda is the expression of the collective effort and the artistic expression of all the population of Mequinenza, as well as a signal of identity and referent in all the Region of the Low/Baix Cinca.

References

Other websites
 Parties of Saint Blas and Santa Águeda - City council of Mequinenza
 "Some parties with history and tradition" - Temporary Exhibition in the Museums of Mequinenza

Parties

Fiestas de San Blas y Santa Águeda (Mequinenza)


Monardella hypoleuca is a species of flowering plant in the mint family, known by the common names thickleaf monardella and white leaf monardella.

It is endemic to Southern California,  It grows on the coastal hills and slopes of the Peninsular Ranges and Transverse Ranges, in chaparral and oak woodland habitats of the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion.

Description
Monardella hypoleuca is a perennial herb producing an erect, purple stem coated in short hairs. The green, lance-shaped to oval leaves are oppositely arranged about the stem and have woolly white undersides.

The inflorescence is a head of several flowers blooming in a cup of woolly-haired purplish bracts 2 to 4 centimeters wide. The flowers are roughly 1.5 centimeters long and white or purple-tinged.

Subspecies
Subspecies include:
 Monardella hypoleuca subsp. hypoleuca — endemic from Orange County north to Santa Barbara County.
 Monardella hypoleuca ssp. intermedia — endemic to the Santa Ana Mountains.
 Monardella hypoleuca ssp. lanata — feltleaf monardella, endemic to the Peninsular Ranges including the Cuyamaca Mountains, within San Diego County.

See also

References

External links
 Calflora Database: Monardella hypoleuca (Thickleaf monardella,  White leaf monardella)
 Jepson Manual eFlora (TJM2) treatment of Monardella hypoleuca
 USDA Plants Profile
 Monardella hypoleuca − UC Photo gallery

hypoleuca
Endemic flora of California
Natural history of the California chaparral and woodlands
Natural history of the Peninsular Ranges
Natural history of the Santa Monica Mountains
Natural history of the Transverse Ranges
Taxa named by Asa Gray
Flora without expected TNC conservation status

Monardella hypoleuca


Miranda Martino (born 29 October 1933) is an Italian singer and actress.

Life and career
Born in Moggio Udinese from Neapolitan parents, Martino started her career as singer in 1956.  In 1957, she debuted at the Festival di Napoli and in 1959 she made her first appearance at the Sanremo Music Festival, with the song "La vita mi ha dato solo te". In the same year she obtained her first commercial success with the song "Stasera tornerò", which ranked 11 in the Italian Hit Parade. Then she entered the two following editions of the Festival di Sanremo and in 1961 three of her songs entered the Top Ten ("Erano nuvole", "Frenesia" and "Serenatella c'o sì e c'o no"). In 1963 she obtained a critical and commercial success with the album Napoli, in which she covered twelve canzoni napoletane re-arranged by Ennio Morricone. In 1965, she made her theatrical debut and from then she focused her career on stage acting and, less prolifically, on films.

Discography
Albums

     1958: Magic Moments At La Capannina di Franceschi
     1959: 20 canzoni di Sanremo '59 (with Nilla Pizzi and Teddy Reno)
     1959: Miranda Martino
     1959: Napoli '59. Le 20 canzoni del festival (with Nilla Pizzi, Elio Mauro, Stella Dizzy and Teddy Reno)
     1959: Il mio vero amore (EP)
     1962: Miranda Martino
     1963: Napoli
     1964: Le canzoni di sempre
     1966: Napoli volume II°
     1967: Operetta primo amore
     1970: Donna...Amore...Dolore
     1971: Passione...
     1977: Ottimo Stato
     1977: La Valzerite
     2000: Napoli mia bella Napoli

Filmography
 La duchessa di Santa Lucia  (Roberto Bianchi Montero, 1959)
 Avventura al motel  (Renato Polselli, 1963)
 Canzoni in... bikini (Giuseppe Vari, 1963)
 Sedotti e bidonati (Giorgio Bianchi, 1964)
 Last Plane to Baalbek (Marcello Giannini & Hugo Fregonese, 1965)
 Addio mamma (Irving Jacobs, 1967)
 Paolo Barca, Schoolteacher and Weekend Nudist  (Flavio Mogherini, 1975)
 Gegè Bellavita (Pasquale Festa Campanile, 1979)
 A Strange Passion (Jean-Pierre Dougnac, 1984)
 Red American (Alessandro D'Alatri, 1991)
 Dio c'è  (Alfredo Arciero, 1998)
 Teste di cocco (Ugo Fabrizio Giordani, 1999)

