Les nuits d'été (Summer Nights), Op. 7, is a song cycle by the French composer Hector Berlioz.  It is a setting of six poems by Théophile Gautier.  Berlioz finished composing the songs in 1841.   At first they were just for a singer with piano accompaniment.  The singer could be either baritone, contralto, or mezzo-soprano.  Later Berlioz changed the work, making the voice a soprano and arranging the accompaniment for orchestra.  The first song to be orchestrated was L'Absence.  He wrote this version for a singer called Marie Recio who went with him on a concert tour of Germany.   All six songs were published in their orchestral version in 1856.  That is how the work is nearly always performed nowadays.  The titles of the songs are:

 Villanelle (Villanelle)
 Le spectre de la rose (The spectre of the rose)
 Sur les lagunes (On the lagoons)
 Absence (Absence)
 Au cimetière (In the cemetery)
 L'île inconnue (The unknown island)

References
New Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians ed. Stanley Sadie (1980);

Compositions by Hector Berlioz

Les nuits d'été


Enkidu ( EN.KI.DU10) was a legendary figure in ancient Mesopotamian mythology, wartime comrade and friend of Gilgamesh, king of Uruk. Their exploits were composed in Sumerian poems and in the Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh, written during the 2nd millennium BC. He is the oldest literary representation of the wild man, a recurrent motif in artistic representations in Mesopotamia and in Ancient Near East literature. The apparition of Enkidu as a primitive man seems to be a potential parallel of the Old Babylonian version (1300–1000 BC), in which he was depicted as a servant-warrior in the Sumerian poems.

There have been suggestions that he may be the "bull-man" shown in Mesopotamian art, having the head, arms, and body of a man, and the horns, ears, tail and legs of a bull. Thereafter a series of interactions with humans and human ways bring him closer to civilization, culminating in a wrestling match with Gilgamesh, king of Uruk. Enkidu embodies the wild or natural world. Though equal to Gilgamesh in strength and bearing, he acts in some ways as an antithesis to the cultured, city-bred warrior-king.

The tales of Enkidu's servitude are narrated in five surviving Sumerian poems, developing from a slave of Gilgamesh into a close comrade by the last poem, which describes Enkidu as Gilgamesh's friend. In the epic, Enkidu is created as a rival to king Gilgamesh, who tyrannizes his people, but they become friends and together slay the monster Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven; because of this, Enkidu is punished and dies, representing the mighty hero who dies early. The deep, tragic loss of Enkidu profoundly inspires in Gilgamesh a quest to escape death by obtaining godly immortality.

Enkidu has virtually no existence outside the stories relating to Gilgamesh. To the extent of current knowledge, he was never a god to be worshipped, and is absent from the lists of deities of ancient Mesopotamia. He seems to appear in an invocation from the Paleo-Babylonian era aimed at silencing a crying baby, a text which also evokes the fact that Enkidu would be held to have determined the measurement of the passage of time at night, apparently in relation to his role as herd keeper at night in the epic.

Etymology

The name of Enkidu is Sumerian, and generally written in texts in this language by the sequence of signs en.ki.du10. The phrase ki.du10 (good place) is well attested in the Early Dynastic personal names, and the name en.ki.du10.ga (Lord of the good place) is cited on the Fara tablets. The lack of genitive or any grammatical element was common until the late third millennium. However, an alternate translation has been proposed as Creation of Enki.

In the epic, his name is preceded by the determinative sign of the divinity dingir 𒀭, which means that this character was considered to be of divine essence.

Sumerian poems

"The envoys of Agga"

Uruk refuses to participate in the digging of wells for the benefit of Kish, whose kingdom had the hegemony of Sumer. Its king Agga submits the city to a siege. Enkidu is sent to prepare the weapons and wait for Gilgamesh's order. After the battle, Gilgamesh defeats Agga, and makes him return, defeated and humiliated, to Kish.

"The lord to the Living One's Mountain"

Gilgamesh, disturbed by the death of his subjects and by the brevity of human existence, decides to make a name for himself. The king of Uruk and Enkidu make an expedition to the Forest of the Cedars, where, with Utu's blessing, they traverse seven mountains. Enkidu warns the king that the monster Huwawa inhabits the mountain region, armed by seven supernatural Auras. However, Gilgamesh has no fear, his fifty men cut the trees, until Huwawa appears. Gilgamesh offers him seven gifts in exchange for leaving his seven Auras, but it is a trap. He strikes Huwawa several times, who asks for mercy. Gilgamesh softens his heart, nevertheless, Enkidu decapitates the monster. Enlil reproaches them for his death, and distributes the seven auras to the fields, the rivers, the reed-beds, the lions, the palace, the forest and Nungal, which would explain the fear and fascination they give to the humans.

"Hero in battle"

Inanna is enraged with Gilgamesh, she forbids him from administering justice in her temple, the Eanna, causing unrest in the environment of the King of Uruk. Finally, Inanna demands, with threats, from her father the Bull of Heaven to kill Gilgamesh. The bull is released in Uruk, whose insatiable hunger destroys crops and rivers. Enkidu grabs the bull by his tail and Gilgamesh smashes its head. Finally they distribute the meat among the poor and transform the horns into cups for ointments for the Eanna.

"Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld"

An oak tree grows on the banks of the Euphrates, the south wind blows it away and the goddess Inanna gathers it, planting it in her garden to use her wood as a throne. Suddenly, a snake takes refuge between its roots, a giant eagle on its top and a female demon between them.

Inanna asks her brother Utu for help, in vain, and then Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh cuts the tree, kills the serpent, expels the eagle to the mountain, and the demon to the desert. Inanna gives Gilgamesh a drum (ellag) and drumsticks (ekidma), in some versions a rod and a ring. Eventually they end up falling to the Netherworld.

Enkidu offers to recover them, but not before receiving instructions from Gilgamesh on how to behave in the underworld, to not seem alive in the residence of the dead. Enkidu however, ignores the directions; consequently, Enkidu ends up being held forever in the Netherworld.

After Gilgamesh pleads to the gods to set his companion free, Enki finally causes the shade of Enkidu to rise to briefly reunite with Gilgamesh. The latter interrogates the former (whom from now on he calls his "friend") the fate of the dead, Enkidu answers each of his questions. The text is lost here.

Did you see him who fell in battle?
I saw him [...] his father and mother are not there to hold his head, and his wife weeps.

"The great wild bull is lying down"

Gilgamesh is dying. The gods judge his exploits, after his position as future judge of the underworld has been revealed to him, he offers gifts and sacrifices to the gods. Then he takes comfort in the words of the gods; after death, he will be reunited with his family, his priests, his warriors and his best friend, Enkidu. Finally, he dies.

Epic of Gilgamesh

The Akkadian epic Gilgamesh is found in various versions, including Surpassing all other kings () and He who saw the Deep (), which was compiled by Sin-liqe-unninni from earlier texts, later discovered in the Library of Ashurbanipal in 1853.

Creation of Enkidu

Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, abuses his people. In response to complaints from the citizens, the goddess Aruru creates Enkidu in the steppe. Abundantly hairy and primitive, he lives roaming with the herds and grazing and drinking from rivers with the beasts.
One day a hunter watches Enkidu destroying the traps he has prepared for the animals. The hunter informs his father, who sends him to Uruk to ask Gilgamesh for help. The king sends Shamhat, a sacred prostitute, who seduces and teaches Enkidu.  After two weeks with her, he becomes human, intelligent and understanding words, however the beasts flee when they see him.
Shamhat convinces Enkidu to face the tyrant Gilgamesh in combat. Meanwhile, in Uruk, the king has two dreams prophesying the arrival of his enemy.

Enkidu faces Gilgamesh

Enkidu learns to behave like a man with the shepherds eating, drinking and defending them from wolves and lions at night. Upon reaching Uruk, Enkidu closes the path to Gilgamesh who was going to sleep with a newlywed. Enraged, they fight brutally until the two end up tired, but at the end both appreciate each other's strength, and decide to be friends.
Enkidu is depressed by having abandoned his old wild life, to which Gilgamesh proposes an expedition to the Cedar Forest to kill Humbaba. But his friend explains that he knew the forest while he was a wild being, and that the expedition is dangerous. At the end, Gilgamesh decides to march without fear, the decision is acclaimed by the citizens of Uruk, but not by the elders and advisers. Faced with Gilgamesh's disregard, the elders charge Enkidu to protect their king.

The one who goes on ahead saves the comrade.
The one who knows the route protects his friend.
Let Enkidu go ahead of you; he knows the road to the Cedar Forest.
In this same episode the goddess Ninsun adopts Enkidu and also entrusts him with protecting the king.

The forest of Humbaba

Ninsun, the mother of Gilgamesh adopts Enkidu as her son, and seeks protection of the sun-god Shamash (the protector of the Uruk dynasty). Gilgamesh and Enkidu journey to the Cedar Forest. They perform a dream ritual in every mountain they cross; although dreams are representations of Humbaba (falling mountains, a thunderbird that breathes fire…), Enkidu interprets them as good omens. At the entrance to the forest they hear the fearsome bellow of Humbaba, which petrifies them with fear.

Humbaba descends from the mountain face to face with both heroes, there accuses Enkidu of betrayal against the beasts and threatens Gilgamesh to disembowel him and feed his flesh to the birds. Gilgamesh is terrified, but Enkidu encourages him, and the battle begins. First, Gilgamesh strikes Humbaba so hard it splits the Mount Hermon in two, and the skies turn black, and starts "raining death". Shamash binds Humbaba with 13 winds and he is captured. Humbaba pleads for his life, offers him to be his slave and to cut the sacred trees for him, Gilgamesh pities him, but Enkidu argues that his death will establish his reputation forever. Humbaba then curses both heroes, but they strike him, decapitating his head. They cut down cedars and a gigantic tree that Enkidu plans to use for a gate for the temple of Enlil. They return home along the Euphrates with the trees and the head of Humbaba.

Ishtar's seduction

The goddess Ishtar, fascinated by the beauty of Gilgamesh, offers to be his wife in exchange for wealth and fame; these offerings do not sway Gilgamesh, who recalls all the misadventures her previous loves had, such as Tammuz.

