Data science is an interdisciplinary academic field that uses statistics, scientific computing, scientific methods, processes, algorithms and systems to extract or extrapolate knowledge and insights from noisy, structured, and unstructured data.

Data science also integrates domain knowledge from the underlying application domain (e.g., natural sciences, information technology, and medicine). Data science is multifaceted and can be described as a science, a research paradigm, a research method, a discipline, a workflow, and a profession.

Data science is a "concept to unify statistics, data analysis, informatics, and their related methods" to "understand and analyze actual phenomena" with data. It uses techniques and theories drawn from many fields within the context of mathematics, statistics, computer science, information science, and domain knowledge. However, data science is different from computer science and information science. Turing Award winner Jim Gray imagined data science as a "fourth paradigm" of science (empirical, theoretical, computational, and now data-driven) and asserted that "everything about science is changing because of the impact of information technology" and the data deluge.

A  data scientist is a professional who creates programming code and combines it with statistical knowledge to create insights from data.

Foundations
Data science is an interdisciplinary field focused on extracting knowledge from typically large data sets and applying the knowledge and insights from that data to solve problems in a wide range of application domains. The field encompasses preparing data for analysis, formulating data science problems, analyzing data, developing data-driven solutions, and presenting findings to inform high-level decisions in a broad range of application domains. As such, it incorporates skills from computer science, statistics, information science, mathematics, data visualization, information visualization, data sonification, data integration, graphic design, complex systems, communication and business. Statistician Nathan Yau, drawing on Ben Fry, also links data science to human–computer interaction: users should be able to intuitively control and explore data. In 2015, the American Statistical Association identified database management, statistics and machine learning, and distributed and parallel systems as the three emerging foundational professional communities.

Relationship to statistics
Many statisticians, including Nate Silver, have argued that data science is not a new field, but rather another name for statistics. Others argue that data science is distinct from statistics because it focuses on problems and techniques unique to digital data. Vasant Dhar writes that statistics emphasizes quantitative data and description. In contrast, data science deals with quantitative and qualitative data (e.g., from images, text, sensors, transactions, customer information, etc.) and emphasizes prediction and action. Andrew Gelman of Columbia University has described statistics as a non-essential part of data science.

Stanford professor David Donoho writes that data science is not distinguished from statistics by the size of datasets or use of computing and that many graduate programs misleadingly advertise their analytics and statistics training as the essence of a data-science program. He describes data science as an applied field growing out of traditional statistics.

Etymology

Early usage
In 1962, John Tukey described a field he called "data analysis", which resembles modern data science. In 1985, in a lecture given to the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing, C. F. Jeff Wu used the term "data science" for the first time as an alternative name for statistics. Later, attendees at a 1992 statistics symposium at the University of Montpellier  II acknowledged the emergence of a new discipline focused on data of various origins and forms, combining established concepts and principles of statistics and data analysis with computing.

The term "data science" has been traced back to 1974, when Peter Naur proposed it as an alternative name to computer science. In 1996, the International Federation of Classification Societies became the first conference to specifically feature data science as a topic. However, the definition was still in flux. After the 1985 lecture at the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing, in 1997 C. F. Jeff Wu again suggested that statistics should be renamed data science. He reasoned that a new name would help statistics shed inaccurate stereotypes, such as being synonymous with accounting or limited to describing data. In 1998, Hayashi Chikio argued for data science as a new, interdisciplinary concept, with three aspects: data design, collection, and analysis.

During the 1990s, popular terms for the process of finding patterns in datasets (which were increasingly large) included "knowledge discovery" and "data mining".

Modern usage
In 2012, technologists Thomas H. Davenport and DJ Patil declared "Data Scientist: The Sexiest Job of the 21st Century", a catchphrase that was picked up even by major-city newspapers like the New York Times and the Boston Globe. A decade later, they reaffirmed it, stating that "the job is more in demand than ever with employers".

The modern conception of data science as an independent discipline is sometimes attributed to William S. Cleveland. In a 2001 paper, he advocated an expansion of statistics beyond theory into technical areas; because this would significantly change the field, it warranted a new name. "Data science" became more widely used in the next few years: in 2002, the Committee on Data for Science and Technology launched the Data Science Journal. In 2003, Columbia University launched The Journal of Data Science. In 2014, the American Statistical Association's Section on Statistical Learning and Data Mining changed its name to the Section on Statistical Learning and Data Science, reflecting the ascendant popularity of data science.

The professional title of "data scientist" has been attributed to DJ Patil and Jeff Hammerbacher in 2008. Though it was used by the National Science Board in their 2005 report "Long-Lived Digital Data Collections: Enabling Research and Education in the 21st Century", it referred broadly to any key role in managing a digital data collection.

There is still no consensus on the definition of data science, and it is considered by some to be a buzzword. Big data is a related marketing term. Data scientists are responsible for breaking down big data into usable information and creating software and algorithms that help companies and organizations determine optimal operations.

Data Science and Data Analysis
Data science and data analysis are both important disciplines in the field of data management and analysis, but they differ in several key ways. While both fields involve working with data, data science is more of an interdisciplinary field that involves the application of statistical, computational, and machine learning methods to extract insights from data and make predictions, while data analysis is more focused on the examination and interpretation of data to identify patterns and trends.

Data analysis typically involves working with smaller, structured datasets to answer specific questions or solve specific problems. This can involve tasks such as data cleaning, data visualization, and exploratory data analysis to gain insights into the data and develop hypotheses about relationships between variables. Data analysts typically use statistical methods to test these hypotheses and draw conclusions from the data. For example, a data analyst might analyze sales data to identify trends in customer behavior and make recommendations for marketing strategies.

Data science, on the other hand, is a more complex and iterative process that involves working with larger, more complex datasets that often require advanced computational and statistical methods to analyze. Data scientists often work with unstructured data such as text or images and use machine learning algorithms to build predictive models and make data-driven decisions. In addition to statistical analysis, data science often involves tasks such as data preprocessing, feature engineering, and model selection. For instance, a data scientist might develop a recommendation system for an e-commerce platform by analyzing user behavior patterns and using machine learning algorithms to predict user preferences.

While data analysis focuses on extracting insights from existing data, data science goes beyond that by incorporating the development and implementation of predictive models to make informed decisions. Data scientists are often responsible for collecting and cleaning data, selecting appropriate analytical techniques, and deploying models in real-world scenarios. They work at the intersection of mathematics, computer science, and domain expertise to solve complex problems and uncover hidden patterns in large datasets.

Despite these differences, data science and data analysis are closely related fields and often require similar skill sets. Both fields require a solid foundation in statistics, programming, and data visualization, as well as the ability to communicate findings effectively to both technical and non-technical audiences. Moreover, both fields benefit from critical thinking and domain knowledge, as understanding the context and nuances of the data is essential for accurate analysis and modeling.

In summary, data analysis and data science are distinct yet interconnected disciplines within the broader field of data management and analysis. Data analysis focuses on extracting insights and drawing conclusions from structured data, while data science involves a more comprehensive approach that combines statistical analysis, computational methods, and machine learning to extract insights, build predictive models, and drive data-driven decision-making. Both fields play vital roles in leveraging the power of data to understand patterns, make informed decisions, and solve complex problems across various domains.

History

See also
 Open Data Science Conference
 Scientific Data
 Women in Data
 Python (programming language)
 R (programming language)
 Data engineering
 Big data
 Machine learning

References

Information science
Computer occupations
Computational fields of study
Data analysis

Data science


Mark Anthony "Bo" Pelini (born December 13, 1967) is a former American football coach and former player.  He was most recently the defensive coordinator for the Louisiana State University Tigers football team. He is the younger brother of former Florida Atlantic head coach Carl Pelini, who has frequently worked under Bo as an assistant coach.

Pelini served as head coach of the Nebraska Cornhuskers from December 2007 until November 2014 and later served as head coach of the Youngstown State University football team from 2015 through 2019. Prior to leading the football program at Nebraska, he was the defensive coordinator for the LSU Tigers, Oklahoma Sooners, and the Nebraska Cornhuskers.

Playing career
Pelini was raised in Youngstown, Ohio, a former center of steel production with a strong athletic tradition. He was nicknamed "Bo" after former Cleveland Browns running back Bo Scott. After graduating from Youngstown Cardinal Mooney High School (the same high school as Bob Stoops, former head coach of the Oklahoma Sooners), he went on to play free safety for the Buckeyes at Ohio State University under College Football Hall of Fame head coaches Earle Bruce and John Cooper from 1987 to 1990. Pelini started in his last two years, and served as a team co-captain in his senior year, along with Vinnie Clark, Jeff Graham, and Greg Frey. He earned his Bachelor of Science degree in business administration from Ohio State College of Business in December 1990.

Coaching career

Early career
Following his playing career, Pelini began his coaching career at the University of Iowa as a graduate assistant for the Iowa Hawkeyes under Hayden Fry in 1991. During this period, he also completed his master's degree in sports administration from Ohio University in 1992. In 1993, he served for one year as quarterbacks coach at Cardinal Mooney High School in Youngstown. Following the season, Pelini was briefly employed as linebackers coach with the Detroit Drive of the Arena Football League.

San Francisco 49ers
In 1994, Pelini got his first position in the National Football League when he was hired by San Francisco 49ers head coach George Seifert as a scouting assistant. He was quickly promoted to assistant secondary coach, and by the spring of 1994 he had been promoted again to defensive backs coach. In 1995, in his new position, he coached in his first Super Bowl as the 49ers defeated the San Diego Chargers 49–26 in Super Bowl XXIX.

New England Patriots
In 1997, Pelini was hired by New England Patriots head coach Pete Carroll, again as defensive backs coach, helping the Patriots reach the playoffs twice during his three years there.

Green Bay Packers
In 2000, Pelini became the linebackers coach for the Green Bay Packers under head coach Mike Sherman. Green Bay posted a 33–15 record and reached the playoffs twice in Pelini's three years there as linebackers coach.