References

External links

 Miranda Martino at Discogs

Living people
Italian stage actresses
1933 births
Italian women singers
People from the Province of Udine
Italian film actresses

Miranda Martino


Stiksy is a wheat snack brand made by Elma Chips, Brazilian representative of Frito-Lay and a subsidiary of PepsiCo.

The snack consists of crunchy sticks made of wheat and covered with salt. It was originally created in 1959 independently by the German immigrant families Wagner and Unger in Curitiba, inspired by pretzels. Later in 1962, with the foundation of Elma Bakery (founded by sisters Elfriede Wagner and Maria Unger, which would later become Elma Chips), the snacks began to be produced on a larger scale. Stiksy continued to be sold by Elma even after Pepsico's purchase of the company in 1974 and its merger with the recent American Potato Chips company, starting to be sold all over the country around 1976.

Currently Stiksy is labeled as one of the top classic snacks sold by Elma Chips.

References

Brand name snack foods
Products introduced in 1959
Frito-Lay brands

Stiksy


Eric Deeral (23 August 1932 – 5 September 2012) was an Australian politician who was the second Australian Aboriginal person elected to an Australian parliament and the first to a state parliament.

A member of the Gamay clan of the Guugu Yimithirr people, Deeral was born at Hope Vale Lutheran Mission in Cape York, Queensland and educated at Woorabinda,  to which he was evacuated during World War II. Deeral left school at 13 and worked as a labourer and stockman before becoming Chairman of the Hope Vale Mission Community Council in 1957.

At a meeting of Guugu Yimithirr clans on Palm Island, Queensland in 1964, elders decided to become more politically involved and nominated Deeral to run for parliament.

Joining the Country Party, Deeral worked with the Queensland Department of Aboriginal Affairs and won pre-selection for the Queensland state seat of Cook (which covered Cape York and the Torres Strait Islands) for the 1974 Queensland state election. Normally a safe Labor seat, Deeral won Cook as part of a landslide win to the National (as the Country Party had been renamed) and Liberal Party coalition. Deeral's victory was considered to be due to the proposal of Labor Prime Minister Gough Whitlam's plan to realign Australia's Torres Strait border with Papua New Guinea. Deeral became the second Indigenous Australian to be elected to an Australian parliament, after Neville Bonner's election to the Australian Senate in 1971, and the first to a state or territory parliament.

While in parliament Deeral advocated for improved roads in his electorate to help develop tourism and other industries, as well as securing improvements to locals schools and medical access. In the lead up to the 1977 state election, Deeral's chances of reelection were hurt when the Queensland Government deferred a national eye health program for Aboriginals currently underway in the electorate of Cook due to allegations of members of the program campaigning for the Labor Party. At the election, Deeral lost his seat in a swing away from the Nationals, with the deferral of the eye health program given as a factor in the loss.

Following the election loss, Deeral continued to work with local Aboriginal communities, becoming the inaugural chair of the Aboriginal Coordination Council in 1985 and in 1987 was a delegate to the World Heritage Committee session in Paris, as well as appointed as Chairman of the Legislation Review Committee that examined Queensland legislation and its impact on Aboriginal land rights during the early 1990s.

From 1998 to 2003, Deeral was a member of the Wet Tropics Management Authority Board and in July 2002 was appointed interim chair of the Yalanji Ang-Narra Yimidihirr Peoples Council, as well as taking an active role as a Guugu Yimithirr elder.

In 2012, Queensland's Indigenous Youth Parliament was renamed the Eric Deeral Indigenous Youth Parliament in Deeral's honour.  He died later that year.

See also
 List of Indigenous Australian politicians

References
 Lunn, H. (1979). Joh, Sun Books: Melbourne. .