Ishtar, furious and crying, goes to her father Anu, to demand the Bull of Heaven take revenge, or she will scream so loud that the dead will devour the living. Anu, in fear, gives her the Bull from Heaven in exchange for preparing food for the seven years of famine that the city will suffer from the destruction of the bull. Ishtar obeys (or lies) and releases the bull in Uruk, which kills a large percentage of people. Enkidu grabs the bull by the horns and Gilgamesh stabs his neck. Hearing Ishtar's cry, Enkidu ridicules the goddess by throwing a bull's leg at her head. The city prepares a great celebration at night.

The death of Enkidu

Enkidu has a dream where the gods decide that the heroes must die, since they have killed Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven. Samash protests against the decision, but that doesn't change anything, and Enkidu is sentenced to death. This makes Enkidu curse the door he built with the wood of the forest and Shamhat, for having changed his wild life. However then he repents and blesses her. He discusses his nightmares with Gilgamesh about witnessing before Ereshkigal, the queen of the underworld.
After this, sick, and bedridden for twelve days, he asks Gilgamesh not to forget him. Finally, he dies.

Gilgamesh calls upon the mountains and all of Uruk to mourn for his friend. He recalls their adventures together, makes a funerary statue of Enkidu and provides grave gifts, so Enkidu has a favourable life in the realm of the dead. Enkidu is buried in the river, like Gilgamesh in the Sumerian poem.

Enkidu's descent to the Underworld

There is another non-canonical tablet in which Enkidu journeys into the underworld, but many scholars consider the tablet to be a sequel or add-on to the original epic inspired by the Sumerian poem Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Netherworld.

Symbolism

Enkidu's wild life

It has often been suggested that these descriptions reflect the semi-nomadic Amorites who, from their homeland in the Syrian Desert, infiltrated southern Mesopotamia and came to dominate it in the early second millennium. The phraseology generally includes a reference to "not knowing", which is also used in the epic. Comparing their behaviour to animals, "people plotting destruction like beasts, like wolves". However, Amorites ate uncooked meat and lived in tents while Enkidu lived in the steppe and ate grass; meaning there is no correlation between both since Enkidu wasn't even a human yet.
However, Morris Jastrow suggested that Enkidu's early life was modeled on a tradition about can be seen in etiological texts, in parallel to the description of Enkidu.

Becoming human

After bouts of love-making with Shamhat over two weeks, Enkidu tries to reunite with his herd. But the gazelles run from him, indicating that he is not accepted any more amongst the savage kind. Enkidu has lost his primitive nature, such as running as fast as a gazelle.

We can see here the motif of transferring negative or positive qualities (weakness or knowledge) from one being to another through intimate contact. Another motif is the role of women as seducer towards civilization, such as Adam and Eve in Genesis 3. By offering Adam the fruit of the tree of knowledge, Eve ultimately drew him to civilized life.

Jastrow and Clay are of the opinion that the story of Enkidu was originally a separate tale to illustrate "man's career and destiny, how through intercourse with a woman he awakens to the sense of human dignity..."

Civilization against nomadic life
There is a theme that contrasts life with human culture and the life without. It can be seen when Enkidu curses Shamhat, because she took him away from the wild life and brought him to civilization, leading to his death. The sun god Shamash convinces him that he had a new life worth enjoying.

Why, Ο Enkidu, do you curse the harlot Shamhat,
Who made you eat food fit for divinity,
Who gave you to drink wine fit for royalty,
Who clothed you with noble garments,
And made you have fair Gilgamesh for a comrade?

The same theme appears when the barmaid advises Gilgamesh to abandon his search for immortality.

As for you, Gilgamesh [...]
Let your head be washed; bathe in water.
Pay heed to a little one that holds on to your hand;
Let a spouse delight in your bosom.

Enkidu's mistakes that makes him prisoner of the netherworld forever resembles the barmaids advices. Which made the dead recognize him as a live man, a civilized man.

He kissed his beloved wife,
He struck his hated wife;
He kissed his beloved son, He struck his hated son.

As Jeffrey H. Tigay wrote in his book, The Evolution of the Gilgamesh Epic:

Modern rediscovery
The first translation of the Epic of Gilgamesh was produced in the early 1870s by George Smith, a scholar at the British Museum, who published the Flood story from Tablet XI in 1880 under the title The Chaldean Account of Genesis. There, Enkidu's name was originally misread as Eabani.

See also
 Gilgamesh in popular culture
 Master of Animals

Notes

References

External links

Characters in the Epic of Gilgamesh
Sidekicks in literature
Mythic humanoids

Enkidu


Klaus Jankuhn (born 12 January 1965) is a German record producer and musician, considered a pioneer in the early German techno scene. He mostly worked for the artists of the rave label Low Spirit, producing artists such as WestBam, Marusha or DJ Dick. Together with WestBam he also founded the project Members of Mayday.

Life
Klaus Jankuhn grew up in Münster, where he befriended with WestBam. Both started producing tracks for the early techno and rave scene. Around 1986 he moved to Berlin.

One of their first tracks  17 – This is not a Boris Becker Song was released in 1985 under the moniker Cowboy Temple. Soon after Jankuhn, WestBam, Fabian Lenz and William Röttger founded the label Low Spirit.

Jankuhn and WestBam also produced the anthems for the annual Mayday festivals (as Members of Mayday) and Love Parades (as The Love Committee).

Awards
 1995: Echo Pop as "Best producer national"
 2003: Dance Music Award as "Best producer" (shared with WestBam)

External links

References

1965 births
Living people
German record producers
German techno musicians
People from Münster

Klaus Jankuhn


Mauby (in Trinidad and Tobago, Saint Lucia, St.Kitts and Nevis Jamaica, St. Vincent and The Grenadines, Grenada, Guyana, Bermuda, Barbados, Antigua and Barbuda and Anguilla), also known as maví (or mabí) in the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, mabi in Haiti and Martinique, and maubi in the Virgin Islands and Dutch Caribbean islands of St. Eustatius, St. Maarten and Saba), is a tree bark-based beverage grown, and widely consumed, in the Caribbean.  It is made with sugar and the bark and/or fruit of certain species in the genus Colubrina including Colubrina elliptica (also called behuco indio) and Colubrina arborescens, a small tree native to the northern Caribbean and south Florida. Recipes usually include other ingredients as well, spices such as aniseed being very common. Mauby was traditionally a fermented beverage made in small batches, but is now predominantly a commercial non-fermented soft drink.

Haiti and the Dominican Republic are two of the largest Caribbean exporters of the bark and leaves. Often the drink is fermented using a portion of the previous batch, while sometimes it is consumed unfermented. Mauby is often bought as a pre-made syrup and then mixed with water (sparkling or still) to the consumer's taste, but many make it themselves at home or purchase it from neighbourhood producers or street sellers. Its taste is initially sweet, somewhat like root beer, but changes to a prolonged, but not astringent bitter aftertaste. To many, it is an acquired taste, and has been known to cause an initial laxative reaction unexpected to many first-time drinkers.

Commercial soft drinks

Grupo Taino LLC of the Dominican Republic markets two commercial versions of mabi, both made with carbonated water. Seybano is lighter in color and made from tree bark extract and white and brown sugar, while Cacheo is darker and made from both bark and fruit extract, with spices and brown sugar. Contrary to its name, Mabi Cacheo does not include sap from the Cacheo palms (Pseudophoenix ekmanii and P. vinifera).

Mauby Fizzz is a commercially produced and carbonated version of the drink produced in Trinidad and Tobago by multinational PepsiCo from mauby bark. It is unfermented. A similar version is also produced in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines called Hairoun Mauby, produced by St. Vincent Brewery Limited, a company in the AmBev portfolio.

References

Fermented drinks
Soft drinks
Caribbean drinks
Barbadian cuisine
Trinidad and Tobago cuisine
Guyanese cuisine
Antigua and Barbuda cuisine

Mauby


The Marine Corps War College (MCWAR), is the senior school of the Marine Corps University, providing Joint Professional Military Education (JPME) to selected United States military officers, civilian Government officials, and international military officers.  The college prepares officers for future senior command and staff responsibilities requiring exceptional operational competence, sound military judgment, and strategic thinking. The college is located within the Marine Corps University aboard Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia.

History

On 1 August 1990, the 29th Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Alfred M. Gray, Jr., instituted the Art of War Studies program under the Marine Corps Command and Staff College. General Gray's vision was to establish a "world-class educational institution for the study of war and the profession of arms." The original seminar was attended by six lieutenant colonels and was ten months long. The course of study matured into the current College and was patterned after other United States military senior-level service colleges. By 1999, the college became an accredited JPME Phase-I institution, enrolling 16 students from all five branches of the Armed Forces and various government agencies. In 2002, the college received full accreditation from both the United States Department of Education and the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools to confer a Master of Strategic Studies degree. In 2006, the college received JPME Phase-II accreditation. In 2009, the college expanded its student population and opened enrollment to include international military officers. The maximum enrollment each academic year is 30 students. In 2011, the college published the inaugural edition of the "MCWAR Papers" in cooperation with the Marine Corps University Press. The MCWAR papers is compilation of  analytical papers by the college's students on strategic-level issue .

MCWAR is located in Dunlap Hall aboard Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia. Dunlap Hall is named in honor of Brigadier General Robert H. Dunlap, USMC.

Curriculum

The curriculum is designed to ensure officers "develop intellectual and technical approaches to warfighting and strategic thinking, hone military judgment, evaluate methodologies, expand academic expertise, and sharpen teaching skills through reading, research, writing, and participation in seminars."  In order to achieve this, the curriculum partners military competence with political, economic, social, and informational studies which converge to form a complete national strategy.  Collaborative efforts  provide a diverse educational experience:  students routinely interact with policy makers such as the Secretary of Defense, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Secretary of Homeland Defense, the Director of the FBI, the National Security Adviser, and members of congress.  Non-government agencies such as JP Morgan, the Council on Foreign Relations, the New York Stock Exchange, and J Walter Thompson  also  supplement the college's coursework.  Domestic and international travel opportunities are integrated with the curriculum. These travel opportunities have included trips to Unified Combatant Commands such as United States Central Command (USCENTCOM) as well as international trips to allies in Europe, Asia, and Latin America.