Nebraska Cornhuskers (DC/Int. HC)
Pelini returned to the college ranks in 2003 when he was hired as Defensive Coordinator for the Nebraska Cornhuskers by Head Coach Frank Solich. In 2002, the season prior to his hiring, Cornhuskers' defense was ranked 55th nationally. In his first year it improved to 11th and led the country in turnover margin. At the conclusion of the regular season, despite posting a 9–3 record, Solich was fired by new Nebraska athletic director Steve Pederson. Pelini was named the interim head coach and led the Cornhuskers to a 17–3 win over the Michigan State Spartans in the 2003 Alamo Bowl. Pelini interviewed for the Nebraska head coach position, but Pederson instead decided after a 41-day search to hire Bill Callahan, recently head coach of the Oakland Raiders. The following year, Nebraska's defense fell to 56th nationally.

Oklahoma Sooners
For 2004, Pelini joined the Oklahoma Sooners as co-defensive coordinator under head coach Bob Stoops, helping the Sooners to a 6th place national rushing defense and 11th place national scoring defense on their way towards winning the 2004 Big 12 Championship Game and a spot in the 2005 BCS National Championship Game, where they were defeated 55–19 by the USC Trojans.

LSU Tigers (DC) – First tenure
In 2005, Pelini was hired by LSU Tigers Head Coach Les Miles, again as defensive coordinator. His success continued, as LSU was ranked 3rd nationally in overall defense for each of his three years with the Tigers. At the conclusion of the 2007 regular season, the LSU Tigers defeated the Tennessee Volunteers 21–14 in the 2007 SEC Championship Game and went on to win 38–24 against the Ohio State Buckeyes, Pelini's alma mater, in the 2008 BCS National Championship Game.

Nebraska Cornhuskers (HC)
During the 2007 football season, Nebraska Chancellor Harvey Perlman fired athletic director Steve Pederson, and appointed former Cornhuskers head coach Tom Osborne as Interim Athletic Director. One day after the Cornhuskers' final game of the season, a 65–51 loss to the Colorado Buffaloes and finishing the season with 5 wins and 7 losses, Osborne fired Bill Callahan and announced an immediate search for a new football coach. Pelini was selected after a nine-day search as the next head coach. Two names revealed among five interviewed candidates included Buffalo head coach Turner Gill and Wake Forest Demon Deacons head coach Jim Grobe.

2008 season

Nebraska opened up with 3 straight wins against Western Michigan Broncos, San Jose State Spartans, and New Mexico State Aggies. Bo Pelini's arrival saw a renewed interest and optimism in Nebraska football, as evidenced by their record Pay-Per View buys.

Nebraska then proceeded to lose a close game to Virginia Tech Hokies, and then suffered the worst home loss in school history to the Missouri Tigers 52–17 the next week. The first road game of the season produced a loss to the Texas Tech Red Raiders in overtime despite giving up 8.77 yards per play. Then the Huskers traveled to Ames, Iowa and beat a 2–10 Iowa State Cyclones. They came back home and won against the Baylor Bears. Pelini's Huskers then lost on the road the following week to the Oklahoma Sooners by a tune of 62–28, where Oklahoma scored 35 straight before Nebraska answered. By halftime, the score was 49–14. This game marked the first time Pelini went up against Bob Stoops who he formerly worked under as defensive coordinator for the Sooners in 2004. This game also marks the most points ever scored against Nebraska in a single quarter.

On November 8, Bo Pelini's Nebraska Cornhuskers won against the Kansas Jayhawks, making them bowl eligible. The 9–4 season was capped by a 26–21 victory over the Clemson Tigers at the 2009 Gator Bowl, played only days after Pelini returned from his father's funeral service in Ohio.

Pelini's 2008 regular season record of 9–4 was the highest among all 28 Division I FBS teams with new head coaches and staffs that year. This performance was rewarded in March 2009 when his salary was increased from $1.1 to $1.8 million. Pelini's contract ran until February 2014.

2009 season

Expectations were high heading into the 2009 season for the Cornhuskers. Despite having to replace record-setting quarterback Joe Ganz, and the entire receiving corps, Nebraska was expected to contend in the wide open Big 12 North Division. The Cornhuskers were ranked in the preseason at #24 by the AP, the first pre-season ranking since the 2007 season. Nebraska was expecting big seasons from running back Roy Helu and defensive tackle Ndamukong Suh. Before the season even started, Pelini had to kick his second leading rusher, Quentin Castille off the team. Castille's absence led to the emergence to true freshman running back Rex Burkhead during fall camp.

Pelini led his team to the 2009 Big 12 Championship Game against the #3 Texas Longhorns. Texas, led by quarterback Colt McCoy, was heavily favored over the Huskers, who were ranked number 21. Despite the loss in the game, the Big 12 Championship Game showcased the skill of Ndamukong Suh. The All-American had 4.5 sacks to go along with 12 tackles, 7 of them coming behind the line of scrimmage. With his performance Suh was invited to the 2009 Heisman Trophy ceremony, where he finished 4th. Suh flourished under coach Pelini, finishing the 2009 season with 85 tackles, 12 sacks, 24 tackles for a loss, 10 passes broken up, 3 blocked kicks, one interception, and a forced fumble. Suh won almost every major post season award available to a defensive lineman, including the Lombardi Award, Outland Trophy, Chuck Bednarik Award, Bronko Nagurski Trophy, and The Bill Willis Trophy. Suh is the second Outland and Lombardi winner of Pelini's, following Glenn Dorsey.

Nebraska finished the season with a 33–0 win over the Arizona Wildcats in the 2009 Holiday Bowl where Pelini proclaimed to the Nebraska fans in the Holiday Bowl stands "Nebraska is back and we're here to stay!". The victory was the first bowl shutout of Nebraska's 45 bowl history, as well as the first shutout in Holiday Bowl history. Nebraska's final rank in the coaches and AP media poll was 14th, the highest final ranking since 2001. Under Pelini Nebraska finished #1 in NCAA scoring and pass efficiency defense, the first time since 1984 and 2003 that Nebraska has led the country in those categories respectively.

2010 season

Following a mixed 2009 finish (notably the Big 12 Championship Game loss and the Holiday Bowl victory), Bo's Cornhuskers began the season ranked #8 in the pre-season AP poll. Nebraska was expected by several sports analysts to compete for the Big 12 title before departing to the Big Ten Conference in 2011. Following disappointing losses to both the Texas Longhorns and Texas A&M Aggies, the Cornhuskers dropped to #15 in the AP poll going into the final week of the regular season therefore eliminating any realistic hopes of a national championship in 2010. Nebraska proceeded to beat the Colorado Buffaloes in the final regular game of the season, clinching the Big 12 North title. In the 2010 Big 12 Championship Game, Nebraska committed four turnovers and blew a 17–0 second quarter lead on the way to a 23–20 defeat to Big 12 South Co-Champion Oklahoma. In the final BCS ratings for the season, Nebraska finished 18th and in fifth place amongst Big 12 teams behind Oklahoma, Missouri, Oklahoma State, and Texas A&M. Nebraska lost the 2010 Holiday Bowl, 19–7, to the Washington Huskies. Three months prior, the Cornhuskers defeated the Huskies by 35 points in Seattle.

2011 season

After a disappointing end to the 2010 season, Nebraska began 2011 with wins in its first four games against Chattanooga, Fresno State, Washington, and Wyoming. Nebraska was defeated by the Wisconsin Badgers in the Cornhuskers' first Big Ten Conference game. The Cornhuskers came out strong tying it up at 14–14 with four minutes to go in the 2nd quarter, but Wisconsin's offense dominated Nebraska in the 2nd half and ending up winning the game with a score of 48–17. Nebraska rebounded by winning three games in a row, including a 21-point second half comeback – the largest in school history – against Ohio State and a 24–3 win versus #9 Michigan State. After that winning streak they were upset by the unranked Northwestern Wildcats where they suffered two fumbles inside the Northwestern 30 yard line. The next game for the Cornhuskers came against #12 Penn State. The week leading up to the game had much of the national focus revolving the firing of coach Joe Paterno and the sexual assault charges in the Penn State sex abuse scandal. A prayer was held before the game for both teams by Nebraska running backs coach Ron Brown. The Cornhuskers won the game 17–14. January 2, 2012, Nebraska lost the 2012 Capital One Bowl to the South Carolina Gamecocks, 13–30.

2012 season

The Cornhuskers began the 2012 season ranked #17 in the AP Poll. After a loss to the UCLA Bruins, Nebraska won their remaining regular season games with the exception of a 38–63 loss to eventual Big Ten Leaders Division champion Ohio State. The Cornhuskers' 7–1 conference record earned the team their first Big Ten Legends Division title, and first appearance to the 2012 Big Ten Football Championship Game. Due to postseason ineligibility of both Ohio State and Penn State, they played the third place team in the Leaders Division, Wisconsin. The Cornhuskers never led during the game and were defeated by a score of 31–70. In their second appearance in as many seasons, the Cornhuskers played in the 2013 Capital One Bowl and lost to Southeastern Conference East co-champions Georgia Bulldogs, 31–45.

2013 season

The Cornhuskers began the 2013 season ranked #18 in the AP Poll. After a loss to the UCLA Bruins, Nebraska lost starting quarterback Taylor Martinez, the first of many injuries during the 2013 season. Nebraska would go on to lose to the Minnesota Golden Gophers, Michigan State Spartans and Iowa Hawkeyes to finish the regular season 8–4. Nebraska went on and defeated Georgia 24–19 in the Gator Bowl, avenging last year's bowl loss to the Bulldogs. Nebraska finished the 2013 season with a 9–4 record, Pelini's sixth straight season with nine or more wins. Nebraska also finished the season ranked #25 in the final Coaches Poll, but unranked in the final AP Poll.

2014 Spring Game

Pelini embraced his alter ego Twitter account, Faux Pelini, during the Tunnel Walk for the 2014 Spring Game. Faux created a fake Christmas Card which prominently featured Pelini holding a cat. The real Pelini brought a cat with him to the Tunnel Walk and, with the crowd roaring, held the cat aloft like Simba.

