In economics and other social sciences, preference refers to the order in which an agent ranks alternatives based on their relative utility. The process results in an "optimal choice" (whether real or theoretical). Preferences are evaluations and concern matter of value, typically in relation to practical reasoning. An individual's preferences are determined purely by a person's tastes as opposed to the good's prices, personal income, and the availability of goods. However, people are still expected to act in their best (rational) interest. In this context, rationality would dictate that an individual will select the option that maximizes self-interest when given a choice. Moreover, in every set of alternatives, preferences arise.

The concept of preference plays a key role in many disciplines, including moral philosophy and decision theory. The logical properties that preferences possess also have major effects on rational choice theory, which in turn affects all modern economic topics.

Using the scientific method, social scientists aim to model how people make practical decisions in order to explain the causal underpinnings of human behaviour or to predict future behaviours. Although economists are not typically interested in the specific causes of a person's preferences, they are interested in the theory of choice because it gives a background to empirical demand analysis.

Stability of preference is a deep assumption behind most economic models. Gary Becker drew attention to this with his remark that "the combined assumptions of maximizing behavior, market equilibrium, and stable preferences, used relentlessly and unflinchingly, form the heart of the economic approach as it is." More complex conditions of adaptive preference were explored by Carl Christian von Weizsäcker in his paper "The Welfare Economics of Adaptive Preferences" (2005), while remarking that. Traditional neoclassical economics has worked with the assumption that the preferences of agents in the economy are fixed. This assumption has always been disputed outside neoclassical economics.

History
In 1926, Ragnar Frisch was the first to develop a mathematical model of preferences in the context of economic demand and utility functions. Up to then, economists had used an elaborate theory of demand that omitted primitive characteristics of people. This omission ceased when, at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, logical positivism predicated the need to relate theoretical concepts to observables. Whereas economists in the 18th and 19th centuries felt comfortable theorizing about utility, with the advent of logical positivism in the 20th century, they felt they needed a more empirical structure. Because binary choices are directly observable, they instantly appeal to economists. The search for observables in microeconomics is taken even further by the revealed preference theory, which holds consumers' preferences can be revealed by what they purchase under different circumstances, particularly under different income and price circumstances.

Despite utilitarianism and decision theory, many economists have differing definitions of what a rational agent is. In the 18th century, utilitarianism gave insight into the utility-maximizing versions of rationality; however, economists still have no consistent definition or understanding of what preferences and rational actors should be analyzed.

Since the pioneer efforts of Frisch in the 1920s, the representability of a preference structure with a real-valued function is one of the major issues pervading the theory of preferences. This has been achieved by mapping it to the mathematical index called utility. Von Neumann and Morgenstern's 1944 book "Games and Economic Behavior" treated preferences as a formal relation whose properties can be stated axiomatically. These types of axiomatic handling of preferences soon began to influence other economists: Marschak adopted it by 1950, Houthakker employed it in a 1950 paper, and Kenneth Arrow perfected it in his 1951 book "Social Choice and Individual Values".

Gérard Debreu, influenced by the ideas of the Bourbaki group, championed the axiomatization of consumer theory in the 1950s, and the tools he borrowed from the mathematical field of binary relations have become mainstream since then. Even though the economics of choice can be examined either at the level of utility functions or at the level of preferences, moving from one to the other can be useful. For example, shifting the conceptual basis from an abstract preference relation to an abstract utility scale results in a new mathematical framework, allowing new conditions on the preference structure to be formulated and investigated.

Another historical turning point can be traced back to 1895, when Georg Cantor proved in a theorem that if a binary relation is linearly ordered, then it is also isomorphic in the ordered real numbers. This notion would become very influential for the theory of preferences in economics: by the 1940s, prominent authors such as Paul Samuelson would theorize about people having weakly ordered preferences.

Historically, preference in economics as a form of utility can be categorized as ordinal or cardinal data. Both introduced in the 20th century, cardinal and ordinal utility take opposing theories and mindsets in applying and analyzing preference in utility. Vilfredo Pareto introduced the concept of ordinal utility, while Carl Menger led the idea of cardinal utility. Ordinal utility, in summation, is the direct following of preference, where an optimal choice is taken over a set of parameters. A person is expected to act in their best interests and dedicate their preference to the outcome with the greatest utility.  Ordinal utility assumes that an individual will not have the same utility from a preference as any other individual because they likely will not experience the same parameters which cause them to decide a given outcome. Cardinal utility is a function of utility where a person makes a decision based on a preference, and the preference decision is weighted based on a quantitative value of utility. This utility unit is assumed to be universally applicable and constant across all individuals. Cardinal utility also assumes consistency across individuals' decision-making processes, assuming all individuals will have the same preference, with all variables held constant. Marshall found that "a good deal of the analysis of consumer behavior could be greatly simplified by assuming that the marginal utility of income is constant" (Robert H. Strotz.), however, this cannot be held to the utility of resources and decision-making applied to income. Ordinal and cardinal utility theories provide unique viewpoints on utility, can be used differently to model decision-making preferences and utilization development, and can be used across many applications for economic analysis.

Notation
There are two fundamental comparative value concepts, namely strict preference (better) and indifference (equal in value to). These two concepts are expressed in terms of an agent's best wishes; however, they also express objective or intersubjective valid superiority that does not coincide with the pattern of wishes of any person.

Suppose the set of all states of the world is  and an agent has a preference relation on . It is common to mark the weak preference relation by , so that  means "the agent wants y at least as much as x" or "the agent weakly prefers y to x".

The symbol  is used as a shorthand to denote an indifference relation: , which reads "the agent is indifferent between y and x", meaning the agent receives the same level of benefit from each.

The symbol  is used as a shorthand to the strong preference relation: ), it is redundant inasmuch as the completeness axiom implies it already.

Non-satiation of preferences

Non-satiation refers to the belief any commodity bundle with at least as much of one good and more of the other must provide a higher utility, showing that more is always regarded as "better". This assumption is believed to hold as when consumers are able to discard excess goods at no cost, then consumers can be no worse off with extra goods. This assumption does not preclude diminishing marginal utility.

Example

Option A
 Apple = 5
 Orange = 3
 Banana = 2
Option B
 Apple = 6
 Orange = 4
 Banana = 2
In this situation, utility from Option B > A, as it contains more apples and oranges with bananas being constant.

Transitivity
Transitivity of preferences is a fundamental principle shared by most major contemporary rational, prescriptive, and descriptive models of decision-making. Arguably the most discussed logical property of preferences is the following:

 A≽B ∧ B≽C → A≽C (transitivity of weak performance)
 A∼B ∧ B∼C → A∼C (transitivity of indifference)
 A≻B ∧ B≻C → A≻C (transitivity of strict preference)

In order to have transitivity preferences, a person, player, or agent that prefers choice option B to A and A to F must prefer B to F. Claims of violations of transitivity by any decision maker (in particular individuals) requires evidence beyond any reasonable doubt, with the onus placed on the individual.

When transitivity does not hold, it results in an endless loop of indecision, as the agent will always have an outcome that is preferred no matter their choice. This is why the assumption of transitivity preference is believed to hold in most situations. Transitivity is one of the prerequisites for a rational consumer in the market.

Most commonly used axioms

 Order-theoretic: acyclicity, the semi-order property, completeness
 Topological: continuity, openness, or closeness of the preference sets
 Linear-space: convexity, homogeneity

Normative interpretations of the axioms

Everyday experience suggests that people at least talk about their preferences as if they had personal "standards of judgment" capable of being applied to the particular domain of alternatives that present themselves from time to time. Thus, the axioms attempt to model the decision maker's preferences, not over the actual choice, but over the type of desirable procedure (a procedure that any human being would like to follow). Behavioral economics investigates human behaviour which violates the above axioms. Believing in axioms in a normative way does not imply that everyone must behave according to them.

Consumers whose preference structures violate transitivity would get exposed to being exploited by some unscrupulous person. For instance, Maria prefers apples to oranges, oranges to bananas, and bananas to apples. Let her be endowed with an apple, which she can trade in a market. Because she prefers bananas to apples, she is willing to pay one cent to trade her apple for a banana. Afterwards, Maria is willing to pay another cent to trade her banana for an orange, the orange for an apple, and so on. There are other examples of this kind of irrational behaviour.