The curriculum is a ten-month resident program consisting of 33-38 credit hours in the following core courses:
Leadership and Ethics
Warfighting and Economics
National Security
Joint Warfare
Diplomacy and Statecraft
Advanced Studies Program

Extracurricular educational activities are offered through the auspices of The Marine Corps University, Library of the Marine Corps (Alfred M. Gray Research Center), National Museum of the Marine Corps, Marine Corps University Foundation, and Marine Corps Heritage Foundation.

Graduates are awarded a Master of Strategic Studies degree and JPME Phase-II certification by the President of the Marine Corps University. The degree is accredited by the  Southern Association of Colleges and Schools.

Students and admissions
Admission to the college is based on allocations granted by the Commandant of the Marine Corps and are solicited each academic year through a Marine Administrative Message. The admissions policy supports the mission and purpose of the college and reflects the needs of the United States Marine Corps and the educational criteria of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff's Officer Professional Military Education Policy. The student body is composed from three populations:

U.S. Military officers
United States Marine Corps
United States Army
United States Air Force
United States Navy
United States Coast Guard
United States Space Force

Government officials
Central Intelligence Agency
Defense Intelligence Agency
Department of State
Federal Bureau of Investigation
United States Agency for International Development

International military officers have attended from
Brazil
Japan
France
Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
Georgian Republic
Taiwan
Canada
New Zealand
France
South Korea
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
Islamic Republic of Pakistan
United Arab Emirates
Mexico
Republic of the Philippines
Republic of Indonesia

U.S. military officers are admitted through their services' selection/assignment processes; Federal Government civilian employees are admitted through an invitational nomination and approval process; International military officers are selected through the Department of State.

As of 1995, the number of graduates promoted to O-6 (Colonel) was 93% which exceeds the Marine Corps average. Also, 96% have been selected for command.

Notable alumni

See also

 National War College
 Industrial College of the Armed Forces
 Naval War College
 Army War College
 Air War College
 Marine Corps University
 United States Marine Corps Training and Education Command
 Marine Corps Combat Development Command
 School of Advanced Warfighting

References

External links

United States Marine Corps schools
Universities and colleges in Virginia
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
Educational institutions established in 1991
1991 establishments in Virginia
War colleges

Marine Corps War College


The Hamilton Case is a 2003 novel by Australian author Michelle de Kretser. The book won the Commonwealth Writers Prize (SE Asia & Pacific) and the Encore Award (UK). The work centres on the lives of the somewhat eccentric Obeysekere family, in particular Sam, and the 1930s setting explores themes of colonization in Ceylon, now called Sri Lanka. Michelle de Kretser is originally from Sri Lanka. The title refers to a fictional case involving the murder of an English planter in Ceylon, which Sam Obeysekere, a lawyer, attempts to solve. Time Magazine named the book as one of the five best novels of 2004, referring to the date published in the United States.

Awards
Frankfurt Literaturpreis, 2007, winner
International Dublin Literary Award, 2005, longlist
Tasmania Pacific Region Prize, Fiction Prize, 2005, winner
Festival Awards for Literature (SA), Dymocks Booksellers Award for Fiction, 2004, shortlist
Believer Book Award, 2004, shortlist
Commonwealth Writers Prize, South East Asia and South Pacific Region, Best Book, 2004, winner
Encore Award, 2004, winner
Time Magazine's Best Books of the Year, 2004, Fiction #5
Barnes & Noble Discover Great New Writers Awards, Fiction, 2004, second
The Age Book of the Year Award, Fiction Prize, 2003, shortlist
Victorian Premier's Literary Award, The Vance Palmer Prize for Fiction, 2003, shortlist

References

2003 Australian novels
Australian crime novels
Alfred A. Knopf books
Novels set in Sri Lanka
Fiction set in the 1930s

The Hamilton Case


King Bu Bing of Shang of China, in Chinese:"卜丙", born Zi Sheng, in Chinese:"子勝",.  He was the forth king of the Shang Dynasty (1600 BC - 1046 BC). He was the second son of King Tang.

In Records of the Grand Person, he was recorded as the second king of the Shang Dynasty. In that book he is given the name "Wai Bing", in Chinese:"外丙". But in the oracle script, he was recorded as the forth king of the Shang Dynasty. In these records his name is "Bu Bing",in Chinese:"卜丙".

Kings of Shang Dynasty

Bu Bing


Papá soltero (Single Father) is a Mexican television comedy series produced by Luis de Llano Macedo from 1987 to 1994. It starred singer César Costa as well as actors Gerardo Quiroz, Edith Márquez and Luis Mario Quiroz, Jorge Pablo Carrillo.

Synopsis
César Costa plays a fictionalized version of himself, the head of a middle-high class family who happens to be a single father, hence the name of the show. He has two sons and a daughter: Miguel (Gerardo Quiroz), the eldest, Alejandra (Edith Márquez) and Cesarín (Luis Mario Quiroz), the youngest. They have a strong relationship with their maid Gumara (Aurora Alonso). They live in an apartment where they befriend their apartment building's handyman known as "Pocholo" (José Luis Cordero) and Juan (Juan Peláez/Octavio Galindo), their womanizing neighbor who repeatedly gets others into trouble.

Cast
 César Costa as César
 Edith Marquez as Alejandra
 Gerardo Quiroz as Miguel
 Luis Mario Quiroz as Cesarín
 José Luis Cordero as Pocholo
 Aurora Alonso as Gumara
 Claudia Silva

During its six-year run the show had more than 60 guests from among popular stars of the era.

Awards
In 1989 Costa won the TVyNovelas Award for Best Comedic Performance for Papá soltero; the show was also nominated twice for Best Comedy Program but did not win.

Projected non-television revival
In 2018 Costa told El Universal that he planned to revive the series in movie theaters and on stage.

References

External links

Mexican television sitcoms
1988 Mexican television series debuts
1994 Mexican television series endings

Papá soltero


A digital single-lens reflex camera (digital SLR or DSLR) is a digital camera that combines the optics and the mechanisms of a single-lens reflex camera with a solid-state image sensor and digitally records the images from the sensor.

The reflex design scheme is the primary difference between a DSLR and other digital cameras. In the reflex design, light travels through the lens and then to a mirror that alternates to send the image to either a prism, which shows the image in the optical viewfinder, or the image sensor when the shutter release button is pressed. The viewfinder of a DSLR presents an image that will not differ substantially from what is captured by the camera's sensor as it presents it as a direct optical view through the main camera lens, rather than showing an image through a separate secondary lens.

DSLRs largely replaced film-based SLRs during the 2000s. Major camera manufacturers began to transition their product lines away from DSLR cameras to mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras (MILCs) beginning in the 2010s.

Design

Like SLRs, DSLRs typically use interchangeable lenses (1) with a proprietary lens mount. A movable mechanical mirror system (2) is switched down (to precisely a 45-degree angle) to direct light from the lens over a matte focusing screen (5) via a condenser lens (6) and a pentaprism/pentamirror (7) to an optical viewfinder eyepiece (8). Most of the entry-level DSLRs use a pentamirror instead of the traditional pentaprism.

Focusing can be manual, by twisting the focus on the lens; or automatic, activated by pressing half-way on the shutter release or a dedicated auto-focus (AF) button. To take an image, the mirror swings upwards in the direction of the arrow, the focal-plane shutter (3) opens, and the image is projected and captured on the image sensor (4), after which actions, the shutter closes, the mirror returns to the 45-degree angle, and the built-in drive mechanism re-tensions the shutter for the next exposure.

Compared with the newer concept of mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras, this mirror/prism system is the characteristic difference providing direct, accurate optical preview with separate autofocus and exposure metering sensors. Essential parts of all digital cameras are some electronics like amplifier, analog-to-digital converter, image processor and other microprocessors for processing the digital image, performing data storage and/or driving an electronic display.

Phase-detection autofocus

DSLRs typically use autofocus based on phase detection. This method allows the optimal lens position to be calculated, rather than "found", as would be the case with autofocus based on contrast maximisation. Phase-detection autofocus is typically faster than other passive techniques. As the phase sensor requires the same light going to the image sensor, it was previously only possible with an SLR design. However, with the introduction of the focal-plane phase detect autofocusing in mirrorless interchangeable lens cameras by Sony, Fuji, Olympus, and Panasonic, cameras can now employ both phase detect and contrast-detect AF points.

Features commonly seen in DSLR designs

Mode dial
Digital SLR cameras, along with most other digital cameras, generally have a mode dial to access standard camera settings or automatic scene-mode settings. Sometimes called a "PASM" dial, they typically provide modes such as program, aperture-priority, shutter-priority, and full manual modes. Scene modes vary from camera to camera, and these modes are inherently less customizable. They often include landscape, portrait, action, macro, night, and silhouette, among others. However, these different settings and shooting styles that "scene" mode provides can be achieved by calibrating certain settings on the camera.

Dust reduction systems

A method to prevent dust from entering the chamber, by using a "dust cover" filter right behind the lens mount, was used by Sigma in its first DSLR, the Sigma SD9, in 2002.

Olympus used a built-in sensor cleaning mechanism in its first DSLR that had a sensor exposed to air, the Olympus E-1, in 2003 (all previous models each had a non-interchangeable lens, preventing direct exposure of the sensor to outside environmental conditions).

Several Canon DSLR cameras rely on dust reduction systems based on vibrating the sensor at ultrasonic frequencies to remove dust from the sensor.

Interchangeable lenses

The ability to exchange lenses, to select the best lens for the current photographic need, and to allow the attachment of specialised lenses, is one of the key factors in the popularity of DSLR cameras, although this feature is not unique to the DSLR design and mirrorless interchangeable lens cameras are becoming increasingly popular. Interchangeable lenses for SLRs and DSLRs are built to operate correctly with a specific lens mount that is generally unique to each brand. A photographer will often use lenses made by the same manufacturer as the camera body (for example, Canon EF lenses on a Canon body) although there are also many independent lens manufacturers, such as Sigma, Tamron, Tokina, and Vivitar that make lenses for a variety of different lens mounts. There are also lens adapters that allow a lens for one lens mounts to be used on a camera body with a different lens mount but with often reduced functionality.