2014 season

The Cornhuskers began the 2014 season ranked #22 in both the AP Poll and Coaches' polls. They finished tied for second in the Big Ten's West Division with a 9–3 record and ranked 25th in the nation.

Firing
On November 30, 2014, after the conclusion of the regular season, Pelini was fired by Nebraska Director of Athletics Shawn Eichorst, effective immediately. The University is contracted to pay Pelini $7.65 million in salary following his termination in the form of $150,000 monthly payments for the next 51 months. The total liquidation to be paid to Pelini is roughly $7.9 million.

Pelini left the NU football program with a 67–27 record, winning at least 9 games in every season. Despite this record, and winning several bowl games, Nebraska never won a conference title under Pelini. Eichorst stated at a press conference that Pelini hadn't won "the games that mattered the most" against top-tier opponents. Barney Cotton was announced as interim head coach, and prepared the team for its bowl game.

On December 17, the Omaha World-Herald obtained audio of Pelini attacking Eichorst in vulgar terms while addressing his players on December 2. Pelini questioned Eichorst's integrity, calling him  "a fucking lawyer who makes policies," a "total pussy" and a "total cunt." In response, Nebraska claimed that Pelini had been fired in part for "a pattern of unprofessional, disrespectful behavior" toward players, fans and Nebraska employees.

Youngstown State
Pelini was hired by Youngstown State in December 2014 as their new head coach. The Penguins went 5–6 in 2015 but rebounded in 2016 to go 12–4, losing the FCS Championship game 28-14 to James Madison University. The next three seasons would see Pelini coach the Penguins to records of 6–5, 4–7 and 6–6.

Through his final season in 2019, Pelini posted an overall record of 33–28 with one playoff appearance in 2015 during his five-year tenure at Youngstown State.

In April 2021, the NCAA found Youngstown State worthy of probation due for two years with recruiting sanctions, after several rules violations were found to be committed under Pelini's watch, most significantly allowing coaches who had not taken the coach certification test to recruit off campus.

LSU Tigers (DC) – Second tenure
On Jan. 27, 2020, Pelini was named LSU's next defensive coordinator, replacing Dave Aranda. In his first game returning as defensive coordinator for LSU his defense gave up a one game SEC passing yard record against Miss State.  However the next week against Vanderbilt, the defense only gave up a touchdown. The following week and in only his third game returning as LSU defensive coordinator his defense gave up 586 total yards and 45 points in a 45 to 41 loss to Missouri. In his first three games returning as the LSU defensive coordinator the LSU defense surrendered a school record 96 combined points. Pelini was dismissed from his position on December 21, 2020.

Controversies

First audiotape leak
Following a home game loss to UCLA on September 14, 2013, and shortly after responding to criticism from former Nebraska football player Tommie Frazier about the loss, a two-year-old audio tape with a profane tirade by Pelini was anonymously leaked to Deadspin. The recording was made following Nebraska's come-from-behind win against Ohio State in 2011, when it was reported that almost all of the students and more than half of the stadium left when Nebraska was down at half time 27–6  The Huskers won 34–27, the biggest come back in school history. According to Deadspin, among the statements made on the audio recording, Pelini said:
Our crowd. What a bunch of fucking fair-weather fucking—they can all kiss my ass out the fucking door. 'Cause the day is fucking coming now. We'll see what they can do when I'm fucking gone. I'm so fucking pissed off.

Shortly after the tape was released, Pelini apologized:
I take full responsibility for these comments. They were spoken in a private room following the Ohio State game. I was venting following a series of emotional events which led to this moment. That being said, these comments are in no way indicative of my true feelings. I love it here in Nebraska and feel fortunate to be associated with such a great University and fan base. I again apologize to anyone whom I have offended.
Following the release of the audio tape University of Nebraska–Lincoln chancellor Harvey Perlman stated that the university would consider how to respond to the matter, and subsequently decided to move on from the incident. Tom Osborne, former coach and athletic director at Nebraska, then announced that he had heard the tape in 2012 (about a year earlier) and talked to Pelini about it but did not tell Perlman about it.

Some observers and members of the media believed that Pelini would have a difficult time winning back fan support. Pelini believed that he had built up enough "points" for at least partial forgiveness for his statements from the fans. He said he enjoyed his job at Nebraska, had had great support, and had turned down job offers from other schools. Sports media reactions to the audio tape ranged from calls for Pelini to be fired to the view that what Pelini said was nothing more than what other coaches have likely said in the past.

On-field conduct
Pelini's behavior was again called into question during Nebraska's nationally televised loss to the Iowa Hawkeyes at the end of the 2013 regular season. At halftime, the coach snapped at ESPN on ABC reporter Quint Kessenich when asked about a pair of Cornhusker turnovers, responding with "What kind of question is that?" Later, in disagreement with a call made on the field, Pelini swung his hat within inches of an official's face, drawing a 15-yard penalty for unsportsmanlike conduct. Pelini remained defiant in the post game press conference, referring to his personal foul call as "chicken shit" and declaring, "If they want to fire me, go ahead...I don't apologize for anything I have done." Pelini subsequently apologized for his behavior after the Iowa game.

During the November 14, 2015 game against the North Dakota State Bison in the 4th quarter, Pelini engaged the referees in several heated arguments for penalties they called including two unsportsmanlike conduct penalties on Pelini. He was reprimanded by the Missouri Valley Football Conference for his on field conduct.

Second audiotape leak
Following his firing on November 30, 2014 Pelini met with his (former) team at a local high school on December 2. Leaked audio of the meeting revealed that the coach verbally attacked University of Nebraska administration. At one point Pelini said:

It wasn't a surprise to me. It really wasn't. I didn't really have any relationship with the AD. The guy — you guys saw him (Sunday) — the guy's a total p----. I mean, he is. He's a total c---.

After the leak, the Nebraska administration released a statement, saying:

If these comments were, indeed, spoken by Mr. Pelini, we are extremely disappointed, but it only reaffirms the decision that he should no longer be a leader of young men at Nebraska. His habitual use of inappropriate language, and his personal and professional attacks on administrators, are antithetical to the values of our university. His behavior is consistent with a pattern of unprofessional, disrespectful behavior directed by Mr. Pelini toward the passionate fans of Nebraska, employees of the university and, most concerning, our student-athletes. This behavior is not tolerated at the University of Nebraska and, among many other concerns, played a role in his dismissal.

Youngstown State, who had already hired Pelini stated:

"Coach Pelini's remarks as reported are inappropriate and unfortunate. We have discussed the report with Coach. We are confident that Coach will conduct himself accordingly moving forward. We will not be commenting any further on this issue."

Head coaching record

See also
 List of college football head coaches with non-consecutive tenure

References
Explanatory notes

Citations

External links

 Youngstown State profile
 Nebraska profile

1967 births
Living people
American football safeties
Green Bay Packers coaches
LSU Tigers football coaches
Nebraska Cornhuskers football coaches
New England Patriots coaches
Ohio State Buckeyes football players
Oklahoma Sooners football coaches
San Francisco 49ers coaches
Youngstown State Penguins football coaches
High school football coaches in Ohio
Players of American football from Youngstown, Ohio
Ohio State University Fisher College of Business alumni

Bo Pelini


Tajikistan has submitted films for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film since 1999. The award is handed out annually by the United States Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences to a feature-length motion picture produced outside the United States that contains primarily non-English dialogue. It was not created until the 1956 Academy Awards, in which a competitive Academy Award of Merit, known as the Best Foreign Language Film Award, was created for non-English speaking films, and has been given annually since.

As of 2009, two Tajik films have been submitted for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.

Submissions
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences has invited the film industries of various countries to submit their best film for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film since 1956. The Foreign Language Film Award Committee oversees the process and reviews all the submitted films. Following this, they vote via secret ballot to determine the five nominees for the award. Below is a list of the films that have been submitted by Tajikistan for review by the academy for the award by year and the respective Academy Awards ceremony.

Both submissions were colorful films with strong elements of surrealism incorporated into the story, and both films shared a common composer, renowned Pamiri musician, Daler Nazarov.

Luna Papa is the only Tajik film to successfully screen for the academy. The movie was chosen in the fall of 1999 to represent Tajikistan for a chance at the 2000 Best Foreign Language Film Oscar. The film was a gentle, absurdist, road-comedy about a 17-year girl (Russian Tatar actress Chulpan Khamatova) in a small village who becomes pregnant after a travelling circus visits her town.

Six years later, Sex & Philosophy, a romantic drama, became the second film submitted by Tajikistan, and in October 2005, AMPAS announced the film had been accepted to compete for a chance at the 2006 Oscars. Sex & Philosophy was directed by Iranian director Mohsen Makhmalbaf but filmed in Tajikistan with an all-Tajik cast, because Iranian censorship regulations made it impossible for Makhmalbaf to make the film as he wanted in Iran. He chose Tajikistan because both countries speak different dialects of the same language (Persian). The film is a talky drama shot in beautiful, bright colors, about a dance instructor in the capital, Dushanbe who decides to invite his four lovers to his dance studio for his 40th birthday.

However, the film was disqualified a month later (along with the Bolivian nominee) when a print of the film failed to arrive in Los Angeles in time for its scheduled screening.

Both films were released on DVD with English subtitles- Papa got a limited US release and Philosophy was released in Singapore.

See also

List of Academy Award winners and nominees for Best Foreign Language Film
List of Academy Award-winning foreign language films

Notes
 Tajikistan's submission to the 78th Academy Awards, Sex & Philosophy, was disqualified because it did not arrive at the academy on time.

Notes

References

External links
The Official Academy Awards Database
The Motion Picture Credits Database
IMDb Academy Awards Page

Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
Lists of films by country of production
Tajikistan
Academy Award

List of Tajik submissions for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film


Albert Ray Olpin (June 1, 1898 – March 7, 1983) was president of the University of Utah from 1946 to 1964. During his presidency the university quadrupled in size and enrollment tripled from 4,000 to 12,000 students. To accommodate these new pupils, new programmes such as Nursing and Fine Arts were organized.