Completeness implies that some choice will be made, an assertion that is more philosophically questionable. In most applications, the set of consumption alternatives is infinite, and the consumer is unaware of all preferences. For example, one does not have to choose between going on holiday by plane or train. Suppose one does not have enough money to go on holiday anyway. In that case, it is unnecessary to attach a preference order to those alternatives (although it can be nice to dream about what one would do if one won the lottery). However, preference can be interpreted as a hypothetical choice that could be made rather than a conscious state of mind. In this case, completeness amounts to an assumption that the consumers can always make up their minds whether they are indifferent or prefer one option when presented with any pair of options.

Under some extreme circumstances, there is no "rational" choice available. For instance, if asked to choose which one of one's children will be killed, as in Sophie's Choice, there is no rational way out of it. In that case, preferences would be incomplete since "not being able to choose" is not the same as "being indifferent".

The indifference relation ~ is an equivalence relation. Thus, we have a quotient set S/~ of equivalence classes of S, which forms a partition of S. Each equivalence class is a set of packages that are equally preferred. If there are only two commodities, the equivalence classes can be graphically represented as indifference curves.
Based on the preference relation on S, we have a preference relation on S/~. As opposed to the former, the latter is antisymmetric and a total order.

Factors which affect consumer preferences

Indifference curve

An indifference curve is a graphical representation that shows the combinations of quantities of two goods for which an individual will have equal preference or utility. It is named as such because the consumer would be indifferent between choosing any combination or bundle of commodities. An indifference curve can be detected in a market when the economics of scope is not overly diverse, or the goods and services are part of a perfect market. Any bundles on the same indifference curve have the same utility level. One example of this is deodorant. Deodorant is similarly priced throughout several different brands. Deodorant also has no major differences in use; therefore, consumers have no preference in what they should use. Indifference curves are negatively sloped because of the non-satiation of preferences, as consumers cannot be indifferent between two bundles if one has more of both goods. The indifference curves are also curved inwards due to diminishing marginal utility, i.e., the reduction in the utility of every additional unit as consumers consume more of the same good. The slope of the indifference curve measures the marginal rate of substitution, which can be defined as the number of units of one good needed to replace one unit of another good without changing the overall utility.

Changes in new technology

New changes in technology are a big factor in changes of consumer preferences. When an industry has a new competitor who has found ways to make the goods or services work more effectively, it can change the market completely. An example of this is the Android operating system. Some years ago, Android struggled to compete with Apple for market share. With the advances in technology throughout the last five years, they have passed the stagnant Apple brand. Changes in technology examples are but are not limited to increased efficiency, longer-lasting batteries, and a new easier interface for consumers.

Social influence

Changes in preference can also develop as a result of social interactions among consumers. If decision-makers are asked to make choices in isolation, the results may differ from those if they were to make choices in a group setting. By means of social interactions, individual preferences can evolve without any necessary change to the utility. This can be exemplified by taking the example of a group of friends having lunch together. Individuals in such a group may change their food preferences after being exposed to their friends' preferences. Similarly, if an individual tends to be risk-averse but is exposed to a group of risk-seeking people, his preferences may change over time.

Types of preferences

Convex preferences

Convex preferences relate to averages between two points on an indifference curve. It comes in two forms, weak and strong. In its weak form, convex preferences state that if . Then the average of A and B is at least as good as A. In contrast, the average of A and B would be preferred in its strong form. This is why in its strong form, the indifference line curves in, meaning that the average of any two points would result in a point further away from the origin, thus giving a higher utility. One way to check convexity is to connect two random points on the same indifference curve and draw a straight line through these two points, and then pick one point on the straight line between those two points. If the utility level of the picked point on the straight line is greater than that of those two points, this is a strictly convex preference. Convexity is one of the prerequisites for a rational consumer in the market when maximizing his utility level under the budget constraint.

Concave preferences
Concave preferences are the opposite of convex, where when , the average of A and B is worse than A. This is because concave curves slope outwards, meaning an average between two points on the same indifference curve would result in a point closer to the origin, thus giving a lower utility. To determine whether the preference is concave or not, one way is still to connect two random points on the same difference curve and draw a straight line through these two points, and then pick one point on the straight line between those two points. If the utility level of the picked point on the straight line is lower than that of those two points, this is a strictly concave preference.

Straight line indifference
Straight-line similarities occur when there are perfect substitutes. Perfect substitutes are goods and/or services that can be used the same way as the good or service it replaces. When , the average of A and B will fall on the same indifference line and give the same utility.

Types of goods affecting preferences
When a consumer is faced with a choice between different goods, the type of goods they are choosing between will affect how they make their decision process. To begin with, when there are normal goods, these goods have a direct correlation with the income the consumer makes, meaning as they make more money, they will choose to consume more of this good, and as their income decreases, they will consume less of the good. However, the opposite is inferior goods; these negatively correlate with income. Hence, as consumers make less money, they'll consume more inferior goods as they are seen as less desirable, meaning they come with a reduced cost. As they make more money, they'll consume fewer inferior goods and have the money available to buy more desirable goods. An example of a normal good would-be branded clothes, as they are more expensive compared to their inferior good counterparts which are non-branded clothes. Goods that are not affected by income as referred to as a necessity good, which are product(s) and services that consumers will buy regardless of the changes in their income levels. These usually include medical care, clothing and basic food. Finally, there are also luxury goods, which are the most expensive and deemed the most desirable. Just like normal goods, as income increases, so is the demand for luxury goods; however, in the case of luxury goods, the greater the income, the greater the demand for luxury goods.

Applications to theories of utility
In economics, a utility function is often used to represent a preference structure such that  if and only if . The idea is to associate each class of indifference with a real number such that if one class is preferred to the other, then the number of the first one is greater than that of the second one. When a preference order is both transitive and complete, it is standard practice to call it a rational preference relation, and the people who comply with it are rational agents. A transitive and complete relation is called a  weak order (or total preorder) . The literature on preferences is far from being standardized regarding terms such as complete, partial, strong, and weak. Together with the terms "total", "linear", "strong complete", "quasi-orders", "pre-orders", and "sub-orders", which also have different meanings depending on the author's taste, there has been an abuse of semantics in the literature.

According to Simon Board, a continuous utility function always exists if  is a continuous rational preference relation on . For any such preference relation, there are many continuous utility functions that represent it. Conversely, every utility function can be used to construct a unique preference relation.

All the above is independent of the prices of the goods and services and the budget constraints consumers face. These determine the feasible bundles (which they can afford). According to the standard theory, consumers choose a bundle within their budget such that no other feasible bundle is preferred over it, thus maximizing their utility.

Primitive equivalents of some known properties of utility functions
 An increasing utility function is associated with a monotonic preference relation.
 Quasi-concave utility functions are associated with a convex preference order. When non-convex preferences arise, the Shapley–Folkman lemma is applicable.

Lexicographic preferences
Lexicographic preferences are a special case of preferences that assign an infinite value to a good when compared with the other goods of a bundle.

Georgescu-Roegen pointed out that the measurability of the utility theory is limited as it excludes lexicographic preferences.  Causing an amplified level of awareness placed upon lexicographic preferences as a substitute hypothesis on consumer behaviour.

Strict versus weak
The possibility of defining a strict preference relation  as distinguished from the weaker one , and vice versa, suggests in principle an alternative approach of starting with the strict relation  as the primitive concept and deriving the weaker one and the indifference relation. However, an indifference relation derived this way will generally not be transitive. The conditions to avoid such inconsistencies were studied in detail by Andranik Tangian. According to Kreps "beginning with strict preference makes it easier to discuss non-comparability possibilities".

Elicitation of preferences

The mathematical foundations of most common types of preferences — that are representable by quadratic or additive utility functions — laid down by Gérard Debreu
enabled Andranik Tangian to develop methods for their elicitation.
In particular, additive and quadratic preference functions in  variables can be constructed from interviews, where questions are aimed at tracing totally  2D-indifference curves in  coordinate planes.

Criticism
Some critics say that rational theories of choice and preference theories rely too heavily on the assumption of invariance, which states that the relation of preference should not depend on the description of the options or on the method of elicitation. But without this assumption, one's preferences cannot be represented as maximization of utility.

Milton Friedman said that segregating taste factors from objective factors (i.e. prices, income, availability of goods) is conflicting because both are "inextricably interwoven".

The non-satiation of preferences is another topic that generates debate since it essentially states that "more is better than less." Many argue that this interpretation is flawed and highly subjective. Many critics call for a specification of preference to be able to interpret the non-satiation principle reasonably. For example, in cases where there is a choice between more pollution and less pollution, consumers would rationally prefer less pollution thus making the non-satiation principle fail. Similar conflicts with the principle can be seen in choices that involve bulky goods in a limited space, such as an excess of furniture in a small house.

