Caresse Crosby (born Mary Phelps Jacob; April 20, 1892 – January 24, 1970) was the recipient of a patent for the first successful modern bra, an American patron of the arts, a publisher, and the woman Time called the "literary godmother to the Lost Generation of expatriate writers in Paris." She and her second husband, Harry Crosby, founded the Black Sun Press, which was instrumental in publishing some of the early works of many authors who would later become famous, among them Anaïs Nin, Kay Boyle, Ernest Hemingway, Archibald MacLeish, Henry Miller, Charles Bukowski, Hart Crane, and Robert Duncan.

Early life and education
Born on April 20, 1891, in New Rochelle, New York, she was the oldest child of Mary (née Phelps) Jacob and William Hearn Jacob, who were both descended from American colonial families—her mother from the William Phelps family, and her father from the Van Rensselaers. Her mother was the daughter of Civil War General Walter Phelps, and she had two brothers, Leonard and Walter "Bud" Phelps Jacob. She was nicknamed "Polly" to distinguish her from her mother.

Polly's family was not fabulously rich, but her father had been raised, as she put it, "to ride to hounds, sail boats, and lead cotillions," and he lived extravagantly. In 1914, the family presented her to the King of England at a garden party. In keeping with the American aristocratic style of the times, she was even photographed as a child by Charles Dana Gibson, for whom the iconic term "Gibson girl" was coined.

She grew up, she later said, "in a world where only good smells existed. What I wanted usually came to pass." She was an uninterested student. Author Geoffrey Wolff wrote that for the most part Polly "lived her life in dreams."

Her family divided its time between estates in Manhattan at 59th Street and Fifth Avenue, in Watertown, Connecticut, and in New Rochelle, New York, and she enjoyed the advantages of an upper-class lifestyle. She attended formal balls, Ivy League school dances, and received equestrian training at a horse riding school. She studied dance at the studio of composer and society tastemaker Allen Dodsworth, attended Miss Chapin's School in New York City, and then boarded at Rosemary Hall, a prep school in Wallingford, Connecticut that later merged to form Choate Rosemary Hall, where she played the part of Rosalind in As You Like It to critical acclaim.

After her father's death in 1908, she lived with her mother at their home in Watertown, Connecticut. That same year she met her future husband, Richard Peabody, at summer camp. Her brother Len was boarding at Westminster School, and Bud was a day student at Taft School. Approaching her own debut, she danced in balls most nights, and slept from four in the morning until noon. "At twelve I was called and got ready for the customary debutante luncheon." She graduated from Rosemary Hall in 1910, at age 19.

Development of the backless brassiere
That same year, Crosby prepared to attend a débutante ball one evening. As was customary, she put on a corset stiffened with whalebone and a restrictive, tight cover that flattened and jammed her generous breasts together. The point of a corset was to cinch the waist in as tightly as possible, holding a woman's torso erect. It would have been difficult to feel comfortable dressed such a confining garment. Mary had worn that same dress at her debut to society a few weeks earlier. It was a sheer evening gown with a plunging neckline to display the cleavage. However, in this case the corset cover, a "boxlike armour of whalebone and pink cordage," poked out from under the gown, so she called her personal maid. She told her, "Bring me two of my pocket handkerchiefs and some pink ribbon ... And bring the needle and thread and some pins." She fashioned the handkerchiefs and ribbon into a simple bra.

Mary's devised undergarment complemented the new fashions of the time. She was mobbed after the dance by other girls who wanted to know how she moved so freely, and when she showed the garment to friends the next day, they all wanted one. One day, she received a request for one of her contraptions from a stranger, who offered a dollar for her efforts. She knew then that this could become a viable business.

Patent granted

Crosby filed for a patent for her invention on February 12, 1914, and in November that year the United States Patent and Trademark Office granted her a patent for the 'Backless Brassiere'. Crosby likened her design to earlier covers over the bosom when a woman wore a low corset. Her design had shoulder straps to attach to the garment's upper and lower corners, and wrap-around laces for the lower corners which tied at the woman's front, enabling her to wear gowns cut low in the back. Crosby wrote that her invention was "well-adapted to women of different size" and was "so efficient that it may be worn by persons engaged in violent exercise like tennis." Her design was lightweight, soft, and comfortable to wear. It naturally separated the breasts, unlike the corset, which was heavy, stiff, and uncomfortable, and had the effect of creating a single "monobosom" effect.

While Crosby's design was the first granted a patent within its category, The U.S. Patent Office and foreign patent offices had issued patents for various bra-like undergarments as early as the 1860s. Other brassiere designs had previously been invented and popularized for use within the United States since about 1910. By 1912, American mass-market brassiere manufacturers included Bien Jolie Brassieres and DeBevoise Brassieres. The latter first advertised its bust supporter in Vogue in 1904.

Leading European couturier Lucile actively endorsed bras, and both Lucile and Paul Poiret refined and promoted the brassiere, influencing fashionable women to wear their designs, Paris couturier Herminie Cadolle introduced a breast supporter in 1889. His design was a sensation at the Great Exposition of 1900 and became a fast-selling design among wealthy Europeans in the next decade.

Business career
After she married Richard Peabody, Crosby filed a legal certificate with the Commonwealth of Massachusetts on May 19, 1920, declaring that she was a married woman conducting a business using funds that were from her husband's bank account. In 1922 she founded the Fashion Form Brassière Company, locating her manufacturing shop on Washington Street in Boston, where she opened  a two-woman sweatshop to manufacture her wireless brassières. The location also became a convenient place for romantic trysts with Harry Crosby, who would become her second husband.

In her later autobiography, The Passionate Years, she maintained that she had "a few hundred (units) of her design produced." She managed to secure a few orders from department stores, but her business never took off. Harry, who had a distaste for conventional business and a generous trust fund, discouraged her from pursuing the business and persuaded her to close it. She later sold the brassiere patent to The Warner Brothers Corset Company in Bridgeport, Connecticut, for US$1,500 (roughly equivalent to $ in current dollars). Warner manufactured the "Crosby" bra for a while, but it was not a popular style and was eventually discontinued. However, Warner would go on to earn more than US$15 million from the bra patent over the next thirty years.

In her later years, Crosby wrote, "I can't say the brassiere will ever take as great a place in history as the steamboat, but I did invent it."

Marriages and family life
In 1915, after her divorce, Polly Jacob and Richard ("Dick") Peabody were married by his grandfather, Endicott Peabody, the founder of the Groton School, and whose family had been one of the wealthiest in America during the 19th century. By the early 20th century, a case could be made that the Peabodies had supplanted the Cabots and the Lodges as the most distinguished name in the region.

Crosby found Peabody's temperament to be far from her own. When they had a son, William Jacob, on February 4, 1916, she noted that "Dick was not the most indulgent of parents and like his father before him, he forbade the gurgles and cries of infancy; when they occurred he walked out, and often walked back unsteadily."

Crosby concluded that Peabody was a well-educated but undirected man, and a reluctant father. Less than a year later, he enlisted at the Mexican border and joined the Boston militia engaged in stopping Pancho Villa's cross-border raids. Less than a year after he returned home from that adventure, he enlisted to fight in World War I. Their second child, a daughter, Polleen Wheatland ("Polly"), was born on August 12, 1917, but Peabody was already in Officers Training Camp at Plattsburgh, New York, where he was commissioned a Second Lieutenant in the Artillery. He became a Captain in the United States Army's 15th Field Artillery, 2nd Division, American Expeditionary Force. Baby Polly was largely cared for by Peabody's parents, but Crosby recalled that "My father-in-law was a stickler for polish, both of manners and minerals." Crosby's mother-in-law wore "nun-like dresses and in bed or out wore starched cuffs as sever as piping." Peabody, meanwhile, was enjoying life at the front as a bachelor.

Peabody returned home in early 1921 and was assigned to Columbia, South Carolina. Crosby and the children soon joined him, but when the war ended, Peabody found himself left with nothing but a family allowance.  He suffered from his war experiences and returned to heavy drinking. Crosby found he had only three real interests, all acquired at Harvard: to play, to drink, and to turn out, at any hour, to chase after fire engines and watch buildings burn. Crosby's life was difficult during the war years, and when her husband returned home, significantly changed, her life soon changed abruptly, too.

Relationship with Harry Crosby

The catalyst for Polly Jacob Peabody's transformation was her introduction and eventual marriage to Harry Crosby, a wealthy scion of a socially prominent Boston family, and another veteran and victim of the recent war. Harry attended private schools and until age 19 appeared to be well on the path to a comfortable life as a member of the upper middle class. His experiences in World War I changed everything.

In the pattern of other sons of the elite from New England, he was a volunteer in the American Field Service Ambulance Corps, along with Archibald MacLeish and Ernest Hemingway. On November 22, 1917, the ambulance he was driving was destroyed by artillery fire, but he emerged miraculously unhurt. His best friend, "Spud" Spaulding, was seriously wounded in the explosion, and Harry saved his life. The experience profoundly shaped Harry's future. He was at the Second Battle of Verdun. After the battle, his section (the 29th Infantry Division, attached to the 120th French Division) was cited for bravery, and in 1919 Crosby was one of the youngest Americans awarded the Croix de Guerre. Crosby wrote in his journal, "Most people die of a sort of creeping common sense and discover when it's too late that the only things one never regrets are one's mistakes." He vowed that he would live life on his own terms.

After returning from World War I and while completing his degree at Harvard, Harry met Polly on July 4, 1920, at an Independence Day picnic. Polly's husband Richard was in a sanitarium drying out from another drunken spell. Sensing Polly's isolation, Harry's mother Henrietta Crosby had invited Polly to chaperone Harry and some of his friends to a party, including dinner and a trip to the amusement park at Nantasket Beach. Polly was 28, married, with two small children. Harry was 22, of slight build, with an unusual blonde hair style, a pale complexion, a weak constitution, and a consuming gaze and enormous charisma. During dinner, Harry never spoke to the girl on his left, breaking decorum. By some accounts, Harry fell in love with the buxom Mrs. Peabody in about two hours. He confessed his love for her in the Tunnel of Love at the amusement park. Crosby pressed her to see him alone, an unthinkable proposition for a member of Boston's upper class. She later wrote, "Harry was utterly ruthless ... to know Harry was a devastating experience." On July 20, they spent the night together and had sex, and two days later Polly accompanied Harry to New York. He had planned a trip to France to tour battle sites. They spent the night together in New York at the Belmont Hotel. Polly said of the night, "For the first time in my life, I knew myself to be a person."

Polly was seen by her social circle as someone who had betrayed the trust placed in her as a chaperone, and as an older woman who had taken advantage of a younger man. To the Crosbys, she was dishonorable and corrupt. Polly and Harry's scandalous courtship was the gossip of blue-blood Boston.