Footnotes and citations

1932 births
2012 deaths
Indigenous Australian politicians
Members of the Queensland Legislative Assembly
National Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Queensland

Eric Deeral


Air showers are extensive cascades of subatomic particles and ionized nuclei, produced in the atmosphere when a primary cosmic ray enters the atmosphere. When a particle of the cosmic radiation, which could be a proton, a nucleus, an electron, a photon, or (rarely) a positron, interacts with the nucleus of a molecule in the atmosphere, it produces a vast number of secondary particles, which make up the shower. In the first interactions of the cascade especially hadrons (mostly light mesons like pions and kaons) are produced and decay rapidly in the air, producing other particles and electromagnetic radiation, which are part of the shower components. Depending on the energy of the cosmic ray, the detectable size of the shower can reach several kilometers in diameter.

The absorbed ionizing radiation from cosmic radiation is largely from muons, neutrons, and electrons, with a dose rate that varies in different parts of the world and is based largely on the geomagnetic field, altitude, and solar cycle. Airline crews are exposed to more radiation from cosmic rays if they routinely work flight routes that take them close to the North or South pole at high altitudes, where the shielding by the geomagnetic field is minimal.

The air shower phenomenon was unknowingly discovered by Bruno Rossi in 1933 in a laboratory experiment. In 1937 Pierre Auger, unaware of Rossi's earlier report, detected the same phenomenon and investigated it in some detail. He concluded that cosmic-ray particles are of extremely high energies and interact with nuclei high up in the atmosphere, initiating a cascade of secondary interactions that produce extensive showers of subatomic particles.

The most important experiments detecting extensive air showers today are the Telescope Array Project and the Pierre Auger Observatory. The latter is the largest observatory for cosmic rays ever built, operating with 4 fluorescence detector buildings and 1600 surface detector stations spanning an area of 3,000 km² in the Argentinean desert.

History

In 1933, shortly after the discovery of cosmic radiation by Victor Hess, Bruno Rossi conducted an experiment in the Institute of Physics in Florence, using shielded Geiger counters to confirm the penetrating character of the cosmic radiation. He used different arrangements of Geiger counters, including a setup of three counters, where two were placed next to each other and a third was centered underneath with additional shielding. From the detection of air-shower particles passing through the Geiger counters in coincidence, he assumed that secondary particles are being produced by cosmic rays in the first shielding layer as well as in the rooftop of the laboratory, unknowing that the particles he measured were muons, which are produced in air showers and which would only be discovered three years later. He also noted that the coincidence rate drops significantly for cosmic rays that are detected at a zenith angle below .
A similar experiment was conducted in 1936 by Hilgert and Bothe in Heidelberg.

In a publication in 1939, Pierre Auger, together with three colleagues, suggested that secondary particles are created by cosmic rays in the atmosphere, and conducted experiments using shielded scintillators and Wilson chambers on the Jungfraujoch at an altitude of  above sea level, and on Pic du Midi at an altitude of  above sea level, and at sea level. They found that the rate of coincidences reduces with increasing distance of the detectors, but does not vanish, even at high altitudes. Thus confirming that cosmic rays produce air showers of secondary particles in the atmosphere.
They estimated that the primary particles of this phenomena must have energies of up to .

Based on the idea of quantum theory, theoretical work on air showers was carried between 1935 and 1940 out by many well-known physicists of the time (including Bhabha, Oppenheimer, Landau, Rossi and others), assuming that in the vicinity of nuclear fields high-energy gamma rays will undergo pair-production of electrons and positrons, and electrons and positrons will produce gamma rays by radiation.

Work on extensive air showers continued mainly after the war, as many key figures were involved in the Manhattan project. In the 1950s, the lateral and angular structure of electromagnetic particles in air showers were calculated by Japanese scientists Koichi Kamata and Jun Nishimura.

In 1955, the first surface detector array to detect air showers with sufficient precision to detect the arrival direction of the primary cosmic rays was built at the Agassiz station at MIT.

The Agassiz array consisted of 16 plastic scintillators arranged in a  diameter circular array. The results of the experiment on the arrival directions of cosmic rays, however, where inconclusive.