The concept of transitivity is highly debated, with many examples suggesting that it does not generally hold. One of the most well-known is the Sorites paradox, which shows that indifference between small changes in value can be incrementally extended to indifference between large changes in values.

Another criticism comes from philosophy. Philosophers cast doubt that when most consumers share the same preference in the same market, which may lead to the result that the shared preference has become somewhat objective, whether the judgments of preferences for each individual will still depend on subjectivity or not.

See also

References

Microeconomics
Utility

Preference (economics)


Squeeze or squeezing may refer to:

Film and television

 Squeeze (1980 film), a New Zealand drama
 Squeeze (1997 film), an American crime film
 "Squeeze" (The X-Files), a TV episode
 "Squeeze" (The Walking Dead), a TV episode

Music
 Squeeze (band), an English rock band
 Squeeze (Squeeze album), 1978
 Squeeze (The Velvet Underground album), 1973
 Squeeze (Fiona album), 1992
 Squeeze (Sasami album). 2022
 "Squeeze", a song by Fifth Harmony from 7/27, 2016
 Squeeze, an earlier name for the 1970s band T.U.S.H.

Science and technology
 Squeeze, a version of Debian GNU/Linux
 SQ (program), a 1980s file compression utility
 Sorenson Squeeze, a video transcoder (2001–2019)
 Barotrauma, injuries caused by a pressure difference

Sports and games
 Squeeze (chess) or zugzwang, a chess tactic
 Squeeze play (baseball), a type of sacrifice in baseball
 Squeeze play (bridge), a tactic in contract bridge
 Squeeze play (poker), a bluff re-raise

Other uses
 Squeeze paper, or squeeze, a reverse copy of an inscription
 Hug, a form of human endearment
 Squeeze, a Prohibition era alcoholic drink made from Sterno

See also

 The Squeeze (disambiguation)
 Squeezed (disambiguation)
 Compression (physics), applying balanced inward forces
 Squeeze bottle, to hold viscous fluids
 Squeezebox (disambiguation)
 Squeeze job, in oil and gas exploration
 Squeeze play (disambiguation)
 Squeeze theorem, in calculus
 Short squeeze and long squeeze, in the stock market
 SQUOZE, a 1958 punch-card data compression scheme
 Main Squeeze (disambiguation), in music

Squeeze


Percy Melville Thornton (29 December 1841 – 8 January 1918) was a British Conservative politician  and author.

Thornton was the oldest surviving son of Rear Admiral Samuel Thornton (c.1797-1859) & his wife Emily Elizabeth née Rice. His grandfather was the abolitionist MP Samuel Thornton and his uncle was Henry Thornton, founder of the Clapham Sect.

Thornton attended Harrow School and Jesus College, Cambridge. His interest in athletics led to him becoming secretary of Cambridge University Athletics Club in 1863. He was also a keen cricketer, inspired by his cousin Charles Inglis Thornton. From 1871 to 1899, he was Honorary Secretary of Middlesex County Cricket Club.

In 1877, Thornton married his second cousin, Florence Emily Thornton, daughter of the banker Henry Sykes Thornton. In 1880, he took up residence at the family home in Clapham.

Thornton rejected his family's adherence to Liberal politics and became a supporter of the Conservative party. In 1880, he began his writing career with the pamphlet Recovered Thread of England's Foreign Policy, which espoused Conservative policies. Thornton followed this with the three-volume Foreign Secretaries of the Nineteenth Century (1891), Harrow School and its Surroundings''' (1883), The Brunswick Ascension (1887) and The Stuart Dynasty (1890).

At the general election of 1892, Thornton was elected as MP for Clapham. He successfully defended the seat three times before retiring from parliament in 1910. Following his retirement from politics, he was elected to the position of Registrar of the Royal Literary Fund, and wrote an autobiography, Some Things I Have Remembered'' in 1911.

References

External links

Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 1892–1895
UK MPs 1895–1900
UK MPs 1900–1906
UK MPs 1906–1910
1841 births
1918 deaths
People educated at Harrow School
Alumni of Jesus College, Cambridge
English writers
English cricketers
Cambridge University cricketers
Middlesex cricketers
Gentlemen of the South cricketers

Percy Thornton


Regionalverkehr Bern-Solothurn RBS () is a Swiss public transport company. It operates train, tram, and bus lines between Bern, Solothurn and Worb.

History
There had been a desire for a direct connection between Solothurn and Bern since the middle of the nineteenth century, only partly satisfied by the opening of a standard gauge line between Solothurn and Burgdorf by the Emmentalbahn in 1876. A campaign for a line via Fraubrunnen finally resulted in a concession granted in 1912 for the Elektrische Solothurn-Bern-Bahn (ESB) to build a metre-gauge line between Solothurn and Zollikofen. Here it would connect with the Bern-Zollikofen-Bahn, which had been opened in the same year. The full line was opened on 9 April 1916, but for the first eight years, passengers were obliged to change trains in Zollikofen. Public pressure led to the fusion of the two lines into the Solothurn-Zollikofen-Bahn (SZB) in 1922.

The town of Worb had been connected to Bern by the Bern-Worb-Bahn (BWB) in 1898, and the Worblentalbahn subsequently connected Worb with the villages of the Worble valley, making a connection with the BZB line at Worblaufen. The two lines to Worb fused in 1927 into the Vereinigte Bern-Worb-Bahnen (VBW). After a series of working agreements in the 1970s, the SZB and the VWB finally merged into the RBS in November 1984 through a series of mergers. 94% of RBS shares are owned by federal, cantonal and local authorities.

As of 2006, the company has 361 employees and owns 185 vehicles. It operates on 57 km of track and 61 km of bus lines and transports 23.5 million passengers each year. The subterranean RBS train station in Bern is the country's eighth-largest in terms of passenger usage, with 49,000 people using it on peak days. This heavy usage leads to overcrowding during peak hours. To increase the station's passenger handling capacity and reduce overcrowding, strict rules have been put into place to govern passenger flow.

A steady programme of track-doubling has significantly increased track capacity. Planning has already started to increase the size and capacity of the station in terms of passenger flow and number of trains it can handle. In 2009, a 15-minute interval for all lines was planned, which takes the station to the limit of its ability to handle passengers.

New 120 km/h train sets have been introduced on the RE line (Bern - Solothurn) to enable running at 15-minute intervals. These sets were made by Stadler Rail AG.

Lines

Train

Tram

Bus

Rolling stock

Rail

References

 Annual report, 2006

External links

Railway companies of Switzerland
Transport companies of Switzerland
Metre gauge railways in Switzerland
Railway companies established in 1984
Swiss companies established in 1984
Transport companies established in 1984

Regionalverkehr Bern-Solothurn


Imber is an uninhabited village and former civil parish within the British Army's training area, now in the parish of Heytesbury, on Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, England. It lies in an isolated area of the Plain, about  west of the A360 road between Tilshead and West Lavington. A linear village, its main street follows the course of a stream.

Recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086, Imber was always an isolated community, several miles from any market town, and most of its men worked in agriculture or related trades. Beginning in the 1890s, the Ministry of Defence slowly bought up the village and in 1943 the whole population of about 150 was evicted to provide an exercise area for American troops preparing for the invasion of Europe during the Second World War. After the war, the villagers were not allowed to return to their homes. It remains under the control of the Ministry of Defence despite several attempts by former residents to return. Non-military access is limited to several open days a year.

History

Early history
Settlement in the area began before the period of Roman rule, in the British Iron Age or earlier. Several ancient trackways lead to and from the village. The first documentary evidence of Imber's existence comes from Saxon times, with a mention of the village in 967. A small settlement called Imembrie with seven households was recorded in the 1086 Domesday Book. The village's church of St Giles dates from the 13th century and has notable wall-paintings from the 15th. By the 14th century the population of the village had risen to around 250, where it is believed to have remained until the 19th century. Population peaked at 440 as recorded in the census of 1851, declining to around 150 by the time of Imber's evacuation.

Imber was always an isolated community, Salisbury Plain being relatively sparsely populated. Most of its residents were employed in agriculture or work that directly depended on it. The village had the elongated form of a linear village and its main street followed the course of a stream known as Imber Dock. The only building to survive in a reasonable condition is the church; the rest became derelict or were demolished by the Army. In 1943 there was also a Baptist chapel (built in 1839, demolished in the late 1970s), a post office and a pub called the Bell Inn, which still stands; as do the manor house, Imber Court, and a farmhouse, farm cottages, a small school house and four "council house"-type blocks built in 1938.