In the fall, Polly's husband Dick Peabody moved back home. His parents supplied a small living allowance and Dick, Polly, and the two children moved into a three-story tenement building. Meanwhile, Crosby lived with his father while Dick continued his studies at Harvard. While Dick worked at the bank, Harry Crosby sent crates of flowers from his mother's garden to Polly's apartment and brought over toys for the children. They drove to the beach together. Dick volunteered to join the fire department, and persuaded the fire chief to wire a fire alarm bell to his home, so he could turn out at any hour. The fire chief soon let Dick go, and Dick retreated into drink again.

Crosby pursued Polly, and in May 1921, when she would not respond to his ardor, Crosby threatened suicide if Polly did not marry him. Polly's husband was in and out of sanitariums several times, fighting alcoholism. Crosby pestered Polly to tell her husband of their affair and to divorce him. In May, she revealed her adultery to Dick and suggested a separation, and he offered no resistance. Polly's mother insisted that she stop seeing Crosby for six months to avoid complete rejection by her society peers, a condition she agreed to, and she left Boston for New York. Divorce was "unheard of ... even among Boston Episcopalians." Peabody's parents were outraged at her affair with Crosby, and that she would ask for a divorce. Dick's father Jacob Peabody even visited Harry's father, Stephen Crosby, on January 4, 1922, to discuss the situation, but Harry's father would not meet with him, for despite his disapproval of Harry's irregular behavior, he loved his son. Stephen Crosby at first attempted to dissuade Harry from marrying Polly, and even bought him the Stutz motor car he had been asking for, but Harry would not be persuaded to change his mind. For her part, Polly's former friends pilloried her as an adulteress, leaving Polly stunned by the quick turn-about in their attitudes toward her. Polly later described Harry's character as: "He seemed to be more expression and mood, than man," she wrote, "yet he was the most vivid personality I've ever known, electric with rebellion." "></ref>

Divorce from Richard Peabody
In June 1921, she formally separated from Dick, and in December he offered to divorce her. In February 1922, Polly and Richard Peabody were legally divorced. Dick subsequently recovered from his alcoholism and published The Common Sense of Drinking (1933). He was the first to assert there was no cure for alcoholism. His book became a best seller and was a major influence on Alcoholics Anonymous founder Bill Wilson. Crosby had been working for eight months at Shawmut National Bank. He went on a six-day drinking spree and resigned. In May 1922, he moved to Paris to work in a job arranged for him by his family at Morgan, Harjes et Cie, the Morgan family's bank in Paris. This was fitting, for Crosby, after all, was the nephew of Jessie Morgan, the wife of American capitalist J. P. Morgan, Jr., but it was also awkward because he was both Richard Peabody's and Harry Crosby's godfather.

Polly had previously traveled to England to visit her cousins, so Crosby visited her there. From May through July, 1922 they lived together in Paris. In July, Polly returned to the U.S. In September, Harry proposed to Polly via transatlantic cable, and the next day he bribed his way aboard the RMS Aquitania bound for New York.

Move to Paris
 On September 9, 1922, Harry reached New York aboard the Aquitania. Polly met him at the customs barrier, and they were married in the Municipal Building in New York City that afternoon. Two days later, they re-boarded the Aquitania and moved with her children to Paris, France. Harry continued his work in Paris at Morgan, Harjes & Co.

Polly's bubble in Paris burst when she learned shortly after their arrival that Harry had been flirting with a girl from Boston. It was the first of many flirtations and affairs that Polly would learn to live with. In early 1923, Polly introduced Harry to her friend Constance Crowninshield Coolidge. She was the niece of Frank Crowninshield, editor of Vanity Fair, and had been married to American diplomat Ray Atherton. Constance did not care what others thought about her. She loved anything risky and was addicted to gambling. She and Harry soon began a sexual relationship.

In the fall of 1923, Polly could not put up with their affair any longer and left for London. Harry told Constance that he could not meet Polly's demand that he "love her more than anyone in the world. This is absolutely impossible." But Harry also would not leave Polly, nor did Constance ask him to. But when Constance received a letter from Polly, who confessed that Constance's affair with her husband had made her "very miserable," Constance wrote Harry and told him she would not see him any more. Harry was devastated by her decision. "Your letter was bar none the worst blow I have ever received. ... I wouldn't leave her under any circumstances nor as you say would you ever marry me." But the three remained friends, and on October 1, 1924, Constance married the Count Pierre de Jumilhac, although the marriage only lasted five years. Polly appeared at least outwardly to tolerate Harry's dallying unconventional behavior, and she soon had her own courtiers. In her journals, she privately worried about whether Harry would remain loyal to her.

Their glamorous and luxurious lifestyle soon included an open marriage, numerous affairs, and plenty of drugs and drinking. At the end of 1924, Harry persuaded Polly to formally change her first name. They briefly considered Clytoris before deciding on Caresse. Harry suggesting that her new name "begin with a C to go with Crosby and it must form a cross with mine." The two names intersected at right angles at the common "R," "the Crosby cross." They later named their second whippet Clytoris, explaining to Caresse's young daughter Polleen she was named after a Greek goddess.

In July 1925, Harry had sexual relations with a 14-year-old girl he nicknamed "Nubile," with a "baby face and large breasts," whom he saw at Étretat, a town in Normandy. In Morocco, during one of their trips to North Africa, Harry and Caresse together took a 13-year-old dancing girl named Zora to bed with them. Harry also had sex with a boy of unspecified age, his only recorded homosexual dalliance.

In 1927, in the midst of his affair with Constance, Harry and Caresse met the Russian painter Polia Chentoff. Harry asked her to paint Caresse's portrait, and he soon fell in love with Polia. In November, Harry wrote to his mother that Polia was "very beautiful and terribly serious about art... she ran away from home when she was thirteen to paint." He was also said to be in love with his cousin Nina de Polignac.

In June 1928, Harry met Josephine Rotch at the Lido in Venice, while she was shopping for her wedding trousseau, and they began an affair. In her autobiography, Caresse minimized Harry's dalliance with Josephine, eliminating a number of references to her. Harry told Caresse that Constance and Josephine wanted to marry him.

Expatriate life
From their arrival in 1922, the Crosbys led the life of rich expatriates. They were attracted to the bohemian lifestyles of the artists gathering in Montparnasse. They settled into an apartment at 12, Quai d'Orléans on Île St-Louis, and Caresse donned her red bathing suit and rowed Harry down the river to the Place de la Concorde, where he walked the last few blocks to the bank. Harry wore his dark business suit, formal hat, and carried his umbrella and briefcase. Caresse rowed home alone, and in her swim suit her generously endowed chest drew whistles, jeers, and waves from workmen. She later wrote that she thought the exercise was good for her breasts, and she enjoyed the attention.

Harry enjoyed betting on the horse races. They first smoked opium together in Africa, and when their friend Constance Crowninshield Coolidge knocked on their door late one evening, they jumped at her invitation to join her at Drosso's apartment. Invitations to Drosso's were restricted to a few regulars and occasional friends, as it was an opium den. At Drosso's she found small rooms filled with low couches and decorations evoking a middle-Eastern setting. Caresse made a sensation when she arrived, because she had been ready for bed when Constance knocked, so she quickly put on a dress, but wore nothing underneath. After that introduction, Harry dropped in at Drosso's frequently, and it sometimes kept him away from home for days at a time.

After about a year, Harry soon tired of the predictable banker's life and quit, fully joining the Lost Generation of expatriate Americans disillusioned by the restrictive atmosphere of 1920s America. They were among about 15,000–40,000 Americans living in Paris. Harry wanted as little to do with Caresse's children as possible, so after the first year they shipped her son Billy off to Cheam School in Hampshire, England.

The couple cared little for the future, spent their money recklessly, and never tried to live on a budget. This was in part because they had made a suicide pact, which they planned to carry out on October 31, 1942. On that date the earth would be closer to the sun than it had been in several decades, and they promised to jump out of an airplane together. This was to be followed by cremation, after which heirs would disperse their ashes from another airplane.

Spending freely, Harry bought a silk-buttonhole gardenia tuxedo from an exclusive tailor on rue de la Paix. Caresse bought hats from Jean Patou and dresses from the fashion house Tolstoy's. On special occasions she wore an evening suit made of gold fabric, featuring a short skirt tailored by Vionnet, one of the most important Parisian fashion icons. Although perfectly chic by Parisian standards, it was nevertheless unacceptable to her cousins and aunts who lived in the aristocratic neighborhood of Faubourg in Paris.

Caresse and Harry purchased their first race horse in June 1924, and then two more in April 1925.  They rented a fashionable apartment at 19, Rue de Lille, and obtained a 20-year lease on a mill outside of Paris on the grounds of the Château d' Ermenonville, which belonged to their friend Armand de la Rochefoucauld, for 2,200 dollar gold pieces (about $ today). They named it "Le Moulin du Soleil" ("The Mill of the Sun"), and she used a wall as a "guest book" for guests to paint pictures and sign their names.

In the first year there, they made friends with a group of students who attended the Académie des Beaux-Arts, located at the end of their street. The students invited Harry and Caresse to their annual Quartre Arts Ball, an invitation the couple embraced with enthusiasm. Harry fashioned a necklace out of four dead pigeons, sported a red loincloth, and brought along a bag of snakes. Caresse wore a sheer garment that only came up to her waist, a huge turquoise wig, and nothing else. They both dyed their skin with red ochre. The students cheered Caresse's toplessness, and 10 of them carried her around on their shoulders.

In January 1925 they traveled to North Africa, where they again smoked opium, a habit to which they would return again and again. In 1928, they traveled to Lebanon to visit the Temple of Baalbek.

In 1928, Harry inherited his cousin Walter Berry's considerable collection of over 8,000 mostly rare books, a collection he prized but which he also scaled back by giving away hundreds of volumes. He was known to slip rare first editions into the bookstalls that lined the Seine. Caresse took on lovers of her own, including Ortiz Manolo, Lord Lymington, Jacques Porel, Cord Meier, and in May, 1928, the Count Armand de La Rochefoucauld, son of the duke de Doudeauville, president of the Jockey Club. But behind closed doors, Harry applied a double standard, quarreling violently with Caresse about her affairs. Occasionally they were swingers together, as when they met two other couples and drove to the country near Bois de Boulogne, drew the cars into a circle with their headlights on, and changed partners.