Biography
Olpin was the eldest son of eight children of Henry Albert Olpin (who was severely beaten by a mob while serving on an LDS mission in South Carolina) and was raised in Pleasant Grove, Utah. He was accepted into the Brigham Young University business school at 16 years of age, but left school a year later to serve a four-year mission in Japan for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. When Olpin returned he switched majors and graduated from Brigham Young University with bachelor's degrees in mathematics and physics in 1923. In 1930 he received a Ph.D. in physics from Columbia University. He then worked at Bell Laboratories where he conducted research with Philo T. Farnsworth that led to the first television broadcast. Later, as president of the University of Utah, he granted Farnsworth a grant to establish television station KUED in Salt Lake City, Utah and Olpin was featured as the speaker on KUED's first broadcast. He also helped design the "Y" on the mountain overlooking the BYU campus. He directed research departments at Kendall Mills in North Carolina and at Ohio State University. On October 16, 1946, he became the seventh president of the University of Utah, continuing as such until his retirement in 1964, at which time he accepted the title of "President Emeritus" and continued working with the university as a consultant.

He also worked on the Manhattan project that developed the first atomic bomb, and then helped in efforts to rebuild Japan after World War II. His efforts included creating the "Olpin Plan" (later renamed the "Peace Corps"), and the "Sister Cities" program (cultural exchange program between Japanese and U.S. cities of similar size). For many years after his death, the Japanese government sent delegations annually to lay flowers on his grave, to honor him.

Olpin died in Salt Lake City on March 7, 1983.

University growth
Many of the buildings on campus today were built under President Olpin's administration. Olpin started a 10-year building program in which 30 buildings were completed, including the Milton Bennion Hall, the Merrill Engineering Building, and the A. Ray Olpin Union Building, which features a large portait of him. Olpin worked to resolve challenges less frequently faced by larger, more established institutions, including defending academic freedom and educating local politicians about the potential for the University of Utah to become the state's flagship university.

References

1898 births
1983 deaths
Brigham Young University alumni
Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
American Latter Day Saints
Scientists at Bell Labs
American Mormon missionaries in Japan
Presidents of the University of Utah
20th-century Mormon missionaries
Fellows of the American Physical Society

A. Ray Olpin


John Dowsley Reid,  (1 January 1859 – 26 August 1929) was a Canadian businessman, physician, and parliamentarian. A Conservative, he was a long-standing Member of Parliament in the House of Commons of Canada for the Ontario Electoral district of Grenville South (named simply Grenville after 1903). He was first elected in the Canadian federal election of 1891 and was re-elected seven more times.

During his years in the House of Commons, he served as a cabinet minister in a variety of posts in the Cabinet of Canada, including:

 Minister of Customs (10 October 1911 – 11 October 1917)
 Minister of Railways and Canals (12 October 1917 – 20 September 1921)
 Minister of Customs and Inland Revenue (Acting) 2 September 1919 – 30 December 1919)
 Minister of Public Works (Acting) (6 August 1919 – 2 September 1919) and (31 December 1919 – 12 July 1920)

On 22 September 1921, he was appointed to the Senate of Canada on the recommendation of Arthur Meighen. He represented the senatorial division of Grenville, Ontario until his death.

References

1859 births
1929 deaths
Canadian Ministers of Railways and Canals
Physicians from Ontario
Canadian senators from Ontario
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario
Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada
Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) MPs
Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) senators
Unionist Party (Canada) MPs

John Dowsley Reid


Peter-No-Tail () is a 1981 Swedish animated film based on the children's book series by Gösta Knutsson.

Plot
On a Swedish country farm, a cat gives birth to a litter of kittens. One of these cats do not have a tail. The farmer is ordered by the farm owner to get rid of the kitten without the tail. He smuggles the young cat into the car of a family returning to Uppsala after a holiday near the farm. Discovered on arrival at the family's home, the stowaway is named Peter-No-Tail (Pelle Svanslös) by the children Olle and Birgitta. Peter soon settles into his new home, but when Birgitta takes him out for a walk in the following spring, he is chased by a vicious bulldog, and escapes to a town alley where Elaka Måns (Mean Mike) lives. The long-tailed Måns, aided by twins Bill and Bull, is a notorious bully amongst the town cats, so he tricks the naïve Peter into singing outside the home of a young female cat named Maja Gräddnos (Molly Cream-Nose). Maja's human owners hate cat howling, so Måns expects Peter to be soaked with water in his attempt to impress Maja. But Maja is attracted to the polite and kind-hearted Peter, so she invites him in to share some fish with her; thus it is Måns who ends up getting soaked with a garden hose when he tries to impress Maja himself. At the town cats' spring ball, Måns organises a competition where contestants must answer a mental arithmetic question by showing the winning number with their tails. Peter is given an impossibly hard sum, and the other cats mock him for not having a tail at all to even guess the answer. But a snake that Peter befriended earlier reveals the correct answer, and also bites Måns' long tail, humiliating him in front of the crowd. In revenge, Måns breaks into Peter's home and frames him for eating Olle's birthday cake, so the family locks Peter in the ironing room as punishment. However, when a fire breaks out in the house at night, Peter wakes and alerts the sleeping family with his frantic meowing, so he is redeemed as a hero, and Birgitta gives him a medal for his bravery. When Måns learns of Peter's good deed, he dismisses his medal as worthless, and invents a new sports event called the Cat Championship, where the winning prize is a gold medallion. The challenges include a distance jump, throwing shotput balls, and a hurdle race course. Måns stages each of the challenges so that Peter fails - his spike shoes for the distance jump have the spikes on the inside to hurt his feet, Peter's shotput ball is far heavier than the others, and Måns cheats in the hurdle race to make sure he wins. But when Måns' tricks are discovered, the referee disqualifies him and awards Peter the gold medallion instead. Maja, who has been cheering Peter on throughout the tournament, congratulates him and they celebrate his victory together. Now eager to get rid of Peter, Måns tries to rally his fellow cats into opposing 'country' cats, and he sets loose the dangerous bulldog to chase Peter out of the city. Most of the town cats watch from safety in the trees, but a kitten named Fridolf has strayed onto some high scaffolding platforms, where he is attacked by the bulldog. Peter rescues Fridolf from the collapsing scaffolding and escapes from the savage bulldog, who subsequently chases Måns, Bill and Bull away instead. For saving Fridolf, the town cats praise Peter and finally accept him into their community. At the end of the film, Peter's family take him with them on their next summer holiday, returning to the farm where Peter was born.

Origins
The film is animated and is based on the children's book series by Gösta Knutsson. Class discrimination, bullying and racism play a big part of the story, much like in the books since Peter is at times looked down on for being a "country cat", who is accused by Måns of threatening the livelihoods of the town cats. In the original Swedish dub Måns is played by Ernst-Hugo Järegård.

Cast
Mats Åhlfeldt - Pelle
Ewa Fröling - Maja Gräddnos
Ernst-Hugo Järegård - Måns
Carl Billqvist och Björn Gustafson - Bill och Bull
Wallis Grahn - Gammel Maja
Lena-Pia Bernhardsson - Gullan från Arkadien
Charlie Elvegård - Laban från Observatorielunden
Åke Lagergren - Murre från Skogstibble och Kalle Huggorm
Nils Eklund - Rickard från Rickomberga
Jan Sjödin - Fritz
Gunilla Norling - Frida
Eddie Axberg och Charlie Elvegård - Råttor
Charlie Elvegård - Igelkott
Gunnar Ernblad - Kråkan
Kajsa Bratt - Birgitta
Niklas Rygert - Olle
Helena Brodin - Mamma
Axel Düberg - Pappa
Sture Hofstadius - Ladugårdsförmannen

Sequel
A sequel called Peter-No-Tail in Americat () was released in 1985.

References

Other websites

1981 movies
Swedish movies

Pelle Svanslös (movie)


Bill Harmsen (June 20, 1912, in Saint Paul, Minnesota – April 10, 2002 in Wheat Ridge, Colorado) was one of the creators of the Jolly Rancher brand of hard candies.

Family
His wife Dorothy Harmsen was born on September 3, 1914, in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and died on August 29, 2006, of a heart attack at age 91. They had three children.

Jolly Rancher
The couple moved to Denver, Colorado, in 1942. In 1949 they opened a candy store in Golden, Colorado, called the Jolly Rancher, named after the Jolly Farmer, a depression era general store selling hard candies in their hometown of Minneapolis. Unhappy with local candy suppliers, they decided to make their own candy, which led to the creation of Jolly Rancher candy. The Harmsens ran a very successful company for almost 21 years before selling it to Beatrice Foods in 1966, with Bill Harmsen residing as president until 1977.  The company was purchased by Hershey in 1996, and Jolly Rancher has become one of America's most popular hard candies with over a dozen flavors and millions sold since their creation.

Life After the Jolly Rancher
After his leaving the business, the Harmsens became even more involved in collecting Western Art and writing about it with their own publishing company. Some of the pieces in their collection included works by artists such as Alfred Miller, George Catlin, Joseph H. Sharp, Victor Higgins, Frederic Remington, and Robert Henri. Later in life, they donated tracts of land to the Golden Gate Canyon State Park in Colorado. In 2001, the couple donated close to 5,000 pieces of art and American West memorabilia to the Denver Art Museum.

He died of prostate cancer in 2002, aged 89.

References

External links
Bill Harmsen profile at Internet Accuracy Project
Dorothy Harmsen
Golden Pioneer Museum
Jolly Rancher - Official site

Businesspeople in confectionery
1912 births
2002 deaths

Bill Harmsen


"Colors of the Wind" is a song written by Stephen Schwartz. It was composed by Alan Menken. The song was for Walt Disney Pictures' 33rd animated movie Pocahontas (1995). The recording is the movie's theme song. It was originally recorded by American singer and actress Judy Kuhn. American singer Vanessa Williams' cover of the song was released as the lead single from the movie's soundtrack. The song is a pop ballad that is about respecting nature and living in harmony with the Earth's creatures. The song is recorded in the Native Americans point of view.

