The Adventures of Pinocchio ( ;  , i.e. "The Adventures of Pinocchio. Story of a Puppet"), commonly shortened to Pinocchio, is a children's fantasy novel by Italian author Carlo Collodi. It is about the mischievous adventures of an animated marionette named Pinocchio and his creator and father figure, a poor woodcarver named Geppetto.

It was originally published in serial form as The Story of a Puppet () in the , one of the earliest Italian weekly magazines for children, starting from 7 July 1881. The story stopped after nearly 4 months and 8 episodes at Chapter 15, but by popular demand from readers, the episodes were resumed on 16 February 1882. In February 1883, the story was published in a single book. Since then, Pinocchio has been one of the most popular children's books and been critically acclaimed.

A universal icon and a metaphor of the human condition, the book is considered a canonical piece of children's literature and has had great impact on world culture. Philosopher Benedetto Croce considered it one of the greatest works of Italian literature. Since its first publication, it has inspired many works of fiction, such as Walt Disney's animated version, and commonplace ideas such as a liar's long nose.

According to extensive research by the  and UNESCO sources in the late 1990s, the book has been translated into as many as 260 languages worldwide, making it one of the world's most translated books. While it is likely one of the best-selling books ever published, the actual total sales since its first publication are unknown due to the many reductions and different versions. The story has been a public domain work in the U.S. since 1940. According to Viero Peroncini: "some sources report 35 million [copies sold], others 80, but it is only a way, even a rather idle one, of quantifying an unquantifiable success". According to Francelia Butler, it also remains "the most translated Italian book and, after the Bible, the most widely read".

Plot

In Tuscany, Italy, a carpenter named Master Antonio finds a block of wood that he plans to carve into a table leg. However, after being frightened when the log cries out, he gives it to his neighbor Geppetto, an old man. Upon seeing the log, he plans to carve a puppet from it and make a living as a traveling puppeteer. He carves the block into a boy and names him "Pinocchio". Once the puppet is finished and Geppetto teaches him to walk, Pinocchio runs out the door and into the town, where he is caught by a Carabiniere, who assumes Pinocchio has been mistreated and imprisons Geppetto.

Left alone, Pinocchio heads back to Geppetto's house to get something to eat, where a talking cricket warns him of the perils of disobedience and laziness. In retaliation, Pinocchio throws a hammer at the cricket, accidentally killing it. Pinocchio gets hungry and tries to fry an egg, but a chick hatches from the egg and he has to leave to find food. He knocks on a neighbor's door, but they fear he is pulling a prank and dump water on him. Cold and wet, Pinocchio goes home and lies down on a stove, and upon waking he finds his feet have burned off. Luckily, Geppetto is released from prison and makes Pinocchio a new pair of feet. In gratitude, he promises to attend school, and Geppetto makes him a suit of clothing consisting of a dress made from flowered paper, tree bark shoes, and a cap made of dough, and sells his only coat to buy him a school book.

On his way to school the next morning, Pinocchio encounters the Great Marionette Theatre and sells his school book to buy a ticket for the show. During the performance, the puppets Harlequin, Pulcinella and Signora Rosaura call out to Pinocchio; this angers the puppet master Mangiafuoco, and he decides to use Pinocchio as firewood. However, after Pinocchio pleads for his and Harlequin's salvation and he learns of Geppetto's poverty, Mangiafuoco releases him and gives him five gold pieces.

On his way home, Pinocchio meets a fox and a cat. The Cat pretends to be blind, and the Fox pretends to be lame; a white blackbird tries to warn Pinocchio of their lies, but the Cat eats it. The two convince Pinocchio that if he plants his coins in the Field of Miracles outside the city of Acchiappacitrulli, they will grow into a tree with gold coins. They stop at an inn, where they trick Pinocchio into paying for their meals and flee after telling the innkeeper to tell Pinocchio they would meet him at the Field of Miracles in the morning.