Affair with Cartier-Bresson
In 1929, Harry met Henri Cartier-Bresson at Le Bourget, where Cartier-Bresson's air squadron commandant had placed him under house arrest for hunting without a license. Harry persuaded the officer to release Cartier-Bresson into his custody for a few days. The men found they shared an interest in photography, and they spent their time together taking and printing pictures at Harry and Caresse's home, Le Moulin du Soleil. Harry later said Cartier-Bresson "looked like a fledgling, shy and frail, and mild as whey." A friend of Crosby's from Texas encouraged Cartier-Bresson to take photography more seriously. Embracing the open sexuality offered by Caresse and Harry, Cartier-Bresson fell into an intense sexual relationship with her. In 1931, two years after Harry's suicide, the end of his affair with Caresse Crosby left Cartier-Bresson broken-hearted, and he escaped to Ivory Coast of French colonial Africa.

Publication of poetry

Caresse and Harry published her first book, Crosses of Gold, in late 1924. It was a volume of conventional, "unadventurous" poetry centering on themes such as love, beauty, and her husband.

In 1926 they published her second book, Graven Images, with Houghton Mifflin in Boston. This was the only time they used another publisher. Harry later wrote that his cousin, Walter Berry, suggested that Houghton Mifflin would publish Caresse's poetry because "they have just lost Amy Lowell." Her work remained relatively conventional, "still rhyming love with dove," by her own admission. A Boston Transcript reviewer said her "poetry sings," and a Literary Review contributor admired her "charming" child poems and French flavor. But a critic in the New York Herald Tribune wrote that "[f]or all its enthusiasm there is no impact to thought or phrase, the emotion is meager, the imagination bridled."

In April 1927 they founded an English-language publishing company that they first named Éditions Narcisse, after their black whippet, Narcisse Noir. They used the press as an avenue to publish their own poetry in small editions of finely-made, hard-bound volumes. Their first effort was Caresse's Painted Shores, in which she wrote about their relationship, including their reconciliation after one of Harry's affairs. Her writing matured somewhat, and the book was more creatively organized than her prior efforts. In 1928 she wrote an epic poem which was published as The Stranger. The writing is addressed to the men in her life: her father, husband, and son. In an experimental fashion she explored the various kinds of love she had known. Later that year, Impossible Melodies explored similar themes. The Crosbys enjoyed such a positive reception of their initial work and decided to expand the press to serve other authors.

Publishing in Paris during the 1920s and 1930s put the company in the milieu of so many American writers who were living abroad. In 1928, Éditions Narcisse published a limited edition of 300 numbered copies of "The Fall of the House of Usher" by Edgar Allan Poe with illustrations by Alastair.

In 1928, Harry and Caresse changed the name of the publishing house to the Black Sun Press, in keeping with Harry's fascination with death and the symbolism of the sun. Harry developed a private mythology around the sun as a symbol for both life and death, creation, and destruction. The press rapidly gained notice for publishing beautifully bound, typographically flawless editions of unusual books. They took exquisite care with the books they published, choosing the finest papers and inks.

They published early works of a number of avant-garde writers before those writers were well-known, including James Joyce's Tales Told of Shem and Shaun, which was later integrated into Finnegans Wake. They published Kay Boyle's first book-length work, Short Stories, in 1929, and works by Hart Crane, Ernest Hemingway, Eugene Jolas, D. H. Lawrence, Archibald MacLeish, Ezra Pound, and Laurence Sterne. The Black Sun Press evolved into one of the most important small presses in Paris in the 1920s. In 1929, Caresse and Harry both signed poet Eugene Jolas' The Revolution of the Word Proclamation, which appeared in issue 16/17 of the literary journal transition.  After Harry died, Caresse continued publishing until 1936, when she left Europe for the United States.

Harry's suicide
On July 9, 1928, Harry met 20-year-old Josephine Noyes Rotch, whom he would call the "Youngest Princess of the Sun" and the "Fire Princess." She was descended from a family that first settled in Provincetown, Cape Cod in 1690. Josephine inspired Harry's next collection of poems called Transit of Venus. Though she was several years his junior, Harry fell in love with Josephine. In a letter to his mother, dated July 24, 1928, Harry wrote:

Josephine and Harry had an ongoing affair until she married, when their relationship temporarily ended. However, Josephine rekindled the affair, and in late November 1929, Harry and Josephine met and traveled to Detroit, where they checked into an expensive Book-Cadillac Hotel as Mr. and Mrs. Harry Crane. For four days they took meals in their room, smoked opium, and had sex.

On November 29, 1929, the lovers returned to New York, where once again they attempted to end the affair, and Josephine agreed that she would return to Boston and her husband. But two days later, she had delivered a 36-line poem to Harry, who was staying with Caresse at the Savoy-Plaza Hotel. The last line of the poem read "Death is our marriage." On December 9, Harry Crosby wrote in his journal for the last time: "One is not in love unless one desires to die with one's beloved. There is only one happiness it is to love and to be loved."

Harry was found at 10 that night in bed at Stanley Mortimer's studio in the Hotel des Artistes. He had a .25 caliber bullet hole in his right temple. He lay next to Josephine, who had a matching hole in her left temple. They were in an affectionate embrace. Both were dressed, but had bare feet. Harry sported red-painted toenails and tattoos on the bottom of his feet. The coroner said that Josephine died at least two hours before Harry did. There was no suicide note, and newspapers ran sensational articles for days, calling it a murder-suicide or double suicide pact, and unable to decide which was more fitting.

Later life

Harry left Caresse US$100,000 (about $ today) in his will, along with generous bequests to Josephine, Constance, and others. His parents Stephen and Henrietta had the will declared invalid, but reassured Caresse that she would receive US$2000 (approximately $ today) a year until she received money from Walter Berry's estate. Upon Caresse Crosby's return to Europe, she asked her friend Bill Sykes to bring Polleen from Chamonix. She also welcomed Billy home when another friend brought him from boarding school, and the family and friends spent some time at the Mill. Polleen stayed with her mother for a few months, refusing to return to school. Billy returned to Choam, and in 1931 returned to the U.S. to attend the Lenox School.

Crosby decided to reclaim her birth name, Mary, and thus was known after her husband's death as "Mary Caresse Crosby." She pursued ambitions as an actress that she had had since her 20s, and appeared as a dancer in two short experimental films directed by artist Emlen Etting, Poem 8 (1932) and Oramunde (1933).

Crosby broadened the scope of the Black Sun Press after Harry's death. Although the press published few works after 1952, it printed James Joyce's Collected Poems in 1963. Despite the slowdown, it did not officially close until Crosby's death in 1970.

Continuation of Black Sun Press
After Harry's suicide, Caresse dedicated herself to the Black Sun Press. She also established, with Jacques Porel, a side venture to publish paperback books when they were not yet popular, which she named Crosby Continental Editions. Ernest Hemingway, a long-time friend, offered her a choice of The Torrents of Spring (1926) or The Sun Also Rises (1926) as a debut volume for her new venture. Caresse unfortunately picked the former, which was less well-received than the other book. She followed Hemingway's work with nine more books in 1932, including William Faulkner's Sanctuary, Kay Boyle's Year Before Last, Dorothy Parker's Laments for the Living, and Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's Night Flight, along with works by Paul Eluard, Max Ernst, Alain Fournier, George Grosz, C. G. Jung, and Charles-Louis Philippe. After six months of sales, the books only grossed about US$1200. Crosby was unable to persuade U.S. publishers to distribute her work, as paperbacks were not yet widely engaged, because publishers were not convinced that readers would buy them. She closed the press in 1933.

Interracial affair with Canada Lee
In 1934, she began a love affair with the black actor-boxer Canada Lee, despite living under the threat of miscegenation laws. They had lunch uptown in Harlem at the then-new restaurant Franks, where they could maintain their secret relationship. By the 1940s, Lee was a Broadway star and featured in the nationwide run of the play Native Son. But the only establishment in Washington, D.C. where they could eat together was an African restaurant named the Bugazi.  Lee, unlike so many of her lovers, did not ask for money, even when his nightclub The Chicken Coop had a difficult time. When, during a dinner in the early 1940s, Crosby's brother Walter expressed his dismay at their relationship, Crosby was so offended that she made little contact with Walter over the next 10 years. Crosby and Lee's intimate relationship continued into the mid-1940s and contributed to her worldview. Crosby wrote a never-published play, The Cage, transparently based on their relationship.

Marriage to Bert Saffold Young
While taking her daughter Polly to Hollywood, where the latter aspired to become an actor, Crosby met Selbert "Bert" Saffold Young (1910-1971), an unemployed aspiring actor and former football player 18 years her junior. When he saw her staring at him in a restaurant, he immediately came over and asked her to dance. She described him as "handsome as Hermes" and "as militant as Mars." Her friend Constance described Bert as "untamed" and "entirely ruled by impulse."

Without a job, he convinced Crosby he just wanted to own a farm, and they decided to look for land on the East Coast. They drove through Virginia, looking for an old plantation house smothered in roses. When their car broke down, she accidentally discovered Hampton Manor, a Hereford cattle farm with a dilapidated brick mansion on a  estate in Bowling Green, Virginia. It had been built in 1838 by John Hampton DeJarnette from plans by his friend, Thomas Jefferson. John Hampton was the brother of Virginia  Legislator Daniel Coleman DeJarnette, Sr.

On September 30, 1936, she wrote to the New York Trust Company and instructed them to send 433 shares of stock that she used to buy the property, which was in need of renovation. Crosby and Young were married in Virginia on March 24, 1937. There were problems, however. He was always asking her for money, he crashed her car, he ran up the telephone bill, and he used all her credit at the local liquor store. Bert ended one bout of drinking with a solo trip to Florida, and he did not come back to Virginia until the next year.

A ghostwriter of erotica
In Paris during 1933, Crosby had met Henry Miller. When he returned to the U.S. in 1940, Miller confessed to Crosby his lack of success in getting his work published. Miller's autobiographical book Tropic of Cancer was banned in the U.S. as pornographic, and he could get no other work published. She invited him to take a room in her spacious New York apartment on East 54th Street, where she infrequently lived. He accepted, although she did not provide him with money.

Desperate for cash, Miller fell to churning out erotica on commission for an Oklahoma oil baron at a dollar per page, but after two 100-page stories that brought him US$200, he felt he could do no more. Now he wanted to tour the United States by car and write about it. He got a US$750 advance and persuaded the oil man's agent to advance him another $200. He was preparing to leave on the trip but still had not provided the work promised. He thought then of Crosby. She was already pitching ideas and pieces of writing to Anaïs Nin's New York City smut club for fun, but not for money. In her journal, Nin wrote, "Harvey Breit, Robert Duncan, George Barker, Caresse Crosby, all of us concentrating our skills in a tour de force, supplying the old man with such an abundance of perverse felicities, that now he begged for more." Crosby was facile and clever, writing easily and quickly with little effort.