Eviction and military use
In the late 19th century the War Office began buying land on Salisbury Plain, primarily to the east of Imber, and using it for manœuvres. Beginning in the late 1920s, farms around Imber were bought, as well as the land on which the village sat. The pressures of agricultural depression, combined with the good prices offered by the military, encouraged the sale of land, with few being put off by the new conditions of their tenancy, which allowed the War Office to assume control and evict the residents if necessary. By the time of the Second World War, almost all of the land in and around Imber, except the church, vicarage, chapel, schoolroom and the Bell Inn, belonged to the War Office.

On 1 November 1943, with preparations for the Allied invasion of mainland Europe under way, the people of Imber were called to a meeting in the village schoolroom and given 47 days' notice to leave their homes; Imber was to be used by US forces to practise street fighting. Richard Madigan's evidence to the Defence Lands Committee (DLC) stated that street fighting practice never took place and that his and others' duties were to keep the village in good repair for the villagers' eventual return. The reason for eviction was the village's proximity to shell impact areas.

Although upset about being forced to leave, most villagers put up no resistance, even leaving canned provisions in their kitchens and taking the view that it was their duty to contribute to the war effort in this waymaking sacrifices on the Home Front for the greater good. Compensation for the move was limited and the occupants of one farm had to be forcibly evicted by the Army. Albert Nash, who had been the village blacksmith for over 40 years, is said to have been found sobbing over his anvil and later became the first resident to die and be brought back to Imber for burial. It was said that he died of a broken heart after being forced to leave the village.

After the war, the village was used extensively for training, particularly preparing soldiers for service in the urban environments of Northern Ireland during The Troubles, and several empty house-like buildings were constructed in the 1970s to aid training. Since 1988, urban warfare training has been centred at a purpose-built complex at Copehill Down, about 3 miles to the southeast.

The Bell Inn was sold to the MoD in the mid-1950s and the Baptist Chapel in the late 1970s. The civil parish of Imber was eventually incorporated into neighbouring Heytesbury, to the south, while for Church of England purposes the ecclesiastical parish of Imber was incorporated into the parish of Edington, to the north.

Restoration attempts
Many of the village's buildings suffered shell and explosion damage after the war when UK military operations began and were additionally eroded by the weather, quickly falling into disrepair. Although the villagers had been told they could return in six months, this was never allowed. At the end of the war, efforts were made to restore Imber to its pre-war conditionalthough there was very little damagebut the decision was taken not to relinquish control. Documentary evidence of a return agreement was only discovered in the 1970s.

In 1961, a rally in the village was organised to demand that the villagers be allowed to move back and over 2,000 people attended, including many former residents. A public inquiry was held and found in favour of Imber's continued military use. The matter was also raised in the House of Lords and it was decided that the church would be maintained and would be open for worship on the Saturday closest to St Giles' Day each year, a practice that continues.

A further attempt to restore Imber took place in the early 1970s, when the Defence Lands Committee (DLC) was given the task of looking into the need for the retention of Ministry of Defence lands. The Imber case was represented before the DLC by David J. Johnson, an Imber researcher; Richard Madigan, a former soldier who helped to evacuate the villageand testified to the promise of return after the warand Rex Mutters, a wartime fighter pilot. They were assisted by Austin Underwood, who had led the campaign in the early 1960s, and backed-up with written evidence from former villagers. In spite of all the additional evidence, including the first re-appearance since 1943 of the original eviction letter (which indicated return), the DLC recommended that the village be retained for military use.

Present day
The annual church service, on the Saturday nearest to 1 September (St Giles' Day), has been attended by former residents, soldiers who have used the village for training, and the general public. A small number of former residents have been buried in the churchyard, with funeral services held in the church.  Since 2009 there has been a carol service on the Saturday before Christmas. The Ministry of Defence is required to allow public access to the village on between one and fifty days a year; in the late 2010s, the open days were reduced to three because of trespassing.

Since 2009, the annual summer opening of the village has been served by Routemaster double-decker buses on a scheduled service from Warminster known as Imberbus, which raises money for charity.

St Giles' parish church

Unlike the rest of the parish, St Giles' church and its graveyard remained in the hands of the Diocese of Salisbury, although access was and still is controlled by the Ministry of Defence. The church was recorded as Grade I listed in 1987.

By 2001 it had become clear, according to a Church of England press release, that St Giles's "was in need of extensive repairs". Since it was not possible for the parochial church council to accept liability for the maintenance of a building to which they only had effective access for worship once a year, the Edington with Imber PCC requested that Imber church be declared redundant, a process which ended in 2005 with the vesting of the church in the Churches Conservation Trust. In the meantime, the church tower had been struck by lightning in 2003, weakening the structure, but restoration work began in 2008 and the annual service resumed in September 2009 upon completion of the repair works.

On 5 January 2023 the burial of Ray Nash took place, the second known burial at St Giles' graveyard since evacuation in 1943. Nash was a great nephew of the village blacksmith Albert Nash, was born in Imber and was one of the last recorded baptisms in the church. His father Jim died in 1936 and was also buried at Imber, and Ray Nash had wanted to be reunited with his father upon his death. He may have been the last remaining former inhabitant of Imber.

Governance
In 1961 the parish had a population of 0. On 1 April 1991 the parish was abolished and merged with Heytesbury. A parish council known as "Heytesbury, Imber and Knook" covers this parish and the neighbouring parish of Knook. Although it has no electors, Imber is represented in parliament by the member for South West Wiltshire, Andrew Murrison; and on Wiltshire Council by Christopher Newbury.

With the exception of St Giles' church, the whole of the former parish is owned by the Ministry of Defence and is administered as part of its Salisbury Plain Training Area.

Popular culture
Imber features in the 1965 movie Catch Us If You Can, the debut feature film of director John Boorman and a starring vehicle for the British pop group The Dave Clark Five.

In Victor Canning's 1972 novel for teenagers The Runaways, the cheetah that has escaped from Longleat Safari Park makes a den on the firing range close to Imber and her cubs are found there by the young hero Smiler.

A photograph taken in Imber is featured on the cover of These Four Walls, the 2009 debut album from Scottish indie rock band We Were Promised Jetpacks.

The 2013 novel The Sea Change by Joanna Rossiter centres on the evacuation of Imber and the subsequent experiences of fictional characters from the village in the war and post-war years.

Neil Spring's 2017 novel The Lost Village, a ghost story featuring ghost hunter Harry Price, is set in Imber.

Imber features in the fourth episode of Michael Portillo's Channel 5 series Portillo's Hidden History of Britain broadcast 11 May 2018.

Musical references
Mount Vernon Arts Lab recorded the instrumental piece Imber by Drew Mulholland and this was released on Earworm Subscription Series in 1998 (WORMSS2).

Little Imber by the Georgian composer Giya Kancheli is a piece for small ensemble, voice, children's and men's choirs. It was performed in the church at Imber in 2003 and the recording released on ECM Records in 2008 (ECM 1812).

The Norwegian electronic duo Kook recorded an album called Imber, Wiltshire of seven wordless compositions all with titles taken from the village and its inhabitants. This was released on Va Fongool Records (VAFCD011).

The Wiltshire folk group The Yirdbards recorded their song The Ghosts of Old Imber at St Giles' Church in the village in October 2013 and released it on CD in 2014 to raise funds for the church.

A song called Imber appears on Convenience Kills, an album by the group Bad Amputee released in 2020 (Ferric Mordant FE11).

A cassette album, Look to Imber, appeared in 2022 on the Modern Aviation label containing twelve experimental or folk-based pieces loosely based on the story of the village.

The Lost Village of Imber is a piece for brass band, composed by Christopher Bond and commissioned by the Bratton Silver Band in 2019 with the support of Arts Council England and The Norman Jones Trust Fund, to celebrate the band's 160th anniversary. It received its first public performance by the Cory Band in 2020  and was first performed by the Bratton Silver Band in September 2022 at Holy Trinity Church in Dilton Marsh, around 9 miles from the site of Imber village. The piece went on to be selected as the test piece for the Third Section at the 2023 National Brass Band Championship of Great Britain.

Gallery

See also
Imber friendly fire incident (1942)
Tynehamanother village taken over for military purposes
Langford, Norfolk
Mynydd Epynt
The Stanford Battle Area, in Norfolk, contains six villages also taken over for military purposes.