Many lenses are mountable, "diaphragm-and-meter-compatible", on modern DSLRs, and on older film SLRs that use the same lens mount. However, when lenses designed for 35  mm film or equivalently sized digital image sensors are used on DSLRs with smaller sized sensors, the image is effectively cropped and the lens appears to have a longer focal length than its stated focal length. Most DSLR manufacturers have introduced lines of lenses with image circles optimised for the smaller sensors and focal lengths equivalent to those generally offered for existing 35  mm mount DSLRs, mostly in the wide-angle range. These lenses tend not to be completely compatible with full-frame sensors or 35  mm film because of the smaller imaging circle and with some Canon EF-S lenses, interfere with the reflex mirrors on full-frame bodies.

HD video capture
Since 2008, manufacturers have offered DSLRs which offer a movie mode capable of recording high definition motion video. A DSLR with this feature is often known as an HDSLR or DSLR video shooter. The first DSLR introduced with an HD movie mode, the Nikon D90, captures video at 720p24 (1280x720 resolution at 24 frame/s). Other early HDSLRs capture video using a nonstandard video resolution or frame rate. For example, the Pentax K-7 uses a nonstandard resolution of 1536×1024, which matches the imager's 3:2 aspect ratio. The Canon EOS 500D (Rebel T1i) uses a nonstandard frame rate of 20 frame/s at 1080p, along with a more conventional 720p30 format.

In general, HDSLRs use the full imager area to capture HD video, though not all pixels (causing video artifacts to some degree). Compared with the much smaller image sensors found in the typical camcorder, the HDSLR's much larger sensor yields distinctly different image characteristics.   HDSLRs can achieve much shallower depth of field and superior low-light performance. However, the low ratio of active pixels (to total pixels) is more susceptible to aliasing artifacts (such as moiré patterns) in scenes with particular textures, and CMOS rolling shutter tends to be more severe. Furthermore, due to the DSLR's optical construction, HDSLRs typically lack one or more video functions found on standard dedicated camcorders, such as autofocus while shooting, powered zoom, and an electronic viewfinder/preview. These and other handling limitations prevent the HDSLR from being operated as a simple point-and-shoot camcorder, instead of demanding some level of planning and skill for location shooting.

Video functionality has continued to improve since the introduction of the HDSLR, including higher video resolution (such as 1080p24) and video bitrate, improved automatic control (autofocus) and manual exposure control, and support for formats compatible with high-definition television broadcast, Blu-ray disc mastering or Digital Cinema Initiatives (DCI). The Canon EOS 5D Mark II (with the release of firmware version 2.0.3/2.0.4.) and Panasonic Lumix GH1 were the first HDSLRs to offer 1080p video at 24fps, and since then the list of models with comparable functionality has grown considerably.

The rapid maturation of HDSLR cameras has sparked a revolution in digital filmmaking (referred to as "DSLR revolution"), and the "Shot On DSLR" badge is a quickly growing phrase among independent filmmakers. Canon's North American TV advertisements featuring the Rebel T1i have been shot using the T1i itself. Other types of HDSLRs found their distinct application in the field of documentary and ethnographic filmmaking, especially due to their affordability, technical and aesthetical features, and their ability to make observation highly intimate. An increased number of films, television shows, and other productions are utilizing the quickly improving features. One such project was Canon's "Story Beyond the Still" contest that asked filmmakers to collectively shoot a short film in 8 chapters, with each chapter being shot over a short period of time and a winner was determined for each chapter. After 7 chapters the winners collaborated to shoot the final chapter of the story. Due to the affordability and convenient size of HDSLRs compared with professional movie cameras, The Avengers used five Canon EOS 5D Mark II and two Canon 7D to shoot the scenes from various vantage angles throughout the set and reduced the number of reshoots of complex action scenes.

Manufacturers have sold optional accessories to optimize a DSLR camera as a video camera, such as a shotgun-type microphone, and an External EVF with 1.2 million pixels.

Live preview

Early DSLRs lacked the ability to show the optical viewfinder's image on the LC display – a feature known as live preview. Live preview is useful in situations where the camera's eye-level viewfinder cannot be used, such as underwater photography where the camera is enclosed in a plastic waterproof case.

In 2000, Olympus introduced the Olympus E-10, the first DSLR with live preview – albeit with an atypical fixed lens design. , some DSLRs from Canon, Nikon, Olympus, Panasonic, Leica, Pentax, Samsung and Sony all provided continuous live preview as an option. Additionally, the Fujifilm FinePix S5 Pro offers 30 seconds of live preview.

On almost all DSLRs that offer live preview via the primary sensor, the phase-detection autofocus system does not work in the live preview mode, and the DSLR switches to a slower contrast system commonly found in point-and-shoot cameras. While even phase detection autofocus requires contrast in the scene, strict contrast-detection autofocus is limited in its ability to find focus quickly, though it is somewhat more accurate.

In 2012, Canon introduced hybrid autofocus technology to the DSLR in the EOS 650D/Rebel T4i, and introduced a more sophisticated version, which it calls "Dual Pixel CMOS AF", with the EOS 70D. The technology allows certain pixels to act as both contrast-detection and phase-detection pixels, thereby greatly improving autofocus speed in live view (although it remains slower than pure phase detection). While several mirrorless cameras, plus Sony's fixed-mirror SLTs, have similar hybrid AF systems, Canon is the only manufacturer that offers such technology in DSLRs.

A new feature via a separate software package introduced from Breeze Systems in October 2007, features live view from a distance. The software package is named "DSLR Remote Pro v1.5" and enables support for the Canon EOS 40D and 1D Mark III.

Sensor size and image quality

Image sensors used in DSLRs come in a range of sizes. The very largest are the ones used in "medium format" cameras, typically via a "digital back" which can be used as an alternative to a film back. Because of the manufacturing costs of these large sensors, the price of these cameras is typically over $1,500 and easily reaching $8,000 and beyond .

"Full-frame" is the same size as 35 mm film (135 film, image format 24×36 mm); these sensors are used in DSLRs such as the Canon EOS-1D X Mark II, 5DS/5DSR, 5D Mark IV and 6D Mark II, and the Nikon D5, D850, D750, D610 and Df. Most lower-cost DSLRs use a smaller sensor that is APS-C sized, which is approximately 24×16 mm, slightly smaller than the size of an APS-C film frame, or about 40% of the area of a full-frame sensor. Other sensor sizes found in DSLRs include the Four Thirds System sensor at 26% of full frame, APS-H sensors (used, for example, in the Canon EOS-1D Mark III) at around 61% of full frame, and the original Foveon X3 sensor at 33% of full frame (although Foveon sensors since 2013 have been APS-C sized). Leica offers an "S-System" DSLR with a 30×45 mm array containing 37 million pixels. This sensor is 56% larger than a full-frame sensor.

The resolution of DSLR sensors is typically measured in megapixels. More expensive cameras and cameras with larger sensors tend to have higher megapixel ratings. A larger megapixel rating does not mean higher quality. Low light sensitivity is a good example of this. When comparing two sensors of the same size, for example, two APS-C sensors one 12.1 MP and one 18 MP, the one with the lower megapixel rating will usually perform better in low light. This is because the size of the individual pixels is larger, and more light is landing on each pixel, compared with the sensor with more megapixels. This is not always the case, because newer cameras that have higher megapixels also have better noise reduction software, and higher ISO settings to make up for the loss of light per pixel due to higher pixel density.

Depth-of-field control
The lenses typically used on DSLRs have a wider range of apertures available to them, ranging from as large as 0.9 to about 32. Lenses for smaller sensor cameras rarely have true available aperture sizes much larger than 2.8 or much smaller than 5.6.

To help extend the exposure range, some smaller sensor cameras will also incorporate an ND filter pack into the aperture mechanism.

The apertures that smaller sensor cameras have available give much more depth of field than equivalent angles of view on a DSLR. For example, a 6  mm lens on a 2/3″ sensor digicam has a field of view similar to a 24 mm lens on a 35 mm camera. At an aperture of 2.8, the smaller sensor camera (assuming a crop factor of 4) has a similar depth of field to that 35 mm camera set to 11.

Wider angle of view

The angle of view of a lens depends upon its focal length and the camera's image sensor size; a sensor smaller than 35 mm film format (36×24 mm frame) gives a narrower angle of view for a lens of a given focal length than a camera equipped with a full-frame (35  mm) sensor. As of 2017, only a few current DSLRs have full-frame sensors, including the Canon EOS-1D X Mark II, EOS 5D Mark IV, EOS 5DS/5DS R, and EOS 6D Mark II; Nikon's D5, D610, D750, D850, and Df; and the Pentax K-1. The scarcity of full-frame DSLRs is partly a result of the cost of such large sensors. Medium format size sensors, such as those used in the Mamiya ZD among others, are even larger than full-frame (35 mm) sensors, and capable of even greater resolution, and are correspondingly more expensive.

The impact of sensor size on the field of view is referred to as the "crop factor" or "focal length multiplier", which is a factor by which a lens focal length can be multiplied to give the full-frame-equivalent focal length for a lens. Typical APS-C sensors have crop factors of 1.5 to 1.7, so a lens with a focal length of 50 mm will give a field of view equal to that of a 75 mm to 85 mm lens on a 35 mm camera. The smaller sensors of Four Thirds System cameras have a crop factor of 2.0.

While the crop factor of APS-C cameras effectively narrows the angle of view of long-focus (telephoto) lenses, making it easier to take close-up images of distant objects, wide-angle lenses suffer a reduction in their angle of view by the same factor.

DSLRs with "crop" sensor size have slightly more depth-of-field than cameras with 35 mm sized sensors for a given angle of view. The amount of added depth of field for a given focal length can be roughly calculated by multiplying the depth of field by the crop factor. Shallower depth of field is often preferred by professionals for portrait work and to isolate a subject from its background.