The Volcano Ranch experiment, which was built in 1959 and operated by John Linsley, was the first surface detector array of sufficient size to detect ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays.
In 1962, the first cosmic ray with an energy of  was reported. With a footprint of several kilometers, the shower size at the ground was twice as large as any event recorded before, approximately producing  particles in the shower. Furthermore, the lateral distribution of the particles detected at the ground matched the Kenneth Greisen approximation  of the structure functions derived by Kamata and Nishimura.

A novel detection technique for extensive air showers was proposed by Greisen in 1965. He suggested to directly observe Cherenkov radiation of the shower particles, and fluorescence light produced by excited nitrogen molecules in the atmosphere. In this way, one would be able to measure the longitudinal development of a shower in the atmosphere. This method was first applied successfully and reported in 1977 at Volcano Ranch, using 67 optical modules.

Volcano Ranch finished its operation shortly after due to lack of funding.
f
Many air-shower experiments followed in the decades after, including KASCADE, AGASA, and HIRES. In 1994, the latter reported the detection of an ultrahigh-energy cosmic ray with an energy beyond the theoretically expected spectral cutoff.

The air shower of the cosmic ray was detected by the Fly's Eye fluorescence detector system and was estimated to contain approximately 240 billion particles at its maximum. This corresponds to a primary energy for the cosmic ray of about . To this day, no single particle with a larger energy was recorded. It is therefore publicly referred to as the Oh-My-God particle.

Air shower formation

The air shower is formed by interaction of the primary cosmic ray with the atmosphere, and then by subsequent interaction of the secondary particles, and so on. Depending on the type of the primary particle, the shower particles will be created mostly by hadronic or electromagnetic interactions.

Simplified shower model
Shortly after entering the atmosphere, the primary cosmic ray (which is assumed to be a proton or nucleus in the following) is scattered by a nucleus in the atmosphere and creates a shower core - a region of high-energy hadrons that develops along the extended trajectory of the primary cosmic ray, until it is fully absorbed by either the atmosphere or the ground. The interaction and decay of particles in the shower core feeds the main particle components of the shower, which are hadrons, muons, and purely electromagnetic particles. The hadronic part of the shower consists mostly of pions, and some heavier mesons, such as kaons and  mesons.

Neutral pions, , decay by the electroweak interaction into pairs of oppositely spinning photons, which fuel the electromagnetic component of the shower. Charged pions, , preferentially decay into muons and (anti)neutrinos via the weak interaction. The same holds true for charged and neutral kaons. In addition, kaons also produce pions. Neutrinos from pion and kaon decay are usually not accounted for as parts of the shower because of their very low cross-section, and are referred to as part of the invisible energy of the shower.

Qualitatively, the particle content of a shower can be described by a simplified model, in which all particles partaking in any interaction of the shower will equally share the available energy. One can assume that in each hadronic interaction,  charged pions and  neutral pions are produced. The neutral pions will decay into photons, which fuel the electromagnetic part of the shower. The charged pions will then continue to interact hadronically. After  interactions, the share of the primary energy  deposited in the hadronic component is given by

,

and the electromagnetic part thus approximately carries

.

A pion in the th generation thus carries an energy of . The reaction continues, until the pions reach a critical energy , at which they decay into muons. Thus, a total of

interactions are expected and a total of  muons is produced, with . The electromagnetic part of the cascade develops by bremsstrahlung and pair production. For the sake of simplicity, photons, electrons, and positrons are often treated as equivalent particles in the shower. The electromagnetic cascade continues, until the particles reach a critical energy of , from which on they start losing most of their energy due to scattering with molecules in the atmosphere. A good approximation for the number of electromagnetic particles produced in a shower is . Assuming each electromagnetic interaction occurs after the average radiation length , the shower will reach its maximum at a depth of approximately

,

where  is assumed to be the depth of the first interaction of the cosmic ray in the atmosphere. This approximation is, however, not accurate for all types of primary particles. Especially showers from heavy nuclei will reach their maximum much earlier.

Longitudinal profile

The number of particles present in an air shower is approximately proportional to the calorimetric energy deposit of the shower. The energy deposit as a function of the surpassed atmospheric matter, as it can for example be seen by fluorescence detector telescopes, is known as the longitudinal profile of the shower. For the longitudinal profile of the shower, only the electromagnetic particles (electrons, positrons, and photons) are relevant, as they dominate the particle content and the contribution to the calorimetric energy deposit.