"Colors of the Wind" won the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 68th Academy Awards in 1995, becoming composer Alan Menken's fourth win in the category. It also won the Golden Globe in the same category as well as the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for a Movie.

1995 songs
Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songs
Disney Renaissance songs
Pocahontas (Disney)

Colors of the Wind


The clypeus is one of the sclerites that make up the face of an arthropod. In insects, the clypeus delimits the lower margin of the face, with the labrum articulated along the ventral margin of the clypeus. The mandibles bracket the labrum, but do not touch the clypeus. The dorsal margin of the clypeus is below the antennal sockets. The clypeus is often well-defined by sulci ("grooves") along its lateral and dorsal margins, and is most commonly rectangular or trapezoidal in overall shape.

The post-clypeus is a large nose-like structure that lies between the eyes and makes up much of the front of the head in cicadas.

In spiders, the clypeus is generally the area between the anterior edge of the carapace and the anterior eyes.

References

 Bugguide.net. clypeus, clypeal, clypeate

Spider anatomy
Insect anatomy

Clypeus (arthropod anatomy)


Chadra    ()   is a  village  in Akkar Governorate, Lebanon.

The population is  Greek Orthodox and other  Christian.
The village is situated at a distance of 146 km from Beirut at an altitude of 450 m above sea level. It has an area of 651 hectares, surrounded by Akroum from the east, the west Owainat, from the north Mashta hasan and Andaket from the south . Can be accessed in two ways, namely: Halba - Alkwychera - beere - Kobayat - Andguet and Chadra, and Halba - Alkwychera - Menjez - Remmeh - Chadra.

Chadra characterized by a mild climate in summer and winter and the presence of several archaeological sites, most notably the presence of remnants of seven old grinders, and was an old center to group the armies and was considered as center catering to them, as was a home of one of the conquests of Prince Fakhr al-Din.

The residents of this village are predominantly doctors of medicine, teachers, soldiers and officers in the Lebanese army (General Wehbe Katicha current parliament member and Colonel Jean El Atrach commander of the Lebanese Commando Regiment), police officers and engineers.

References

External links
Chadra,  Localiban

Populated places in Akkar District
Eastern Orthodox Christian communities in Lebanon

Chadra, Lebanon


Allama Ḥabīburraḥmān Ṣiddīqī Kāndhalvī (1924-1991) was an Islamic scholar and author from Pakistan.

Early life and career
He was born in December 1924, Mohalla Delhi Darwaza, Delhi, India in the home of Mufti Ishfaq ur Rehman Kandhalvi. He memorized the Qur'an at the age of 9 years. During his education in Madrasa Siddiquia he used to visit Naziria Library and read many books about the Islamic history especially the Sirat-un-Nabi from Maulana Shibli Nomani which had lasting impression on him. After completing his religious education, he came to Sialkot, Punjab in 1944-1945 and soon thereafter moved to Gujranwala where he started delivering his regular Dars-e-Quran. After the independence of Pakistan in 1947, all of his family moved to Pakistan and he started working in Bahawalpur and later in Tando Jam, Sindh. He started doing translation of various Islamic literature. After his marriage in 1960, he moved to Karachi and initially started working for the famous religious book publishing firm, Taj Company.

He died on 18 April 1991.

Bibliography

References

External links
 Research on the age of Ayesha (wife of the prophet) in Urdu language by Habibur Rahman Kandhalvi
 Habibur Rahman Kandhalvi's speech on YouTube
 Aqeeda Zahoor-e-Mahdi (Urdu), edition on Scribd
 Mazhabi Dastanein aur un ki Haqeeqat Part 1
 Mazhabi Dastanein aur un ki Haqeeqat Part 3
 Mazhabi Dastanein aur un ki Haqeeqat Part 4
 Shab-e-Barat Kiya hey

1924 births
1991 deaths
20th-century Muslim scholars of Islam
Pakistani writers

Habibur Rahman Kandhalvi


The State Duma, also known as the Imperial Duma, was the lower house of the legislature in the Russian Empire, while the upper house was the State Council. It held its meetings in the Tauride Palace in Saint Petersburg. It convened four times between 27 April 1906 and the collapse of the empire in February 1917. The first and the second dumas were more democratic and represented a greater number of national types than their successors. The third duma was dominated by gentry, landowners and businessmen. The fourth duma held five sessions; it existed until 2 March 1917, and was formally dissolved on 6 October 1917.

History

Coming under pressure from the Russian Revolution of 1905, on August 6, 1905 (O.S.), Sergei Witte (appointed by Nicholas II to manage peace negotiations with Japan after the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905) issued a manifesto about the convocation of the Duma, initially thought to be a purely advisory body, the so-called Bulygin-Duma. In the subsequent October Manifesto, the emperor promised to introduce further civil liberties, provide for broad participation in a new "State Duma", and endow the Duma with legislative and oversight powers.  The State Duma was to be the lower house of a parliament, and the State Council of Imperial Russia the upper house.

However, Nicholas II was determined to retain his autocratic power (in which he succeeded). On April 23, 1906 (O.S.), he issued the Fundamental Laws, which gave him the title of "supreme autocrat". Although no law could be made without the Duma's assent, neither could the Duma pass laws without the approval of the noble-dominated State Council (half of which was to be appointed directly by emperor), and the emperor himself retained a veto. The laws stipulated that ministers could not be appointed by, and were not responsible to, the Duma, thus denying responsible government at the executive level. Furthermore, Nicholas II had the power to dismiss the Duma and announce new elections whenever he wished; article 87 allowed him to pass temporary (emergency) laws by decrees. All these powers and prerogatives assured that, in practice, the Government of Russia continued to be a non-official absolute monarchy. It was in this context that the first Duma opened four days later, on April 27, 1906.

First Duma

The first Duma was established with around 500 deputies; most radical left parties, such as the Party of Socialist-Revolutionaries and the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party had boycotted the election, leaving the moderate Constitutional Democrats (Kadets) with the most deputies (around 184). Second came an alliance of slightly more radical leftists, the Trudoviks (Laborites) with around 100 deputies. To the right of both were a number of smaller parties, including the Octobrists. Together, they had around 45 deputies. Other deputies, mainly from peasant groups, were unaffiliated.

The Kadets were among the only political parties capable of consistently drawing voters due to their relatively moderate political stance. The Kadets drew from an especially urban population, often failing to draw the attention of rural communities who were instead committed to other parties.

The Duma ran for 73 days until 8 July 1906, with little success. The emperor and his loyal prime minister Ivan Goremykin were keen to keep it in check, and reluctant to share power; the Duma, on the other hand, wanted continuing reform, including electoral reform, and, most prominently, land reform. Sergei Muromtsev, Professor of Law at Moscow University, was elected Chairman. Lev Urusov held a famous speech. Scared by this liberalism, emperor dissolved the parliament, reportedly saying "Curse the Duma. It is all Witte's doing". The same day, Pyotr Stolypin was named as the new prime minister who promoted a coalition cabinet, as did Vasily Maklakov, Alexander Izvolsky, Dmitri Trepov and the emperor.

In frustration, Pavel Milyukov, who regarded the Russian Constitution of 1906 as a mock-constitution, and approximately 200 deputies mostly from the liberal Kadets party decamped to Vyborg, then part of Russian Finland, to discuss the way forward. From there, they issued the Vyborg Appeal, which called for civil disobedience and a revolution. Largely ignored, it ended in their arrest and the closure of Kadet Party offices. This, among other things, helped pave the way for an alternative makeup for the second Duma.

Second Duma

The Second Duma (from 20 February 1907 to 3 June 1907) lasted 103 days. One of the new members was Vladimir Purishkevich, strongly opposed to the October Manifesto. The Bolsheviks and Mensheviks (that is, both factions of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party) and the Socialist Revolutionaries all abandoned their policies of boycotting elections to the Duma, and consequently won a number of seats. The election was an overall success for Russian left-wing parties: the Trudoviks won 104 seats, the Social Democrats 65 (47 Mensheviks and 18 Bolsheviks), the Socialist Revolutionaries 37 and the Popular Socialists 16.

The Kadets (by this point the most moderate and centrist party), found themselves outnumbered two-to-one by their more radical counterparts. Even so, Stolypin and the Duma could not build a working relationship, being divided on the issues of land confiscation (which the socialists and, to a lesser extent, the Kadets, supported but the tsar and Stolypin vehemently opposed) and Stolypin's brutal attitude towards law and order.

On 1 June 1907, prime minister Stolypin accused Social Democrats of preparing an armed uprising and demanded that the Duma exclude 55 Social Democrats from Duma sessions and strip 16 of their parliamentary immunity. When this ultimatum was rejected by Duma, it was dissolved on 3 June by an ukase (imperial decree) in what became known as the Coup of June 1907.

The tsar was unwilling to be rid of the State Duma, despite these problems. Instead, using emergency powers, Stolypin and the tsar changed the electoral law and gave greater electoral value to the votes of landowners and owners of city properties, and less value to the votes of the peasantry, whom he accused of being "misled", and, in the process, breaking his own Fundamental Laws.

Third Duma

This ensured the third Duma (7 November 1907 – 3 June 1912) would be dominated by gentry, landowners and businessmen. The number of deputies from non-Russian regions was greatly reduced. The system facilitated better, if hardly ideal, cooperation between the Government and the Duma; consequently, the Duma lasted a full five-year term, and succeeded in 200 pieces of legislation and voting on some 2500 bills. Due to its more noble, and Great Russian composition, the third Duma, like the first, was also given a nickname, "The Duma of the Lords and Lackeys" or "The Master's Duma". The Octobrist party were the largest, with around one-third of all the deputies. This Duma, less radical and more conservative,  left clear that the new electoral system would always generate a landowners-controlled Duma in which the tsar would have vast amounts of influence over, which in turn would be under complete submission to the Tsar, unlike the first two Dumas.