As Pinocchio sets off for Catchfools, the ghost of the Talking Cricket appears and tells him to go home and give the coins to his father. Pinocchio ignores his warnings again and as he passes through a forest, the Fox and Cat, disguised as bandits, ambush and rob him. After biting off the Cat's paw, he escapes to a white house, where he is greeted by a young fairy with turquoise hair who says she is dead and waiting for a hearse. Unfortunately, the Fox and the Cat catch Pinocchio and hang him in a tree, and leave after getting tired of waiting for him to suffocate.

The Fairy has Pinocchio rescued and calls in three doctors to evaluate him - the Owl says he is alive, the Crow says he is dead, and the Ghost of the Talking Cricket says he is fine, but has been disobedient and hurt his father. The Fairy administers medicine to Pinocchio, which he takes when several Undertaker rabbits appear to collect his body. Now recovered, Pinocchio lies to the Fairy when she asks what happened to the gold coins and his nose grows. The Fairy explains that Pinocchio's lies are causing his nose to grow and calls in a flock of woodpeckers to chisel it down to size. She then sends for Geppetto to come and live with them in the forest cottage.

As Pinocchio heads out to meet his father, he once again encounters the Fox and the Cat, who remind him of the Field of Miracles, and he agrees to go with them and plant his gold. Once there, Pinocchio buries his coins and leaves to wait twenty minutes for it to grow; during this time, the Fox and the Cat dig up the coins and run away.

Once Pinocchio returns, a parrot mocks him for falling for the Fox and Cat's tricks. Pinocchio rushes to the Catchfools courthouse, where he reports the theft of the coins to a gorilla judge. Although he is moved by Pinocchio's plea, the gorilla judge sentences him to four months in prison for the crime of foolishness. Fortunately, all criminals are released early when the Emperor of Catchfools declares a celebration following his army's victory over the town's enemies.

As Pinocchio heads back to the forest, he finds an enormous snake with a smoking tail blocking the way. He asks the serpent to move, but it remains completely still, and he assumes it is dead. He begins to step over it, but it suddenly rises up and hisses at him, toppling him over onto his head. Struck by Pinocchio's fright and comical position, the snake laughs so hard he bursts an artery and dies.

Pinocchio then heads back to the Fairy's house in the forest, where he sneaks into a farmer's yard to steal some grapes. He is caught in a weasel trap and encounters a glowworm, where the farmer finds him and ties him up in his doghouse. When Pinocchio foils the chicken-stealing weasels, the farmer frees him as a reward. Pinocchio finally returns to the cottage, but there he finds nothing but a gravestone and believes the Fairy has died.

A friendly pigeon sees Pinocchio mourning the Fairy's death and offers to give him a ride to the seashore, where Geppetto is building a boat to search for Pinocchio. Pinocchio is washed ashore when he tries to swim to his father, who is swallowed by The Terrible Dogfish. Pinocchio accepts a ride from a dolphin to the nearest island, the Island of Busy Bees. Upon arriving on the island, Pinocchio offers to carry a lady's jug home in return for food and water, and upon arriving at her house, he recognizes the lady as the Fairy, now old enough to be his mother. She says she will act as his mother, and he will begin going to school. She hints that if he does well in school and is good for one year, then he will become a real boy.

Pinocchio studies hard and rises to the top of his class, making the other boys jealous. They trick Pinocchio into playing hookey by saying they saw a large sea monster at the beach, the same one that swallowed Geppetto. However, they were lying, and a fight breaks out, during which Pinocchio is accused of injuring another boy. He escapes, and along the way saves a drowning Mastiff named Alidoro. In exchange, Alidoro later saves Pinocchio from The Green Fisherman, who was going to eat him. After meeting the Snail that works for the Fairy, she gives him another chance.

Pinocchio does excellently in school, and the Fairy promises that he will be a real boy the next day, saying he should invite all his friends to a party. He goes to invite everyone, but he is sidetracked after meeting his closest friend from school, a boy nicknamed Candlewick. He is heading to a place called The Land of Toys, where everyone plays all day and never works or studies. Pinocchio goes along with him, and they have a wonderful time for the next five months.