Crosby accepted Miller's proposal. She wrote at the top the title given her by Henry Miller, Opus Pistorum (later republished as Miller's work as Under the Roofs of Paris), and started right in. Miller left for his car tour of America. Crosby churned out 200 pages, and the collector's agent asked for more. Crosby's smut was just what the oil man wanted, according to his New York agent. No literary aspirations, just plain sex. In her journal, Nin wrote, "'Less poetry,' said the voice over the telephone. 'Be specific.'" In Crosby the agent had found himself a more basic and pornographic version of Henry Miller.

While Crosby's husband fell into a drunken stupor every night, she spent some of her time churning out another 200 pages of pornography. In her diary, Nin observed that everyone who wrote pornography with her wrote out of a self that was opposite to his or her identity, but identical with his or her desire. Crosby had grown up amid the social constraints imposed by her upper-class family in New York. She maintained a doomed and troublesome romanticism about Harry Crosby, nurtured or inflamed by having participated in a decade or more of taking both intellectual and physical lovers in Paris during the 1920s.

Political and artistic activity
Although Young was often drunk and infrequently home, Crosby did not lack for company. She extended an invitation to Salvador Dalí and his wife Gala, who became long-term guests, during which he wrote much of his autobiography. In 1934, Dalí and his wife attended a masquerade party in New York, hosted for them by Crosby.  Other visitors included Max Ernst, Buckminster Fuller, Stuart Kaiser, Henry Miller, Anaïs Nin, Ezra Pound, and other friends from her time in Paris. She had a brief affair with Fuller during this time. By 1941, having finally divorced Young, Crosby moved to live in Washington, D.C. full-time, where she owned a home at 2008 Q Street NW from 1937 to 1950, and she opened the Caresse Crosby Modern Art Gallery, what was then the city's only modern art gallery, at 1606 Twentieth Street, near Dupont Circle. Crosby planned to open the "World Gallery of Art" at Delphi in Greece to establish a capital for her peace organization, Citizens of the World. She was already a collector of American artist Joseph Glasco's works and she approached Glasco's art dealer Catherine Viviano to include fourteen works by Glasco with 100 other drawings by Miro, Picasso, Calder, and others.  The plan was never realized and the fate of the drawings is not known.

In December, 1943, she wrote Henry Miller to ask if he had heard about her gallery, and if he would be interested in exhibiting some of his paintings there. In 1944, she spent some time with him at his home in Big Sur and later opened his first one-man art show at her gallery.

Publication of Portfolio
With the Black Sun Press she also published Portfolio: An Intercontinental Quarterly, in which she continued her work with young and avant-garde writers and artists. She printed issues 1, 3, and 5 in the U.S. The second issue was published in Paris in December 1945, less than seven months after the end of World War II. It featured primarily French writers and artists; the fourth issue was published in Rome and focused on Italian writers and artists; and the last issue was focused on Greek artists and writers.

During World War II and for some time afterward, paper was in short supply. Crosby printed the magazine on a variety of different sizes, colors, and types of paper stock printed by different printers, stuffed into a  by  folder. She printed 1,000 copies of each issue, and as she had done with the Black Sun Press, giving special treatment to 100 or so deluxe copies that featured original artwork by Romare Bearden, Henri Matisse, and others. She secured contributions from a wide variety of well-known artists and writers, including: Louis Aragon, Kay Boyle, Gwendolyn Brooks, Sterling A. Brown, Charles Bukowski, Albert Camus (Letter to a German Friend, his first appearance in an English-language publication), Henri Cartier-Bresson,René Char, Paul Éluard, Jean Genet, Natalia Ginzburg, Victor Hugo, Weldon Kees, Robert Lowell, Henri Matisse, Henry Miller, Eugenio Montale, Anaïs Nin, Charles Olson, Pablo Picasso, Francis Ponge, Kenneth Rexroth, Arthur Rimbaud, Yannis Ritsos, Jean-Paul Sartre (The End of the War), Karl Shapiro, Stephen Spender, Leo Tolstoy, and Giuseppe Ungaretti. After the sixth issue, she ran out of funds and sponsors. This was her last major publishing effort.

Visits to Europe
Having left Europe in 1936, she yearned to visit her daughter Polly, who had moved to London and lived there the entire time Crosby was in Washington. Civilian travel was still very restricted after the war ended, and Crosby reached out to her friend Archibald Macleish, now Assistant Secretary of State, who helped her make travel arrangements and obtain a visa. She traveled aboard a military British Overseas Airways Corporation flying boat as the sole civilian passenger, hand-carrying her Elsa Schiaparelli hat box that contained Pietro Lazzari's drawings of horses and Romare Bearden's Passion of Christ watercolor series.

She learned after the war that Nazi troops had set up base in her home, Le Moulin du Soleil. Crosby was most upset when she learned the German troops had painted over the wall that had doubled as her guest book. Mildly ironically, along with painting over the signature of Spanish painter Salvador Dalí, who had intertwined his name with that of a Pulitzer Prize-winning American writer, D. H. Lawrence (who drew a phoenix), the Nazis also painted over the signature of Eva Braun, who had signed her name when she visited Harry and Caresse along with an Austrian big-game hunter she was dating at the time.

Post-war activity
Crosby became politically active again and founded the organizations Women Against War and Citizens of the World, which embraced the concept of a "world community," something other activists such as Buckminster Fuller also supported. Crosby continued her work to establish a world citizen's center in Delphi, Greece, where in 1942 she bought a small house that overlooked the Grove of Apollo. In October 1952 she attempted to visit her property, but she was met by armed guards at Corfu as she got off the ferry from Brindisi. The police placed her under house arrest in the Corfu Palace Hotel, and after three days they told her she was not welcome in Greece and ordered her to leave. The American consul told her that the Greek government thought she was still "considered dangerous to the economy and politics of Greece." After this plan failed, she created the "World Man Center" in Cyprus, which was to include a geodesic dome designed by Fuller. However this effort, too, came to naught, and she continued to search for a center for her world citizen project.

In 1953, Crosby wrote and published her autobiography, The Passionate Years. She crafted it mostly based on her personal recollection rather than a specific set of sources. It contained "many amusing and intense anecdotes ... but precious little about what was going on with him [Harry] is revealed."

Son's death
In the winter of 1954–55, Crosby's son Billy Peabody was in charge of the Paris office for American Overseas Airlines. He and his wife Josette had a small third-floor walk-up apartment on rue du Bac that they heated with a fireplace and a stove. On January 25, 1955, Billy died in his sleep of carbon monoxide poisoning, while Josette was found unconscious and was able to be revived. Crosby traveled to Paris for his funeral, yet somehow making time for appearances at colleges where she gave talks about her life and the Black Sun Press.

Support of artist's colony

In 1949 during a tour of Italy, she saw a run-down castle, Castello di Rocca Sinibalda,  north of Rome. Baldassare Peruzzi designed and built it between 1530 and 1560 for Cardinal Alessandro Cesarini. In the 1950s she rented it, and later paid US$2,600 for the estate. It came with the Papal title of Principessa (Princess). She paid to electrify the castle, and thus brought electricity to the neighboring village. She told a reporter that the castle had 320 rooms, or "at least that's what the villagers tell me," and the deed actually did list 180 of them. Many of the rooms had  ceilings and the palace was virtually impossible to heat. "I wouldn't live here if you paid me," she told a reporter.

The residential portion of the palace contained three main apartments and two courtyards. The walls of the main hall were decorated by frescoes from the 16th century. She used the castle to house various artists, and she held poetry seminars. Henry Miller described Rocca Sinibalda as the "Center for Creative Arts and Humanist Living in the Abruzzi Hills." Other artists visited for as little as a weekend or up to an entire season.

In 1962, filmmaker Robert Snyder made a 26-minute documentary about Crosby's history and her plans for the castle. The short film, Always Yes, Caresse took the viewer on a tour of the castle, led by Crosby. At one point in the film, she pulls down her blouse to reveal her ample bosom for the camera. Snyder learned about Crosby's writer's retreat while he was in Rome filming a documentary on the Sistine Chapel, The Titan; The Story of Michelangelo.

For a while Crosby divided her time between Rocca Sinibalda, which in the winter was cold and unlivable, a more practical residence in Rome, Hampton Manor in Bowling Green, Virginia, her home in Washington, D.C., and her sprawling apartment in New York City. In 1953, the publisher Alvin Redman released her autobiography, The Passionate Years. She put Rocca Sinibalda up for sale in 1970, shortly before she died.

Death
Suffering from heart disease, she received what was then still-experimental open heart surgery at The Mayo Clinic. She died of complications from pneumonia in Rome, Italy on January 24, 1970, aged 78.  Time described her as the "literary godmother to the Lost Generation of expatriate writers in Paris." Anaïs Nin described her as "a pollen carrier, who mixed, stirred, brewed, and concocted friendships."

She had lived long enough to see many of the aspiring writers she nurtured in the 1920s become well-known and even canonical authors. The bra she invented went through a number of transformations and became a standard undergarment for women all over the world. Her first two husbands and her son Bill preceded her in death. She was survived by her daughter Polleen Peabody de Mun North Drysdale and two granddaughters. Crosby was buried in the Cimetière de l'Abbaye de Longchamp, in Boulogne, département de la Vendée, Pays de la Loire, France.

Legacy
Most of her papers and manuscripts are held in the Morris Library archives Special Collections Research Center at Southern Illinois University in Carbondale, Illinois, including more than 1600 photographs from her life, along with the papers of her friends James Joyce and Kay Boyle.

In 2004, Fine Line Features optioned Andrea Berloff's first screenplay Harry & Caresse. Lasse Hallström was initially attached to direct and Leslie Holleran was attached as a producer.

Works

As author
 Crosses of Gold Éditions Narcisse, Paris, 1925
 Graven Images, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1926
 Painted Shores Black Sun Press, Paris, 1927
 The Stranger Black Sun Press, 1927
 Impossible Melodies Black Sun Press, 1928
 Poems for Harry Crosby Black Sun Press, 1930
 The Passionate Years Dial Press, 1953

As editor
 Portfolio: An Intercontinental Quarterly  Six editions, Washington, D. C.

See also

Maidenform

References

Further reading

External links

 Mary Phelps Jacob (Caresse Crosby) at Phelps Family History
 Mary Phelps Jacob Inventor of the Week Archive November 2001 (March 2003)
 "Caresse Crosby, Infield." Cosmic Baseball Association, 1998 (December 2003)
 Mary Phelps Jacob, Inventor of the Modern Brassiere
 Caresse Crosby Papers  at Southern Illinois University Carbondale Special Collections Research Center
 The Crosbys: literature's most scandalous couple
  (Video)

This article was based upon material originally written by Brian Phelps and licensed for use in Wikipedia under the GFDL.

