Kurt Waldemar Tschenscher (5 October 1928 – 13 August 2014) was a German football referee.

Born in Schimischow, Weimar Germany (today Szymiszów, Poland), Tschenscher took up refereeing in 1948 and by 1953 he was part of the German Football Association's group of top referees. Within another five years, he was promoted to the FIFA list of international referees. In October 1959, he refereed the second leg of Yugoslavia's 1960 European Nations' Cup first round win over Bulgaria. In September 1962, he took charge of the replay of the 1962 European Cup Winners' Cup Final, in which Atlético Madrid beat Fiorentina 3–0.

By 1966, Tschenscher was one of the top referees in Europe, a fact reflected in his appointment to the first leg of the 1965–66 European Cup semi-final between Partizan and Manchester United, and then a group stage match between Brazil and Bulgaria at the 1966 FIFA World Cup. The following season, he was named as the referee for the 1967 European Cup Final between Celtic and Internazionale.

He was appointed to quarter-finals at both Euro 1968 and Euro 1972, and a semi-final at Euro 1968, as well as the opening group stage game between Mexico and the Soviet Union at the 1970 World Cup, which saw him become the first referee to show a yellow card in a match. He also refereed a second-round game at the 1974 World Cup. Thus he is the only referee that was nominated by the FIFA for three World Cups. In total he was a FIFA referee for 17 years, which is the record in FIFA history.

In 1971, Tschenscher officiated Pelé's final game for Brazil, at the end of which he received the jersey worn by the Brazilian.

References

External links
 Profile at worldfootball.net
 Profile at WorldReferee.com

1928 births
2014 deaths
German football referees
1966 FIFA World Cup referees
1970 FIFA World Cup referees
1974 FIFA World Cup referees
People from the Province of Silesia
People from Strzelce County
Olympic football referees
Recipients of the Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
UEFA Euro 1968 referees
Silesian-German people
West German sportsmen
Sportspeople from Mannheim

Kurt Tschenscher


Tom Milne (2 April 1926 – 14 December 2005) was a British film critic.

After war service, he studied English and French at Aberdeen University and later at the Sorbonne. Interested in the theatre too, he wrote for the magazine Encore, which existed for a decade (1954 to 1965).

Milne wrote for Sight & Sound, the Monthly Film Bulletin, The Observer and The Times during his career. During the 1960s he was associate editor of Sight & Sound and editor of the Monthly Film Bulletin. His book length studies of film directors include monographs on Joseph Losey (1968) and Rouben Mamoulian (1969) in the Thames & Hudson Cinema One series, the former comprising a series of extended interviews with the director. He also wrote a short study on the Danish director Carl Theodor Dreyer (1971) and edited and translated an anthology of interviews and writings on Jean-Luc Godard (1972).

In addition, Tom Milne oversaw the translation and subtitling of French films for television screenings. He was the founding editor of the Time Out Film Guide, which went through nineteen editions from 1989 through 2010.

An archive of over 3000 novels that were the personal collection of Tom Milne is held at Lancaster University Library https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/library/collections/special-collections-and-archives/#tom-milne-collection-550558-1

References

1926 births
2005 deaths
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
British film critics
University of Paris alumni
British subtitlers
20th-century British translators

Tom Milne


Polyps are one of two forms of the cnidarians. The other body form is the medusa. Polyps have a vase-shaped body with tentacles around the mouth opening.

Polyps may be sexual or asexual. They can all reproduce asexually by budding. In some species, the polyps can also reproduce sexually.

When medusae mate, the result may be polyps, when polyps replicate, the result may be medusae. The details vary between species. Some species are polyps all the time (such as Hydra, and the whole of the class Anthozoa (corals and anemones).

In many cases the asexual buds formed do not separate from the parent but remain, thus forming colonies or 'stocks'. These may reach a great size, and contain a vast number of individuals. Slight differences in the method of budding produce great variations in the form of the colonies. The reef-building corals are polyp-colonies, strengthened by the formation of a firm skeleton.

Jellyfish (class Medusozoa) have two distinct life history stages (body forms) during their life cycle. The first is the polyp stage. Often, this polyp is attached to the sea floor, or to another hard surface. A polyp that lives that way is called sessile.

In the second stage, the tiny polyps asexually produce jellyfish, each of which is known as a medusa. Tiny jellyfish swim away from the polyp and then grow and feed in the plankton. Jellyfish reproduce both sexually and asexually.

References

Cnidarians

Polyp


Simeon is a person in the Torah and Old Testament. Simeon was the second son of Jacob and Leah and the ancestor of one of the Twelve Tribes of the Israelites.

Birth
After Leah gave birth to her second son she said that the Lord had heard her voice so she named her son Simeon. She then gave birth to another son and said "I have poured out my heart to the Lord" and named him Levi.

The story of Dinah
When a prince named Shechem raped Dinah after having kidnapped her, he and his father Hamor wanted Shechem to marry her. So Jacob's sons told him to tell Hamor to tell the men of Shechem to circumcise themselves. And then they did, so Shechem could marry Dinah. Then Simeon and his brother Levi killed every adult male in Shechem and rescued Dinah. But Jacob was angry with Simeon and Levi since he thought that the Canaanites would kill them all for it. So they asked him "should our sister be treated as a whore".

Story of Joseph
Simeon was the one of Joseph's brothers that he jailed to get the others to bring Benjamin to Egypt.

Land Distribution
When Jacob died, he told Simeon and Levi that because of the massacre of Shechem they wouldn't have land of their own as part of their inheritance but would instead be contained by the lands of the other tribes. So the tribe of Simeon had its lands surrounded on all sides by land belonging to the tribe of Judah.

Old Testament people

Simeon


The Sandinista Workers' Centre (Spanish: Central Sandinista de Trabajadores, CST) is the dominant national trade union center in Nicaragua. It was formed following the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) revolution of 1979. The CST is closely linked with the FSLN, and was previously affiliated with the World Federation of Trade Unions.

The CST later affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, which went on to form the International Trade Union Confederation

References

International Trade Union Confederation
Organizations of the Nicaraguan Revolution
Sandinista National Liberation Front
Trade unions established in 1979
Trade unions in Nicaragua

Sandinista Workers' Centre


A Boy and His Dog is a cycle of narratives by author Harlan Ellison. The cycle tells the story of an amoral boy (Vic) and his telepathic dog (Blood), who work together as a team to survive in the post-apocalyptic world after a nuclear war. The original 1969 novella was adapted into the 1975 film A Boy and His Dog directed by L.Q. Jones. Both the story and the film were well-received by critics and science fiction fans, but the film was not successful commercially. The original novella was followed by short stories and a graphic novel.

The film adaptation was an influence on Love and Monsters (2020) by Michael Matthews. The story and its film adaptation have also been mentioned to be influential in the creation of the Fallout video game series by Black Isle Studios.

Publication history
Ellison began the cycle with the 1969 short story of the same title, published in New Worlds, and expanded and revised the tale to novella length for his story collection The Beast that Shouted Love at the Heart of the World the same year. He subsequently bookended the original story with two others in the same world: "Eggsucker" (The Ariel Book of Fantasy Volume Two, 1977), and "Run, Spot, Run" (Amazing Stories, 1980).

The stories were adapted as a two-issue black and white comic series illustrated by Richard Corben, Vic and Blood: The Chronicles of a Boy and His Dog (Mad Dog Graphics, 1987). The series was collected as a color graphic novel of the same name in 1989 by NBM/St. Martin's Press, and was in turn published in French by Comics USA (Vic & Blood: Les chroniques d'un gars et son chien, 1989) and in Spanish by Norma Editorial (Vic & Blood, CEC #72, 1990). Both the graphic novel and the prose stories were collected in Vic and Blood: The Continuing Adventures of a Boy and His Dog (Edgework Abbey/iBooks, 2003). Ellison's introduction to the collection explains that 1969's A Boy and His Dog is part of a larger novel that he has been writing for over 30 years and that story is finished, but the last, longest part is written as a screenplay with no current plans for production.

Ellison suggested as late as 2003 that he would combine the three stories (possibly with additional material) to create a novel with the proposed title of Blood's a Rover (not to be confused with the Chad Oliver story or the James Ellroy novel Blood's a Rover). In January 2018, Subterranean Press announced the publication of Blood's a Rover, combining materials from the author's files, versions of the novella and short stories that have been expanded and revised, material from Corben's graphic novel, and previously unpublished material from the unproduced 1977 NBC television series Blood's a Rover.

Setting
The novella and the film adaptation have the same alternate timeline setting, diverging with the failed assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Instead of concentrating on the Space Race, technological advancements in robotics, animal intelligence, and telepathy take place. A more heated Cold War takes place, culminating in a conventional World War III. A truce is signed, lasting another 25 years, though mounting tensions lead to World War IV in 2007, this time involving massive nuclear warfare and only lasting five days. Civilization is almost entirely obliterated, leaving the surface of Earth reduced to a desolate, irradiated wasteland.

Years later, in 2024, foragers who remain above ground must fight for the remaining resources. Most survivors in the former United States are male, as women were usually in the bombed cities while many men were out fighting in the war. In the novella, nuclear fallout had created horrific mutations, such as the feared burnpit screamers, known for their noise and deadliness (in the film, they appear in only one scene, though they are only heard).

Eggsucker

Plot
Blood recalls how he met Vic in 2048, and describes him as "steadfast, responsible, and game as they come." He recounts an evening during which he and Vic go to barter scavenged items with the "82nd Airborne", the armorers for most of the local roverpacks except for that of the child-slaver "Fellini." Transported from a dock by skiff to the 82nd Airborne's boat, the pair trade wine and spent brass for fresh ammunition, and Vic is invited to stay and drink. Blood declines to drink, and is repeatedly insulted by the gang, until the goading drives him to attempt to bite one of them. The gang member knocks Blood down and points a rifle at Blood's head, and Vic immediately shoots the gang member. As Vic covers the remaining stunned gang members, Blood climbs into Vic's pack and passes out. He awakens again with them on the dock and Vic running for their lives. Upon reaching safety, Vic unceremoniously dumps Blood onto the ground and storms off in anger at having lost access to "the only armorer in the territory." Blood initially lets him go, but thinks better of it after considering the alternatives, and saves Vic from walking into a crater in the road containing a "Screamer" (a green corpse-like mutant). The pair run miles up the road, and having reconciled, sit down to eat.