References

Further reading

Revels, G. S. (c. 1972) A Thousand years of History: a short guide to St Giles Church and the Parish of Imber.

External links

Parish of Heytesbury, Imber, Knook and Tytherington
St Giles Church
Imberbus
Gallery of photos of Imber, 2003  from ThincTanc
Imber: An English Ghost Town  — slideshow by Life magazine
Audio slideshow: The lost village of Imber — audio slideshow by the BBC

Etymology of the name – Wiltshire Community History

World War II sites in England
Villages in Wiltshire
Military history of Wiltshire
Installations of the British Army
Former populated places in Wiltshire
Ghost towns in England
Former civil parishes in Wiltshire
Forcibly depopulated communities in the United Kingdom during World War II

Imber


This article describes any leap year starting on Thursday. Examples include 1920, 1948, 1976, 2004, 2032, 2060 and 2088 in the Gregorian Calendar, which is used in most of the world. Similarly, the dominical letter is DC.

This leap year is one of three leap years that have two Friday the 13ths, the others being Leap year starting on Monday and Leap year starting on Wednesday. The Friday the 13ths in this leap year are in February and August.

In this leap year, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is on January 19, Valentine's Day is on a Saturday, Presidents Day is on February 16, the leap day, February 29, is on a Sunday, St. Patrick's Day is on a Wednesday, Mother's Day is on May 9, Memorial Day is on its latest possible date, May 31, Father's Day is on June 20, Independence Day is on a Sunday, Labor Day is on September 6, Columbus Day is on October 11, Halloween is on a Sunday, Veterans Day is on a Thursday, Thanksgiving is on November 25, and Christmas is on a Saturday.

Calendar

The ISO year has 53 weeks in this kind of year, and the ISO week 10 (which begins March 1) and all ISO weeks after are  earlier than in other years.

References

Leap years by day

Leap year starting on Thursday


Durrell is a community on the southern island of Twillingate, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. The village is located off Route 340, named Durrell Street. It is a part of the Town of Twillingate.

A popular tourist destination in Durrell is the Durrell Museum, located on Museum Street. It features many different historical exhibits including a polar bear that once set foot on Twillingate island.

Durrell has one department store, which has groceries and hardware, other stores are found in the nearby main town of Twillingate. There are no educational institutions in the village either, instead residents travel to Twillingate for elementary, middle and high school.

Durrell is split into many different "divisions", which aren't marked today but still are known by past and current residents of the area including Upper Jenkins Cove (mainly Upper Jenkins Cove Road; Gillesport Road area), Lower Jenkins Cove (Durrell Street) and Gillesport (Farmers Arm Road - Howlett's Road). There are many other side streets around the village.

See also
Twillingate
Crow Head
Little Harbour
Purcell's Harbour
Bayview
Back Harbour

External links
J.M. Olds Collegiate - High School G7-G12
Twillingate Elementary - K-6

Former towns in Newfoundland and Labrador
Populated places in Newfoundland and Labrador

Durrell, Newfoundland and Labrador


Luseane Halaevalu Mataʻaho, as daughter of a Tuʻi Kanokupolu, was destined to become a moheofo, the principal wife of the Tuʻi Tonga. But her brother Tāufaʻāhau was the enemy of Sanualio Laufilitonga, and he worked out a trick to deprive the latter of an heir. He sent his sister first away to become a wife of the current Tuʻihaʻateiho, and only after she had given birth to a child was she sent to the Tuʻi Tonga. But then no longer a virgin, she was not acceptable any more.

Luseane Halaevalu Mataʻaho/en


Abdulrahman Mohammed Jamsheer (born Al Muharraq Governorate, Kingdom of Bahrain, 1944) is a prominent Bahraini businessman and politician.

Mr. Jamsheer was appointed by his Majesty the King of the Kingdom of Bahrain as a member and then elected as the First Deputy Chairman of the Shura Council for the period of 2002-2006 and now serves as the Chairman of the Foreign Affairs, Defense and National Security of the Shura Council in the Kingdom of Bahrain.

During the start of his career he worked in Bahrain's Ministry of Agriculture and later the United Nation's Food and Agriculture Organization.  In 1973, he amongst others founded the National Import and Export Company, currently Esterad Investment Company, and was appointed as the General Manager until 1980, and from 1980-Present; Managing Director, member of the Board of Directors and Investment Committee. He is also President of Bahrain's most notable cultural and social organization, the Alumni Club, from 1994 until today. He is one of the most active members of Bahrain's Shura Council, being a member (at that time only an advisory council) from 1996 until 2001.  As a selected member of the National Action Charter preparation committee, he was elected as the General Secretary.  After the induction of the Kingdom of Bahrain's National Charter in 2001, he was appointed once again to the Upper House of the National Assembly, which has been since then an arm of the legislative branch. In 2002, he founded the National Action Charter Society and remained as President until 2005. Mr Jamsheer was previously the First Vice Chairman of the Shura Council and now serves as the Chairman of the Foreign Affairs, Defence and National Security of the Shura Council in the Kingdom of Bahrain. Mr Jamsheer is also a member of the Arab League Parliament.

Mr. Jamsheer is a graduate of Lebanon's prestigious American University of Beirut with a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) and Engineer Agricole Diploma.  He worked in Bahrain's public sector from 1967 upon his graduation and until he joined the UNFAO in 1971. Mr Jamsheer was the founder of National Import and Export Company, a commodities import and export company, until its portfolio was changed in 2000 to a full-fledged investment company traded on the Bahrain Stock Exchange (BSE). Thus, the company is today known as Esterad Investment Company. Mr. Jamsheer was from 1984-1989 a board member of the elected, Bahrain Chamber of Commerce and Industry (BCCI).

Mr. Jamsheer is currently the Chairman of Delmon Poultry Company & Bahrain District Cooling Company (TABREED) and Vice Chairman of Khaleeji Commercial Bank, Esterad Investment Company & Lona Real Estate Development Company and Board Member of BANZ, United Cement Company, Saar Investment Company and Daih Real Estate Development Company. Mr. Jamsheer was formerly board members of Ahli Commercial Bank, KIPCO (Kuwait Investments Project Company) and Chairman of both Balexco Aluminum Company and Etisalcom Telecommunication Holding Company.

As an active member of Bahrain's private sector, he is also an active of philanthropic committees and associations, as well as his role in Bahrain's legislative branch.

External links
 Esterad Investment Company
 Bahrain's Shura Council
 National Action Charter Society (Al Meethaq)

1944 births
Living people
Members of the Consultative Council (Bahrain)

Abdulrahman Mohammed Jamsheer


Robert Hawthorne VC (1822 – 2 February 1879) born in Maghera, County Londonderry was an Irish recipient of the Victoria Cross (VC), the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.

Life
He was approximately 35 years old, and a Bugler in the 52nd (Oxfordshire) Regiment of Foot (later the Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry), British Army during the Indian Mutiny. On 14 September 1857 he was in a column tasked with forcing an entry into Delhi through the Kashmiri Gate on its northern wall. This had first to be blown up. Hawthorne was awarded the VC on the following commendation:

Bugler Hawthorne, who accompanied the explosion party, not only performed the dangerous duty on which he was employed, but previously attached himself to Lieutenant Salkeld, of the Engineers, when dangerously wounded, bound up his wounds under a heavy musketry fire, and had him removed without further injury". (General Order of Major-General Sir Archdale Wilson, Bart., K.C.B., dated Head Quarters, Delhi City, 21 September 1857.)

Death
He died in Manchester, Lancashire on 2 February 1879. He is buried in Ardwick Cemetery. His grave is unmarked since headstones in this cemetery were removed in the 1950s.

Further information
His Victoria Cross is displayed at the Royal Green Jackets (Rifles) Museum, Winchester, Hampshire, England.

References

Further reading
The Register of the Victoria Cross (1981, 1988 and 1997)

Ireland's VCs  (Dept of Economic Development, 1995)
Monuments to Courage (David Harvey, 1999)
Irish Winners of the Victoria Cross (Richard Doherty & David Truesdale, 2000)

External links
Location of grave and VC medal (Manchester)

1822 births
1879 deaths
19th-century Irish people
Irish soldiers in the British Army
52nd Regiment of Foot soldiers
Irish recipients of the Victoria Cross
Indian Rebellion of 1857 recipients of the Victoria Cross
People from Maghera
Military personnel from County Londonderry
British military musicians
British Army recipients of the Victoria Cross
Burials in Greater Manchester

Robert Hawthorne


Launch Complex 21 (LC-21) at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, Florida is a launch complex that was used for horizontal launches of cruise missiles between 1958 and 1963. It initially consisted of a single launch rail, from which XSM-73 Bull Goose missiles were tested. Between 1959 and 1960, the complex was rebuilt for the MGM-13 Mace, with a second rail added, and a large concrete structure erected around the launch rails, earning the pad the nickname of "the hardsite".