One morning in the fifth month, Pinocchio and Candlewick awake with donkeys' ears. A marmot tells Pinocchio that he has gotten donkey fever, as boys who play and never study turn into donkeys. Soon, both Pinocchio and Candlewick are fully transformed, and Pinocchio is sold to a circus where he is trained to do tricks, until he falls and sprains his leg after seeing the Fairy in one of the box seats. The ringmaster then sells Pinocchio to a man who wants to skin him and use his hide to make a drum, and throws him into the sea to drown him. But when he goes to retrieve the corpse, he finds Pinocchio, who explains that the fish ate all the donkey skin off him and he is now a puppet again. Pinocchio dives back into the water and swims out to sea, where the Terrible Dogfish appears and swallows him. Inside the Dogfish, Pinocchio unexpectedly finds Geppetto, and they escape with help from a large tuna and look for a new place to live.

Pinocchio and Geppetto encounter the Fox and the Cat, who are now impoverished and lame and blind respectively. They plead for food and money, but Pinocchio rebuffs them and tells them that they have earned their misfortune. Geppetto and Pinocchio then arrive at a small house, which is home to the Talking Cricket. The Talking Cricket says they can stay and reveals that he got his house from a little goat with turquoise hair. Pinocchio gets a job doing work for a farmer, and recognizes their dying donkey as his friend Candlewick.

After long months of working for the farmer and supporting the ailing Geppetto, Pinocchio goes to town with the forty pennies he has saved to buy himself a new suit. He discovers that the Fairy is ill and needs money, and gives the Snail he met back on the Island of Busy Bees all of his money. That night, he dreams that he is visited by the Fairy, who kisses him. When he wakes up, he is a real boy, with his puppet body lying lifeless on a chair. The Fairy has also left him a new suit, boots, and a bag which contains 40 gold coins. Geppetto also returns to health.