Unusual features
On July 13, 2007, FujiFilm announced the FinePix IS Pro, which uses Nikon F-mount lenses. This camera, in addition to having live preview, has the ability to record in the infrared and ultraviolet spectra of light.

In August 2010 Sony released series of DSLRs allowing 3D photography. It was accomplished by sweeping the camera horizontally or vertically in Sweep Panorama 3D mode. The picture could be saved as ultra-wide panoramic image or as 16:9 3D photography to be viewed on BRAVIA 3D television set.

History
In 1969, Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith invented charge coupled semiconductor devices, which can be used as analog storage registers and image sensors. A CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) imager provides a low noise analog image signal, which is digitized when used in a digital camera. For their contribution to digital photography, Boyle and Smith were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2009.

In 1973, Fairchild developed a 100 x 100 pixel interline CCD image sensor.  This CCD was used in the first commercial CCD camera, the Fairchild MV-100, which was introduced in late 1973. In 1974, Kodak scientists Peter Dillon and Albert Brault used this Fairchild CCD 202 image sensor to create the first color CCD image sensor, by fabricating a red, green, and blue color filter array which was registered and bonded to the CCD.   In 1975 Kodak engineer Steven Sasson built the first portable, battery operated digital still camera, which used a zoom lens from a Kodak Super 8mm movie camera and a monochrome Fairchild 100×100 pixel CCD.

The first prototype filmless SLR camera was publicly demonstrated by Sony in August 1981.  The Sony Mavica (magnetic still video camera) used a color striped 2/3" format CCD sensor with 280K pixels, along with analogue video signal processing and recording. The Mavica electronic still camera employed a TTL single lens reflex viewfinder, shown in the graphic from a June 1982 Sony press release.  It recorded FM modulated analog video signals on a newly developed 2" magnetic floppy disk, dubbed the "Mavipak".

The disk format was later standardized as the "Still Video Floppy", or "SVF", so the Sony Mavica was the first "SVF-SLR" to be demonstrated, but it was not a D-SLR since it recorded analog video images, rather than digital images.  In the late 1990s, Sony introduced the "Digital Mavica" series of consumer digital cameras. Unlike the original analog Mavica, the Digital Mavica cameras recorded JPEG compressed image files on standard 3" magnetic floppy disks and did not have an SLR viewfinder.  Starting in 1983, many Japanese companies demonstrated prototype SVF cameras, including Toshiba, Canon, Copal, Hitachi, Panasonic, Sanyo, and Mitsubishi.

The Canon RC-701, introduced in May 1986, was the first SVF camera (and the first SVF-SLR camera) sold in the US. It employed an SLR viewfinder and included a 2/3" format color CCD sensor with 380K pixels. It was sold along with removable 11-66mm and 50-150mm zoom lens.

Over the next five years, many other companies began selling SVF analog electronic cameras.  These included the monochrome Nikon QV-1000C SVF-SLR camera, introduced in 1988, which had an F-mount for interchangeable QV Nikkor lenses.

In 1986, the Kodak Microelectronics Technology Division developed a 1.3 MP CCD image sensor, the first with more than 1 million pixels. In 1987, this sensor was integrated with a Canon F-1 film SLR body at the Kodak Federal Systems Division to create an early DSLR camera. The digital back monitored the camera body battery current to sync the image sensor exposure to the film body shutter. Digital images were stored on a tethered hard drive and processed for histogram feedback to the user. This camera was created for the U.S. Government, and was followed by several other models intended for government use, and eventually a commercial DSLR, launched by Kodak in 1991.In 1995, Nikon co-developed the Nikon E series with Fujifilm. The E series included the Nikon E2/E2S, Nikon E2N/E2NS and the Nikon E3/E3S, with the E3S released in December 1999.

In 1999, Nikon announced the Nikon D1. The D1's body was similar to Nikon's professional 35  mm film SLRs, and it had the same Nikkor lens mount, allowing the D1 to use Nikon's existing line of AI/AIS manual focus and AF lenses. Although Nikon and other manufacturers had produced digital SLR cameras for several years prior, the D1 was the first professional digital SLR that displaced Kodak's then-undisputed reign over the professional market.

Over the next decade, other camera manufacturers entered the DSLR market, including Canon, Kodak, Fujifilm, Minolta (later Konica Minolta, and ultimately acquired by Sony), Pentax (whose camera division is now owned by Ricoh), Olympus, Panasonic, Samsung, Sigma, and Sony.

In January 2000, Fujifilm announced the FinePix S1 Pro, the first consumer-level DSLR.

In November 2001, Canon released its 4.1 megapixel EOS-1D, the brand's first professional digital body. In 2003, Canon introduced the 6.3 megapixel EOS 300D SLR camera (known in the United States and Canada as the Digital Rebel and in Japan as the Kiss Digital) with an MSRP of US$999, aimed at the consumer market. Its commercial success encouraged other manufacturers to produce competing digital SLRs, lowering entry costs and allowing more amateur photographers to purchase DSLRs.

In 2004, Konica Minolta released the Konica Minolta Maxxum 7D, the first DSLR with in-body image stabilization which later on become standard in Pentax, Olympus and Sony Alpha cameras.

In early 2008, Nikon released the D90, the first DSLR to feature video recording. Since then all major companies offer cameras with this functionality.

Over time, the number of megapixels in imaging sensors has increased steadily, with most companies focusing on high ISO performance, speed of focus, higher frame rates, the elimination of digital 'noise' produced by the imaging sensor, and price reductions to lure new customers.

In June 2012, Canon announced the first DSLR to feature a touchscreen, the EOS 650D/Rebel T4i/Kiss X6i. Although this feature had been widely used on both compact cameras and mirrorless models, it had not made an appearance in a DSLR until the 650D.

Market share
The DSLR market is dominated by Japanese companies and the top five manufacturers are Japanese: Canon, Nikon, Olympus, Pentax, and Sony. Other manufacturers of DSLRs include Mamiya, Sigma, Leica (German), and Hasselblad (Swedish).

In 2007, Canon edged out Nikon with 41% of worldwide sales to the latter's 40%, followed by Sony and Olympus each with approximately 6% market share. In the Japanese domestic market, Nikon captured 43.3% to Canon's 39.9%, with Pentax a distant third at 6.3%.

In 2008, Canon's and Nikon's offerings took the majority of sales. In 2010, Canon controlled 44.5% of the DSLR market, followed by Nikon with 29.8% and Sony with 11.9%.

For Canon and Nikon, digital SLRs are their biggest source of profits. For Canon, their DSLRs brought in four times the profits from compact digital cameras, while Nikon earned more from DSLRs and lenses than with any other product. Olympus and Panasonic have since exited the DSLR market and now focus on producing mirrorless cameras.

In 2013, after a decade of double-digit growth, DSLR (along with MILC) sales are down 15 percent. This may be due to some low-end DSLR users choosing to use a smartphone instead. The market intelligence firm IDC predicted that Nikon would be out of business by 2018 if the trend continued, although this did not come to pass. Regardless, the market has shifted from being driven by hardware to software, and camera manufacturers have not been keeping up.

Decline and transition to mirrorless cameras
Beginning in the 2010s, major camera manufacturers began to transition their product lines away from DSLR cameras to mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras (MILCs). In September 2013, Olympus announced they would stop development of DSLR cameras and will focus on the development of MILCs. Nikon announced they were ending production of DSLRs in Japan in 2020, followed by similar announcements from Canon and Sony.

Present-day models

Currently DSLRs are widely used by consumers and professional still photographers. Well established DSLRs currently offer a larger variety of dedicated lenses and other List of photographic equipment makers equipment. Mainstream DSLRs (in full-frame or smaller image sensor format) are produced by Canon, Nikon, Pentax, and Sigma. Pentax, Phase One, Hasselblad, and Mamiya Leaf produce expensive, high-end medium-format DSLRs, including some with removable sensor backs. Contax, Fujifilm, Kodak, Panasonic, Olympus, Samsung previously produced DSLRs, but now either offer non-DSLR systems or have left the camera market entirely. Konica Minolta's line of DSLRs was purchased by Sony.
 Canon's current 2018 EOS digital line includes the Canon EOS 1300D/Rebel T6, 200D/SL2, 800D/T7i, 77D, 80D, 7D Mark II, 6D Mark II, 5D Mark IV, 5Ds and 5Ds R and the 1D X Mark II. All Canon DSLRs with three- and four-digit model numbers, as well as the 7D Mark II, have APS-C sensors. The 6D, 5D series, and 1D X are full-frame. , all current Canon DSLRs use CMOS sensors.
 Nikon has a broad line of DSLRs, most in direct competition with Canon's offerings, including the D3400, D5600, D7500 and D500 with APS-C sensors, and the D610, D750, D850, D5, D3X and the Df with full-frame sensors.
 Leica produces the S2, a medium format DSLR.
 Pentax currently offers APS-C, full-frame and medium format DSLRs.  The APS-C cameras include the K-3 II, Pentax KP and K-S2. The K-1 Mark II, announced in 2018 as successor to the Pentax K-1, is the current full-frame model. The APS-C and full-frame models have extensive backward compatibility with Pentax and third party film era lenses from about 1975, those that use the Pentax K mount. The Pentax 645Z medium format DSLR is also back-compatible with Pentax 645 system lenses from the film era.
 Sigma produces DSLRs using the Foveon X3 sensor, rather than the conventional Bayer sensor. This is claimed to give higher colour resolution, although headline pixel counts are lower than conventional Bayer-sensor cameras. It currently offers the entry-level SD15 and the professional SD1. Sigma is the only DSLR manufacturer that sells lenses for other brands' lens mounts.
 Sony has modified the DSLR formula in favor of single-lens translucent (SLT) cameras, which are still technically DSLRs, but feature a fixed mirror that allows most light through to the sensor while reflecting some light to the autofocus sensor. Sony's SLTs feature full-time phase detection autofocus during video recording as well as the continuous shooting of up to 12 frame/s. The α series, whether traditional SLRs or SLTs, offers in-body sensor-shift image stabilization and retains the Minolta AF lens mount. , the lineup included the Alpha 68, the semipro Alpha 77 II, and the professional full-frame Alpha 99 II. The translucent (transmissive) fixed mirror allows 70 percent of the light to pass through onto the imaging sensor, meaning a 1/3rd stop-loss light, but the rest of this light is continuously reflected onto the camera's phase-detection AF sensor for fast autofocus for both the viewfinder and live view on the rear screen, even during the video and continuous shooting. The reduced number of moving parts also makes for faster shooting speeds for its class. This arrangement means that the SLT cameras use an electronic viewfinder as opposed to an optical viewfinder, which some consider a disadvantage, but does have the advantage of a live preview of the shot with current settings, anything displayed on the rear screen is displayed on the viewfinder, and handles bright situations well.