A Boy and His Dog

Plot
Vic, aged 15, was born in and scavenges throughout the wasteland of the former southwestern United States as a "solo" (as opposed to a member of a "roverpack" gang). Vic is most concerned with food and sex. Having lost both of his parents, he has no formal education and does not understand ethics or morality. He is accompanied by a well-read, misanthropic, telepathic dog named Blood, who helps him locate women, in return for food. Blood cannot forage for himself, due to the same genetic engineering that granted him telepathy. The two steal for a living, evading "roverpacks" (gangs) and mutants. Blood and Vic have an occasionally antagonistic relationship, though they realize that they need each other.

At a movie house, Blood claims to smell a woman, and the pair track her to an abandoned YMCA building. There, they meet Quilla June Holmes, a teenaged girl from "Downunder", a society located in a large underground nuclear vault. Before Vic can rape her, Blood informs the pair that a roverpack has tracked them to the building and they have to fight them off. After killing a number of them, the trio hides in a boiler and set the structure on fire.

Vic finally has sex with Quilla June, and though she protests at first, she begins to come on to him. Blood takes an instant disliking to her, but Vic ignores him. Vic and Quilla June have sex repeatedly but eventually she attacks him and takes off to return to her underground community. Vic, furious at her deception, follows her, despite Blood's warnings. Blood remains at the portal on the surface.

Downunder has an artificial biosphere complete with forests and underground cities. One, named Topeka after the ruins of the city it lies beneath, is fashioned in a surreal mockery of 1950s rural innocence. Vic is captured by the ruling council (the Better Business Bureau). They confess that Quilla June was sent to the surface in order to lure a man to Downunder. The population of Topeka is becoming sterile, and the babies that are born are usually female. They feel that Vic, despite his crudeness and savage behavior, will be able to reinvigorate that male population. Vic is first elated to learn that he is to impregnate the female population, but he quickly grows jaded of his surroundings and plots his escape.

Quilla June is reunited with Vic and they plan to escape together. Vic uses the fact that Quilla June's father secretly desires sex with her as a distraction, incapacitating him so that they can escape.

On the surface, Vic and Quilla June discover that Blood is starving and near death, having been attacked by radioactive insects and other "things". Quilla June tries to get Vic to leave Blood and take off with her. Knowing he will never survive without Blood's guidance and, more importantly, that Blood will not survive without care and food, Vic faces a difficult situation. It is implied that he kills his new love and cooks her flesh to save Blood's life. The novella ends with Vic remembering her question as Blood eats: "Do you know what love is?" and he concludes, "Sure I know. A boy loves his dog."

Reception
The novella won the Nebula Award for Best Novella upon its release in 1969 and was also nominated for the 1970 Hugo Award for Best Novella.

Film adaptation

The 1975 science fiction film directed by L.Q. Jones was controversial for alleged misogyny; the script included lines that were not in Ellison's original stories and that authors such as Joanna Russ found to be objectionable. The film's final line is from Blood: "Well, I'd say she certainly had marvelous judgement, Albert, if not particularly good taste." Ellison disavowed this addition as a "moronic, hateful chauvinist last line, which I despise." Ellison did, however, accept that the ending remained popular with fans, saying: "I would have kept the original last line from the original story, which I think is much more human and beguiling than the sort of punchline that L.Q. Jones used. But L.Q. knew what he was doing in terms of the market, I suppose." On the other hand, Harlan also loved the movie (as stated in an interview conversation with L.Q. Jones on the Shout Factory Blu Ray); after Jones screened it to him, he said it was exactly what the story was supposed to be on screen. It was a few days after he brought up his problems, mostly concerning the way Blood talked about the girl during the locker room scene when they first meet.

Run, Spot, Run

Plot
Although Blood is now back on his feet and travelling west, the pair's situation deteriorates as the guilt-ridden Vic begins having hallucinations of a ghostly Quilla June, which Blood also experiences through their telepathic link. Due to his preoccupation, Vic stumbles into an encounter with a roving gang of child soldiers and slaves led by the adult "Fellini", and badly breaks his ankle while attempting to escape. At Blood's suggestion, Vic climbs into a hollow tree stump to hide, and Blood covers him with leaves and dirt before going to hide himself. Hours later, with the gang gone, Blood returns to find the stump surrounded by giant spiders. Driving them off, Blood finds Vic in a hopeless, almost catatonic state, and despite Blood's appeals, Vic allows himself to be cocooned by one of the spiders. Blood runs off as the spider finishes and begins to look for new prey, and he continues west, now haunted by the ghost of Vic rather than Quilla June.

Production
The reasons given by Ellison for this abrupt ending have differed over the years. One relates to his anger over the L.Q. Jones ending of the film, as detailed above. The other is, according to Ellison, essentially a desire to stop his fans from requesting more stories about the two characters. Ellison claimed at the time of the film's release that he had said all he wanted to say about Vic and Blood, and that there would be no more sequels.

Blood's A Rover

Blood's a Rover, a fix-up combining the short stories, novella, and an adaptation of the unproduced 1977 pilot teleplay, was announced by Ace Books in the early 1980s, but was not published. In the introduction to Vic and Blood, dated 25 March 2003, Ellison referred to "the final, longest section is in screenplay form—and they're bidding here in Hollywood, once again, for the feature film and tv rights—and one of these days before I go through that final door, I'll translate it into elegant prose, and the full novel will appear". In 2013, Ellison resumed working on book, now subtitled "The Complete Adventures of a Boy and His Dog". It was published by Subterranean Press on 20 June 2018, eight days before Ellison's death.

References

1969 short stories
Alternate history short stories
Cannibalism in fiction
Cold War fiction
Fiction about telepathy
Fiction set in 2024
Nebula Award for Best Novella-winning works
Novels set during World War III
Fiction about nuclear war and weapons
American post-apocalyptic fiction
Short stories by Harlan Ellison
Short stories set in the United States

A Boy and His Dog


Personality is a term that describes the traits a person shows consistently, such as how they think, act and respond to emotions as well as their likes and dislikes.

These traits are shown at different times and in different situations.  Understanding someone's personality may allow you to predict their behavior in many situations.  Predictability makes it possible to explain and understand behavior.  A person's personality can often suggest their internal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.  Intrapersonal functioning is a term used to describe the stable processes that underlie these thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Gordon Allport defined personality as a "dynamic organization inside a person, of psychophysical systems that create the person's characteristic patterns of behavior, thoughts and feelings."

References

Personality


The Atlanta, Birmingham and Atlantic Railway was formed in 1914 as a reorganization of the Atlanta, Birmingham and Atlantic Railroad, which had been created in 1905 to purchase the Atlantic and Birmingham Railway and extend its track into Birmingham, Alabama, from an end point at Montezuma, Georgia. The railroad's chief engineer and general manager at the time was Alexander Bonnyman.

The railroad went into receivership in 1921 and was acquired by the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad in 1926. They reorganized the line as the Atlanta, Birmingham and Coast Railroad.

The Mangum Street embankment which ran north–south along Mangum Street (parallel to today's Northside Drive, but two blocks to the east), upon which trains reached the Atlanta terminus west of Downtown Atlanta, was built in 1905 and razed c. 1990 for construction of the Georgia Dome.

The building was used as offices and passenger terminal for the AB&A in Atlanta is located at the corner of Fairlie and Walton Streets in downtown Atlanta. It is now used as offices for Central Atlanta Progress. The upper facade of the building retains the "Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railroad" stonework on two sides.

References

External links
Georgia's Railroads, History, and Heritage
Owen, Thomas McAdory.  History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography, Vol. I.  Chicago:  S. J. Clarke Publishing, 1921, pp. 70-71.
 Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railroad Photograph Collection from the Atlanta History Center
Alexander Bonnyman Papers -- A collection of railroad records and photographs belonging to one of their chief engineers

Defunct Alabama railroads
Defunct Georgia (U.S. state) railroads
Former Class I railroads in the United States
Predecessors of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad
Railway companies established in 1915
Railway companies disestablished in 1926
American companies established in 1915


Hengam-e Qadim (, also Romanized as Hengām-e Qadīm; also known as Hengām-e Kohneh, Hengām-e Qadīd, Hengam Kohneh, and Khammāsī) is a village in Hengam Rural District, Shahab District, Qeshm County, Hormozgan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 48, in 12 families.  The village is located on Hengam Island.

References

Populated places in Qeshm County

Hengam-e Qadim


A limiting factor is a variable of a system that causes a noticeable change in output or another measure of a type of system. The limiting factor is in a pyramid shape of organisms going up from the producers to consumers and so on. A factor not limiting over a certain domain of starting conditions may yet be limiting over another domain of starting conditions, including that of the factor.

Overview
The identification of a factor as limiting is possible only in distinction to one or more other factors that are non-limiting. Disciplines differ in their use of the term as to whether they allow the simultaneous existence of more than one limiting factor which (may then be called "co-limiting"), but they all require the existence of at least one non-limiting factor when the terms are used.  There are several different possible scenarios of limitation when more than one factor is present.  The first scenario, called single limitation occurs when only one factor, the one with maximum demand, limits the System.  Serial co-limitation is when one factor has no direct limiting effects on the system, but must be present to increase the limitation of a second factor. A third scenario, independent limitation, occurs when two factors both have limiting effects on the system but work through different mechanisms.  Another scenario, synergistic limitation, occurs when both factors contribute to the same limitation mechanism, but in different ways.

In 1905 Frederick Blackman articulated the role of limiting factors as follows: "When a process is conditioned as to its rapidity by several separate factors the rate of the process is limited by the pace of the slowest factor." In terms of the magnitude of a function, he wrote, "When the magnitude of a function is limited by one of a set of possible factors, increase of that factor, and of that one alone, will be found to bring about an increase of the magnitude of the function."

Ecology

In population ecology, a regulating factor, also known as a limiting factor, is something that keeps a population at equilibrium (neither increasing nor decreasing in size over time). Common limiting factor resources are environmental features that limit the growth, abundance, or distribution of an organism or a population of organisms in an ecosystem. The concept of limiting factors is based on Liebig's Law of the Minimum, which states that growth is controlled not by the total amount of resources available, but by the scarcest resource. In other words, a factor is limiting if a change in the factor produces increased growth, abundance, or distribution of an organism when other factors necessary to the organism's life do not. Limiting factors may be physical or biological.