Characters
 Pinocchio – A marionette who gains wisdom through a series of misadventures that lead him to becoming a real human as reward for his good deeds.
 Geppetto – An elderly, impoverished woodcarver and the creator and father figure of Pinocchio. He wears a yellow wig that resembles cornmeal mush (or polendina), and because of this the children of the neighborhood and some adults call him "Polendina", which greatly annoys him. "Geppetto" is a syncopated form of Giuseppetto, which in turn is a diminutive of the name Giuseppe (Italian for Joseph).
 Candlewick aka "Lucignolo" – A juvenile delinquent who is as tall and thin as a wick. He is Pinocchio's best friend, but also serves as a bad influence for him. His nickname translates to either "Lampwick" or "Candlewick" because of his lanky physique.
 The Coachman (l'Omino) – The owner of the Land of Toys, who takes naughty, disobedient, and lazy children there on his stagecoach, which is pulled by twenty-four donkeys with white shoes on their hooves. Once the children who visit turn into donkeys, he sells them for labor.
 The Fairy with Turquoise Hair (la Fata dai capelli turchini) – The spirit of the forest, who rescues Pinocchio and adopts him first as her brother, then as her son.
 The Terrible Dogfish (Il terribile Pesce-cane) – A mile-long, five-story-high fish. Pescecane, while literally meaning "dog fish", generally means "shark" in Italian.
 The Talking Cricket (il Grillo Parlante) – A cricket whom Pinocchio kills after it tries to give him some advice, and later returns as a ghost to continue advising him.
 Mangiafuoco ("Fire-Eater" in English) – The wealthy director of the Great Marionette Theater, who has red eyes and a black beard that reaches to the floor, with his mouth being "as wide as an oven [with] teeth like yellow fangs". Despite his appearance, Mangiafuoco is not evil.
 The Green Fisherman (il Pescatore verde) – A green-skinned ogre on the Island of Busy Bees who catches Pinocchio in his fishing net and attempts to eat him.
 The Fox and the Cat (la Volpe e il Gatto) – Greedy anthropomorphic animals who pretend to be lame and blind respectively. Throughout the story, they lead Pinocchio astray, rob him, and eventually try to hang him.
 Mastro Antonio ( in Italian,   in English) – An elderly carpenter, who finds the log that eventually becomes Pinocchio, planning to make it into a table leg until it cries out "Please be careful!" The children call Antonio "Mastro Ciliegia (cherry)" because of his red nose.
 Harlequin (Arlecchino), Punch (Pulcinella), and Signora Rosaura – Harlequin, Punch, and Signora Rosaura are marionettes at the theater who embrace Pinocchio as their brother.
 The Innkeeper (l'Oste) – An innkeeper who is tricked by the Fox and the Cat and unknowingly leads Pinocchio into an ambush.
 The Falcon (il Falco) – A falcon who helps the Fairy with Turquoise Hair rescue Pinocchio from hanging.
 Medoro ( in Italian) – A poodle who is the mice-pulled stagecoach driver for the Fairy with Turquoise Hair. He is described as being dressed in court livery. He wears a tricorn with gold lace over a wig of waist-length white curls, a chocolate-colored velvet coat with diamond buttons and two huge pockets filled with bones, crimson velvet breeches, silk stockings, and silver-buckled slippers.
 The Owl (la Civetta) and the Crow (il Corvo) – Two famous doctors who diagnose Pinocchio alongside the Talking Cricket.
 The Parrot (il Pappagallo) – A parrot who tells Pinocchio of the Fox and the Cat's trickery and mocks him for being tricked by them.
 The Judge (il Giudice) – An old gorilla who works as a judge of Catchfools.
 The Serpent (il Serpente) – A large serpent with bright green skin, burning fiery eyes, and a smoking pointed tail.
 The Farmer (il Contadino) – An unnamed farmer whose chickens are plagued by weasel attacks. He previously owned a watch dog named Melampo.
 The Glowworm (la Lucciola) – A glowworm that Pinocchio encounters in the farmer's grape field.
 The Pigeon (il Colombo) – A pigeon who gives Pinocchio a ride to the seashore.
 The Dolphin (il Delfino) – A dolphin who gives Pinocchio a ride to the Island of Busy Bees and informs him of the Terrible Dogfish.
 The Snail (la Lumaca) – A snail who works for the Fairy with Turquoise Hair. Pinocchio later gives all his money to the Snail by their next encounter.
 Alidoro ( in Italian,   in English, literally "Golden Wings"; il can Mastino) – The old mastiff of a carabineer on the Island of Busy Bees.
 The Marmot (la Marmotta) – A Dormouse who lives in the Land of Toys and informs Pinocchio of the donkey fever.
 The Ringmaster (il Direttore) – The unnamed ringmaster of a circus that buys Pinocchio from the Coachman.
 The Master (il Compratore) – A man who wants to make Pinocchio's hide into a drum after the Ringmaster sold an injured Pinocchio to him.
 The Tuna Fish (il Tonno) – A tuna fish as "large as a two-year-old horse" who has been swallowed by the Terrible Shark.
 Giangio ( in Italian,   in English) – The farmer who buys Romeo as a donkey and who Pinocchio briefly works for. He is called Farmer John in some versions.

History

The Adventures of Pinocchio incorporates elements similar to that of fairy tales, as it is a story about an animated puppet and boys who turn into donkeys. The story is set in the Tuscan area of Italy, and features Italian language peppered with Florentine dialect features, such as the protagonist's Florentine name.

As a young man, Collodi joined the seminary. However, the cause of Italian unification (Risorgimento) usurped his calling, as he took to journalism as a means of supporting the Risorgimento in its struggle with the Austrian Empire. In the 1850s, Collodi began to have a variety of both fiction and non-fiction books published. Once, he translated some French fairy-tales so well that he was asked whether he would like to write some of his own. In 1848, Collodi started publishing Il Lampione, a newspaper of political satire. With the founding of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861, Collodi ceased his journalistic and militaristic activities and began writing children's books.