1892 births
1970 deaths
American expatriates in France
American debutantes
American socialites
American women fashion designers
American book publishers (people)
Businesspeople from New York City
20th-century American businesswomen
20th-century American businesspeople
Artists from New York City
Chapin School (Manhattan) alumni
Choate Rosemary Hall alumni
Women inventors
Van Rensselaer family
American pornographers
American patent holders
Polyamorous people
Lost Generation writers

Caresse Crosby


Iron Mike is a name used for memorial statues of American servicemen.

Iron Mike may also refer to:

People
Michael D. Healy (1926–2018), U.S. Army general and Special Forces legend
Michael DiBiase (1923–1969), professional wrestler
Mike Ditka (born 1939), National Football League player and coach
Mike Donahue (1876–1960), college football coach
Mike Gapes (born 1952), former member of the United Kingdom's Labour Party
Mike Keenan (born 1949), National Hockey League head coach and general manager
Michael Malloy (1873–1933), Irish murder victim
Mike Marshall (pitcher) (born 1943), Major League Baseball pitcher
Ernest L. Massad (1908–1993), US Army general
John H. Michaelis (1912–1985), US Army general
Mick Murphy (cyclist) (1934–2015), Irish cyclist
Iron Mike Norton (born 1973), American blues musician
John W. O'Daniel (1894–1975), U.S. Army general
Mike Prendergast (baseball) (1888–1967), American Major League Baseball pitcher
Michael Russell (tennis) (born 1978), American tennis player
Mike Sharpe (1952–2016), professional wrestler
Mike Tenay (born 1954), professional wrestling commentator
Mike Tyson (born 1966), American boxer
Mike Webster (1952–2002), National Football League player
Mike Webster (Canadian football) (born 1944), Canadian Football League player and professional wrestler
Mike Williamson (footballer) (born 1983), Newcastle United footballer
Mike Zambidis (born 1980), Greek kickboxer

Other uses
Iron Mike (fountain), a cast iron fountain in Oregon, Illinois
Iron Mike Productions, a boxing promotion company based in Deerfield Beach, Florida
Nautical slang for an autopilot system
Baseball slang for a pitching machine
"Iron Mike", a poem by Charles Bukowski from the book Love is a Dog From Hell

Nicknames

Iron Mike (disambiguation)


King's Dock was a dock on the River Mersey in England and part of the Port of Liverpool. It was situated in the southern dock system, connected to Wapping Dock to the north and Queen's Dock to the south. It consisted of two branch docks.

History
The dock was designed by Henry Berry and opened in 1785. Further warehouse buildings were added by John Foster Sr. The dock was closed in 1972 and the branch docks have been filled in.

After closure
The open space was often used as a concert venue, when a large tent and stage was erected. The Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra played their Summer Pops concert series here. Everton FC had proposed to build a new stadium here, but those plans fell through in 2003. On 28 July 2004, Irish vocal pop band Westlife held a concert for their Turnaround Tour supporting their album Turnaround.

In 2008 completed regeneration of King's Waterfront, adjacent to the Albert Dock, became an exemplary case of successful brownfield land development. As a result of this project, leisure, residential and conference facilities have been developed including 11,000-seat capacity Echo Arena Liverpool and convention centre officially opened in January 2008 when Liverpool's year of European Capital of Culture began, 3,600 square metre multi-purpose hall, 1,350 seat conference auditorium with associated breakout rooms, 1,600 space multi-storey car park, central public plaza, 1,800 residential housing units, and two 3-star plus hotels, along with the 4-star luxury Pullman Liverpool Hotel.

The John Lennon Peace Monument is located here.

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

Liverpool docks
Redeveloped ports and waterfronts in Merseyside
King's Dock

King's Dock, Port of Liverpool


Home: A Short History of An Idea is a book published in 1986 by Canadian architect, professor and writer Witold Rybczynski.

Home won the 1986 Governor General's Award for non-fiction.

The book is an extended essay on the evolution of domestic living and culture; Rybczynski recounts the history of the material and cultural influences (such as intimacy and privacy, domesticity, ease) as well as ideas about light, air, and efficiency, all of which he claims to have helped shape the idea of comfort. The book was a bestseller. In an article published by The New Yorker in 2022, Ian Parker referred to the book as "a classic 1986 study of domestic architecture".

References

1986 non-fiction books
Books by Witold Rybczynski
Design books
Viking Press books

Home: A Short History of an Idea


The Last Prince  is a 2010 Philippine television drama romance fantasy series broadcast by GMA Network. Directed by Mac Alejandre, it stars Aljur Abrenica in the title role and Kris Bernal. It premiered on January 11, 2010 on the network's Telebabad line up replacing Sana Ngayong Pasko. The series concluded on June 25, 2010 with a total of 117 episodes. It was replaced by Endless Love in its timeslot.

Cast and characters

Lead cast
 Aljur Abrenica as Almiro
 Kris Bernal as Lara Fernandez

Supporting cast
 Bianca King as Bawana
 Eula Valdez as Adela
 Angelu de Leon as Mayang
 Carmina Villaroel as Lamara
 Emilio Garcia as Adorno
 Chanda Romero as Rosata
 Chynna Ortaleza as Lourdez
 Bubbles Paraiso as Saraya
 Paolo Ballesteros as Anexi
 Benjie Paras as Rizayo
 Elvis Gutierrez as Guwarko
 Joey Paras as Salim Salamin
 Francis Magundayao as Onuro
 Karen delos Reyes as Minnie
 Angeli Nicole Sanoy as Bambi
 Rita Iringan as Gigi

Guest cast
 Daniel Matsunaga as Prince Nikolai
 Carl Guevarra as Jerrick Santella
 Jay Manalo as Carlos Ledesma
 Jhoana Marie Tan as teen Bambi
 Mosang as Uruja
 Dang Cruz as Goray
 Jan Manual as Harold
 Maybelyn dela Cruz as Diwani Ogyna
 Jenny Miller as Dominique
 Stef Prescott as Naveya
 Patani as Bina
 Sherilyn Reyes-Tan as Cicit
 Jan Marini as Josie
 Gene Padilla as Sintoy
 Jillian Ward as Daldanika
 Jace Flores as a town bully
 Kiel Rodriguez as a town bully
 Dex Quindoza as a town bully
 Princess Punzalan as Alwana
 Geoff Eigenmann as Javino Perez
 Carla Abellana as Sonia

Ratings
According to AGB Nielsen Philippines' Mega Manila household television ratings, the pilot episode of The Last Prince earned a 30.9% rating.

References

External links

2010 Philippine television series debuts
2010 Philippine television series endings
Filipino-language television shows
GMA Network drama series
Philippine fantasy television series
Philippine romance television series

The Last Prince


Ayala Alabang, in terms of land area, is the third largest barangay in Muntinlupa, Metro Manila, Philippines. A large portion of it came from Barangay Alabang. Its land area of  includes Alabang Town Center, Ayala Alabang Village, El Molito, Madrigal Business Park, and Alabang Country Club. Barangay Ayala Alabang is located around  south of the capital Manila.

History
Barangay Ayala Alabang was created by Batas Pambansa Bilang 219 on March 25, 1982, initially named as Barangay New Alabang Village. It was originally a part of Barangay Alabang prior to the separation.

In compliance of Section 3 of Batas Pambansa Bilang 219, which provides that "the first barangay officials shall be appointed by the President of the Philippines and shall hold office until their successors shall have been elected or appointed and qualified", then-President Ferdinand E. Marcos appointed Enrique Zóbel de Ayala as the first Barangay Chairman, with Gumersindo Leuterio, Benito Araneta, Edgardo Gatchalián, Mario Torcuator, Jaime Matiás, and Íñigo Zóbel as the first seven Kagawad (councilors). The first elected Barangay Chairman was Vicente Chua who was inducted in 1989, along with the elected Kagawads Oscar Antiquera, Alfred Xerez-Burgos Jr., Francisco Umali, Wilma Pálafox, Rolando Pineda, and Ramón Fernández.

The name was changed to Barangay Ayala Alabang in November 2003, after a public hearing conducted by the Muntinlupa City Government for this purpose, although New Alabang Village is still used as the barangay's alternative name.

Government
Don Enrique Zobel, the first Barangay Chairman, was appointed in 1981. Danilo Tolentino served from 1984 to 1987 and Mr. Anthony Abaya served from 1987 to 1989. Mr. Vicente Chua became the first elected barangay chairman in 1989, assuming together with Kagawads Oscar Antiquera (later a barangay chairman), Alfred Xerez-Burgos Jr., Ramon Fernandez, Wilma Palafox, Rolando Pineda, and Francisco Umali. He was elected President of the Association of Barangay Council of Muntinlupa, and a sectoral representative in the then Sangguniang Bayan of Muntinlupa, representing the Barangay sector from 1989 to 1997. Chua resigned in 1998.

See also

 Muntinlupa
 Alabang
 De La Salle Santiago Zobel School

References

External links
 Official Website of Barangay Ayala Alabang
 Official Website of Ayala Alabang Village Association (AAVA)

Muntinlupa
Gated communities in Metro Manila
Barangays of Metro Manila

Ayala Alabang


Zine El Abidine Ben Ali (Tunisian ; 3 September 1936 – 19 September 2019), commonly known as Ben Ali () or Ezzine () was a Tunisian politician who served as the 2nd president of Tunisia from 1987 to 2011. In that year, during the Tunisian revolution, he fled to Saudi Arabia.

Ben Ali was appointed Prime Minister in October 1987. He assumed the Presidency on 7 November 1987 in a bloodless coup d'état that ousted President Habib Bourguiba by declaring him incompetent. Ben Ali was subsequently reelected with enormous majorities, each time exceeding 90% of the vote; his final re-election coming on 25 October 2009. Ben Ali was the penultimate surviving leader deposed in the Arab Spring; he was survived by Egypt's Hosni Mubarak, the latter dying in February 2020.

On 14 January 2011, following a month of protests against his rule, he fled to Saudi Arabia along with his wife Leïla Ben Ali and their three children. The interim Tunisian government asked Interpol to issue an international arrest warrant, charging him with money laundering and drug trafficking. A Tunisian court sentenced Ben Ali and his wife in absentia to 35 years in prison on 20 June 2011 on charges of theft and unlawful possession of cash and jewelry, which was put up for auction. In June 2012, a Tunisian court sentenced him in absentia to life imprisonment for inciting violence and murder and another life sentence by a military court in April 2013 for violent repression of protests in Sfax. He served none of those sentences, subsequently dying in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, on 19 September 2019 at the age of 83 after nearly a decade in exile.

Early life, education and military career

Ben Ali was born in 1936 to moderate-income parents as the fourth of eleven children in the family. His father worked as a guard at the port city of Sousse.