It shared a blockhouse with Launch Complex 22 was also used for Bull Goose and Mace launches. Unusual for a U.S. launch site, the individual pads in the complex have numerical designations, similar to those used by the Soviet Union, rather than alphabetical designations as used on most other U.S. complexes.

History
Construction at LC-21 started in 1956, leading to acceptance into military service on 26 February 1957, with Launch Complex 22. The first test of a Bull Goose rocket from LC-21 occurred on 24 July 1958. All Bull Goose launches from LC-21 used rail 1. The last Bull Goose launch from LC-21 was conducted on 5 December 1958.

Following the end of Bull Goose test flights, Complex 21 was renovated for the Mace rocket. This involved the addition of the second launch rail, and the construction of a concrete structure surrounding the complex. The first Mace launch from LC-21/1 occurred on 11 July 1960. This was followed on 4 December 1962 with the first launch from LC-21/2. LC-21/1 was used for 34 Mace launches, whilst LC-21/2 was used for three. The last launch from rail 2 occurred on 28 June 1963, followed by the final launch from the complex, using rail 21, on 17 July 1963.

After the last launch, the complex was retained as a backup site until the 1970s, in case a future missile needed to use it. As of 2009, the complex was still standing.

References

Launch Complex 21

Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 21


The Battle of Khe Sanh was a battle of the Vietnam War during the Tet Offensive. It was fought from 21 January to 9 July 1968. Khe Sanh was an important target for the communist Vietnamese soldiers to attack because it was a city near the border between North Vietnam anf South Vietnam, and there was a American-South Vietnamese military base nearby. The United States and the South Vietnamese Armies fought off communist soldiers in most of the battle zones for two months, but the Battle of Khe Sanh lasted much longer. It was one of the longest and deadliest battles in the entire war.

Khe Sanh
Khe Sanh
20th century in Vietnam
Khe Sanh
1960s conflicts
1968 in Asia

Battle of Khe Sanh


Donald Mcintosh Kendall (March 16, 1921 – September 19, 2020) was an American businessman and political adviser. He served as CEO of Pepsi Cola (which merged with Herman Lay's Frito Lay, Inc. to become PepsiCo in 1965) and as CEO of PepsiCo from 1971 to 1986.

Early life
Donald Kendall was born in Clallam County, Washington, where his family owned a dairy farm, in 1921.

Military service
In 1942 Kendall joined the U.S. Navy.  As a Navy Catalina PBY seaplane pilot he assisted in the Landings at Manila Bay, Mindoro, and Leyte Gulf. He was awarded 3 Air Medals and a Distinguished Flying Cross.

Education
Kendall attended Western Kentucky State College. He was the recipient of an Honorary Doctorate of Law Degree from Stetson University, DeLand, Florida; an Honorary Doctorate of Law Degree from Babson College, Wellesley, Massachusetts; and a Doctor of Law from Gonzaga University in Spokane, Washington. Kendall also received Doctor of Humane Letters degrees from Mercy College, Dobbs Ferry, New York; Manhattanville College, Purchase, New York; the State University of New York (SUNY) Purchase; and Long Island University, Brookville, New York.

Pepsi Cola, Inc.
Kendall joined the Pepsi Cola Company in 1947, working at a bottling plant in New Rochelle, New York.  After a later stint as a delivery driver, Kendall became a sales representative and rose through the sales ranks becoming a marketing vice president in 1956. He headed up Pepsi's international operation in 1957 and became the CEO in 1963. In 1963, he made the decision to change the name of Pepsi's diet soda from Patio Diet Cola to Diet Pepsi. In the early years of diet soft drinks, Pepsi became the first major soda manufacturer to give its diet product the same name as its flagship product.

Kendall brought Pepsi to Russia and was awarded the Order of Friendship by Vladimir Putin, President of Russia, in 2004. He oversaw the creation of the Donald M. Kendall Sculpture Gardens, a sculpture park that includes gardens, trails, parks, and a collection of art, primarily 20th century sculpture including works by Auguste Rodin, David Wynne, Alberto Giacometti, and Alexander Calder, at PepsiCo's corporate headquarters in Purchase, New York.

Board memberships
Kendall sat on numerous corporate boards including the Director of Enfrastructure, Inc., Buy.com, AmRest Holdings SE, National Alliance of Businessmen, and Grocery Manufacturers of America, Inc. He was also the main investor of American Giant, a clothing manufacturing company.

Chile
In 1970, Kendall requested and participated in a high-level meeting of Chilean businessman and publisher
Agustín Edwards Eastman of the Edwards family with high Nixon administration officials, after which President Nixon met with then-National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger and CIA Director Richard Helms and, in the words of a 1976 New York Times article, said "that Chile was to be saved from Salvador Allende and he didn't care much how."

According to The Guardian:...the October 1970 plot against Chile's President-elect Salvador Allende ... was the direct result of a plea for action a month earlier by Donald Kendall, chairman of PepsiCo, in two telephone calls to the company's former lawyer, President Richard Nixon. Kendall arranged for the owner of the company's Chilean bottling operation to meet National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger on September 15. Hours later, Nixon called in his CIA chief, Richard Helms, and, according to Helms's handwritten notes, ordered the CIA to prevent Allende's inauguration.

Joan Crawford
Kendall had a stormy professional relationship with actress Joan Crawford, who referred to Kendall as "Fang" until her death in 1977. Crawford gained a seat on the board of directors of Pepsi Cola Company after the death of her husband Alfred Steele, who was the chairman of the board of Pepsi, in 1959. She was active in promoting Pepsi-Cola, traveling both nationally and internationally for events such as plant openings and new product promotions. In 1973, when Crawford officially turned 65 (she was actually two years older born in 1906), she was forcibly retired from her position on the company's board of directors.

Richard Nixon
Kendall was well acquainted with Richard Nixon and was photographed with Nixon as vice president, and with Nikita Khrushchev during Nixon's Moscow trip known for the Kitchen Debate. During the Nixon administration Pepsi Cola was always a prominent beverage at White House functions. A conversation between Kendall and Nixon in the Oval Office appears in the second volume of the Watergate tapes. Kendall is heard offering advice to Nixon on how to handle his difficult situation. He later told an interviewer that he was "disappointed" at the way Nixon handled Watergate. "How could you help but be?"

Death
Donald Kendall died on September 19, 2020, at his home in Greenwich, Connecticut, at the age of 99 years.

Recognition
1989, George F. Kennan Award for outstanding contribution to improving U.S. Soviet relations
1987, National Business Hall of Fame
1986, the inaugural recipient of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund's Equal Justice Award
1979, Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member Olivia de Havilland

References

1921 births
2020 deaths
American businesspeople
United States Navy bomber pilots of World War II
Mercy College (New York) alumni
Military personnel from Washington (state)
People from Sequim, Washington
PepsiCo people
Washington (state) Republicans
Recipients of the Air Medal
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)

Donald M. Kendall


Maidenhead Citadel Band (MCB) is a Salvation Army Band and part of the Maidenhead Corps of The Salvation Army.  For over 120 years the band has consistently contributed to the worship and evangelical outreach promoted by the Maidenhead Corps in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead.

Brief history
The Band can trace its history back to 1886 when William Thomas, a young farmer from the Salisbury area moved to Maidenhead and became the first Bandmaster of Maidenhead Citadel Band.

On 25 June 1892, 18 members of Maidenhead Band were arrested during an open-air meeting as they "unlawfully obstructed the free passage of the Highway by standing together for the space of twenty minutes."  Bandmaster William Thomas took responsibility for the Band's actions and was sentenced to several months manual labour in Reading Gaol.

In more recent times the size of the Band has fluctuated but has experienced a revival under the leadership of the current Bandmaster Stuart Hall, who is also a member of the International Staff Band.

The Band is possibly now the biggest it has ever been with many young players still entering from the junior sections.

Over the years Maidenhead Band has contributed many players to the Salvation Army's "Premier" Staff Bands.  To date five Maidenhead Bandsmen have been members of Salvation Army Staff Bands; three in the International Staff Band, one in the Melbourne Staff Band and two in the German Staff Band.