Limiting factors are not limited to the condition of the species. Some factors may be increased or reduced based on circumstances. An example of a limiting factor is sunlight in the rain forest, where growth is limited to all plants on the forest floor unless more light becomes available. This decreases the number of potential factors that could influence a biological process, but only one is in effect at any one place and time. This recognition that there is always a single limiting factor is vital in ecology, and the concept has parallels in numerous other processes. The limiting factor also causes competition between individuals of a species population. For example, space is a limiting factor. Many predators and prey need a certain amount of space for survival: food, water, and other biological needs. If the population of a species is too high, they start competing for those needs. Thus the limiting factors hold down population in an area by causing some individuals to seek better prospects elsewhere and others to stay and starve. Some other limiting factors in biology include temperature and other weather related factors. Species can also be limited by the availability of macro- and micronutrients.  There has even been evidence of co-limitation in prairie ecosystems.  A study published in 2017 showed that sodium (a micronutrient) had no effect on its own, but when in combination with nitrogen and phosphorus (macronutrients), it did show positive effects, which is evidence of serial co-limitation.

Oceanography
In oceanography, a prime example of a limiting factor is a limiting nutrient. Nutrient availability in freshwater and marine environments plays a critical role in determining what organisms survive and thrive. Nutrients are the building blocks of all living organisms, as they support biological activity. They are required to make proteins, DNA, membranes, organelles, and exoskeletons. The major elements that constitute >95% of organic matter mass are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus. Minor elements are iron, manganese, cobalt, zinc and copper. These minor elements are often only present in trace amounts but they are key as co-limiting factors as parts of enzymes, transporters, vitamins and amino acids. Within aquatic environments, nitrogen and phosphorus are leading contenders for most limiting nutrients.

Discovery of the Redfield ratio was a major insight that helped understand the relationship between nutrient availability in seawater and their relative abundance in organisms. Redfield was able to notice elemental consistencies between carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus when looking at larger organisms living in the ocean (C:N:P = 106:16:1). He also observed consistencies in nutrients within the water column; nitrate to phosphate ratio was 16:1. The overarching idea was that the environment fundamentally influences the organisms that grow in it and the growing organisms fundamentally influence the environment. Redfield's opening statement in his 1934 paper explains "It is now well recognized that the growth of plankton in the surface layers of the sea is limited in part by the quantities of phosphate and nitrate available for their use and that the changes in the relative quantities of certain substances in seawater are determined in their relative proportions by biological activity". Deviations from Redfield can be used to infer elemental limitations. Limiting nutrients can be discussed in terms of dissolved nutrients, suspended particles and sinking particles, among others. When discussing dissolved nutrient stoichiometry, large deviations from the original Redfield ratio can determine if an environment is phosphorus limited or nitrogen limited. When discussing suspended particle stoichiometry, higher N:P ratios are noted in oligotrophic waters (environments dominated by cyanobacteria; low latitudes/equator) and lower N:P ratios are noted in nutrient rich ecosystems (environments dominated by diatoms; high latitudes/poles).

Many areas are severely nitrogen limited, but phosphorus limitation has also been observed. In many instances trace metals or co-limitation occur. Co-limitations refer to where two or more nutrients simultaneously limit a process. Pinpointing a single limiting factor can be challenging, as nutrient demand varies between organisms, life cycles, and environmental conditions (e.g. thermal stress can increase demand on nutrients for biological repairs).

Business and technology
AllBusiness.com defines a limiting (constraining) factor as an "item that restricts or limits production or sale of a given product". The examples provided include: "limited machine hours and labor-hours and shortage of materials and skilled labor. Other limiting factors may be cubic feet of display or warehouse space, or working capital." The term is also frequently used in technology literature.

The analysis of limiting business factors is part of the program evaluation and review technique, critical path analysis, and theory of constraints as presented in the novel The Goal.

Chemistry
In stoichiometry of a chemical reaction to produce a chemical product, it may be observed or predicted that with amounts supplied in specified proportions, one of the reactants will be consumed by the reaction before the others. The amount of product is thus limited by the supply of this reagent. This limiting reagent determines the theoretical yield of the reaction.  The other reactants are said to be non-limiting or in excess.  This distinction makes sense only when the chemical equilibrium so favors the products to cause the complete consumption of one of the reactants.

In studies of reaction kinetics, the rate of progress of the reaction may be limited by the concentration of one of the reactants or catalyst.  In multi-step reactions, a step may be rate-limiting in terms of production of the final product.  In vivo, in an organism or in an ecologic system, such factors as those may be rate-limiting, or in the overall analysis of a multi-step process including biologic, geologic, hydrologic, or atmospheric transport and chemical reactions, transport of a reactant may be limiting.

See also
 Abiotic component
 Bateman's principle
 Biotic component
 Bottleneck (software)
 Chemical kinetics
 Competition (biology)
 Competitive exclusion principle
 Ecology
 Population ecology
 Resource (biology)
 Shelter

References

Further reading

 Raghothama, K. G. &  Karthikeyan, A. S. (2005). "Phosphate acquisition", Plant and Soil 274: 37-49.
 Taylor, W. A. (1934). "Significance of extreme or intermittent conditions in distribution of species and management of natural resources, with a restatement of Liebig's Law of the minimum", Ecology 15: 374-379.
 Shelford, V. E. (1952). Paired factors and master factors in environmental relations. Illinois Acad. Sci. Trans., 45: 155-160
 Sundareshwar, P. V., Morris, J. T., Koepfler, E. K., and Fornwalt, B. (2003). "Phosphorus limitation of coastal ecosystem processes", Science 299: 563-565.

Chemical kinetics
Ecological theories
Natural resources
Production economics
Systems ecology

Limiting factor


The Sims site (16SC2), also known as Sims Place site,  is an archaeological site located in Saint Charles Parish, Louisiana, near the town of Paradis. The location is a multi-component mound and village complex with platform mounds and extensive midden deposits. The site habitations are divided into three periods. It was first inhabited about 800 CE by peoples of the Coastal Coles Creek culture. By 1100 CE the culture of the site had transitioned into the Mississippianized Plaquemine culture that lasted until 1450 CE. A little later was a Late Mississippian/protohistoric period that lasted from 1500 until about 1700 or 1800.

Site description

The large site is located along both banks of a small stream known as Bayou Saut d'Ours and at one time had five to six earthen mounds, but only two mounds and the remains of a third mound are visible today. Mound A is topped by a historic period cemetery. It was one of the largest if not the largest site in the vicinity during the time of its occupation and likely served as a local civic and ceremonial center as well as being a center of trade. The inhabitants traded their local marine resources, including such locally produced items as shells and shell beads, to peoples located further up the Lower Mississippi River valley.

The local use of Plaquemine culture pottery grog tempering for pottery and the gradual adoption of shell tempered pottery associated with other areas has allowed archaeologists to track trade interactions with the people of the Sims site and peoples from these other areas. During the second occupation period trade expanded, and the local ceramics show connections to Lower Mississippi Valley peoples and Plaquemine peoples located near modern-day Barataria Bay and to peoples of the Pensacola culture, located on the upper Gulf Coast near what is modern-day Biloxi, Mississippi. This period, between 1100 and 1450 CE, was during the initial phases of occupation and expansion of the Bottle Creek site, the major center of the Pensacola culture. This period also sees the most significant Plaquemine connections at the site. The next phase sees increasing contact with Mississipianized Plaquemine peoples from as far up the Mississippi River as the Baton Rouge area, as well as continued interaction with the Mississippian Pensacola peoples.

See also
 List of Mississippian sites
 Bayou Grande Cheniere Mounds
 Medora site

References

External links
 Pieces of the past highlight ancient history of Paradis

Archaeological sites of the Coles Creek culture
Plaquemine Mississippian culture
Mounds in Louisiana
Geography of St. Charles Parish, Louisiana
Tourist attractions in St. Charles Parish, Louisiana

Sims site


William Hartwell Harrison (October 7, 1896 – August 19, 1955) was a decorated officer of United States Marine Corps with the rank of brigadier general. He is most noted as commanding officer of 11th Marine Regiment during Battle of Peleliu in September 1944. Harrison later commanded the Automotive Section within Service Command, Fleet Marine Force Pacific.

Early career

William H. Harrison was born on October 7, 1896, at Middle River, Maryland. He attended the St. John's College at Annapolis, Maryland, before he reported for Marine Corps active duty with the rank of second lieutenant on May 24, 1917. Harrison was sent to the Basic School for additional officers training and subsequently was attached to the 13th Marine Regiment and sailed for France. He arrived in September 1918, but too late to see combat and spent almost nine months with occupation duties in Brest. Harrison was ordered back to the United States in July 1919 and following the deactivation of the unit, he was attached to the Second Provisional Marine Brigade under Brigadier General Ben H. Fuller. His first expeditionary duties came in October 1919, when he sailed with 2nd Brigade for Santo Domingo to fight rebel forces of General Desiderio Arias.

Harrison spent two years in Dominican Republic and finally returned stateside in 1921. He was assigned to the Marine Barracks Quantico, Virginia. He was assigned to the 10th Marine Artillery Regiment and participated in the maneuvers at Culebra, Puerto Rico. Lieutenant Harrison was later assigned for instruction to the Motor Transport School at Camp Holabird, Maryland.

Another foreign shore duty came in July 1922, when he sailed as first lieutenant for Haiti as a member of First Marine Brigade under Brigadier General Theodore P. Kane. During his time there, he served as Brigade Transportation Officer until September 1927. His main responsibility as Transportation officer was the movement of personnel and material by truck, rail and sea.

He subsequently returned to Quantico a because of his experiences with transportation of the troops, he was assigned again as Transportation officer. Harrison remained at Quantico until June 1929, when he was promoted to the rank of captain and appointed commanding officer of the Marine detachment aboard the battleship USS New Mexico. While aboard that vessel, he participated in patrol cruises in the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans until July 1931.

Captain Harrison was subsequently assigned to the Battery Officer's Course at Field Artillery School at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, where he also attended later the Advanced Course. He graduated in May 1933 and joined 21st Reserve Marines at Philadelphia Navy Yard.