Ben Ali joined the local resistance against French colonial forces and was imprisoned. His expulsion from secondary school was the reason why he never completed his secondary education. He studied at the Sousse Technical Institute but failed to earn a professional certificate and joined the newly formed Tunisian Army in 1958. Nevertheless, after being chosen as one of a group of young officers, he was awarded training in France at the École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr in Coëtquidan and the School of Applied Artillery in Châlons-sur-Marne, and also in the United States at the Senior Intelligence School in Maryland and the School for Anti-Aircraft Field Artillery in Texas. He also held a diploma in electronics engineering from a local university. Returning to Tunisia in 1964, he began his professional military career the same year as a Tunisian staff officer. During his time in military service, he established the Military Security Department and directed its operations for 10 years. He briefly served as military attaché in the Tunisian embassy of Morocco and Spain before being appointed General Director of National Security in 1977.

In April 1980, Ben Ali was appointed ambassador to Poland, and served in that position for four years. He also served as the military intelligence chief from 1964 to 1974 and later Director General of national security between December 1977 and 1980 until he was appointed as Minister of Defense. Soon after the Tunisian bread riots in January 1984, he was reappointed director-general of national security.
Ben Ali subsequently served as Minister of State in charge of the interior before being appointed Interior Minister on 28 April 1986 then Prime Minister by President Habib Bourguiba in October 1987.

Rise to presidency

On the morning of 7 November 1987, doctors attending to President Bourguiba filed an official medical report declaring him medically incapacitated and unable to fulfill the duties of the presidency. Ben Ali, next in line to the presidency, removed Bourguiba from office and assumed the presidency himself. The day of his accession to power was celebrated annually in Tunisia as New Era Day. Two of the names given to Ben Ali's rise to the presidency include "the medical coup d'état" and the "Tunisian revolution". Ben Ali favoured the latter. Ben Ali's assumption of the presidency was in conformity with Article 57 of the Tunisian Constitution. The country had faced 10% inflation, external debt accounting for 46% of GDP and a debt service ratio of 21% of GDP.

In 1999, Fulvio Martini, former head of Italian military secret service SISMI, declared to a parliamentary committee that "from 1985 to 1987, we organized a kind of golpe in Tunisia, putting president Ben Ali as head of state, replacing Burghiba (the Italian spelling of the name) who wanted to flee". Bourguiba, although a symbol of anti-colonial resistance, was considered incapable of leading his country any longer, and his reaction to the rising Islamic integrism was deemed "a bit too energetic" by Martini; Bourguiba's threat to execute the suspects might have generated strong negative responses in neighbouring countries. Acting under directives from Italian Prime Minister Bettino Craxi and Foreign Minister Giulio Andreotti, Martini claims to have brokered the accord that led to the peaceful transition of powers.

According to Martini, the SISMI did not have an operational role in Ben Ali's rise to power, but organised a move to support his new government politically and economically, preventing Tunisia from falling into an open confrontation with fundamentalists, as happened in Algeria in the following years.

Presidency (1987-2011)

Politics

Alan Cowell, a prominent New York Times journalist, believed Ben Ali's initial promises of a more democratic way of ruling the country than had prevailed under Bourguiba. One of his first acts upon taking office was to loosen restrictions on the press; for the first time state-controlled newspapers published statements from the opposition.  Ben Ali also released some political prisoners and granted them with pardons.  In 1988, he changed the name of the ruling Destourian Socialist Party to the Democratic Constitutional Rally (RCD), and pushed through constitutional amendments that limited the president to three five-year terms, with no more than two in a row.

However, the conduct of the 1989 elections was little different from past elections. The RCD swept every seat in the legislature, and Ben Ali appeared alone on the ballot in Tunisia's first presidential election since 1974. Although opposition parties had been legal since 1981, presidential candidates were required to get endorsements from 30 political figures. Given the RCD's near-absolute dominance of the political scene, prospective opposition candidates discovered they could not get their nomination papers signed. The subsequent years saw the return of several Bourguiba-era restrictions. For many years, the press had been expected to practice self-censorship, but this increasingly gave way to official censorship. Amendments to the press code allowed the Interior Ministry to review all newspaper and magazine articles before publication. In 1992, the president's younger brother Habib Ben Ali was tried in absentia in France for laundering the proceeds of drug trafficking, in a case known as the "couscous connection".
French television news was blocked in Tunisia during the trial.

At the 1994 elections, opposition parties polled 2.25% and gained 19 of 163 seats in Parliament—the first time opposition parties had actually managed to get into the chamber. Ben Ali was unopposed for a second full term, again after being the only candidate to get enough endorsements to qualify. Turnout was officially reported at 95%. However, at this and subsequent elections, opposition parties never accounted for more than 24 percent of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies. All legislation continued to originate with the president, and there was little meaningful opposition to executive decisions.

In 1999, Ben Ali became the first Tunisian president to actually face an opponent after the 30-signature requirement was lifted a few months earlier. However, he won a third full term with an implausible 99.4 percent of the vote.

A constitutional referendum in 2002—the first ever held in Tunisia—established a two-chambered parliament, creating the Chamber of Advisers. It also allowed the president to run for an unlimited number of five-year terms and amended the upper age limit for a presidential candidate to 75 years old (previously 70). The latter measures were clearly aimed at keeping Ben Ali in office; he faced having to give up the presidency in 2004. He was duly reelected in 2004, again by an implausibly high margin—this time 94 percent of the vote.

Tunisia under Ben Ali had problems with human rights violations, such as freedom of the press, highlighted by the official treatment of the journalist Taoufik Ben Brik, who was harassed and imprisoned for his criticism of Ben Ali. By the dawn of the new millennium, Ben Ali was reckoned as leading one of the most repressive regimes in the world. Under his rule, Tunisia consistently ranked near the bottom of most international rankings for human rights and press freedom.

On 25 October 2009, Ben Ali was re-elected for a fifth term with 89% of the vote. The African Union sent a team of observers to cover the election. The delegation was led by Benjamin Bounkoulou, who described the election as "free and fair". However, a spokesperson from the US State Department indicated that Tunisia had not permitted monitoring of the election by international observers, but that the U.S. was still committed to working with the Ben Ali and the Tunisian government. There also were reports of mistreatment of an opposition candidate.

In December 2010 and January 2011, riots over unemployment escalated into a widespread popular protest movement against Ben Ali's government. On 13 January 2011, he announced he would not run for another term in 2014, and pledged steps to improve the economy and loosen restrictions on the press. The following day, however, thousands demonstrated in the center of Tunis, demanding Ben Ali's immediate resignation. On 14 January 2011, Ben Ali, his wife and children fled to Saudi Arabia, and a caretaker ruling committee headed by Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi was announced.

Economy

As president, Ben Ali instituted economic reforms that increased Tunisia's growth rate and foreign investment. During his administration, Tunisia's per capita GDP more than tripled from $1,201 in 1986 to $3,786 in 2008. Although growth in 2002 slowed to a 15-year low of 1.9% due to drought and lackluster tourism (partly due to some tourists being nervous about flying in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks in New York), better conditions after 2003 helped push growth to about 5% of GDP. For about 20 years after 1987, the GDP annual growth averaged nearly 5%. A report published in July 2010 by the Boston Consulting Group (The African Challengers: Global Competitors Emerge from the Overlooked Continent) listed Tunisia as one of the African "Lions" and indicated the eight such countries account for 70% of the continent's gross domestic product.

Steady increases in GDP growth continued through positive trade relations with the European Union, a revitalised tourism industry and sustained agricultural production. Privatization, increasing foreign investment, improvements in government efficiency and reduction of the trade deficit presented challenges for the future. The 2010/11 Global Competitiveness Report (Davos World Economic Forum) ranked Tunisia 1st in Africa and 32nd globally out of 139 countries but it dropped to 40th in 2011/12 as a result of political instability and was not ranked in 2012/13.

According to the Oxford Business Group, Tunisia's economy was likely to grow from 2008 thanks to its diversified industries.

Committed to fighting poverty at home, Ben Ali instituted reforms, including the National Solidarity Fund, which slashed the Tunisian poverty rate from 7.4% in 1990 to an estimated 3.8% in 2005. The National Solidarity Fund was part of a dual strategy to fight current and potential terrorism through economic assistance, development and the rule of law, but also increased opportunities for corruption and clientelism. The fund provided opportunities to those living in impoverished areas and are vulnerable to recruitment by terrorists. It was a critical element in the fight against terrorism.

However, Tunisia continued to suffer from high unemployment, especially among youth. Left out of the recent prosperity were many rural and urban poor, including small businesses facing the world market. This and the blocking of free speech were the causes of the Tunisian revolution.

Diplomacy

During Ben Ali's presidency, Tunisia pursued a moderate foreign policy promoting peaceful settlement of conflicts. Tunisia took a middle of the road approach contributing to peacemaking, especially in the Middle East and Africa. Tunisia hosted the first-ever Palestinian American dialogue. While contributing actively to the Middle East peace process, Tunisian diplomacy has supported the Palestinian cause. As host to the Palestine Liberation Organization in 1982–1993, Ben Ali's government tried to moderate the views of that organisation. Tunisia, since the early 1990s, called for a "concerted" international effort against terrorism. It was also a key US partner in the effort to fight global terrorism through the Trans-Saharan Counterterrorism Initiative.
Ben Ali mostly retained his predecessor's pro-western foreign policy, though he improved ties with the Arab and Muslim world. He took several initiatives to promote solidarity, dialogue and cooperation among nations. Ben Ali initiated the creation of the United Nations World Solidarity Fund to eradicate poverty and promote social development based on the successful experience of the Tunisian National Solidarity Fund. Ben Ali also played a lead role in the UN's proclaiming 2010 as the International Year of Youth.

International characterisations

Ben Ali's government was considered to have one of the worst human rights records in the world, and largely bucked the trend toward greater democracy in Africa. His regime was dictatorial, and massively repressive, especially towards the conclusion of his 23-year iron grip on the country. It was deemed authoritarian and undemocratic by international human rights groups such as Amnesty International, Freedom House, and Protection International. They criticised Tunisian officials for not observing international standards of political rights and interfering with the work of local human rights organisations. In The Economists 2010 Democracy Index, Tunisia was classified as an authoritarian regime, ranking 144th out of 167 countries studied. In 2008, in terms of freedom of the press, Tunisia was ranked 143 out of 173.