Comparison with other digital cameras
The reflex design scheme is the primary difference between a DSLR and other digital cameras. In the reflex design scheme, the image captured on the camera's sensor is also the image that is seen through the viewfinder. Light travels through a single lens and a mirror is used to reflect a portion of that light through the viewfinder – hence the name "single-lens reflex". While there are variations among point-and-shoot cameras, the typical design exposes the sensor constantly to the light projected by the lens, allowing the camera's screen to be used as an electronic viewfinder. However, LCDs can be difficult to see in very bright sunlight.

Compared with some low-cost cameras that provide an optical viewfinder that uses a small auxiliary lens, the DSLR design has the advantage of being parallax-free: it never provides an off-axis view. A disadvantage of the DSLR optical viewfinder system is that when it is used, it prevents using the LCD for viewing and composing the picture. Some people prefer to compose pictures on the display – for them, this has become the de facto way to use a camera. Depending on the viewing position of the reflex mirror (down or up), the light from the scene can only reach either the viewfinder or the sensor. Therefore, many early DSLRs did not provide "live preview" (i.e., focusing, framing, and depth-of-field preview using the display), a facility that is always available on digicams. Today most DSLRs can alternate between live view and viewing through an optical viewfinder.

Optical view image and digitally created image
The larger, advanced digital cameras offer a non-optical electronic through-the-lens (TTL) view, via an eye-level electronic viewfinder (EVF) in addition to the rear LCD. The difference in view compared with a DSLR is that the EVF shows a digitally created image, whereas the viewfinder in a DSLR shows an actual optical image via the reflex viewing system. An EVF image has the lag time (that is, it reacts with a delay to view changes) and has a lower resolution than an optical viewfinder but achieves parallax-free viewing using less bulk and mechanical complexity than a DSLR with its reflex viewing system. Optical viewfinders tend to be more comfortable and efficient, especially for action photography and in low-light conditions. Compared with digital cameras with LCD electronic viewfinders, there is no time lag in the image: it is always correct as it is being "updated" at the speed of light. This is important for action or sports photography, or any other situation where the subject or the camera is moving quickly. Furthermore, the "resolution" of the viewed image is much better than that provided by an LCD or an electronic viewfinder, which can be important if manual focusing is desired for precise focusing, as would be the case in macro photography and "micro-photography" (with a microscope). An optical viewfinder may also cause less eye-strain. However, electronic viewfinders may provide a brighter display in low light situations, as the picture can be electronically amplified.

Performance differences
DSLR cameras often have image sensors of much larger size and often higher quality, offering lower noise, which is useful in low light. Although mirrorless digital cameras with APS-C and full frame sensors exist, most full frame and medium format sized image sensors are still seen in DSLR designs.

For a long time, DSLRs offered faster and more responsive performance, with less shutter lag, faster autofocus systems, and higher frame rates. Around 2016–17, some mirrorless camera models started offering competitive or superior specifications in these aspects. The downside of these cameras being that they do not have an optical viewfinder, making it difficult to focus on moving subjects or in situations where a fast burst mode would be beneficial. Other digital cameras were once significantly slower in image capture (time measured from pressing the shutter release to the writing of the digital image to the storage medium) than DSLR cameras, but this situation is changing with the introduction of faster capture memory cards and faster in-camera processing chips. Still, compact digital cameras are not suited for action, wildlife, sports, and other photography requiring a high burst rate (frames per second).

Simple point-and-shoot cameras rely almost exclusively on their built-in automation and machine intelligence for capturing images under a variety of situations and offer no manual control over their functions, a trait that makes them unsuitable for use by professionals, enthusiasts, and proficient consumers (also known as "prosumers"). Bridge cameras provide some degree of manual control over the camera's shooting modes, and some even have hot shoes and the option to attach lens accessories such as filters and secondary converters. DSLRs typically provide the photographer with full control over all the important parameters of photography and have the option to attach additional accessories using the hot shoe. including hot shoe-mounted flash units, battery grips for additional power and hand positions, external light meters, and remote controls. DSLRs typically also have fully automatic shooting modes.

DSLRs have a larger focal length for the same field of view, which allows the creative use of depth of field effects. However, small digital cameras can focus better on closer objects than typical DSLR lenses.

Sensor size
The sensors used in current DSLRs — "full-frame" which is the same size as 35mm film, APS-C, and Four Thirds System — are much larger than most digital cameras. Entry-level compact cameras typically use sensors known as 1/2.3″, which is 3% the size of a full-frame sensor. There are fixed-lens cameras — such as bridge cameras, premium compact cameras, or high-end point-and-shoot cameras — that offer sensors larger than 1/2.3″, but many still fall short of the larger sizes widely found in DSLRs. Examples include the Sigma DP1, which uses a Foveon X3 sensor; the Leica X1; the Canon PowerShot G1 X, which uses a 1.5″ (18.7×14 mm) sensor that is slightly larger than the Four Thirds standard and is 30% of a full-frame sensor; the Nikon Coolpix A, which uses an APS-C sensor of the same size as those found in the company's DX-format DSLRs; and two models from Sony, the RX100 with a 1″-type (13.2×8.8 mm) sensor with about half the area of Four Thirds and the full-frame Sony RX1. These premium compacts are often comparable to entry-level DSLRs in price, with a smaller sensor being a tradeoff for the size and weight savings.

Fixed or interchangeable lenses
Unlike DSLRs, most digital cameras lack the option to change the lens. Instead, most compact digital cameras are manufactured with a zoom lens that covers the most commonly used fields of view. Having fixed lenses, they are limited to the focal lengths they are manufactured with, except for what is available from attachments. Manufacturers have attempted (with increasing success) to overcome this disadvantage by offering extreme ranges of focal length on models known as superzooms, some of which offer far longer focal lengths than readily available DSLR lenses.

There are now available perspective-correcting (PC) lenses for DSLR cameras, providing some of the attributes of view cameras. Nikon introduced the first PC lens, fully manual, in 1961. Recently, however, some manufacturers have introduced advanced lenses that both shift and tilt and are operated with automatic aperture control.

However, since the introduction of the Micro Four Thirds system by Olympus and Panasonic in late 2008, mirrorless interchangeable lens cameras are now widely available so the option to change lenses is no longer unique to DSLRs. Cameras for the micro four-thirds system are designed with the option of a replaceable lens and accept lenses that conform to this proprietary specification. Cameras for this system have the same sensor size as the Four Thirds System but do not have the mirror and pentaprism, so as to reduce the distance between the lens and sensor.

Panasonic released the first Micro Four Thirds camera, the Lumix DMC-G1. Several manufacturers have announced lenses for the new Micro Four Thirds mount, while older Four Thirds lenses can be mounted with an adapter (a mechanical spacer with front and rear electrical connectors and its own internal firmware). A similar mirror-less interchangeable lens camera, but with an APS-C-sized sensor, was announced in January 2010: the Samsung NX10. On 21 September 2011, Nikon announced with the Nikon 1 a series of high-speed MILCs. A handful of rangefinder cameras also support interchangeable lenses. Six digital rangefinders exist the Epson R-D1 (APS-C-sized sensor), the Leica M8 (APS-H-sized sensor), both smaller than 35  mm film rangefinder cameras, and the Leica M9, M9-P, M Monochrom and M (Typ 240) (all full-frame cameras, with the Monochrom shooting exclusively in black-and-white).

In common with other interchangeable lens designs, DSLRs must contend with potential contamination of the sensor by dust particles when the lens is changed (though recent dust reduction systems alleviate this). Digital cameras with fixed lenses are not usually subject to dust from outside the camera settling on the sensor.

DSLRs generally have greater cost, size, and weight. They also have louder operation, due to the SLR mirror mechanism. Sony's fixed mirror design manages to avoid this problem. However, that design has the disadvantage that some of the light received from the lens is diverted by the mirror and thus the image sensor receives about 30% less light compared with other DSLR designs.

See also
 Box camera
 Comparison of digital SLRs
 Full-frame DSLR
 Mirrorless camera
 Rangefinder camera
 Single-lens reflex camera
 Sony SLT camera
 Twin-lens reflex camera

References

External links

Cameras by type
Digital photography
Digital SLR cameras

de:Spiegelreflexkamera#Digitale Spiegelreflexkameras
ja:デジタル一眼レフカメラ

Digital single-lens reflex camera


Titanic II is a disaster-drama movie from 2010 produced by Shane Van Dyke and distribution by The Asylum. It is not a sequel to the movie from 1997.

Certain movie websites, however, say this movie may be a mock of the 1997 hit movie. The movie Titanic II is about the SS Titanic II luxury liner sent on a maiden voyage exactly 100 years after the original RMS Titanic, except the Titanic II is operating in reverse opposite the original ship. The more recent ship exits New York City and heads to United Kingdom at Southampton. Like the earlier ship, however, she crashes into an iceberg, killing most of the ship's passengers and crew. Only a handful of people survive. Titanic II was condemned by many critics as a rip-off of James Cameron's 1997 movie. The criticisms involved mostly plot and movie directions.

References

Other websites

 Titanic II  at The Asylum

Movies based on real life events
Disaster movies
2010 drama movies
American drama movies
RMS Titanic

Titanic II (movie)


Collier Hills is a residential neighborhood in Atlanta, Georgia.  The area gets its name from the family whose homestead was broadly located in the southwest corner of the intersection of Peachtree St. and Collier Rd.  Andrew Jackson Collier, a member of this family and early pioneer of the area, operated an antebellum grist mill off Tanyard Creek, near Collier Rd.