In terms of legislation, the Duma supported an improvement in Russia's military capabilities, Stolypin's plans for land reform, and basic social welfare measures. The power of Nicholas' hated land captains was consistently reduced. It also supported more regressive laws, however, such as on the question of Finnish autonomy and Russification, with a fear of the empire breaking up being prevalent. Since the dissolution of the Second Duma a very large proportion of the empire was either under martial law, or one of the milder forms of the state of siege. It was forbidden, for instance, at various times and in various places, to refer to the dissolution of the Second Duma, to the funeral of the Speaker of the First Duma, Muromtsev, and the funeral of Leo Tolstoy, to the fanatical [right-wing] monk Iliodor, or to the notorious agent provocateur, Yevno Azef. Stolypin was assassinated in September 1911 and replaced by his finance minister Vladimir Kokovtsov. It enabled Count Kokovtsov to balance the budget regularly and even to spend on productive purposes.

Fourth Duma

The Fourth Duma of 15 November 1912 – 6 October 1917, elected in September/October, was also of limited political influence. The first session was held from 15 November 1912 to 25 June 1913, and the second session from 15 October 1913 to 14 June 1914. On 1 July 1914 the tsar suggested that the Duma should be reduced to merely a consultative body, but an extraordinary session was held on 26 July 1914 during the July Crisis. The third session gathered from 27 to 29 January 1915, the fourth from 19 July 1915 to 3 September, the fifth from 9 February to 20 June 1916, and the sixth from 1 November to 16 December 1916. No one exactly knew when they would resume their deliberations. It seems the last session was never opened (on 14 February), but kept closed on 27 February 1917.

There was one promising new member in Alexander Kerensky, a Trudovik, but also Roman Malinovsky, a Bolshevik who was a double agent for the secret police. In March 1913 the Octobrists, led by Alexander Guchkov, President of the Duma, commissioned an investigation on Grigori Rasputin to research the allegations being a Khlyst. The leading party of the Octobrists divided itself into three different sections.

The Duma "met on 8 August for three hours to pass emergency war credits, [and] it was not asked to remain in session because it would only be in the way." The Duma volunteered its own dissolution until 14 February 1915. A serious conflict arose in January as the government kept information on the battlefield (in April at Gorlice) secret to the Duma. In May Guchkov initiated the War Industries Committees in order to unite industrialists who were supplying the army with ammunition and military equipment, to mobilize industry for war needs and prolonged military action, to put political pressure on the tsarist government. On 17 July 1915 the Duma reconvened for six weeks. Its former members became increasingly displeased with Tsarist control of military and governmental affairs and demanded its own reinstatement. When the tsar refused its call for the replacement of his cabinet on 21 August with a "Ministry of National Confidence", roughly half of the deputies formed a "Progressive Bloc", which in 1917 became a focal point of political resistance. On 3 September 1915 the Duma prorogued.

On the eve of the war the government and the Duma were hovering round one another like indecisive wrestlers, neither side able to make a definite move. The war made the political parties more cooperative and practically formed into one party. When the tsar announced he would leave for the front at Mogilev, the Progressive Bloc was formed, fearing Rasputin's influence over Tsarina Alexandra would increase.

The Duma gathered on 9 February 1916 after the 76-year-old Ivan Goremykin had been replaced by Boris Stürmer as prime minister and on the condition not to mention Rasputin. The deputies were disappointed when Stürmer held his speech. Because of the war, he said, it was not the time for constitutional reforms. For the first time in his life, the tsar made a visit to the Tauride Palace, which made it practically impossible to hiss at the new prime minister.

On 1 November 1916 (Old Style) the Duma reconvened and the government under Boris Stürmer was attacked by Pavel Milyukov in the State Duma, not assembled since February. In his speech he spoke of "Dark Forces", and highlighted numerous governmental failures with the famous question "Is this stupidity  or treason?" Alexander Kerensky called the ministers "hired assassins" and "cowards" and said they were "guided by the contemptible Grishka Rasputin!" Stürmer and Alexander Protopopov asked in vain for the dissolution of the Duma. Stürmer's resignation looked like a concession to the Duma. Ivan Grigorovich and Dmitry Shuvayev declared in the Duma that they had confidence in the Russian people, the navy, and the army; the war could be won.

For the Octobrists and the Kadets, who were the liberals in the parliament, Rasputin, and his support of autocracy and absolute monarchy, was one of their main obstacles. The politicians tried to bring the government under control of the Duma. "To the Okhrana it was obvious by the end of 1916 that the liberal Duma project was superfluous, and that the only two options left were repression or a social revolution."

On 19 November Vladimir Purishkevich, one of the founders of the Black Hundreds, gave a speech in the Duma. He declared the monarchy had become discredited because of what he called the "ministerial leapfrog".

On 2 December, Alexander Trepov ascended the tribune in the Duma to read the government programme. The deputies shouted "down with the Ministers! Down with Protopopov!" The prime minister was not allowed to speak and had to leave the rostrum three times. Trepov threatened to shut the troublesome Duma completely in its attempt to control the tsar. The tsar, his cabinet, Alexandra, and Rasputin discussed when to open the Duma, on 12 or 19 January, 1 or 14 February, or never. Rasputin suggested to keep the Duma closed until February; Alexandra and Protopopov supported him.  On Friday, 16 December Milyukov stated in the Duma: "maybe [we will be] dismissed to 9 January, maybe until February",  but in the evening the Duma was closed until 12 January, by a decree prepared on the day before. A military guard had been on duty at the building.

The February Revolution began on 22 February when the tsar had left for the front, and strikes broke out in the Putilov workshops. On 23 February (International Women's Day), women in Petrograd joined the strike, demanding woman suffrage, an end to Russian food shortages, and the end of World War I. Although all gathering on the streets were absolutely forbidden, on 25 February, some 250,000 people were on strike.   The tsar ordered Sergey Semyonovich Khabalov, an inexperienced and extremely indecisive commander of the Petrograd military district  (and Nikolay Iudovich Ivanov) to suppress the rioting by force. Mutinous soldiers of the fourth company of the Pavlovsky Life Guards Regiment refused to fall in on parade when commanded, shot two officers, and joined the protesters on the streets. Nikolai Pokrovsky believed that "no one neither the Duma, nor the government cannot do anything one without the other one." The liberal Vasily Maklakov and Bloc spokesman, expressed his opinion that the resignation of all members of the Council of Ministers was needed, "to make it clear that they want to go in a new way." On Monday soldiers of the Volhynian Life Guards Regiment brought the Litovsky, Preobrazhensky, and Moskovsky Regiments out on the street to join the rebellion.

On the 27th the Duma delegates received an order from his Majesty that he had decided to prorogue the Duma until April, leaving it with no legal authority to act. The Duma refused to obey, and gathered in a private meeting.  According to Buchanan: "It was an act of madness to prorogue the Duma at a moment like the present." "The delegates decided to form a Provisional Committee of the State Duma. The Provisional Committee ordered the arrest of all the ex-ministers and senior officials." The Tauride Palace was occupied by the crowd and soldiers. "On the evening the Council of Ministers held its last meeting in the Marinsky Palace and formally submitted its resignation to the tsar when they were cut off from the telephone. Guchkov, along with Vasily Shulgin, came to the army headquarters near Pskov to persuade the tsar to abdicate. The committee sent commissars to take over ministries and other government institutions, dismissing Tsar-appointed ministers and formed the Provisional Government under Georgi Lvov.

 On 2 March 1917 the Provisional government decided that the Duma would not be reconvened. Following the Kornilov affair and the proclamation of the Russian Republic, the State Duma was dissolved on 6 October 1917 by the Provisional Government; a Provisional Council of the Russian Republic was convened on 20th October 1917 as a provisional parliament, in preparation to the election of the Russian Constituent Assembly.

Seats held in Imperial Dumas

Chairmen of the State Duma

Sergey Muromtsev (1906)
Fyodor Golovin (1907)
Nikolay Khomyakov (1907–1910)
Alexander Guchkov (1910–1911)
Mikhail Rodzianko (1911–1917)

Deputy Chairmen of the State Duma

The First Duma
Prince Pavel Dolgorukov (Cadet Party) 1906
Nikolay Gredeskul (Cadet Party) 1906
The Second Duma
N. N. Podznansky (Left) 1907
M. E. Berezik (Trudoviki) 1907
The Third Duma
Vol. V. M. Volkonsky (moderately right), bar. A. F. Meyendorff (Octobrist), C. J. Szydlowski (Octobrist), M. Kapustin (Octobrist), I. Sozonovich (right).
The Fourth Duma
Prince D. D. Urusov (Progressive Bloc)
+ Prince V. M. Volkonsky (Centrum-Right) (1912–1913)
Nikolay Nikolayevich Lvov (Progressive Bloc) (1913)
Aleksandr Konovalov (Progressive Bloc) (1913–1914)
S. T. Varun-Sekret (Octobrist Party) (1913–1916)
Alexander Protopopov (Left Wing Octobrist Party) (1914–1916)
Nikolai Vissarionovich Nekrasov (Cadet Party) (1916–1917)
Count V. A. Bobrinsky (Nationalist) (1916–1917)

Notes

References

External links

Speech from the Throne by Nicholas II at Opening of the State Duma, photo essay with commentary
Four Dumas of Imperial Russia

1905 establishments in the Russian Empire
1917 disestablishments in Russia
Russian Empire
Government of the Russian Empire
Russian Empire

State Duma (Russian Empire)


Meriwether Lewis Clark Jr. (January 27, 1846 – April 22, 1899) was the founder of the Louisville Jockey Club and the builder of Churchill Downs, where the Kentucky Derby is run.

Life and career
He was grandson of explorer and Missouri governor, General William Clark of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. His father was Major Meriwether Lewis Clark, "aide de camp" and in-law to General Stephen Watts Kearny, of Mexican–American War fame (Kearny married Mary Radford, the stepdaughter of Clark). His mother was Abigail Prather Churchill, from one of the first families of Kentucky. The Churchills had moved to Louisville in 1787 and bought  of land in a rural area south of the city.