Ousted from the presidency

In response to the protests, Ben Ali declared a state of emergency, dissolved the government on 14 January 2011, and promised new legislative elections within six months. However, events moved quickly, and it appears the armed forces and key members of the legislature had lost confidence in Ben Ali and had decided to take steps of their own. With power slipping from Ben Ali's grasp, prime minister Mohamed Ghannouchi announced that he would act as head of state during the president's "temporary" absence. With the army surrounding the Presidential Palace in Tunis, Ben Ali and close members of his family hastily left and headed to Laouina airport (annexed to the Tunis–Carthage International Airport). The military allowed Ben Ali's plane to take off, immediately after which the Tunisian airspace was closed. The presidential plane then left for Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Subsequent reports in the media rumoured that Ben Ali was seeking protection in either France or Malta, although a Tunisian pilot who was involved in the arrangement of the flight stated that the plan was "to fly directly to Jeddah", which is also supported by recordings released by the BBC in 2022. Ben Ali and his family were accepted by King Abdullah to live in Saudi Arabia under the condition that he should keep out of politics. Ben Ali and his family went to exile in Jeddah, the same city where Idi Amin, the late dictator of Uganda, lived in exile until his death in 2003 after being removed from power in 1979 at the end of the Uganda–Tanzania War.

Other close associates and family members who attempted to leave the country via Tunis-Carthage were prevented from doing so by the army, which had seized the airport.

Succession confusion

At about 18:00, Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi went on state television to say "Since the president is temporarily unable to exercise his duties, it has been decided that the prime minister will temporarily exercise the (presidential) duties."

However, this arrangement was very short-lived, because early the following day (15 January 2011), the Constitutional Council of Tunisia determined that Ben Ali was not "temporarily unable" to exercise his duties and that the presidency was in fact vacant. The arrangements he had made with the Prime Minister before leaving the country were found to be unconstitutional under article 57 of the constitution. The country's constitutional council, at the time the highest legal authority on constitutional matters, announced the transition saying that Fouad Mebazaa, the Speaker of Parliament, had been appointed acting president.

Mebazaa took the oath in his office in parliament, swearing to respect the constitution in the presence of his senate counterpart, Abdallal Kallel, and representatives of both houses. It was also announced that the speaker of parliament would occupy the post of president temporarily and that elections would be held within a period of between 45 and 60 days.

Flight and trial in absentia

On 26 January 2011, the Tunisian government issued an international arrest warrant for Ben Ali, accusing him of taking money out of the nation illegally and illegally acquiring real estate and other assets abroad, Justice Minister Lazhar Karoui Chebbi said. Videos show that the president stashed cash and jewellery in the president's palace. The gold and jewellery will be redistributed to the people by the government. The Swiss government announced that it was freezing millions of dollars held in bank accounts by his family. On 28 January 2011, Interpol issued an arrest warrant for Ben Ali and his six family members, including his wife Leïla.

After Ben Ali fled Tunisia following the Tunisian revolution, he and his wife were tried in absentia for his suspected involvement in some of the country's largest businesses during his 23-year-long reign. On 20 June 2011, Ben Ali and his wife were sentenced to 35 years in prison after being found guilty of theft and unlawful possession of cash and jewelry. The verdict also included a penalty of 91 million Tunisian dinars (approximately €50 million, and $64 million) that Ben Ali was required to pay. This verdict was dismissed as a "charade" by some Tunisians dissatisfied with the trial and as a "joke" by Ben Ali's lawyer. The sentences were to take immediate effect, although Ben Ali and his wife were living in Saudi Arabia and the Saudi government ignored Tunisia's requests to extradite them.

In November 2016, Ben Ali made a statement via the office of his lawyer, Mounir Ben Salha, acknowledging his regime made "errors, abuses and violations". His statement came as a reaction to the public hearing sessions made by the Truth and Dignity Commission in Tunisia.

Family

Ben Ali and his family were accused of corruption, which was a major contribution to the Tunisian Revolution which led to the fall of his government. Many of Ben Ali's family members subsequently also fled the country. On 20 January 2011, Tunisian television reported that 33 members of Ben Ali's family had been arrested in the past week, as they tried to flee the country.

Leïla Ben Ali was the chair of the BASMA Association, a group that promotes social integration and provides employment opportunities for the disabled. She was also the president of the Arab Women Organization, which works to empower women in Arab states. She has three children: Nesrine, Halima and Mohamed Zine El Abidine. Ben Ali has three daughters from his first marriage: Ghazwa, Dorsaf and Cyrine.

Health and death
On 17 February 2011, it was reported that Ben Ali had suffered a stroke, and had been hospitalised for an indefinite period. Al Jazeera reported that a Saudi source had confirmed that Ben Ali had indeed sustained severe complications of a stroke and that he was in critical condition. The information has never been confirmed or denied by the Saudi government. However, on 17 June 2011, Ben Ali's attorney, Jean-Yves Leborgne, stated that Ben Ali "is not in the state that he's said to be in" and that "a meeting with his client took place under 'normal circumstances'".

Ben Ali died at a hospital in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, due to prostate cancer on 19 September 2019 at the age of 83.  He was buried on 21 September at the Al-Baqi Cemetery in Medina.

See also

18 October Coalition for Rights and Freedoms

Decorations

Tunisian national honours
Grand Master of the Order of Independence
Grand Master of the Order of the Republic
Grand Master of the National Order of Merit
Grand Master of the Order of the Seventh of November

Foreign honours
 :  Grand Cross of Order of the Liberator General San Martín (1997)
  : Grand Star of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (2003)
  : Collar of the Order of the Nile (1990)
  : Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honour (1989)
  : Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (1996)
  : Collar of the Order of the Grand Conqueror (1992)
  : Honorary Companions of Honour with Collar of the National Order of Merit (Malta) (2005)
  : Grand Cross of the Order of Saint-Charles (7 September 2006)
  : Grand Cross of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite (1987)
 : Grand Collar of the State of Palestine (1996)
 : Grand Collar of the Order of Prince Henry (1995)
  : Collar of the Order of the Star of Romania (2003)
  : Grand Cross of the Order of Good Hope (5 April 1995)
  : Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (25 May 1991)

References

External links

Tunisia: President Ben Ali stresses need to intensify cooperation to combat terrorism
Call by Ben Ali to establish 'World Solidarity Fund' UN Website

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1936 births
2019 deaths
Ambassadors of Tunisia to Poland
Democratic Constitutional Rally politicians
Leaders who took power by coup
People expelled from public office
People convicted in absentia
People of the Tunisian Revolution
Presidents of Tunisia
Prime Ministers of Tunisia
Socialist Destourian Party politicians
Tunisian anti-communists
Critics of Islamism
Tunisian exiles
Exiled politicians
Tunisian military personnel
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint-Charles
Recipients of the Grand Star of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria
First Class of the Order of the Star of Romania
Deaths from prostate cancer
Deaths from cancer in Saudi Arabia
20th-century Tunisian politicians
21st-century Tunisian politicians
Interior ministers of Tunisia
Burials at Jannat al-Baqī
20th-century presidents in Africa

Zine El Abidine Ben Ali


The Katětov–Tong insertion theorem is a theorem of point-set topology proved independently by Miroslav Katětov and Hing Tong in the 1950s.  The theorem states the following:

Let  be a normal topological space and let  be functions with g upper semicontinuous, h lower semicontinuous and . Then there exists a continuous function  with

This theorem has a number of applications and is the first of many classical insertion theorems. In particular it implies the Tietze extension theorem and consequently Urysohn's lemma, and so the conclusion of the theorem is equivalent to normality.

References

General topology
Theorems in topology

Katětov–Tong insertion theorem


Butikkiro is the official residence for the Katikkiro of Buganda. Its Wiki Loves Monuments ID is UG-C-049.

Location
It is located in Mengo in Kampala opposite the Twekobe.

History
The Kabaka of Buganda is not allowed to stay in his Twekobe if the Katikkiro of Buganda is not in the Butikkiro.

After the Kabaka of Buganda handing over the Ddamula (the royal mace) to the newly appointed Katikkiro of Buganda after him pledging his allegiance to the Kabaka and promising to execute the duties assigned to him by the Kabaka. The Katikiiro has to hold that Ddamula until he reaches the Butikkiro while being protected by members of his clan so that no one from another clan grabs it from before him reaches the Butikkiro. When the katikkiro reaches the Butikkiro, he has to thank his clan members by organising a dinner (meal) for his clan as a norm.

In 1966, the Butikkiro was among the property of Buganda that were seized by the government that was led by Milton Obote when he abolished Kingships.

In 1997, the government that was led by Yoweri Museveni, returned the property which were seized by the government during Obote's time and those included; the Butikkiro but Buganda agreed to let the government of Uganda to remain tenants of the Butiikiro since it had been developed into a centre for research on HIV/AIDS in Uganda. But no formal tenancy agreement between the government of Uganda and Buganda was made.

In 2002, the government of Uganda agreed to build a new Butikkiro since the old Butikkiro builidng which located near the Twekobe is now housing the Uganda Joint Clinical Research Center (UJCRC) since August 1993.

After the government agreeing, the Lukiiko held a debate in 2003, whether would lease or sell the Butikkiro to the government of Uganda as it had not paid any fees to Buganda as there was agreement between the two parties in 1993  where the government of Uganda had to pay 48 million Uganda shillings per year in annual rent but was not effected. The Abataka ba Buganda (Buganda clan heads) that were led by Frank Kisaale Mbaziira advised the Kabaka to lease the old Butikkiro for 49 years to the government of Uganda after they had inspected the former Butikkiro claiming that it was not fit anymore to be the residence of the Katikkiro and that it would require a lot of money to renovate it back into a residence for the Katikkiro.

Mutebi agreed with the Abataka's decision as all the Buganda cultural rituals that were performed on the old Butikkiro were also transferable to the new Butikkiro and also the UJCRC had alot of equipment installed in it that could not easily be transferred.

After the Bataka's advice, Muwenda Mutebi II of Buganda directed the Katikkiro Joseph Ssemwogerere to draft a 49 year lease agreement for leasing the Butikkiro in an official letter that was delivered by the William Matovu (Mutebi's principal private secretary.

A committee composed of both the Buganda officials and the Government of Uganda officials was created to finalise on the plans for the construction of the new Butikkiro. The Buganda team was also responsible for determining the rent arrears that the government of Uganda owed Buganda since it occupied the Butiikiro in 1993. The government of Uganda had earlier proposed 200 million Uganda shilling for the arrears of rent since occupying the former Butikkiro.

The Ugandan government team consisted of Gilbert Bukenya (team lead) who was later replaced by Teckler Kinalwa (The permanent secretary in the Uganda President's Office.

The Buganda officials team consisted of Godfrey Kaaya Kavuma (the deputy Katikkiro and also the Buganda Minister for Lands and Property), J.B Walusimbi (Buganda Finance Minister), J.W Katende (attorney general), Apollo Makubuya (Treasury minister).