The shower profile is characterized by a fast rise in the number of particles, before the average energy of the particles falls below  around the shower maximum, and a slow decay afterwards. Mathematically the profile can be well described by a slanted Gaussian, the Gaisser-Hillas function or the Greisen function.

The image shows the ideal longitudinal profile of showers using different primary energies, as a function of the surpassed atmospheric depth  or, equivalently, the number of radiation lengths . The shower age parameter  is introduced to compare showers with different starting depths and different primary energies to highlight their universal features, as for example always  at the shower maximum.

The longitudinal profiles of showers are particularly interesting in the context of measuring the total calorimetric energy deposit and the depth of the shower maximum, , since the latter is an observable that is sensitive to type of the primary particle.

Detection
The original particle arrives with high energy and hence a velocity near the speed of light, so the products of the collisions tend also to move generally in the same direction as the primary, while to some extent spreading sidewise. In addition, the secondary particles produce a widespread flash of light in forward direction due to the Cherenkov effect, as well as fluorescence light that is emitted isotropically from the excitation of nitrogen molecules. The particle cascade and the light produced in the atmosphere can be detected with surface detector arrays and optical telescopes. Surface detectors typically use Cherenkov detectors or scintillation counters to detect the charged secondary particles at ground level. The telescopes used to measure the fluorescence and Cherenkov light use large mirrors to focus the light on PMT clusters. Finally, air showers emit radio waves due to the deflection of electrons and positrons by the geomagnetic field. As advantage over the optical techniques, radio detection is possible around the clock and not only during dark and clear nights. Thus, several modern experiments, e.g., TAIGA, LOFAR, or the Pierre Auger Observatory use radio antennas in addition to particle detectors and optical techniques.

See also
Cosmic-ray observatory

References

External links
Extensive Air Showers.
 Buckland Park Air Shower Detector
Haverah Park Detection System
HiRes Detector System
Pierre Auger Observatory
HiSPARC (High School Project on Astrophysics Research with Cosmics)
AIRES (AIRshower Extended Simulations) : Large and well documented Fortran package for simulating cosmic ray showers by Sergio Sciutto at the Department of Physics of the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina
CORSIKA, CORSIKA: Another code for simulating cosmic ray air showers by Dieter Heck of the Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Germany
COSMUS : Interactive animated 3d models of several different cosmic ray air showers, and instructions on how to make your own using AIRES simulations. From the COSMUS group at the University of Chicago.
Milagro Animations : Movies and instructions for how to make them, showing how air showers interact with the Milagro detector. By Miguel Morales.
CASSIM Animations : Animations of different cosmic ray air showers by Hajo Dreschler of New York University.
SPASE2 Experiment : South-Pole Air Shower Experiment (SPASE).
GAMMA Experiment : High mountain Air Shower Experiment.

Atmosphere
Earth phenomena
Cosmic rays

Air shower (physics)


Acronicta auricoma, the scarce dagger, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is distributed through most of the Palearctic.

Distribution
Missing in the Iberian peninsula. On the Italian peninsula the occurrence is limited essentially to the Alps and the Apennines as far as Calabria. On the Balkan Peninsula the range is extreme northern Greece with small isolated occurrences in Central Greece. Missing on the most Mediterranean islands with the exception of the Balearic Islands. Extinct in England since 1912. Otherwise all Europe up to north of the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia. In the East, the distribution area stretches over Russia and Siberia to the Russian Far East, in the South to Asia minor, Cyprus, the Caucasus, northern Iran, Northern Iraq and Afghanistan to Central Asia.

The wingspan is 36–42 mm. The forewing is grey, with dark dusting; base of inner margin pale ochreous; a
short black basal streak and another above anal angle, often obscure.

The adults fly at night from May to June and from mid-July to August in the British Isles.

The larvae feed on a number of plants, including oak, Rubus, Calluna and Vaccinium.

References

External links

Scarce dagger on UKmoths
Fauna Europaea
EoL
Lepidoptera and their ecology
Lepiforum.de

Acronicta
Moths of Europe
Moths of Asia
Moths described in 1775
Insects of the Arctic
Taxa named by Michael Denis
Taxa named by Ignaz Schiffermüller

Acronicta auricoma