When his mother died, "Lutie" (as Clark was called) went to live with his aunt and her sons John and Henry Churchill. They had inherited most of the original Churchill property, and they donated the land on which Churchill Downs was built.

Living with the Churchills, Lutie developed a taste for expensive things, including horse racing. He made two trips to Europe and married twice, both of his wives dying young.

He came home from abroad in 1873 with ideas about building a racetrack in Louisville. He planned to eliminate bookmaking by introducing the French system of parimutuel betting machines. The Churchill brothers were the entrepreneurs providing the financial backing, and Lutie was the acting president and on-site manager.

By all accounts, Clark had a mercurial and touchy personality. He is reported to have threatened prominent breeder T. G. Moore with a gun, ordering him off the premises after having knocked him down in a dispute over fees. Moore got a gun and shot Clark through a door, hitting him in the chest. Moore turned himself in to the police, but no charges were brought against him. Clark later rescinded his ban from the racetrack.

He also threatened others with a gun over perceived insults. The Churchill brothers did not appreciate the negative publicity, and they left the track to their families. Clark received some other land, but by the time John Churchill died in 1897, Lutie was merely a steward at the track he had originated.

His contribution to American racing cannot be overstated. In addition to building Churchill Downs and originating the Kentucky Derby, he wrote many racing rules that are still in force today. He worked for a uniform system of weights and pioneered the stakes system, creating the Great American Stallion Stakes, on which the present-day Breeders' Cup is modeled. He also spoke out against betting by officials and reporters.

Clark lost heavily in the stock market crash of 1893 and began traveling from city to city working as a steward. Fearing a life of poverty, he committed suicide with a pistol on April 22, 1899.   He is buried in Cave Hill Cemetery next to his uncle, John Churchill.

References

External links
For a more detailed biography, see Call to the Derby Post: A History of Churchill Downs.

1899 deaths
1846 births
American people of Scottish descent
American people of English descent
People in horse racing
Businesspeople from Louisville, Kentucky
Burials at Cave Hill Cemetery
Horse racing in Louisville, Kentucky
Horse racing in Kentucky
19th-century American businesspeople
Suicides by firearm in the United States

Meriwether Lewis Clark Jr.


Lucy Randolph Mason (July 26, 1882 – May 6, 1959) was an American labor activist and suffragist.  She was involved in the union movement, the consumer movement and the civil rights movement in the mid-20th century.

Early life

Lucy Randolph Mason was born on the Clarens estate in Virginia near Alexandria July 26, 1882 and grew up near Richmond. Mason was one of five children born to Episcopal minister Landon Mason and his wife Lucy Ambler Mason.  She was a fifth-generation descendant of George Mason, author of the Virginia Declaration of Rights which was the model for the Bill of Rights.  Mason was also related to John Marshall and Robert E. Lee (her father's second cousin).

Growing up in the Episcopal Church with a clergyman father and devoted mother developed strong social convictions in Lucy and her siblings. After high school, Mason taught herself stenography while teaching Sunday school classes. It was during this time that she began to be interested in women's rights, specifically voting rights, working towards improving conditions for working people and ending racial injustice, specifically in the South.

Career
During her 20s while supporting herself as a stenographer, she devoted her free time to volunteer social service work and the suffrage movement.  In 1914 the Richmond YWCA offered her a job as its industrial secretary, which she stayed on as until 1918.  In 1918, Mason's mother died and she was forced to quit in order to be able to care for her ailing father.  During the years that Mason cared for her father she continued to volunteer for the Union Label League and served as president of both the Richmond Equal Suffrage League and the Richmond League of Women Voters. In 1923, Mason's father died and she returned to the YWCA as the general secretary and remained there until 1932.  During her time as general secretary she developed a range of innovative programs that were aimed at training and the economic advancement in the lives of both white and black young women and workers in general.  With the YWCA Mason generated public support for state labor laws that ensure safe workplaces, end child labor, raise minimum wages, and shorten work hours.  Mason also traveled throughout the South during this time promoting voluntary employment agreements that incorporated fair labor standards.  To aid this effort she wrote a pamphlet Standards for Workers in Southern Industry (1931), which was the first pamphlet of its kind.

She belonged to the Union Label League in Richmond and was a frequent speaker to community and labor groups about the importance of buying union made products and services. During World War I, American Federation of Labor (AFL) President, Samuel Gompers, appointed Mason as the Virginia chairwoman of the Women in Industry Committee, a division of the wartime National Advisory Committee on Labor.

She was so successful in her ventures during this time that she drew the interest of other female reformers, Florence Kelley and First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt.  Mason made such an impression that Kelley chose her as successor for her role as secretary of the National Consumers League (NCL).  In 1932 she was appointed as General Secretary to the NCL, and moved to New York, where she lived for five years; working closely with social workers and recruiting staff for relief and welfare agencies created under the New Deal.  It was during this period she met and impressed Eleanor Roosevelt, with whom she was friends with for the rest of their lives.

From the 1900s to the 1930s, the NCL worked to pass protective labor laws and to convince consumers to buy only goods and services produced by workers who enjoyed a living wage and decent working conditions. Under Mason, the NCL won the passage of new state labor laws, lobbied for improved labor codes in the 1933 National Industrial Recovery Act and helped ensure the passage of the 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA).

The South and the CIO

In 1937, during congressional hearings on the FLSA, Mason met Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) President, John L. Lewis, who helped arrange a job for her as the CIO's public relations representative for the South. In July 1937, at age 55, Mason moved to Atlanta and started working at the Textile Workers Organizing Committee offices and became the CIO's "roving ambassador" for the next 16 years.

For Mason, the CIO was "a training ground for citizenship" for Southern workers, a vehicle "to bring democracy to the South" and the means to alleviate the economic and racial injustices experienced by minorities and the poor. Mason traveled alone to small towns where union organizers and their sympathizers had been shot, beaten, threatened and jailed. She cornered hostile sheriffs, judges, newspaper editors, politicians and ministers, explaining workers' rights to organize and bargain under the new federal statutes and promoting an understanding of the need for unions.

She was known by friend and foe as "Miss Lucy". Her social status as a Southern lady and the daughter of an old, respected Virginia family often gained her access to political and community leaders when others were denied. You can't get much kosher than that in Virginia, but she kind of had an interest in working people that most people of that kind of background don't have...Boy, she was a power.  We would all yell for Lucy anytime that we needed help and she would come into the toughest situations and was great.  She played a tremendous role, a tremendous role. - Myles HortonMiss Lucy's success also rested on her blunt speech, her calm yet steely demeanor and her ability to bring civil liberties violations to the attention of federal officials, including President Franklin D. Roosevelt. For example, Mason convinced Roosevelt to send a special federal investigator to Memphis in 1940 in the wake of physical attacks on the United Rubber Workers' organizers who were trying to create an interracial union.

After 1944, Mason worked with the CIO Political Action Committee ("CIO-PAC") in the South, helping to register union members, black and white, and working for the elimination of the poll tax.

She also forged lasting links between labor and religious groups. Mason persuaded the Southern Baptist Convention to adopt a resolution in 1938 recognizing "the right of labor to organize and engage in collective bargaining to the end that labor may have a fair and living wage, such as will provide not only the necessities of life, but for recreation, pleasure, and culture."

In the 1940s, she organized interfaith, multi-union and interracial groups in Atlanta and other Southern cities dedicated to building solidarity between organized labor and the churches. Eventually, these local groups formed the National Religion and Labor Foundation. Mason was dedicated to ending white supremacy in the South, where she was a founding member of the Southern Conference for Human Welfare and she was a frequent speaker at interracial gatherings.

In 1952, Lucy Randolph Mason's autobiography was published called To Win These Rights, which contained an introduction written by her close friend, Eleanor Roosevelt. In 1953, Mason retired from active union work due to ill health.

In 1959, she died in a nursing home in Atlanta.

Awards

 1952: Social Justice Award from the National Religion and Labor Foundation

Works
The Shorter Day and Women Workers - 1922
Standards For Workers in Southern Industry - 1931
Work, Wages, and Security - 1933
The Industrial South - 1936
To Win These Rights: a personal story of the CIO in the South - 1952.

References

Bibliography

External links
Lucy Randolph Mason Papers, 1910–1959, David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Duke University.

1882 births
1959 deaths
AFL–CIO people
American civil rights activists
Women civil rights activists
American Episcopalians
American feminists
American librarians
American women librarians
American librarianship and human rights
American people of English descent
Consumer rights activists
American suffragists
American trade unionists
Mason family
People from Alexandria, Virginia
People from Richmond, Virginia
Workers' rights activists

Lucy Randolph Mason


St. Mark's Episcopal Church is a historic church located at 13 Main Street at Valley Road in West Orange, Essex County, New Jersey, United States. After the Episcopal congregation dwindled, the building subsequently housed the Primera Iglesia Evangelica Metodista Libra de los Oranges, a Methodist congregation. The building's interior was destroyed, and exterior badly damaged, by fire on January 1, 2016.

The church was called an "outstanding example of Gothic Revival architecture" by Preservation New Jersey, and was listed as one of the ten most endangered historic sites in New Jersey in 1996.  It has been said that the building "represents the beginning and the end of the ecclesiological style in the United States." The Ecclesiological style movement in church architecture advocated Gothic revival architecture using theological arguments.

History
The original Episcopal congregation was founded in 1828 as an offshoot of Trinity Parish in Newark. Within a few decades it had become the largest and wealthiest Episcopal congregation in and around "The Oranges" of New Jersey.

Work on the brownstone main church began in 1828. An addition completed in 1860–1861, including the steeple, is attributed to architect Richard Upjohn.

St. Mark's ran the first elementary school in West Orange beginning in 1865.  This school building was destroyed by fire in 1926. It also ran the first high school in West Orange, which graduated a class of nine students in 1893.  A new high school building was opened in 1898, which was destroyed by fire on February 27, 1913.