Later Career and World War II

Harrison was ordered to sunny California in January 1936 and assigned as major to the Marine Corps Base San Diego. He assumed duties as executive officer of the 2nd Battalion, 10th Marine Artillery Regiment and later served also as 2nd Battalion Commander from May to June 1938. He then spent two years in Pacific, when he was appointed commanding officer of the Marine barracks at Naval Station Guam in June 1939. Harrison returned stateside in June 1941 and joined again 1st Battalion, 10th Marines at San Diego under Lieutenant Colonel Raphael Griffin.

But with the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor, the new units were activated and Harrison assumed command of 12th Defense Battalion at the beginning of August 1942 also at San Diego. His unit consisted of 1500 men of coastal defense and anti-aircraft units and was almost immediately ordered to Hawaii. During May 1943, Harrison sailed with 12th Defense Battalion to Samoa and subsequently to Australia. He led his unit during the Operation Chronicle, assault and subsequent occupation of Woodlark Island at the end of June 1943. The Island was unoccupied, but Japanese conducted few shelling and bombing attacks.

Harrison later led 12th Defense battalion during the Battle of Cape Gloucester at New Guinea at the end of December 1944 until he was replaced by Merlyn D. Holmes and appointed commanding officer of 11th Marine Artillery Regiment within 1st Marine Division under Major General William H. Rupertus. His regiment was designated artillery group for the Peleliu Operation in September 1944 and even with a minimum of motor transportation available, Harrison coordinated artillery shelling on well entrenched enemy forces. His actions destroyed a large number of Japanese units, and this helped to win the campaign. For his actions and leadership during the battle, Harrison received the Legion of Merit with Combat "V" and also the Navy Presidential Unit Citation.

In December 1944, Harrison was ordered back to the United States and appointed officer in charge of Automotive Section within Service Command, Fleet Marine Force Pacific under Major General Earl C. Long. In this assignment, he was responsible again for the movement of personnel, weapons and supplies by trucks, air and sea. Harrison remained in this capacity until the end of the war and later received the Bronze Star Medal for his service.

Retirement

Harrison returned stateside in January 1946 and assumed duties as officer in charge of Western and North-Eastern Recruiting Divisions at San Francisco and Philadelphia. He retired from the active service on April 1, 1948, after 31 years of military service and was advanced to the rank of brigadier general for having been specially commended in combat.

Harrison died on August 19, 1955, and is buried at Arlington National Cemetery together with his wife Blanche Moe Harrison (1895–1972) and their son William Hartwell Harrison (1922–1940).

Decorations

Here is the ribbon bar of Brigadier General William H. Harrison:

References

1896 births
1955 deaths
People from Baltimore County, Maryland
St. John's College (Annapolis/Santa Fe) alumni
United States Marine Corps generals
American military personnel of the Banana Wars
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War I
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Military personnel from Maryland

William H. Harrison (USMC)


Thame  is a market town and civil parish in Oxfordshire, about  east of the city of Oxford and  southwest of Aylesbury. It derives its name from the River Thame which flows along the north side of the town and forms part of the county border with Buckinghamshire. The parish includes the hamlet of Moreton south of the town. The 2011 Census recorded the parish's population as 11,561.  Thame was founded in the Anglo-Saxon era and was in the kingdom of Wessex.

Abbey, parish church and prebendal

Thame Abbey was founded in 1138 for the Cistercian Order: the abbey church was consecrated in 1145. In the 16th century Dissolution of the Monasteries the abbey was suppressed and the church demolished. Thame Park (the house) was built on the site, incorporating parts of the abbey including the early-16th century abbot's house. Its interior is one of the earliest examples of the Italian Renaissance in England. A Georgian west wing was added in the 18th century. In about 1840 parts of the foundations of the abbey church were excavated: it was  long and  wide, with a Lady Chapel extending a further  at the east end.

The earliest feature of the Church of England parish church of Mary the Virgin is the 12th century base of the font. The font's octagonal bowl was re-cut in the 13th century. The present church is a cruciform building that was built in the 13th century. The chancel is Early English Gothic and was built in about 1220, with six lancet windows in its north wall and presumably a similar arrangement in the south wall. It was twice altered in the next few decades: a three-light plate tracery window was inserted in its north wall in the mid-13th century and the five-light east window with geometrical tracery was inserted in about 1280. Whatever lancet windows may have been in the chancel south wall were replaced with three two-light Decorated Gothic windows with reticulated tracery, and a double piscina was added at the same time.

The transepts and tower arches are also early 13th century. The nave has five-bay north and south aisles whose arcades were built in about 1260. The aisles were widened in the 14th century, when they acquired their Decorated Gothic windows and doors. The Decorated Gothic south porch has two storeys and a two-bay quadripartite vault.

The Perpendicular Gothic clerestory is 14th or early 15th century. In the 15th century the tower piers were strengthened and the two upper stages of the tower were built. In 1442 the north transept was rebuilt with five-light Perpendicular Gothic north and east windows with panel tracery. At about the same time the south transept acquired similar windows and was extended eastwards to form a chapel with a 15th-century piscina. The Perpendicular Gothic nave west window was inserted in 1672–73, making it an example of Gothic survival. In 1838 the north aisle north wall was rebuilt under the direction of George Wilkinson.  The tower has a ring of eight bells, all cast by Mears and Stainbank of the Whitechapel Bell Foundry in 1876.

The Prebendal House is known to have existed by 1234, The Early English Gothic chapel was built in about 1250. The solar is also 13th century but was enlarged in the 14th, when the present crown-post roof was added. The rest of the Prebendal House is dated from the 15th century. The hall is 14th century in plan but was later divided, and one part now has a fine 15th century roof. In 1661 the antiquary Anthony Wood reported that the house was ruinous, and early in the 19th century the remains were in use as a farmhouse and barns. It was restored in 1836. The prebendal houses and the Church of St. Mary were both attacked repeatedly in the early 1290s during a violent conflict between the bishop of Lincoln, Oliver Sutton, and a knight of King Edward I, Sir John St. John. The Prebendal House was the home of singer/songwriter Robin Gibb and his wife Dwina from 1984, and Gibb is buried in St Mary's parish churchyard.

Social and economic history

In 1550 the courtier John Williams, 1st Baron Williams of Thame built the almshouses in Church Lane. He died in 1559, and his will established the local grammar school. Its original building, completed in 1569, stands next to the almshouses. In 1880 the school moved to its current premises in Oxford Road. In 1971 it became a comprehensive school under the name Lord Williams's School.

The Civil War in the 1640s saw Thame occupied in turn by Royalists and by Parliamentarians. After the Battle of Chalgrove Field in 1643, Colonel John Hampden, who had been educated at the grammar school, died of his wounds at the house of Ezekiel Browne, later to become the Greyhound Inn.

The champion bare-knuckle boxer James Figg was born in Thame in the late 17th century and had his early prize-fights at the Greyhound Inn. In the 21st century the Greyhound Inn was renamed the James Figg and in April 2011 the Oxfordshire Blue Plaques Board unveiled a blue plaque there to commemorate him.

In the 18th century many of the buildings in the boat-shaped High Street were re-faced with modern facades built of locally produced salt glazed bricks. Late in the 18th century John Wesley preached in Thame. The congregation on that occasion was so large that the floor of the building gave way, and the crowd fell to the lower floor.

By 1813 Thame had a workhouse in Wellington Street. In 1826 John Boddington, a miller who had been the proprietor of Thame Mill, became master of the workhouse. In 1831 his son, also John Boddington, became a clerk at Strangeways Brewery in Manchester. A younger son, Henry Boddington, who had been born at Thame Mill in 1813, followed his brother and joined the same brewery in 1832. Henry became a partner in the business in 1847 and sole proprietor in 1853, after which its beers were called Boddingtons. In April 2011 the Oxfordshire Blue Plaques Board unveiled a blue plaque at the address of the former workhouse commemorating its association with Henry Boddington.

Thame Poor Law Union was established in 1835 and the following year a new workhouse designed by George Wilkinson was built on Oxford Road. In the 20th century the building became the premises of Rycotewood College of further education. In 2003 with two other colleges of further education to form Oxford and Cherwell College, now City of Oxford College.

Thame railway station was opened in 1862 as the temporary terminus of an extension of the Wycombe Railway from . The extension was completed in 1864 when it reached . In 1963 British Railways withdrew passenger services between  and Oxford and closed Thame station, leaving Princes Risborough (7 miles) as the nearest passenger station until 1987 (see below) BR dismantled the track between Thame and , but kept the line between Thame and Princes Risborough open for goods traffic to and from an oil depot in Thame.

Thame Town Hall was designed by the architect HJ Tollit in Jacobethan style and built in 1888.

In 1940 Willocks McKenzie, a local lorry driver, found a small hoard of late Medieval coins and rings beside the River Thame. The coins were ten groats and the rings were five ornate examples ranging from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The county Coroner declared them to be treasure trove and therefore Crown property. The Crown placed the hoard on permanent loan to the Ashmolean Museum. The most ornate ring was an ecclesiastical one incorporating a small reliquary. Its lid is decorated with a distinctive cross with two horizontal sections, similar to the Cross of Lorraine. Thame Town Council incorporated this cross into its town emblem.

In 1974 the M40 motorway was extended from High Wycombe to Chilworth Farm at Great Milton. Junction 7 at Milton Common is about  southwest of Thame, giving the town a fast road link to London. In 1990 the M40 extension was completed, giving Thame a fast road link to Birmingham.

In 1987 British Rail opened  station at Haddenham, about  northeast of Thame, on the Chiltern Main Line. Chiltern Railways now provides passenger services linking the railway station to High Wycombe, ,  and . The station has a large car park, a taxi office, and regular buses into Thame.

In 1991 Thame oil depot closed, and BR dismantled the railway between Thame and Princes Risborough. Sustrans was allowed to re-use the former trackbed to create the Phoenix Trail which is part of National Cycle Network route 57. Reopening the rail line through Thame was an option considered by Chiltern Railways in their plan to open a direct rail route from London Marylebone to Oxford via Princes Risborough in 2015. The cost of reinstating bridges was considered prohibitive.

Bentley Productions used Thame many times as a location for the Midsomer Murders drama series, representing the fictional town of Causton.

Economy
The town's two largest employers, CPM Group and Travelodge, both have their head offices on the edge of the town. W. Lucy & Co. moved its base from Oxford to Thame in 2005.