Bandmasters

 1886 1926 William Thomas
 1926 1930 Hanbury Thomas
 1930 1951 Walter Steventon
 1951 1957 Trevor Steventon
 1957 1964 Walter Steventon (recommenced)
 1964 1973 David Alexander
 1973 1975 George Horrobin
 1975 1977 Bram White
 1977 1978 Fred Betts
 1978 1980 Eric Hallam
 1980 1991 Brian Cooper
 1991 2016 Stuart Hall
 2016 ---- Mark Lazenbury

Mission
As well as assisting in the weekly religious services; both indoor and in the open-air, the Band has travelled throughout the United Kingdom, playing at Christian services and events. The Band has performed in concert halls, worship centres, prisons and hospitals, appeared on film and radio as well as marched through cities, towns and villages proclaiming the good news of God's love for all.

In October 2003 the Band completed its first overseas tour to the Western Cape Division of The Salvation Army in South Africa where they travelled in and around Cape Town. Visiting Robertson, Elilandia, Worcester, Paarl, Stellenbosch, Rondebosch, Goodwood, Mitchell's Plain and Fish Hoek.

The Band also completed a UK tour the "Gospel Train" during May and June 2006 where they travelled the North Scotland Division of The Salvation Army visiting Fort William, Inverness, Wick, Peterhead, Aberdeen, Dundee and Blairgowrie.

In May 2009 the Band travelled to Finland where they performed several concerts in Suolahti, Kiuruvesi as well as Jyväskylä. Sponsored jointly by the Pentecostal and Adventist Churches as well as the local Salvation Army, the band captivated large audiences in each of their concerts with a programme of classical and sacred music including work from the Finnish composer Sibelius.

Recordings
The Band released its first CD "Gospel Train" for the 2006 tour to North Scotland. The track list is:

 Make the world with music ring (Himes)
 People need the Lord (Davies)
 A London Celebration (Graham)
 Gift for His altar (Condon)
 How great thou art (Wood)
 Gospel Train (Gott)
 All to Jesus (Herikstad)
 Aria From Magic Flute (Mozart)
 Piano Sonata in C Minor (Beethoven)
 And they were heroes (Cheyne)
 Benediction (Brahms)
 To Regions Fair (Bearcroft)

In March 2007 the Band produced a short promotion CD featuring the music of Raymond Edmund John Cuell who has had a very long association with the Maidenhead. The CD also features a piece arranged by BM Stuart Hall that was dedicated to Maidenhead Bandsman John Mattingley and his family who emigrated to Canada in May 2006. The CD was recorded live.

 Scarborough Citadel (Cuell)
 Field Service (Cuell)
 Haera Ra (Hall)

The most recent CD recording is "Faith Victorious" which was released in time for the Band's Tour to Finland. The track list is:

 Dance like David (Mackereth)
 What a friend (Leidzen)
 Blessing & Honour (Sharman)
 Give me Jesus (Burgmayer)
 Yarmouth Fair (Warlock)
 In perfect peace (Downie)
 Faith is the Victory (Curnow)
 Piano Sonata in C minor (Beethoven)
 Shalom (Silfverberg)
 A Rose there bloomed (Redhead)
 Amazing Grace (Trad)
 Faithfulness (Himes)
 On the King's Highway (Leidzen)
 Hymn Tune Finlandia

See also
 Salvation Army Band
 The Salvation Army
 Household Troops Band
 International Staff Band
 Chalk Farm Salvation Army Band
 Brass Band
 Melbourne Staff Band
 Parramatta Citadel Band
 Sydney Youth Band

References

External links
 Maidenhead Citadel Band
 International Staff Band of The Salvation Army
 Melbourne Staff Band
 German Staff Band

Salvation Army brass bands
British brass bands
Maidenhead
Salvationism in England

Maidenhead Citadel Band


In mathematics, particularly topology, the K-topology is a topology that one can impose on the set of all real numbers which has some interesting properties. Relative to the set of all real numbers carrying the standard topology, the set K = {1/n | n is a positive integer} is not closed since it doesn't contain its (only) limit point 0. Relative to the K-topology however, the set K is automatically decreed to be closed by adding 'more' basis elements to the standard topology on R. Basically, the K-topology on R is strictly finer than the standard topology on R. It is mostly useful for counterexamples in basic topology.

Formal definition

Let R be the set of all real numbers and let K = {1/n | n is a positive integer}. Generate a topology on R by taking basis as all open intervals (a, b) and all sets of the form (a, b) – K (the set of all elements in (a, b) that are not in K). The topology generated is known as the K-topology on R.

The sets described in the definition form a basis (they satisfy the conditions to be a basis).

Properties and examples

Throughout this section, T will denote the K-topology and (R, T) will denote the set of all real numbers with the K-topology as a topological space.

1. The topology T on R is strictly finer than the standard topology on R but not comparable with the lower limit topology on R

2. From the previous example, it follows that (R, T) is not compact

3. (R, T) is Hausdorff but not regular. The fact that it is Hausdorff follows from the first property. It is not regular since the closed set K and the point {0} have no disjoint neighbourhoods about them

4. Surprisingly enough, (R, T) is a connected topological space. However, (R, T) is not path connected; it has precisely two path components: (−∞, 0] and (0, +∞)

5. (R, T) is not locally path connected (since its path components are not equal to its components). It is also not locally connected at {0} but it is locally connected everywhere else

6. The closed interval [0,1] is not compact as a subspace of (R, T) since it is not even limit point compact (K is an infinite subspace of [0,1] that has no limit point in [0,1])

7. In fact, no subspace of (R, T) containing K can be compact. If A were a subspace of (R, T) containing K, K would have no limit point in A so that A can not be limit point compact. Therefore, A cannot be compact

8. The quotient space of (R, T) obtained by collapsing K to a point is not Hausdorff. K is distinct from 0, but can't be separated from 0 by disjoint open sets.

See also

 Connected space
 List of topologies
 Locally connected space
 Lower limit topology
 Natural topology
 Sequence

References

Topological spaces

K-topology


Francis Oliver  (born Francis Robert Oliver Bowsfield; September 1, 1853 – March 31, 1933) was a Canadian federal minister, politician, and journalist/publisher from the Northwest Territories and later Alberta. As Minister of the Interior, he was responsible for discriminatory Canadian government policies that targeted First Nations' land rights and Black immigration.

Early life
Oliver was born Francis Bowsfield in Peel County, Canada West, just west of Toronto. He was the son of Allan Bowsfield and Hannah (Anna) Lundy. Some disagreement in the family made him drop the name Bowsfield and adopt the name of his grandmother, Nancy Oliver Lundy.

Oliver studied journalism in Toronto, Ontario. In 1880, he moved west and founded the Edmonton Bulletin with his wife, Harriet Dunlop (1863–1943). When the first issue was printed on December 6, 1880, it became the first newspaper in what is now Alberta, and he owned it until 1923. Oliver was active in what one historian called the "Edmonton Settlers' Rights Movement" of 1880s.  Prior to the official Dominion Land Survey, Oliver and others engaged in direct action to preserve land ownership rights of Edmonton old-timers, against encroachment by later-arriving settlers, who they termed "squatters." Oliver, later-mayor Matt McCauley, Metis Laurent Garneau and several others faced criminal charges, and then a civil suit after a "squatter"'s shack was pushed into the river valley.

He also used the Edmonton Bulletin as a platform to voice his opposition to the establishment and continued existence of Papaschase Indian Reserve Number 136. He continued this practice for eight years (even while he was an elected politician), until the federal government forced the Papaschase band members from their reserve. The land was divided between railway companies, settlers, and the federal government, who later auctioned their share off to settlers.It is important to note that Indigenous communities in Canada have faced a long history of displacement, loss of land, and systemic marginalization. The struggles and negotiations surrounding Indian reserves like Papaschase Reserve reflect the complex and often contentious relationships between Indigenous peoples and the Canadian government during that time.

Political career
Oliver was elected to the North-West Council in 1883. He was the second elected member to the 1st Council of the Northwest Territories, winning the May 29, 1883 election for the newly formed Edmonton district. In 1885 his newspaper pointed out that the NWT council did not have as many elected members as its population - 100,000 - should allow it. Under the headline "Responsible Government" he called for a change in the way that the elected members were elected. The following month he pointed out that out-migration to the U.S. was stunting Canada's own population growth, and the NWT was in large measure to account for that, due to conditions created by the Conservative government in Ottawa. He blamed the out-migration on "the unwise and ever changing land regulations, the enormous reserves [(land held by the HBC and the Crown and not open to local settlement)], the ill treatment of squatters [(pioneers who had settled in the NW prior to government survey)], the discriminating tariff, the railway monopoly, and the lack of political rights (the one statement that has been made and repeated on platform after platform), and on how North-West lands and NW settlers must ultimately pay the whole cost of the CPR."