The parish prospered until the 1960s, when declining attendance led to mounting financial hardships. The church was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1977, but the church and its adjacent cemetery fell into disrepair. In 2004, the Episcopal Diocese of Newark leased it to Lamb of God Fellowship, a Renewal congregation, for what was intended to be a long-term stay, but the Fellowship left in 2009 due to the high cost of maintaining the property. The cross atop the structure was shaken loose in the 2011 earthquake and fell to the ground. The Diocese sold the property to another religious organization in early 2015.

The church caught fire on January 1, 2016 around 5 a.m. (1000 UTC) and was ablaze for three hours. No injuries were reported in the historic church.

Update: January 1, 2017. The church currently in the construction phase of being fully restored by architects Zachary Gidich and David Sepulveda. [Zachary Gidich Architecture + Design]

See also
 National Register of Historic Places listings in Essex County, New Jersey

References

Episcopal church buildings in New Jersey
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in New Jersey
Gothic Revival church buildings in New Jersey
Churches completed in 1828
19th-century Episcopal church buildings
Churches in Essex County, New Jersey
West Orange, New Jersey
National Register of Historic Places in Essex County, New Jersey
New Jersey Register of Historic Places

St. Mark's Episcopal Church (West Orange, New Jersey)


United States v. Wong Kim Ark, , is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that a child born in the United States to parents of Chinese descent automatically becomes a U.S. citizen by birth based on the Citizenship Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.

Background
Wong Kim Ark was born in San Francisco, California in 1873 to parents who were Chinese immigrants and who remained the subjects of the Emperor of China. Ark had lived in California ever since he was born. In 1882, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act. This act denied citizenship to any Chinese immigrants and did not allow any new immigrants into the United States from China until 1892. Ark's parents returned to China in 1890. He visited them there but returned to San Francisco and was recognized as a native-born American citizen when he re-entered the country. In 1894, when he was 21 years old, Ark went to visit his parents in China again. But when he returned in 1895 the U.S. Customs denied his entry, claiming he was not a U.S. citizen. Ark was returned to the ship he came on, then to another ship the Gaelic. He was sent to Peking, China where he waited for a chance to return to the United States where he lived.

Ark did not know at the time his situation would be used as a test case by the United States government. The anti-Chinese sentiment at the time was trying to undermine the Fourteenth Amendment provision which made Ark a citizen in the first place. It said "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside." Since the beginning, America had welcomed people from other countries. The Chinese came to America, mined its gold, built its railways and farmed much of northern California. But when the Panic of 1873 struck, it caused a major depression where many in the U.S. lost their jobs. The Chinese workers, who worked for very low wages, became scapegoats and were blamed for much of the trouble. There was mob violence and arson against Chinese workers in California. As a part of this, Congress enacted the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882 to try to stop Chinese immigration into the U.S.

With legal support from the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association, Ark sued the U.S. government. A District court issued a writ of Habeas corpus on Ark's behalf. Government lawyers challenged the writ. The issue was whether his birth in San Francisco made him a citizen of the United States. The argument against Ark was his parents were subjects of China which made Ark a subject of China as well. Therefore, he was not, in the words of the Fourteenth Amendment, "subject to the jurisdiction" of the United States and was therefore not a U.S. citizen. Both China and Japan held that children born to their citizens, wherever they were born, was based on their bloodline. Chinese law stated children born to Chinese nationals were citizens of China, as long as their birth is properly registered in China. The U.S. is mainly a country of citizenship by soil, also called Jus soli. This means they are citizens, by 'right of the soil', based on the state, territory or country in which they were born.
Lawyers for the federal government claimed that Chinese citizenship law was more important than U.S. citizenship law in this case. The Supreme Court disagreed.

Supreme Court decision
Both parties had agreed to the following facts of the case:
 Wong Kim Ark was born in 1873 in San Francisco, California.
 His parents were of Chinese descent and subjects of the Emperor of China.
 At the time of his birth they lived in the United States until 1890 when they departed for China.
 At the time, his parents were engaged in business and were not diplomats of the Emperor of China.
 Wong Kim Ark has never lost or changed his residence.
 At no time has Ark (or his parents for him) renounced his allegiance to the United States.
 At no time has Ark ever committed an act that might exclude him from citizenship.
 That he made two visits to China to see his parents, once in 1890 and again in 1894.
 In 1890 he was allowed to enter the United States as a citizen but was denied entry in 1894 on the grounds he was not a citizen.
 That if he is a citizen of the United States, the Chinese Exclusion Acts do not apply to him.

The question was whether the government could deny citizenship to persons born in the United States in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment. The court ruled that Ark is an American citizen by virtue of the Fourteenth Amendment. Justice Horace Gray delivered the majority opinion of the Court.

Significance
The case of United States v. Wong Kim Ark set a legal precedent for all children born in the United States, regardless of their parents' status or citizenship. During the campaigning for the United States presidential election, 2016, the issue of children born in this country to undocumented aliens has come up again. Because of Wong Kim Ark, a child born in the U.S. is a citizen regardless of his or her parents' citizenship or status. This could change by means of a Constitutional amendment, but this is a lengthy and difficult process.

References

1898 in the United States
Rights
United States Supreme Court cases

United States v. Wong Kim Ark


Robert Leroy Bartley (October 12, 1937 – December 10, 2003) was the editor of the editorial page of The Wall Street Journal for more than 30 years. He won a Pulitzer Prize for opinion writing and received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from the Bush administration in 2003.  Bartley, a graduate of Iowa State University, was famed for providing a conservative interpretation of the news every day, especially regarding economic issues.  The Forbes Media Guide Five Hundred, 1994 states:

Editor Bartley's influence stems largely from his intelligent, fearless editorship of the Journal'''s editorial and op-ed pages. Robert L. Bartley Fellowships are named in his honor.

 Personal
Bartley was the son of a professor of veterinary medicine. He was born in Marshall, Minnesota and grew up in Ames, Iowa.  Bartley received a bachelor's degree in journalism from Iowa State University and a master's degree in political science from the University of Wisconsin–Madison.  His wife Edith had three daughters with him.

 Professional
Bartley started at the Journal in 1962.  After working as a staff reporter in the Chicago and Philadelphia bureaus, he became part of the editorial page staff in 1964.  In 1972, he became editor of the editorial page, and in 1979 the editor of the Journal. He earned the 1979 Gerald Loeb Award for Columns/Editorial. In 1980, he won the Pulitzer Prize for editorial writing.  In 1982, John Tebbel, professor emeritus of journalism at New York University, called Bartley "the most influential editorial writer of my time."

In 1983, Bartley was named a vice president of Dow Jones & Company, owner of The Wall Street Journal.

Bartley was the author of "The Seven Fat Years: And How to Do It Again," published in 1992, a book on the economic policy of the Reagan administration.

In December 2002, Bartley stepped down as editor of the Wall Street Journal editorial page.  In December 2003, a week before Bartley died of cancer, President George W. Bush announced that Bartley was being awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, America's highest civilian honor.

On the free market, he said "In general, 'the market' is smarter than the smartest of its individual participants."

A supporter of NAFTA, Bartley is said to have observed to a former colleague, Peter Brimelow, "I think the nation-state is finished." Alongside his support for the free flow of goods, Bartley supported the free flow of labour across borders. He controversially wrote in favor of open borders and high rates of immigration to the United States.  After then Mexican President, Vicente Fox, declared in a speech in 2001 that "NAFTA should evolve into something like the European Union, with open borders for not only goods and investment but also people", Bartley wrote in support of having open borders between Mexico and the United States. Indeed, in that July 2, 2001 Wall Street Journal editorial, Bartley reminded readers that "during the immigration debate of 1984 we suggested an ultimate goal to guide passing policies--a constitutional amendment: 'There shall be open borders.'"

Bartley Fellowship
Robert L. Bartley Fellowships, named in honor of Bartley, are paid internships of one to six months at Wall Street Journal offices in the U.S., Europe, or Asia. Fellows assist in researching and writing editorials, editing op-ed articles, editing "Leisure & Arts" page features, and editing letters to the editor for the Journal'' and its website. Bartley Fellows have included Sohrab Ahmari, Elisabeth Eaves, Joseph Malchow, Joseph Rago, Mira Sethi and Bari Weiss.

References

External links

1937 births
2003 deaths
People from Marshall, Minnesota
The American Spectator people
The Wall Street Journal people
University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Letters and Science alumni
Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Writing winners
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Ames High School alumni
Gerald Loeb Award winners for Columns, Commentary, and Editorials

Robert Bartley


Jallikattu is a traditional event in Tamil Nadu. It is an ancient Tamil event where participants try to embrace a bull, when the bull try to knock them off. It displays the bravery of a person who embraces the bull. The person who wins the event was awarded with money in the ancient Tamil period

The earliest history of Jallikattu was from about 2500 years ago. It is held on the day of third day of Pongal festival and second day of Thai month of the Tamil calendar which is known as Maatu Pongal.

The Supreme Court ordered a ban on this event on 7th of May,2014 because of animal welfare issues.And the Tamil Nadu youngsters protested against the Supreme Court's decision at the Marina beach .Despite being banned more than 2 million people participate in this annual event. The ongoing protests forced the government of India to issue a special ordinance for jallikattu and hence the ban was lifted by the Union Government on 8th of Januar,2018. Organisations like PETA protested against this order and the people of Tamil Nadu asked for the banishment of this organisation from the state.

References

Events in India
History of Tamil Nadu

Jallikattu


The Morris Marina is a caur manufactured bi the Morris division o Breetish Leyland in the UK throughout the 1970s, which wis a period o great turbulence an difficulty for the Breetish caur industry. It wis kent in some markets as the Austin Marina, Leyland Marina, an Morris 1.7.

The model haes been widely identified as symptomatic o the problems facing the industry at that time, with poor build quality, handling likened to a "skip on wheels" an ootdated design. The 1980 replacement for the Marina, the closely related Ital, received similar criticism. The Marina haes been described as ane o the worst caurs o all time, although it wis ane o the maist popular caurs in Breetain throughout its production life.

Marina

Morris Marina