Public transport
See above for details of Haddenham and Thame Parkway station. As of 2013 the fastest London Marylebone trains took 36 minutes.  Arriva the Shires Sapphire bus routes 280 and X8 link Oxford railway station and Aylesbury via Thame. Route 280 runs daily and serves Wheatley and Haddenham. It runs every 20 minutes from Mondays to Saturdays and every 30 minutes on Sundays. Route X8 is an express service that bypasses Wheatley and Haddenham, used to run hourly on a Monday to Friday. From February 2019, the X8 only has 6 buses a day. 2 in the morning peak running from Aylesbury to Oxford and 4 in the evening peak running from Oxford to Aylesbury.

Carousel Buses route 40 links Thame with High Wycombe via Chinnor and Stokenchurch. Services run hourly from Mondays to Saturdays. There is no Sunday or bank holiday service.  In July 2016 Oxfordshire County Council ceased all bus subsidies. Buckinghamshire County Council still contracts operators to run subsidised bus routes, a few of which link local villages to Thame. They include route 110 operated by Redline Buses and routes 111, 112 and 113 run by Z&S Transport.

The 121 bus service route is a circular route that goes hourly around Thame. Until the end of April 2023, Redline Buses operated the route. However, in May it was announced by Thame Town Council that Z & S Transport will take over the service until August. TTC is starting to consider installing a Hopper Bus in the town after this date.

Media
Local news and television programmes are BBC South and ITV Meridian. Television signals are received from the Oxford TV transmitter.

Thame's local radio stations are BBC Radio Oxford on 95.2 FM, Heart South on 102.6 FM, Jack FM on 106.4 FM, Greatest Hits Radio Bucks, Beds and Herts (formerly Mix 96) on 96.2 FM and Red Kite Radio that broadcast from Aylesbury.

The Thame Hub  and Oxford Mail are the local newspapers.

Amenities

Thame has three primary schools: Barley Hill Primary School, John Hampden Primary School and St Joseph's Catholic Primary School. It has one county secondary school, Lord Williams's School.  Both the Army Cadets and the Air Training Corps have units in the town. 594 (Thame) Air Training Corps was formed in 1994, originally as a detached flight of 966 (Wallingford) Squadron. It became an independent unit in 1997, taking the number 594 Squadron.

Sport
Chinnor Rugby Club is based at Thame. Its first XV currently plays in National Division One. Thame United Football Club first team plays in Southern League Division One East  The Oxfordshire Golf Club is  southwest of Thame. The course was designed by Rees Jones and has hosted tournaments including the Benson & Hedges International Open from 1996 until 1999.  Thame Leisure Centre, located on Oxford Road, has a 25-metre swimming pool, dance studio, gym and racquet sports facilities.

Twinning
Thame is twinned with Montesson in France and Sinaia in Romania.

Notable residents
John Fothergill, innkeeper, entrepreneur and writer, owned and managed the Spread Eagle Hotel between 1922 and 1931.

Violinist Alfredo Campoli (1906–91) was married at St Joseph's Catholic Church in 1942 and retired to Thame in 1986. In April 2011 the Oxfordshire Blue Plaques Board unveiled a blue plaque at 39 North Street to commemorate him.

The Slow Mo Guys, English film-maker and Internet personality Gavin Free (born 1988) and his co-host Daniel Gruchy (born 1988), lived in the town from 1992 until 2012. Free now lives in Austin, Texas.

Robin Gibb of the Bee Gees and his wife Dwina Murphy-Gibb lived in Prebendal House in Thame until his death in 2012. Robin's younger brother, Andy Gibb, also lived with Robin in Prebendal House in Thame in the weeks before his death in 1988.

BBC actor, announcer, executive Harman Grisewood (1908–97) was brought up at the Prebendal House in the 1910s and 1920s. It had a resident Catholic priest, Father Randolph Traill, who served in its chapel. In his autobiography, One Thing at a Time (1968), he described an outing with his brother, nanny, nursemaid and pram, when they were stoned by villagers as they approached the Church of England parish church.

Poet and playwright W. B. Yeats (1865–1939) lived in the town for a short time at Cuttle Brook House, 42 Lower High Street. His son was born there in 1921. A blue plaque commemorating him was unveiled in 2011.

The composer Howard Goodall lived in Thame in the 1960s and 70s and, after leaving Stowe School, attended Lord Williams's School.

Jonathan More and Matt Black, the duo who make up Coldcut both lived in Thame and attended LWS.

Ronald Lee, cricketer.

Fiona Bruce, television presenter.

See also
 Thame Museum

References

Sources and further reading

External links

Thame Town Council

Civil parishes in Oxfordshire
Market towns in Oxfordshire
South Oxfordshire District

Thame


Airbourne are an Australian hard rock band from Warrnambool, Victoria, Australia. Original members are Joel O'Keeffe, Ryan O'Keeffe, David Roads and Adam Jacobson, but Adam leaves the band in 2004 and was replaced by Justin Street. In 2004, the band release their first EP, called "Ready to Rock". Their first studio album was released in 2007 and is called "Runnin' Wild". This album have three singles: "Runnin' Wild", "Too Much, Too Young, Too Fast" and "Diamond in the Rough". In 2010, the band released their second studio album, called "No Guts. No Glory". The third studio album is called "Black Dog Barking" and was released in 2013.

History

Formation and Ready to Rock (2003–2006)
Airbourne formed as a hard rock band in late 2003 in the Victorian country town of Warrnambool by Joel O'Keeffe (born c. 1985) and his younger brother Ryan (born c. 1986). Joel had played guitar since the age of 11 and Ryan got his first drum kit four years later also at the age of 11. Joel met David Roads (born c. 1983) when the two worked at the Hotel Warrnambool. The pair brought their guitars to work and, after their shifts, jammed on song ideas, Roads was asked to join the O'Keeffe brothers on rhythm guitar for rehearsals at their house. By late 2003, Adam Jacobson had joined on bass guitar, the group was named Airbourne and played regular gigs at the local Criterion Hotel.

In March 2004 the four-piece won a statewide band competition, Push-On, in Melbourne. Their early material was influenced by Australian rock bands AC/DC, The Angels, Billy Thorpe and Rose Tattoo. They recorded an eight-track extended play, Ready to Rock, which appeared in July 2004 as an independent self-funded release. By that time Jacobson was replaced by Justin Street (born c. 1986) on bass guitar – Ryan had met Street while stumbling home drunk from a party one night. In early 2005, the band relocated to Melbourne and in August, they signed a five album record deal with Capitol Records. According to Joel, while the band were living in a shared house they threw a party, and during listening to aKrokus CD, Rock the Block, a blown fuse resulted in a fire burning the back part of the house. The group have supported Mötley Crüe, Motörhead, Iron Maiden and The Rolling Stones, as well as performing at summer music festivals.

Runnin' Wild (2006–2009)
In 2006 Airbourne travelled to the United States to begin work on their first studio album, Runnin' Wild, with producer Bob Marlette (Ozzy Osbourne, Alice Cooper).Runnin' Wild was released in Australia on 23 June 2007. Three singles were issued from the album, "Runnin' Wild" (May), "Too Much, Too Young, Too Fast" (June), a playable track on Guitar Hero World Tour; and "Diamond in the Rough". In February, Capitol Records had cancelled their contract with Airbourne, but the album was still issued in Australia through EMI. In June, the band signed with Roadrunner Records for international distribution.

The album peaked in the top 30 on the ARIA Albums Chart in Australia, top 40 on New Zealand's RIANZ Albums Chart and appeared on charts in Austria, Switzerland and France. During late 2007, the group toured the United States supporting Kid Rock and Korn. Runnin' Wild was issued in North America, Europe and Japan in January 2008, after which they relocated permanently to the US. The album reached the Top 100 on the UK Albums Chart and appeared on the Billboard 200. In September 2007, they issued a five-track live extended play, Live at the Playroom.

In a September 2008 interview with MetalSucks, Joel discussed comparisons with AC/DC, "whoever you are when you come out, especially if you're from Australia and you sound like we do, you're going to get compared to anyone who is out there. It doesn't matter who you are, you are going to get compared to somebody. To be compared to the best rock and roll band in the business, who are still going today and are about to release another album, there is no higher compliment..." In November at the Astoria in London, Dan Hawkins (Stone Gods/The Darkness) joined Airbourne on stage to play the AC/DC song, "Whole Lotta Rosie". Hawkins played Joel's guitar (white Gibson Explorer) while Joel sang without any guitar.

No Guts. No Glory. (2009–2011)

Roads confirmed that in January 2009, Airbourne would enter the studio to begin recording their second album, No Guts. No Glory. In the 17 January issue of Kerrang! magazine, Joel revealed they had earlier written the tracks in the Criterion Hotel, "We're getting all our gear plugged in and getting set for Aussie pub rock written in an Aussie rock pub!"

The album was produced by Johnny K, mixed by Mike Fraser, and was released on 8 March 2010 in the UK, Europe, Canada, Japan, Australia and New Zealand, and in the U.S. on 20 April. "Born to Kill", was first played live at the Logan Campbell Centre, Auckland, New Zealand in October 2009. In January 2010, another new song, "No Way But the Hard Way", was played on the BBC Radio 1's Rock Show. On 9 February it was available on iTunes, as the first single from the album. The album reached the top 20 on the ARIA Albums Chart, and top 20 on albums charts in Austria, New Zealand, Finland, Greece, Sweden and Switzerland. In the UK it peaked at No. 31, while on the US Billboard 200 it reached the top 100.

The Band went on a UK Tour supporting Iron Maiden on their Final Frontier World Tour from 20 July Starting at Glasgow SECC Arena ending at Cardiff Motorpoint Arena on 1 August 2011

Black Dog Barking (2011-2014)

It was announced in November 2011 through their official Facebook page that since mid-2011 the band had been working on a new album, and that updates were to follow soon. The album's name, Black Dog Barking, was announced in early February 2013 on their Facebook page. It was released on 21 May 2013 via Roadrunner. The cover artwork was once again created by Australian artists The Sharp Brothers, who also did the cover artwork for No Guts. No Glory. According to David Roads, the idea behind the album title was, to use the Black Dog as a metaphor for the bands ability to break the rules, especially not to care for db limits.  At the end of 2013 Airbourne toured Europe, supported - amongst others - by the Swedish band Corroded.

Recent events (2014-Present)
In November 2014,  Joel O'Keeffe revealed the band was already writing songs for their next studio album.

In January 2015, The band revealed that they signed for a worldwide deal with Spinefarm Records.