References

Neighborhoods in Atlanta

Collier Hills


Henri Vanlerberghe (sometimes Van Lerberghe) (Lichtervelde, 29 January 1891 – Lichtervelde, 10 April 1966) was a Belgian professional road bicycle racer. In 1919, he won the third edition of the Tour of Flanders.

Vanlerberghe was nicknamed "The deathrider from Lichtervelde" (), because at the start of most races he would tell his opponents he would ride them to death. Van Lerberghe attacked early in the race, which made him popular amongst cycling fans, but this cost him a lot of energy, and he rarely was able to compete in the end of the race.

In the 1913 Tour de France, Vanlerberghe started in the isolated cyclists' category, which meant that he was not part of a team, but rode as an individual. In the fifth stage, the individual cyclists left fifteen minutes later than the cyclists in teams, but because the cyclists in teams were slow, Van Lerberghe was able to reach them, and beat them to win the stage.

During the 1919 Ronde Van Vlaanderen, Vanlerberghe attacked with 120 km to go against the wind, and it looked like one of his chanceless efforts. He saw a helper with a bag of food for Marcel Buysse, and after he convinced the helper that Buysse was already out of the race, Vanlerberghe took the food. Later, he had to stop because a train had stopped at a crossing. Vanlerberghe did not wait for the train to leave, but entered the train with his bicycle and left at the other side. He reached the finish with a margin of 14 minutes, the largest margin in the history of the Tour of Flanders.

Major results
Source:

1913
1913 Tour de France:
Winner stage 5
1919
1919 Tour of Flanders

References

External links

Belgian male cyclists
1891 births
1966 deaths
Belgian Tour de France stage winners
Sportspeople from West Flanders
People from Lichtervelde

Henri Vanlerberghe


Cornman: American Vegetable Hero a.k.a. Cornman II: The Day of the Locusts is an American cult movie first released in March 2001 by WorldWide International Picture Studios, known for producing low budget B-movies with campy concepts.  The film premiered at the South by Southwest Film Festival on March 10, 2001.  The film was directed by Barak Epstein and starred Mike Wiebe and James Hoke.  The film is an homage/parody of superhero films.

Plot
Cornman is a superhero whose powers include the ability to communicate with corn. He must face the evil Dr. Hoe who is trying to take control of all the corn in the world.

Cast

Awards
The film won several awards at the various film festivals where it was screened.  It premiered at the 2001 South by Southwest Film Festival but failed to garner any awards there.  The film won the 2001 Deep Ellum Award for Best Comedy Feature at the Deep Ellum Film Festival.

References

External links

 Official site
 WIP Studios

2001 films
2001 comedy films
American superhero films
American independent films
2000s superhero comedy films
2001 independent films
2000s English-language films
2000s American films

Cornman: American Vegetable Hero


The Battle of Poznań (Battle of Posen) during World War II in 1945 was an assault by the Soviet Union's Red Army that had as its objective the elimination of the Nazi German garrison in the stronghold city of Poznań (Posen) in occupied Poland. The defeat of the German garrison required a month-long reduction of fortified positions, urban combat, and a final assault on the city's citadel by the Red Army, complete with medieval touches.

Background
The city of Poznań, then known as Posen, had been part of Prussia since 1815 and later Germany, before being given to Poland with the Treaty of Versailles in 1920. Following the invasion of Poland in 1939, the city lay in the west part of Poland which was annexed by Nazi Germany, with the city being the local capital of Reichsgau Wartheland.

By 1945, the Red Army advances on the Eastern Front had driven the Germans out of eastern Poland as far as the Vistula River. The Red Army launched the Vistula–Oder offensive on 12 January 1945, inflicted a huge defeat on the defending German forces, and advanced rapidly into western Poland and eastern Germany.

Certain cities which lay on the path of the Soviet advance were declared by Hitler to be Festungen (strongholds), where the garrisons were ordered to mount last-ditch stands. Hitler hoped the Festung cities could hold out behind Soviet lines and interfere with the movement of supplies and lines of communication. Poznań was declared a Festung in January 1945. The city was defended by 15,000–20,000 German troops from a great variety of units including Volkssturm, Luftwaffe ground forces, police, and highly motivated officer candidates. Facing them were the experienced Guards Rifle troops of General V. I Chuikov's 8th Guards Army – the victors of Stalingrad.

The defenders made use of some of the surviving Festung Posen fortifications that had been built during Prussian rule in the 19th century. The Fort Winiary citadel stood on a hill to the north of the city centre. Around the perimeter of the city were 18 massively built forts, spaced at intervals of about 2 kilometres in a ring with a radius of about 5 kilometres. General Chuikov described the forts as
. . . underground structures each with several storeys, the whole projecting above the surrounding terrain. Only a mound was visible above ground -- the layer of earth covering the rest. Each fort was ringed by a ditch ten metres wide and eight metres deep, with walls revetted with brickwork. Across the ditch was a bridge, leading to one of the upper storeys. Among the forts, to the rear, there were one-storey brick bunkers. These were clad in concrete almost a full metre thick, and were used as stores. The upper works of the forts were sufficiently strong to provide reliable protection against heavy artillery fire. . . . the enemy would be able to direct fire of all kinds against us both on the approaches to the forts and within them, on the rampart. The embrasures were such that flanking fire from rifles and machine-guns could be directed from them.

The city encircled
Poznań lay on the main route between Warsaw and Berlin, and in German hands, it was a serious obstacle to any Soviet operation against the German capital. Thus, the Red Army had to clear the city of German troops before the final assaults designed to capture Berlin and end the war could begin.

On 21 January 1945 the Soviet 1st Guards Tank Army forced a crossing of the Warta River north of the city, but by 24 January these bridgeheads had been abandoned in favor of better bridgeheads south of Poznań. Meanwhile, Red Army tank units had swept north and south of the city, capturing hundreds of German aircraft in the process. Moving further west, the Soviet tank units left the capture of the city to other Red Army forces.

By 25 January, the Soviet 8th Guards Army had arrived and began a systematic reduction of the fortress. The following day, two of Poznań's forts in the south fell to a hasty assault conducted by the 27th and 74th Guards Rifle Divisions. This initial success allowed Chuikov's troops to penetrate the ring of forts and attack other forts from inside the city.

On 28 January, the German high command relieved Generalmajor Ernst Mattern as the fortress commander and replaced him with a dedicated Nazi, Generalmajor Ernst Gonell. Gonell imposed draconian discipline on the German garrison. In some instances, German troops attempting to surrender were shot by their own side.

Ultimately, the reduction of Festung Posen consumed the efforts of four divisions from Chuikov's army and two divisions of Colonel-General V. Ia. Kolpakchi's 69th Army. The 117th and 312th Rifle Divisions of the 91st Rifle Corps of 69th Army were deployed on the east side of the city. To the north, the 39th Guards Rifle Division of Chuikov's 28th Guards Rifle Corps, and to the south, Chuikov's 29th Guards Rifle Corps composed of the 27th, 74th, and 82nd Guards Rifle Divisions were arrayed against the Festung. By the southwestern suburb of Junikowo, the 11th Guards Tank Corps took up positions to block any German attempt at retreat.

The capture of Poznań
In bitter combat that saw the outlying forts reduced and city blocks seized, the Soviets succeeded in pushing the German defenders towards the city center and the citadel. By the beginning of February 1945, most of the city had been captured, and by 12 February, the Germans held only the imposing citadel.

Generalmajor Gonell had previously believed that other German forces would attack and relieve his besieged forces, but by 15 February came to the realization that this was not going to happen. Incensed, he ordered his troops that were east of the Warta River to attempt to break out, and some 2,000 German soldiers managed to infiltrate the Red Army lines and head west on the following night.

Arrayed against the citadel was the 29th Guards Rifle Corps, with the 27th Guards Rifle Division on the north, the 82nd Guards Rifle Division on the southwest, and the 74th Guards Rifle Division on the southeast. The final Soviet assault on the citadel started on 18 February. Before the Red Army troops lay a deep ditch matched by a steep rampart on the far side. In an odd echo of medieval warfare, the Soviet forces used ladders to cross this obstacle but found themselves swept by fire from the citadel's redoubts. These redoubts took the better part of three days to neutralize; one was silenced by flamethrowers and explosives, the other's line of fire was blocked by debris thrown in front of the firing ports by exasperated Soviet troops.

Having built an assault bridge, Red Army tanks and assault guns crossed into the main grounds of the citadel early on 22 February, commencing the final struggle for the old fortress. At this point, Generalmajor Gonell gave his troops permission to attempt to escape, but it was too late. Gonell refused to be captured and committed suicide by lying down on a flag and shooting himself in the head.

That evening, Generalmajor Mattern, once again in charge of the German forces, surrendered the remaining 12,000 German soldiers to General Chuikov.
On the evening of 22 February, Colonel-General Chuikov was informed by General Bakanov, commander of the 74th Guards Rifle Division, that the citadel's garrison had surrendered. Fifteen minutes later he met General Mattern who Chuikov described as "an incredibly stout man".
Mattern squeezed his frame through the door puffing and snorting and "regaining his breath handed me a note from (the now deceased) General Konnel asking the Soviet commander General Bakanov to take care of the German wounded. 'Where is Konnel?' I asked. 'He shot himself.' When asked how he himself felt, General Mattern shrugged; 'It's all the same to me. I'm not a member of the Nazi Party and I would not have shed blood needlessly knowing that resistance was pointless. Hitler is finished'."
.

Aftermath
The Germans held out in Poznań for almost a month. Doubtlessly, their possession of the city complicated Soviet resupply efforts, but other influences had also convinced the Stavka to pause the Red Army advance at the Oder River instead of attempting to push on to Berlin in February 1945.

The battle left over half (90% in the city center) of Poznań severely damaged by artillery fire and the effects of infantry combat in the city blocks. The battle definitively reduced the old Prussian fortress system which today stands mostly as monuments to an earlier military era. Finally, the outcome of the battle simplified Soviet resupply efforts between Warsaw and the Oder River.