In July 2003, Joseph Ssemwogere (the Katikkiro of Buganda) presented the architectural plan for the new Butikkiro that was to be constructed. The plan was received by Gilbert Bukenya.

In 2005, a new site of about 6 acres of land for construction of the new Butikkiro was mentioned by the Buganda minister Zimbe and it was Plot 749 on Ring road which is opposite Mengo Palace.

In 2005, the government of Uganda paid 450 million of arrears that had accumulated as a result of occupying the Butikkiro, Makindye army barracks and the supreme court not paying rent for them using them via a cheque that was given to I Kabanda (the chairman of the Buganda Land Lease committee) starting from 1 August 1993 to 2005.  The Kabaka used 200 million of the 450 million to clear the six months  arrears of over 100 Buganda departmental workers.

Uganda Joint Clinical Research Center was later moved to a new location on Lubowa Hill, at Plot 101 Entebbe Road in Uganda.

Controversies
In 2002, Abazukulu ba Buganda (a pressure group of Baganda activists) claimed that the Lukkiko officials had sold the old Butikkiro to the government. The claims were refuted by Godfrey Kaaya kavuma (the deputy Katikkiro).

In 2003, the traditional healers argued that the Butikkiro should not be changed until the Katikkiro occupied it and performed some traditional rituals otherwise the Kabaka of Buganda, Ronald Muwenda Mutebi was not supposed to occupy the Twekobe Palace until those rituals are performed.

The Baganda also urged that the government of Uganda should use that money to construct structures for the UJCRC in the land that the Kabaka offered which was located next to the Lubaga Social Centre. while others urged that the Ugandan government should build a new Butikkiro instead of giving in money to Buganda.

Read also

 List of national cultural sites in Central Region, Uganda
 Katikkiro of Buganda
 Buganda
 Lukiiko

References

Buganda
Ugandan monarchies
14th-century establishments in Africa
Cultural heritage monuments in Uganda

Butikkiro


Dinitolmide (or zoalene) is a fodder additive for poultry, used to prevent coccidiosis infections. It is sold under trade names such as Coccidine A, Coccidot, and Zoamix.

Dinitolmide is usually added to feed in doses of 125 ppm (preventive) or 250 ppm (curative). It is a broad-spectrum anticoccidial drug, preventing seven main strains of Eimeria coccidium. It leaves no residues in tissues. It can be also used to prevent coccidiosis of domestic rabbits.

References

External links
 Zoamix - DailyMed

Nitrobenzenes
Poultry farming
Benzamides

Dinitolmide


On January 2, 2021, former U.S. President Donald Trump called Brad Raffensperger, the Secretary of State of Georgia, for an hour-long telephone call telling him to change the state's vote totals from the 2020 presidential election. Joe Biden won the state in November. Trump has refused to accept the presidential election.

Trump's call with Raffensperger was first reported by The Washington Post and other media outlets the day after it took place.

At one point on the call, Trump told Raffensperger, "What I want to do this. I just want to find 11,780 votes, which is one more than we have, because we won the state." Trump lost Georgia by 11,779 votes, so 11,780 votes would be 1 vote more for him.

Many believe that Trump should be criminally investigated and impeached. Many Republicans and Democrats criticized Trump's phone call.

Background

Presidential Elections in the United States

Electoral College
In the United States, the winner of a presidential election is not the person with the most votes. Instead, it is the person who wins the most votes in the electoral college. In this process, a group of people called electors vote for president. Each state has a certain number of electors depending on how many people live there. There are 538 electors in all. For a person to become president, he or she must get 270 or more votes from the electors.

When a presidential candidate wins the most votes in a state, all of those state's electoral votes go to that person.

States
Elections are done by each state, which means there were 50 different elections going on at the same time. Each state has its own rules about who is allowed to vote.

The Secretary of State is in charge of each state's elections.

Georgia
Georgia has 16 electoral votes. That means that it makes 16 people electors. Biden got the most votes in Georgia so all 16 electoral votes went to him. A lot of people were surprised because Trump got the most votes in Georgia in 2016. Usually, Republican candidates have gotten the most votes in Georgia.

Brad Raffensperger was elected Secretary of State in 2018. He and Trump are both members of the Republican Party.

Reactions and Lawsuits
Trump was not very happy about Georgia's electoral votes going to Biden. He said that there was cheating in the Georgia elections and that votes were changed so that Biden would get more. He said government officials in Georgia allowed electoral fraud and made him lose. He asked them to count the votes again. They did, but Biden still got the most votes.

Call
On January 2, 2021, Trump called Raffensperger. He said that he won Georgia by "hundreds of thousands of votes" and that the results were wrong. Neither of these are true. Then he asked Raffensperger to "find" 11,780 votes and add them to the results so that he could be the winner.

Investigation
According to federal and state law, trying to change the results of an election and making someone do so are illegal. That means that Trump might have broken the law by trying to make Raffensperger change the results of the elections in Georgia.

References

January 2021 events
Presidency of Donald Trump
2020 United States presidential election
Political scandals in the United States

Trump–Raffensperger phone call


Vladimir Yuryevich Antyufeyev (; born 19 February 1951), also known under the assumed name Vadim Shevtsov or Vladimir Shevtsov is a former Soviet OMON police officer who was one of organizers of the attempt to overthrow the Latvian government in 1991. As "Vadim Shevtsov", he was later the head of the Ministry of State Security of Moldova's pro-Moscow separatist state of Transnistria between 1992 and 2012. He is a Russian and Transnistrian citizen and was for many years wanted by the law enforcement agencies of Latvia and Moldova. He is no longer wanted by Latvia however, due to their statute of limitations on the type of crime he was alleged to have committed. In July 2014, Antyufeyev became one of leaders of Ukraine's pro-Russia secessionist rebels.

Life and career
Antyufeyev was born in Novosibirsk, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union. In 1974, he graduated from a police academy in Minsk, Byelorussian SSR.

He is a former Soviet OMON special police major and Riga police deputy chief of criminal investigation. He served as Riga OMON commander in 1990–1991. In August 1990, Antyufeyev was one of the organizers of a meeting of the Latvian MVD where some 80% of the Latvian police force made a decision not to recognize the Popular Front of Latvia government and follow the Constitution of the Soviet Union instead. These police forces would later be involved in the KGB-led failed pro-unity coup attempt in January 1991. For these actions the Latvian government accused Antyufeyev of "crimes against the state" in August 1991. He says he fled to Moscow two hours before he was to be arrested.

In Russia, Antyufeyev was assisted by Viktor Alksnis, on whose recommendation he traveled to Tiraspol to take part in the Transnistrian independence movement in September 1991. Adopting a new name, "Vadim Shevtsov," Antyufeyev played a key role in forming the internal affairs and security organizations of the Transnistrian government, especially the Ministry of State Security, which he headed. Shevtsov's real identity was revealed by Aleksandr Lebed in 1997.

In 2003 Antyufeyev defended a doctoral thesis on "Russia's Geostrategy in the Southwest" at the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration.

In 2004, the prosecutor of Moldova indicted Antyufeyev for crimes against the Moldovan state and freeing an officer accused of several assassinations. That same year, Antyufeyev was declared persona non grata by the European Union.

He married Galina Antyufeyeva, a deputy in the Transnistrian Supreme Soviet and head of the committee on legislation. Antyufeyev has stated: "We pose a real problem to Moldova. My life's purpose is to save this land [Transnistria] for Russia." In early 2012, he was dismissed by the incumbent president Yevgeny Shevchuk and a criminal investigation was launched against him, alleging abuse of power, misappropriation of public funds and destruction of documents.

Antyufeyev based himself in Moscow in 2012. He said he worked on security in South Ossetia, Abkhazia, and Crimea. In July 2014, he appeared in eastern Ukraine as the "deputy prime minister" of the Donetsk People's Republic (DPR). The DPR head Alexander Borodai met him in Moscow and put him in charge of the rebel security forces (taking over from Alexander Khodakovsky), internal affairs, and courts of justice. The European Union named Antyufeyev on its list of sanctioned individuals. In a mid-August 2014 interview with Novaya Gazeta Antyufeyev claimed "Nobody's to blame that our banks, shops, the airport [in Donetsk] are closed — except for the Ukrainian fascists and the masons of the U.S. and Europe".

References

1951 births
Living people
People from Novosibirsk
Pro-Russian people of the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine
Russian nationalists
Russian police officers
Transnistrian politicians
People from the Donetsk People's Republic
People of the KGB
Pro-Russian people of the war in Donbas
Soviet police officers
Russian individuals subject to the U.S. Department of the Treasury sanctions
Russian individuals subject to European Union sanctions

Vladimir Antyufeyev


The siege of Santo Domingo (1808) (Spanish: Sitio de Santo Domingo de 1808) was the second and final major battle of the Spanish reconquest of Santo Domingo and was fought between November 7, 1808 and July 11, 1809 at Santo Domingo, Captaincy General of Santo Domingo. A force of Dominican and Puerto Rican of 1,850 troops led by Gen. Juan Sánchez Ramírez, with a naval blockaded by British Commander Hugh Lyle Carmichael, besieged and captured the city of Santo Domingo after an 8 months garrisoning of 2,000 troops of the French Army led by General Dubarquier.

Background
Upon hearing the news of Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808, Juan Sánchez Ramírez launched a war against the French troops who were nominally controlling the island. After some initial defeats, the loyalists managed a key victory in November, in the Battle of Palo Hincado, where Sánchez Ramírez's 2,000 soldiers overwhelmed Gen. Louis Ferrand's 600. There, with his numbers diminished owing to the desertion of Dominicans, the French commander faced certain defeat.

Ferrand's pride was so wounded that he killed himself after the defeat. This would not stop the French, however, and General Dubarquier took over the fight. He resorted to enlisting Dominican slaves to fight against Sánchez Ramírez. Only with the help of the British Jamaicans could the loyalists expel the French, an event that would finally come to pass in 1809, the year in which British gunships fired into Santo Domingo, prompting Barquier to surrender the island.

See also
 Siege of Santo Domingo (1805)

References

Delafosse, Lemonier; "Second Campaign of Santo Domingo — Dominican-French War of 1808" (translation of C. Armando Rodriguez); Editorial El Diario, Santiago (DR); 1946.
Guillermin, Gilbert; "Journal History of the Spanish revolution of Santo Domingo" (translation C. Armando Rodriguez); Dominican Academy of History; Imp editing PV Lafourcade, Philadelphia, U.S.; 1810.
Sánchez Ramírez, Juan; "Journal of the Reconquista"; Editor Montalvo, Santo Domingo (R.D.); 1957.

Military history of the Dominican Republic
History of Santo Domingo
19th century in the Dominican Republic
1800s in Haiti

Siege of Santo Domingo of 1808