Members
Joel O'Keeffe - vocals and lead guitar
Ryan O'Keeffe - drums
David Roads - chorus and rhythm guitar
Justin Street - chorus and bass guitar

Past members
Adam Jacobson - chorus and bass guitar

Discography

EP
Ready to Rock (2004)

Albums
Runnin' Wild (2007)
No Guts. No Glory (2010)
Black Dog Barking (2013)

Live albums
Live at the Playroom (2007)

References

Australian musical groups
People from Victoria (Australia)
2003 establishments
2000s establishments in Australia
Musical groups established in 2003

Airbourne


The Christian Saint Timothy (ancient Greek Τῑμόθεος, Tīmotheos, Latin Tīmotheus) was a student of the Paul the Apostle of Tarsus. He was born as the son of a Greek Father and a Jewess Mother in Lystra near Konya in Asia Minor (modern day Turkey) and died around AD. 97 in Ephesus. Paul circumcised Timothy as an young Adult, because of his Jewish maternal Background, so he got a Brit milah.
The Catholic, Protestant and Anglican memorial day of the saint is January 26, along with Saint Titus, the Orthodox January 26. In the city of Bayeux in the Normandy region of northern France, where relics of the saint are preserved, he is also celebrated on May 9.

According to Christian tradition, Saint Timothy is the patron saint of male patients with foreskin problems, especially circumcision issue and stomache.

References

Early Christian saints
Jews who converted to Christianity
New Testament people

Saint Timothy


Black September ( ), also known as the Jordanian Civil War, was an armed conflict between Jordan, led by King Hussein, and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), led by chairman Yasser Arafat. The main phase of the fighting took place between 16 and 27 September 1970, though certain aspects of the conflict continued until 17 July 1971.

After the 1967 Six-Day War, Palestinian fedayeen guerrillas relocated to Jordan and stepped up their attacks on Israel and the occupied territories. They were headquartered at the Jordanian border town of Karameh, which Israel targeted during a battle in 1968, leading to a surge of Arab support for the fedayeen. The PLO's strength grew, and by early 1970, groups within the PLO began calling for the overthrow of Jordan's Hashemite monarchy, leading to violent clashes in June 1970. Hussein hesitated to oust them from the country, but continued PLO activities in Jordan culminated in the Dawson's Field hijackings of 6 September 1970, when the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) seized three civilian passenger flights and forced their landing in the Jordanian city of Zarqa, where they took foreign nationals as hostages and blew up the planes in front of international press. Hussein saw this as the last straw and ordered the Jordanian Army to take action.

On 17 September 1970, the Jordanian Army surrounded all cities with a significant PLO presence, including Amman and Irbid, and began shelling fedayeen posts, who were operating from Palestinian refugee camps. The next day, 10,000 Syrian troops bearing Palestine Liberation Army (PLA) markings began an invasion by advancing towards Irbid, which the fedayeen had occupied and declared to be a "liberated" city. On 22 September, the Syrians withdrew from Irbid after suffering heavy losses to a coordinated aerial–ground offensive by the Jordanians. Mounting pressure from other Arab countries, such as Iraq, led Hussein to halt his offensive. On 13 October, he signed an agreement with Arafat to regulate the fedayeen's presence in Jordan. However, the Jordanian military attacked again in January 1971, and the Palestinians were driven out of the cities, one by one, until 2,000 fedayeen surrendered after they were encircled during the Ajlun offensive on 17 July, formally marking the end of the conflict.

Jordan allowed the fedayeen to relocate to Lebanon via Syria. Four years later, the fedayeen became involved in the Lebanese Civil War, which would continue until 1990. The Palestinian Black September Organization was founded after the conflict to carry out attacks against Jordanian authorities in response to the fedayeen's expulsion; their most notable attack was the assassination of Jordanian prime minister Wasfi Tal in 1971, as he had commanded parts of the military operations against the fedayeen. The organization then shifted its focus to attacking Israeli targets and later carried out the Munich massacre of 11 Israeli athletes. Though the events of Black September did not reflect a Jordanian–Palestinian divide, as there were Jordanians and Palestinians on both sides of the conflict, it paved the way for such a divide to emerge subsequently.

Background

Palestinians in Jordan

After Jordan annexed the West Bank in 1950, it conferred its citizenship on the West Bank Palestinians. The combined population of the West Bank and Jordan consisted of two-thirds Palestinians (one-third in the West Bank and one-third in the East Bank) and one-third Jordanians. Jordan provided Palestinians with seats amounting to half the parliament, and Palestinians enjoyed equal opportunities in all sectors of the state. This demographic change influenced Jordanian politics.

King Hussein considered that the Palestinian problem would remain the country's overriding national security issue; he feared an independent West Bank under PLO administration would threaten the autonomy of his Hashemite kingdom. The Palestinian factions were supported vicariously by many Arab governments, most notably Egypt's President Gamal Abdel Nasser, who gave them political support.

The Palestinian nationalist organization Fatah started organizing cross-border attacks against Israel in January 1965, often drawing severe Israeli reprisals upon Jordan. The Samu incident launched by Israel on 13 November 1966 was one such reprisal, taking place after three Israeli soldiers were killed by a Fatah landmine. The Israeli assault on the Jordanian-controlled West Bank town of As-Samu inflicted heavy casualties on Jordan. Israeli writer Avi Shlaim argued that Israel's disproportionate retaliation exacted revenge on the wrong party, as Israeli leaders knew from their interaction with Hussein that he was doing everything he could to prevent such attacks. Hussein, who felt he had been betrayed by the Israelis, drew fierce local criticism because of this incident. It is thought that this contributed to his decision to join Egypt and Syria's war against Israel in 1967. In June 1967 Israel captured the West Bank from Jordan during the Six-Day War.

PLO's growing strength after the Battle of Karameh

After Jordan lost the West Bank, Fatah under the PLO stepped up their guerrilla attacks against Israel from Jordanian soil, making the border town of Karameh their headquarters. On 18 March 1968, an Israeli school bus was blown up by a mine near Be'er Ora in the Arava, killing two adults and wounding ten children—the 38th Fatah operation in little more than three months. On 21 March, Israel Defense Forces (IDF) units entered Jordan and launched a reprisal attack on Karameh that developed into a full-scale battle that lasted a day. The PLO suffered some 200 casualties and another 150 taken prisoner; 40–84 Jordanian soldiers were also killed. Israeli losses stood at around 30 killed and 69–161 wounded, and they also left behind several vehicles.

Both sides declared victory: Israel had fulfilled its objective of destroying the Karameh camp, but failed to capture Arafat, while Jordan and the PLO had exacted relatively heavy Israeli casualties. Although the Palestinians had limited success in inflicting Israeli casualties, King Hussein let them take the credit. The fedayeen used the battle's wide acclaim and recognition in the Arab world to establish their national claims. The Karameh operation also highlighted the vulnerability of bases close to the Jordan River, so the PLO moved them farther into the mountains. Further Israeli attacks targeted Palestinian militants residing among the Jordanian civilian population, giving rise to friction between Jordanians and guerrillas.

Palestinians and Arabs generally considered the battle a psychological victory over the IDF, which had been seen as "invincible" until then, and recruitment into guerilla units soared. Fatah reported that 5,000 volunteers had applied to join within 48 hours of the events at Karameh. By late March, there were nearly 20,000 fedayeen in Jordan. Iraq and Syria offered training programs for several thousand guerrillas. The Persian Gulf states, led by Kuwait, raised money for them through a 5% tax on the salaries of their tens of thousands of resident Palestinian workers, and a fund drive in Lebanon raised $500,000 from Beirut alone. The Palestinian organizations also began to guarantee a lifetime support for the families of all guerrillas killed in action. Within a year after the battle, Fatah had branches in about eighty countries. After the battle, Fatah gained control of the PLO in Egypt.

Palestinian fedayeen from Syria and Lebanon started to converge on Jordan, mostly in Amman. In Palestinian enclaves and refugee camps in Jordan, the police and army were losing their authority. The Wehdat and Al-Hussein refugee camps came to be referred to as "independent republics" and the fedayeen established administrative autonomy by establishing local government under the control of uniformed PLO militants—setting up checkpoints and attempting to extort "taxes" from civilians.

Seven-point agreement

In early November 1968, the Jordanian army attacked a fedayeen group named "Al-Nasr" (meaning victory) after the group had attacked Jordanian police. Not all Palestinians were supportive of Al-Nasr's actions, but the Jordanian response was meant to send a message that there would be consequences for challenging the government's authority. Immediately after the incident, a seven-point agreement was reached between King Hussein and Palestinian organizations, that restrained unlawful and illegal fedayeen behavior against the Jordanian government.

The PLO would not live up to the agreement, and came to be seen more and more as a state within a state in Jordan. Fatah's Yasser Arafat replaced Ahmad Shukeiri as the PLO's leader in February 1969. Discipline in the different Palestinian groups was poor, and the PLO had no central power to control the different groups. A situation developed of fedayeen groups rapidly spawning, merging, and splintering, sometimes trying to behave radically in order to attract recruits. Hussein went to the United States in March 1969 for talks with Richard Nixon, the new American president. He argued for Israel's adherence to United Nations Security Council Resolution 242, in which it was required to return territories it had occupied in 1967 in return for peace. Palestinian factions were suspicious of Hussein, as this meant the withdrawal of his policy of forceful resistance towards Israel, and these suspicions were further heightened by Washington's claim that Hussein would be able to liquidate the fedayeen movement in his country upon resolution of the conflict.

Fatah favored not intervening in the internal affairs of other Arab countries. However, although it assumed the leadership of the PLO, more radical left-wing Palestinian movements refused to abide by that policy. By 1970, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) led by George Habash and the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP) led by Nayef Hawatmeh, began to openly question the legitimacy of the Hashemite monarchy, and called for its overthrow and replacement with a revolutionary regime. Other radical groups included the Syrian Ba'ath's As-Sa'iqa, and the Iraqi Ba'ath's Arab Liberation Front: these saw Hussein as "a puppet of Western imperialism", " a reactionary", and "a Zionist tool". They claimed that the road to Tel Aviv passed through Amman, which they sought to transform into the Hanoi of Arabia. They also stirred up conservative and religious feelings with provocative anti-religious statements and actions, such as putting up Marxist and Leninist slogans on mosque walls.