Over 5,000 German troopers who fell in the battle are buried at Milostowo cemetery. The Soviets are estimated to have lost over 12,000 men by the battle's midpoint around 3 February 1945.

Today, the Poznań Citadel site is a large park, in which are situated the remains of some of the fortifications, a memorial to the Red Army and one for the Cytadelowcy (the some 2000 local Poles, under Polish and Soviet officers, conscripted as assault or 'sapper' troops for the assault on Fort Winiary towards the end of the battle), military cemeteries, and a military museum containing exhibits relating to the 1945 battle.

Footnotes

Article Sources
 Baumann, Günther. Posen '45, Düsseldorf: Hilfsgemeinschaft ehemaliger Posenkämpfer, 1995.
 Chuikov, Vasily. The Fall of Berlin, New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1968.
 Duffy, Christopher. Red Storm on the Reich, New York: Athenum Press, 1991. .
 Erickson, John. The Road to Berlin, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. .

 Szumowski, Zbigniew. Boje o Poznań 1945, Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1985. .

Battles of World War II involving the Soviet Union
Poznan
Battle of Poznań
Battles of World War II involving Germany
Battles of World War II involving Hungary
Battles and operations of World War II involving Poland
Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War
January 1945 events in Europe
February 1945 events in Europe
1945 in Poland
20th century in Poznań

Battle of Poznań (1945)


Alicia DeShasier McConnell (born April 15, 1984) is an American track and field athlete who competes in the javelin throw. She won the gold medal in the event at the 2011 Pan American Games.

Biography
Raised in Carrollton, Illinois, DeShasier was a women's basketball and softball player at Carrollton High School. She helped her school win consecutive state Class A basketball championships in 2001 and 2002. When the 2002 softball team was state Class A runner-up, two-sport star DeShasier was named as Illinois's female high school athlete of the year.

She followed her older sister, Liz, to Southern Illinois University Edwardsville (SIUE) where she was a four-year star on the SIUE Cougars softball team that was selected for the NCAA Division II tournament in all four of her playing years and won the Great Lakes Valley Conference (GLVC) championship in 2006. She played every position on her team and was picked for the GLVS All-Conference team three times, was named the 2006 GLVC Player of the Year, and was a 2006 Division II First Team All-American.  After finishing her softball career and while completing her SIUE studies in civil engineering, DeShasier was encouraged to use her final year of athletic eligibility on the Cougars track and field team. There she took up the javelin throw for the first time, and her softball throwing skills translated well, as she broke the school record at her first competitive meet. Having the nation's  longest throw of the season, she was an automatic qualifier for the NCAA championships, where she finished tenth, despite a shoulder injury. She received her bachelor's degree in Civil Engineering from SIUE in 2007. After working as a civil engineer at Oates Associates in Collinsville, Illinois, DeShasier moved to Madison, Wisconsin to work in designing highways for Strand Associates, Inc. and volunteer as an assistant coach for the Wisconsin Badgers track and field team. DeShasier now works for Michael Baker International in Madison, WI. In 2012, DeShasier was elected to the GLVC Hall of Fame. In 2017, she was elected to the SIUE Athletics Hall of Fame.  In December, 2017, she and her sisters Liz and Shosha were named to the Illinois Basketball Coaches Association (IBCA) Hall of Fame.

DeShasier began to compete at senior national level in 2008. She threw a personal record of 53.74 m in Edwardsville that July and came close to that mark to take fifth place overall at the United States Olympic Trials. She improved in both placing and performance at the 2009 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships, coming fourth with a new best mark of 55.08 m. She had a similar peak the following year, as her throw of 55.53 m at the 2010 nationals brought her her first podium finish at the event, taking third place behind Kara Patterson and Rachel Yurkovich. These finishing positions were repeated at the 2011 USA Outdoors and although she did not have the qualifying standard for the 2011 World Championships in Athletics, she was selected for the 2011 Pan American Games instead.

In spite of a lack of experience of international competitions, DeShasier excelled at the Pan American Games in Guadalajara, improving her best by over two meters with a throw of 58.01 m (190 ft 4 in) and defeating the more favored Yanet Cruz to win the gold medal in the event. Reflecting on her win she said: "I was an underdog but I prefer to be in that position...no eyes are on you". Her winning throw at the Pan-American Games was the seventh longest ever by an American woman.

References

External links

Living people
1984 births
People from Carrollton, Illinois
American female javelin throwers
Athletes (track and field) at the 2011 Pan American Games
Southern Illinois University Edwardsville alumni
SIU Edwardsville Cougars softball players
Pan American Games gold medalists for the United States
Sportspeople from Illinois
American civil engineers
Pan American Games medalists in athletics (track and field)
Engineers from Illinois
Medalists at the 2011 Pan American Games
21st-century American women

Alicia DeShasier


Hilary Kornblith is an American philosopher. He is a professor of philosophy at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and one of contemporary epistemology's most prominent proponents of naturalized epistemology.

Biography
Kornblith received his B.A. from State University of New York at Buffalo in 1975 and his PhD from Cornell University in 1980, where he studied under Sydney Shoemaker and Richard Boyd. Before coming to University of Massachusetts in 2003, Kornblith taught at the University of Vermont, where he also chaired the department from 1991 to 1997. His research interests include epistemology, metaphysics and the philosophy of mind. Apart from naturalized epistemology, his most recent work includes the role of intuitions in philosophical theorizing, the conflicts between internalism and externalism in epistemology, and the mental states of non-human animals.

Naturalistic account of inductive inference
In his 1993 book Inductive Inference and Its Natural Ground (MIT Press, 1993) Kornblith argues that inductive knowledge is possible by virtue of a fit between our innate psychological capacities and the causal structure of the world. Following Boyd, Kornblith takes the causal structure in question to be a structure of natural kinds, i.e., of homeostatically clustered properties. Such natural kinds provide a natural ground for inductive inference by virtue of the fact that our innate inferential tendencies (as revealed by empirical psychology) are structured in a way that assumes a world of natural kinds, and, thereby, tend to provide us with accurate beliefs about the world in an environment populated by such natural kinds.

Knowledge as a natural kind
Kornblith is perhaps most well known for his defense of the view that knowledge is a natural kind. This claim is defended in his book Knowledge and its Place in Nature (Oxford University Press, 2002) where Kornblith argues that knowledge, as it is being studied in cognitive ethology, is a sufficiently robust and inductively valuable category to qualify as a natural kind. Consequently, he claims, the proper method for epistemology is empirical, contrary to what has been assumed by most epistemologists, who traditionally have proceeded by way of conceptual analysis and the probing of intuitions rather than by way of empirical investigation.

Against conceptual analysis
Kornblith's case for knowledge as a natural kind provides the basis for his critique of philosophy as conceptual analysis. According to Kornblith, the proper object of philosophical analysis is not concepts, but the phenomena picked out by those concepts. At the same time, Kornblith's work in semantics indicates that his claims about conceptual analysis can, in fact, be motivated independently of his view on knowledge as a natural kind. In particular, he has argued that semantic externalism provides the correct semantics not only for natural kinds but also for artifactual kinds — a claim that, if true, would lend plausibility to the idea that empirical investigation provides a promising philosophical method, quite independently of whether or not a majority of the objects of philosophical inquiry turn out to be natural kinds.

Bibliography

Books
Inductive Inference and its Natural Ground, MIT Press, 1993.
Naturalizing Epistemology, (Ed.), MIT Press, 1985. 2nd Edition, 1994.
Epistemology: Internalism and Externalism, (Ed.), Blackwell Publishers Inc., 2001.
Knowledge and its Place in Nature, Oxford University Press, 2002.
On Reflection, Oxford University Press, 2012.
A Naturalistic Epistemology: Selected Papers, Oxford University Press, 2014.
Second Thoughts and the Epistemological Enterprise, Cambridge University Press, 2019.
Scientific Epistemology, Oxford University Press, 2022.

Articles
"Belief in the Face of Controversy," in T. Warfield and R. Feldman, eds., Disagreement, Oxford University Press, forthcoming.
"What Reflective Endorsement Cannot Do," Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 2010, 80 (1), 1-19.
"A Reliabilist Solution to the Problem of Promiscuous Bootstrapping," Analysis, 2009, 69 (2).
"The Naturalistic Project in Epistemology: Where Do We Go from Here?," in C. Mi and R. Chen, (Eds.), Naturalized Epistemology and Philosophy of Science, Rodopi (Amsterdam), 2007, 39-59.
"Naturalism and Intuitions," Grazer Philosophische Studien, 2007, 72, 27-49.
"How to Refer to Artifacts," in E. Margolis and S. Laurence, (Eds.), Creations of the Mind: Essays on Artifacts and their Representation, Oxford University Press, 2007, 138-149.
"The Metaphysical Status of Knowledge," Philosophical Issues, 2007, 17 (1), 145–164.
"Appeals to Intuition and the Ambitions of Epistemology," in S. Hetherington, (Ed.), Epistemology Futures, Oxford University Press, 2006, 10-25.
"The Role of Intuition in Philosophical Inquiry," in M. DePaul and W. Ramsey, (Eds.), Rethinking Intuition, Rowman and Littlefield, 1998, 129-141.
"Referring to Artifacts," Philosophical Review, LXXXIX, 1980, 109-114.

See also
American philosophy
List of American philosophers

References

External links
Hilary Kornblith's Home Page
Complete List of Publications

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
20th-century American philosophers
21st-century American philosophers
University at Buffalo alumni
University of Massachusetts Amherst faculty
Epistemologists
Cornell University alumni

Hilary Kornblith


The Policy, Ethics and Life Sciences Research Centre (PEALS) was established in 1999 as a partnership between the University of Durham, Newcastle University and the Centre for Life.

PEALS aims to research, inform and improve policy, professional practice and democratic participation in the life sciences. It particularly promotes research and debate on the social and ethical aspects of genetics and other life sciences.

The Centre publishes the Teach Yourself Citizens Juries Handbook.

External links

Research institutes in the United Kingdom
Durham University