Some of the stands he took in the NWT Council at Regina were not popular with all Edmontonians, least of all with local Conservatives. He organized a meeting in early January to refute charges that he was "an irreconcilable oppositionist with socialist tendencies," saying what he done had been in accordance "with the interests and wishes of the majority of his constituents."

In 1885 following the suppression of the Metis Rebellion, his newspaper said that the blame for the outbreak was shared "between Riel and the Ottawa government," signalling out the late minister of the Interior.
His newspaper blamed the Ottawa government's "deception, mismanagement and injustice" for having caused the rebellion.

Oliver lost his seat in the 1885 Northwest Territories election to a local physician, 25-year-old Herbert Charles Wilson, who was named Speaker of the Council.

Oliver contested and won one of the two seats in the Edmonton district in 1888. He retained his seat by acclamation in the 1891 and 1894 elections.  During Oliver's time as a territorial representative, he contributed to the creation of the North-West Territories' first public school system.

He resigned from the council in 1896 to run for a seat in the House of Commons of Canada for the Liberal Party of Canada. Running as a Liberal Party candidate, Oliver was a champion of the small farmer and business people pioneering in Alberta at the time. He was elected in the 1896 Canadian federal election to represent the entire Alberta (Provisional District). He was re-elected to the Alberta provisional district again in 1900.

The large Alberta riding was broken up, and Edmonton acquired an MP for itself in 1904. Oliver was elected to the newly-formed Edmonton district in 1904 Canadian federal election.

Following his appointment to the federal cabinet, he retained the seat in a 1905 Ministerial by-election. He also was re-elected in the 1908 Canadian federal election and the 1911 Canadian federal election.

As leading federal politician of western Prairies, Oliver was assigned by Wilfrid Laurier to draw up the electoral boundaries used in the 1905 Alberta general election. The boundaries were said to favour Edmonton, where the Alberta Liberal Party enjoyed the most support although overall, the Liberal Party got the majority of the votes cast and more votes than any other party in the election. Edmonton's political weight is said to have assured the city's designation as the provincial capital, if its central location and long dominance in north-central Alberta had not been enough.

Federal Minister
From 1905 to 1911, he was appointed and served as the Minister of the Interior in the federal cabinet and Superintendent-General of Indian Affairs.

As minister responsible for national parks, he drastically reduced the size of Rocky Mountains Park from  in 1902, to ; Kootenay Lakes Forest Reserve (later Waterton Lakes National Park) from  in 1895 to , and Jasper National Park from  in 1907 to , under the Dominion Forest Reserves and Parks Act of 1911, which replaced the earlier legislation. Much of the land thus freed was declared to be forest reserves to capitalize on its timber and mineral resources. Oliver's successor for Minister of the Interior, William James Roche, later expanded the three Alberta National Parks closer to their earlier sizes, in 1914 Waterton Lakes National Park to , later in 1917 expand Banff National Park to  and Jasper National Park to .

Oliver, unhappy with centralized approach to the National Parks System, reorganized the system by creating the position of Commissioner of Dominion Parks with its headquarters in Banff, Alberta, and Howard Douglas, the superintendent of Rocky Mountains Park (Banff National Park) since 1897, was appointed the first Commissioner.

In 1907 he established a commission to investigate Doukhobor settlement in Saskatchewan. They had settled there on Clifford Sifton's promise that they could hold and work the land communally. The commission led to the reversal of Sifton's policy and the Doukhobors being disposessed of the land they had immigrated from Russia to settle.

By 1911, Oliver's immigration policy imposed tighter controls on immigration. Oliver was staunchly British, and his policies favoured nationality over occupation. He asserted that his immigration policy was more "restrictive, exclusive and selective" than those of his predecessors. Like his predecessor, Clifford Sifton, Oliver encouraged immigration from Europe, and encouraged immigration of experienced farmers from Ukraine and other parts of Eastern Europe.

Oliver wrote Order-in-Council P.C. 1911-1324, which was approved by the Laurier Cabinet on August 12, 1911 under the authority of the Immigration Act, 1906. It was intended to keep out black Americans escaping segregation in the American South by stating that "the Negro race...is deemed unsuitable to the climate and requirements of Canada." The order was never called upon, as efforts by immigration officials had already reduced the number of blacks immigrating to Canada. Cabinet cancelled the order on 5 October 1911, the day before Laurier's government was replaced by the new Conservative government, The cancellation claimed that the Minister of the Interior was not present at the time of approval.

Oliver also used his newspaper to lobby for having the Papaschase Cree removed from their Treaty 6 Reserve territory, south of Edmonton, in 1880s.

Frank Oliver's public positions apparently suited local sentiment as he was elected to the Territorial Assembly and as MP multiple times, often with majority of votes in the district.

His later political career
After the Liberal government was denied power in 1911, Olivere served in the House of Commons until 1917.

He ran for re-election in the new riding of West Edmonton in 1917 and received the most votes cast in the riding. His lead though was eliminated when officials of Borden's party distributed its army vote and he did not retain the seat.

Oliver ran in 1921 to regain his Edmonton West seat but this time he was defeated by a candidate of the United Farmers of Alberta.

Legacy
The area of western downtown Edmonton west of 109th Street was named Oliver after the man; later a major commercial strip in the neighbourhood was named Oliver Square.

On August 2, 2021 the Toronto Daily Tribune story, "Edmonton's Oliver Square changes name after community consultation." It reported, "A member of Parliament and federal minister first elected to office in 1883, Oliver is known for drafting discriminatory legislation, including policies that pushed Indigenous people off their traditional lands." Since mid-2020 the Oliver Community League, neighbourhood residents, Indigenous community members and community members from other marginalized groups have been consulting on a new name for the neighbourhood.

Mount Oliver in the Victoria Cross Ranges is named after him.

The Oliver Canadian Northern (now CNR) railway station in today's northeast Edmonton, and the surrounding area of same name, honours this man. The Alberta Hospital (Edmonton) is located in Oliver.

The Oliver School District (1899-1957) was named after him. This was done in recognition of Oliver, as NWT Assemblyman, having a great deal to do with the Act that established the school district system in the North-West Territories.

Death
Frank Oliver died in 1933 in Ottawa, Ontario.

His body was brought to Edmonton, and it was interred in the Edmonton Cemetery.

References

Bibliography

Notes

External links

 Frank Oliver, Manitoba Historical Society
 Frank Oliver and the 1905 election Alberta Heritage
 Frank Oliver and the Michel Band

Members of the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories
1853 births
1933 deaths
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Laurier Liberals
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from the Northwest Territories
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Alberta
Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Racism in Canada

Frank Oliver (politician)


Laura Lansing Slept Here is a 1988 American made-for-television comedy film starring Katharine Hepburn and directed by George Schaefer which premiered on NBC on March 7, 1988. It was written by James Prideaux and co-stars Joel Higgins, Karen Austin, Brenda Forbes and Hepburn's grandniece Schuyler Grant.

Plot
Hepburn stars as Laura Lansing, a wealthy, world-famous pampered novelist who faces the crisis of her career when her publisher rejects her latest book. Faced with retirement, she makes a bet to prove that she has not lost touch with her readers: she will live with a middle-class family in the suburbs for seven days or give up writing forever. In the home of Walter and Melody Gomphers, Lansing turns the family's life upside down with her outlandish behavior. She struggles to relate to their children, meddles in the couple's marital matters and jeopardizes the conditions of her bet.

Cast
Katharine Hepburn as Laura Lansing
Karen Austin as Melody Gomphers
Brenda Forbes as Doris
Joel Higgins as Walter Gomphers
Lee Richardson as Larry Baumgartner
Nicolas Surovy as Conway
Schuyler Grant as Annette Gomphers

Reception
A reviewer from The New York Times noted that Hepburn essentially "played herself" in the movie, and that "it's to Katharine Hepburn's credit that she was able to make so much out of so little."

References

External links

1988 television films
1988 films
1988 comedy films
American comedy television films
NBC network original films
Films directed by George Schaefer
1980s English-language films
1980s American films

Laura Lansing Slept Here