According to Shlaim, their growing power was accompanied by growing arrogance and insolence. He quotes an observer describing the PLO in Jordan,

Palestinians claimed there were numerous agents provocateurs from Jordanian or other security services present among the fedayeen, deliberately trying to upset political relations and provide justification for a crackdown. There were frequent kidnappings and acts of violence against civilians: Chief of the Jordanian Royal Court (and subsequently Prime Minister) Zaid al-Rifai claimed that in one extreme instance "the fedayeen killed a soldier, beheaded him, and played football with his head in the area where he used to live".

Ten-point edict and June confrontations
The situation placed Hussein in a severe dilemma: if he used force to oust the fedayeen, he would alienate himself from the Palestinians in the country and the Arab World. However, if he refused to act to strike back at the fedayeen, he would lose the respect of Jordanians, and more seriously, that of the army, the backbone of the regime, which already started to pressure Hussein to act against them. In February 1970, King Hussein visited Egyptian President Nasser in Cairo and won his support for taking a tougher stance against the fedayeen. Nasser also agreed to influence the fedayeen to desist from undermining Hussein's regime. Upon his return, he published a ten-point edict restricting activities of the Palestinian organizations, which included prohibition of the following: carrying arms publicly, storing ammunitions in villages, and holding demonstrations and meetings without prior governmental consent. The fedayeen reacted violently to these efforts aimed at curbing their power, which led Hussein to freeze the new regulation; he also acquiesced to fedayeen demands of dismissing the perceived anti-Palestinian interior minister Muhammad Al-Kailani. Hussein's policy of giving concessions to the fedayeen was to gain time, but Western newspapers started floating sensationalized stories that Hussein was losing control over Jordan and that he might abdicate soon.

Libya, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, who were openly supporting the fedayeen, sent Jordan financial subsidies, placing Hussein in a difficult position. Hussein saw no external forces to support him other than the United States and Israel, but that would act as fuel for fedayeen propaganda against him. On 17 February 1970, the American embassy in Tel Aviv relayed three questions from Hussein to Israel asking about Israel's stance if Jordan chose to confront the fedayeen. Israel replied positively to Hussein, and committed that they would not take advantage if Jordan withdrew its troops from the borders for a potential confrontation.

Israeli artillery and airforce attacked Irbid on 3 June as reprisal for a fedayeen attack on Beit Shean, killing one soldier, as well as killing seven and injuring twenty-six civilians. The Jordanian army retaliated and shelled Tiberias for the first time in 22 years; Hussein ordered the shelling but realized it was the start of a dangerous cycle of violence. Consequently, he requested, through the American embassy in Amman, a ceasefire with the Israelis to buy time so that he could take strong measures against the fedayeen. The message to Israel stated that "the Jordanian government was doing everything it could to prevent fedayeen rocket attacks on Israel. King deeply regrets the rocket attacks. Jordan Army under orders to shoot to kill any fedayeen attempting to fire rockets and fedayeen leaders had been told again evening of 3 June that violators would be shot on sight". Israel accepted Hussein's request following pressure from the Americans.

In the summer of 1970, the Jordanian army was on the verge of losing its patience with the fedayeen. After a provocation from the fedayeen, a tank battalion moved from the Jordan Valley without orders from Amman, intending to retaliate against them. It took the personal intervention of the King and that of the 3rd Armored Division commander Sharif Shaker, who blocked the road with their cars, to stop its onslaught.

Fighting broke out again between the fedayeen and the army in Zarqa on 7 June. Two days later, the fedayeen opened fire on the General Intelligence Directorate's (mukhabarat) headquarters. Hussein went to visit the mukhabarat headquarters after the incident, but his motorcade came under heavy fedayeen fire, killing one of his guards. Bedouin units of the army retaliated for the assassination attempt against their king by shelling Al-Wehdat and Al-Hussein camps, which escalated into a conflict that lasted three days. An Israeli army meeting deliberated on events in Jordan; according to the director of Israel's Military Intelligence, there were around 2,000 fedayeen in Amman armed with mortars and Katyusha rockets. Hussein's advisors were divided: some were urging him to finish the job, while others were calling for restraint as victory could only be accomplished at the cost of thousands of lives, which to them was unacceptable. Hussein halted the fighting, and the three-day conflict's toll was around 300 dead and 700 wounded, including civilians.

A ceasefire was announced by Hussein and Arafat, but the PFLP did not abide by it. It immediately held around 68 foreign nationals hostage in two Amman hotels, threatening to blow them up with the buildings if Sharif Shaker and Sharif Nasser were not dismissed and the Special Forces unit disbanded. Arafat did not agree with the PFLP, but had to play along as he feared public opinion. Hussein compromised and reduced tensions by appointing Mashour Haditha Al-Jazy, who was considered a moderate general, as army chief of staff, and Abdelmunim Al-Rifai as prime minister, who in turn included six Palestinians as ministers in his government. Henry Kissinger, President Nixon's security advisor, gave the following assessment of the events in Jordan:

June 1970 became one of the most uncertain periods for the Hashemite monarchy in Jordan, as most foreign diplomats believed that events favored the fedayeen, and that the downfall of the monarchy was just a matter of time. Although Hussein was confident, members of his family started to wonder for how long the situation would last. 72-year-old Prince Zeid bin Hussein – the only son of Hussein bin Ali (Sharif of Mecca) that did not become a king – was visiting Amman in June and stayed with Hussein in the royal palace. He saw Hussein's management of the affair, and before he left, told his son that he thought Hussein to be the "most genuine, able and courageous Hashemite he had ever met", as well as "the greatest leader among all the Hashemite kings".

Another ceasefire agreement was signed between Hussein and Arafat on 10 July. It recognized and legitimized fedayeen presence in Jordan, and established a committee to monitor fedayeen conduct. The American-sponsored Rogers Plan for the Israeli–Palestinian conflict was publicized in July—based on Security Council Resolution 242. Nasser and Hussein accepted the plan, but Arafat rejected it on 26 July, claiming that it was a device to liquidate his movement. The PFLP and DFLP were more uncompromising, vehemently rejecting the plan and denouncing Nasser and Hussein. Meanwhile, a ceasefire was reached between Egypt and Israel on 7 August, formally ending the War of Attrition. On 15 August, Arafat was alleged to have said that "we have decided to convert Jordan into a cemetery for all conspirators—Amman shall be the Hanoi of the revolution." Paradoxically, Arafat had cautioned Habash and Hawatmeh, the respective leaders of the PFLP and the DFLP, from provoking the regime, as it enjoyed military superiority and could terminate their existence in Jordan at any time. But his calls went unheeded, and they started to call more openly for the overthrow of the Hashemites as a "prelude to the launching of a popular war for the liberation of Palestine". Another engagement between the army and the fedayeen occurred at the end of August, after the fedayeen ambushed army vehicles and staged an armed attack on the capital's post office.

Black September

Aircraft hijackings

Hussein's motorcade came under fire on 1 September for the second time in three months, triggering clashes between the army and the fedayeen in Amman up until 6 September. On 6 September, three planes were hijacked by the PFLP: SwissAir and TWA jets that landed at Azraq, Jordan, and a Pan Am jet that was flown to Cairo and immediately blown up after passengers were deplaned. The two jets that landed in Jordan had 310 passengers; the PFLP threatened to blow them up if fedayeen from European and Israeli prisons were not released. On 9 September, a third plane was hijacked to Jordan: a BOAC flight from Bahrain with 115 passengers was diverted to Zarqa. The PFLP announced that the hijackings were intended "to bring special attention to the Palestinian problem". After 371 hostages were removed, the planes were dramatically blown up in front of international press on 12 September. However, 54 hostages were kept by the organization for around two weeks. Arab regimes and Arafat were not pleased with the hijackings; the latter considered them to have caused more harm to the Palestinian issue. But Arafat could not dissociate himself from the hijackings, again because of Arab public opinion.

Al-Jazy, the perceived pro-Palestinian newly appointed army chief of staff, resigned on 9 September in the midst of the hijacking crisis, and was replaced by Habis Majali, who was brought in from retirement. Natheer Rasheed, the intelligence director who had been appointed a month earlier, claimed that Al-Jazy was paid 200,000 Jordanian dinars, and that his resignation letter was written by the PLO. Shlaim claims that the prelude consisted of three stages: "conciliation, containment and confrontation". He argues that Hussein was patient so that he could demonstrate that he had done everything he could to avoid bloodshed, and that confrontation only came after all other options had been exhausted, and after public opinion (both international and local) had tipped against the fedayeen.

Jordanian army attacks

On the evening of 15 September, Hussein called in his advisors for an emergency meeting at his Al-Hummar residence on the western outskirts of Amman. Amer Khammash, Habis Majali, Sharif Shaker, Wasfi Tal, and Zaid al-Rifai were among those who were present; for some time they had been urging Hussein to sort out the fedayeen. The army generals estimated that it would take two or three days for the army to push the fedayeen out of major cities. Hussein dismissed the civilian government the following day and appointed Muhammad Daoud, a Palestinian loyalist to head a military government, thereby declaring martial law. Other Palestinians in the military government included figures like Adnan Abu Oudeh, an officer in the mukhabarat. Abu Oudeh later asked Hussein what the most difficult decision was that he had to make, to which the king replied: "The decision to recapture my capital."

On 17 September, the 60th Armoured Brigade entered the capital Amman from different directions and shelled the Wehdat and Hussein refugee camps where the fedayeen were based with tanks, artillery and mortars. The fedayeen put up a stiff resistance as they were well prepared, and the fighting lasted the next ten days without break. Simultaneously, the army surrounded and attacked other fedayeen-controlled cities including: Irbid, Jerash, Al-Salt and Zarqa. The three days estimated by Hussein's generals could not be achieved, and the ensuing stalemate led Arab countries to step up pressure on Hussein to halt the fighting.

Foreign intervention
Jordan feared foreign intervention in the events in support of the fedayeen; this soon materialized on 18 September after a force from Syria with Palestine Liberation Army (PLA) markings marched towards Irbid, which the fedayeen had declared a "liberated" city. The 40th Armoured Brigade managed to block the Syrian forces' advance after heavy fighting. A second, much larger, Syrian incursion occurred on the same day: it consisted of two armored and one mechanized infantry brigades of the 5th Infantry Division, and around 300 tanks. Although the Syrian tanks had PLA markings, the troops were Syrian Army regulars. Syria issued no statement regarding the situation, but it is believed that the purpose of its intervention was to help the fedayeen overthrow the monarchy. Another tentative explanation is that the Syrians wanted to create a haven for the fedayeen in northern Jordan, from where they could negotiate with Hussein.

There were also concerns of Iraqi interference. A 17,000-man 3rd Armoured Division of the Iraqi Army had remained in eastern Jordan since after the 1967 Six-Day War. The Iraqi government sympathized with the Palestinians, but it was unclear whether the division would get involved in the conflict in favor of the fedayeen. Thus, the Jordanian 99th Brigade had to be detailed to monitor the Iraqis.

David Raab, one of the plane hijacking hostages, described the initial military actions of Black September:

Hussein arranged a cabinet meeting on the evening of the Syrian incursion, leaving them to decide if Jordan should seek foreign intervention. Two sides emerged from the meeting; one group of ministers favored military intervention from the United Kingdom or the United States, while the other group argued that it was an Arab affair that ought to be dealt with internally. The former group prevailed as Jordan was facing an existential threat. On 20 September, Hussein requested "Israel or other air intervention or threat thereof" through the British embassy. Britain refused to interfere militarily for fear of getting involved in a region-wide conflict; arguments such as "Jordan as it is is not a viable country" emerged. The British cabinet relayed Hussein's message to the Americans. Nixon and Kissinger were receptive to Hussein's request due to worries about regional escalation and Soviet influence. Nixon ordered the 82nd Airborne Division placed on full alert, and the U.S. Navy's 6th Fleet to be positioned off the coast of Israel, near Jordan. Kissinger favored Israeli intervention, while Nixon wanted America to intervene alone. However, Nixon changed his mind when, on 21 September, Hussein renewed his request. "Situation deteriorating dangerously following Syrian massive invasion", Hussein was quoted. "I request immediate physical intervention both land and air... to safeguard sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of Jordan. Immediate air strikes on invading forces from any quarter plus air cover are imperative."

The Israeli cabinet was divided; some, including Golda Meir, wanted to overlook the Six-Day War and support Jordan, while right-wingers favored letting Jordan become a Palestinian state. Military commanders also prepared contingency plans to occupy Jordanian territory–including the Gilead Heights, Karak and Aqaba–in case the country disintegrated and there was a land-grab by its Iraqi, Syrian and Saudi Arabian neighbors . The pro-Hussein faction won, and, by 22 September, Israel readied its air force, "ostentatiously" deployed troops next to Syria and Jordan, and flew fighter jets over Syrian troops, using sonic booms as a deterrent. While Israel favored a combined ground/air assault (which Nixon authorized), Hussein requested that Israeli ground troops only enter Syria, leading the Israelis to repeatedly seek U.S. assurances in case of a Soviet response.

On the same day, Hussein ordered the Royal Jordanian Air Force (RJAF) to attack the Syrian forces. A joint air-ground offensive proved successful, partly due to the Syrian Air Force's abstention from the fight. This has been attributed to power struggles within the Syrian Ba'athist government between Syrian Assistant Regional Secretary Salah Jadid, who had ordered the tank incursion, and Syrian Air Force commander Hafez Al-Assad. Al-Assad claimed power after a coup shortly afterwards. Iraqi impartiality was attributed to Iraqi general Hardan Al-Tikriti's commitment to Hussein not to interfere—he was assassinated a year later for this. It is thought that the rivalry between the Iraqi and Syrian Ba'ath Party was the real reason for Iraqi non-involvement.

The airstrikes inflicted heavy losses on the Syrians, and on the late afternoon of 22 September, the Syrian 5th Division began to retreat.

Egyptian-brokered agreement
After successes against the Syrian forces, the Jordanian Army steadily shelled the fedayeen's headquarters in Amman, and threatened to also attack them in other regions of the country. The Palestinians suffered heavy losses, and some of their commanders were captured. On the other hand, in the Jordanian army there were around 300 defections, including ranking officers such as Mahmoud Da'as. Hussein agreed to a cease-fire after Arab media started accusing him of massacring the Palestinians. Jordanian Prime Minister Muhammad Daoud defected to Libya after being pressured by Prime Minister Muammar Gaddafi, while the former was in Egypt representing Jordan at an emergency Arab League summit. Hussein himself decided to fly to Cairo on 26 September, where he was met with hostility from Arab leaders. Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser led the first emergency Arab League summit in Cairo on 21 September. Arafat's speech drew sympathy from attending Arab leaders. Other heads of state took sides against Hussein, among them Muammar Gaddafi, who mocked him and his schizophrenic father King Talal. On 27 September, Hussein and Arafat signed an agreement brokered by Egyptian President Nasser. Nasser died the following day, of a heart attack.

The Jordanian army regained control of key cities and intersections in the country before accepting the ceasefire agreement brokered by Egypt's Nasser. Hussein appointed a Palestinian, Ahmad Toukan, as prime minister, instructing him to "bandage the wounds". In the period following the ceasefire, Hussein publicly revealed that the Jordanian army had uncovered around 360 underground PLO bases in Amman, and that Jordan held 20,000 detainees, among whom were "Chinese advisors".

Role of Zia-ul-Haq and Iranian leftist guerillas
The head of a Pakistani training mission to Jordan, Brigadier Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq (later Chief of Army Staff and President of Pakistan), was involved on the Jordanian side. Zia had been stationed in Amman for three years prior to Black September. During the events, according to CIA official Jack O'Connell, Zia was dispatched by Hussein north to assess Syria's military capabilities. The Pakistani commander reported back to Hussein, recommending the deployment of a RJAF squadron to the region. O'Connell also said that Zia personally led Jordanian troops during the battles.

Two Iranian leftist guerilla organizations, the Organization of Iranian People's Fedai Guerrillas (OIPFG) and the People's Mujahedin of Iran (PMOI), were involved in the conflict against Jordan. Their "collaboration with the PLO was particularly close, and members of both movements even fought side by side in Jordan during the events of Black September and trained together in Fatah camps in Lebanon". On 3 August 1972, PMOI operatives bombed the Jordanian embassy in Tehran during King Hussein's state visit as an act of "revenge" for the events of Black September.

Casualties

Arafat claimed that the Jordanian Armed Forces killed 25,000 Palestinians—other estimates put the number at between 2,000 and 3,400. The Syrian invasion attempt ended with 120 tanks lost, and around 600 Syrian casualties. The Jordanian Armed Forces suffered around 537 dead.

Post-September 1970

Another agreement, called the Amman agreement, was signed between Hussein and Arafat on 13 October. It mandated that the fedayeen respect Jordanian sovereignty and desist from wearing uniforms or bearing arms in public. However it contained a clause requiring that Jordan recognize the PLO as the sole representative of the Palestinians; Wasfi Tal rejected this clause. Habash and Hawatmeh continued their attacks on the monarchy in spite of the Amman agreement. Hussein appointed Tal to form a government. Tal was seen as anti-Palestinian; however, he had made pro-Palestinian gestures during his previous two tenures as prime minister. Tal viewed Arafat with suspicion as he considered that the PLO concentrated its efforts against the Jordanian state rather than against Israel. On one occasion, Tal lost his temper and shouted at Arafat "You are a liar; you don't want to fight Israel!". Shlaim describes Tal as a more uncompromising figure than Hussein, and very popular with the army.

Clashes between the army, and the PFLP and DFLP, ensued after Tal was instated. Tal launched an offensive against fedayeen bases along the Amman-Jerash road in January 1971, and the army drove them out of Irbid in March. In April, Tal ordered the PLO to relocate all its bases from Amman to the forests between Ajloun and Jerash. The fedayeen initially resisted, but they were hopelessly outnumbered and outgunned. In July, the army surrounded the last remaining 2,000 fedayeen from the Ajloun-Jerash area. The fedayeen finally surrendered and were allowed to leave to Syria, but some 200 fighters preferred to cross the Jordan River to surrender to Israeli forces rather than to the Jordanians. At a 17 July press conference, Hussein declared that Jordanian sovereignty had been completely restored, and that there "was no problem now".

Aftermath

Jordan
In the wake of the conflict, the new civilian government of Tal began a wide-scale purge of the government's bureaucracy and military, freeing them from any supporters of the guerrillas. This effectively meant that large numbers of Palestinian officers, bureaucrats and even some Jordanians were expelled from their jobs. This was accompanied by a war by Tal on the newspapers and massive arrests of the government against the "saboteurs". Many newspapers were closed, their permits withdrawn and their editors rejected. Even though the conflict was not a result of a Jordanian-Palestinian divide, as there were Palestinians and Jordanians on both sides of the conflict, it paved the way for the divide subsequently. Ali Kassay further elaborated:  Hussein's resilience in the face of the joint Palestinian-Syrian challenge impressed both the West and Israel. Nixon ordered $10 million in aid to be delivered to Jordan, and another $30 million requested from Congress.

Fedayeen

The Black September Organization was established by Fatah members in 1971 for reprisal operations and international strikes after the September events. On 28 November 1971, four of the group's members assassinated Prime Minister Wasfi Tal in the lobby of the Sheraton Cairo Hotel in Egypt while he was attending an Arab League summit. The group would go on to perform other strikes against Jordan, and against Israeli and Western citizens and property outside of the Middle East, such as the Munich massacre against Israeli athletes in 1972. The Black September Organization was later disbanded in 1973–1974 as the PLO sought to exploit the Yom Kippur War of 1973 and pursue a diplomatic strategy. Fatah has always publicly denied its responsibility for Black September operations, but by the 2000s, some high-ranking Fatah and Black September officials acknowledged the relationship.

Lebanon
In the September fighting, the PLO lost its main base of operations. Fighters were driven to Southern Lebanon where they regrouped. The enlarged PLO presence in Lebanon and the intensification of fighting on the Israeli–Lebanese border stirred up internal unrest in Lebanon, where the PLO fighters added dramatically to the weight of the Lebanese National Movement, a coalition of Muslims, Arab nationalists and leftists who opposed the rightist, Maronite-dominated government. These developments helped precipitate the Lebanese Civil War, in which the PLO would ultimately be expelled to Tunisia.

See also

 Battle of Karameh
 King Hussein's federation plan
 Palestinian political violence

Explanatory notes

Citations

General sources

External links

 Footage of events of Black September
 1976 documentary about the fedayeen

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Black September