Collodi wrote a number of didactic children's stories for the recently unified Italy, including Viaggio per l'Italia di Giannettino ("Little Johnny's voyage through Italy"; 1876), a series about an unruly boy who undergoes humiliating experiences while traveling the country, and Minuzzolo (1878). In 1881, he sent a short episode in the life of a wooden puppet to a friend who edited a newspaper in Rome, wondering whether the editor would be interested in publishing this "bit of foolishness" in his children's section. The editor did, and the children loved it.

The Adventures of Pinocchio was originally published in serial form in the Giornale per i bambini, one of the earliest Italian weekly magazines for children, starting from 7 July 1881. In the original, serialized version, Pinocchio dies a gruesome death: hanged for his innumerable faults, at the end of Chapter 15. At the request of his editor, Collodi added chapters 16–36, in which the Fairy with Turquoise Hair rescues Pinocchio and eventually transforms him into a real boy, when he acquires a deeper understanding of himself, making the story more suitable for children. In the second half of the book, the maternal figure of the Blue-haired Fairy is the dominant character, versus the paternal figure of Geppetto in the first part. In February 1883, the story was published in a single book with huge success.

Children's literature was a new idea in Collodi's time, an innovation in the 19th century. Thus in content and style it was new and modern, opening the way to many writers of the following century.

International popularity

The Adventures of Pinocchio is the world's third most translated book (240-260 languages),  and was the first work of Italian children's literature to achieve international fame. The book has had great impact on world culture, and it was met with enthusiastic reviews worldwide. The title character is a cultural icon and one of the most reimagined characters in children's literature. The popularity of the story was bolstered by the powerful philosopher-critic Benedetto Croce, who greatly admired the tale and reputed it as one of the greatest works of Italian literature.

Carlo Collodi, who died in 1890, was respected during his lifetime as a talented writer and social commentator, and his fame continued to grow when Pinocchio was first translated into English by Mary Alice Murray in 1892, whose translation was added to the widely read Everyman's Library in 1911. Other well regarded English translations include the 1926 translation by Carol Della Chiesa, and the 1986 bilingual edition by Nicolas J. Perella. The first appearance of the book in the United States was in 1898, with publication of the first US edition in 1901, translated and illustrated by Walter S. Cramp and Charles Copeland. From that time, the story was one of the most famous children's books in the United States and an important step for many illustrators.

Together with those from the United Kingdom, the American editions contributed to the popularity of Pinocchio in countries more culturally distant from Italy, such as Iceland and Asian countries. In 1905, Otto Julius Bierbaum published a new version of the book in Germany, entitled Zapfelkerns Abenteuer (lit. The Adventures of Pine Nut), and the first French edition was published in 1902. Between 1911 and 1945, translations were made into all European languages and several languages of Asia, Africa and Oceania. In 1936, Soviet writer Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy published a reworked version of Pinocchio titled The Golden Key, or the Adventures of Buratino (originally a character in the commedia dell'arte), which became one of the most popular characters of Russian children's literature.

The first stage adaptation was launched in 1899, written by Gattesco Gatteschi and Enrico Guidotti and directed by Luigi Rasi. Also, Pinocchio was adopted as a pioneer of cinema: in 1911, Giulio Antamoro featured him in a 45-minute hand-coloured silent film starring Polidor (an almost complete version of the film was restored in the 1990s). In 1932, Noburō Ōfuji directed a Japanese movie with an experimental technique using animated puppets, while in the 1930s in Italy, there was an attempt to produce a full-length animated cartoon film of the same title. The 1940 Walt Disney version was a groundbreaking achievement in the area of effects animation, giving realistic movement to vehicles, machinery and natural elements such as rain, lightning, smoke, shadows and water.

Literary analysis

Before writing Pinocchio, Collodi wrote a number of didactic children's stories for the recently unified Italy, including a series about an unruly boy who undergoes humiliating experiences while traveling the country, titled Viaggio per l'Italia di Giannettino ("Little Johnny's voyage through Italy"). Throughout Pinocchio, Collodi chastises Pinocchio for his lack of moral fiber and his persistent rejection of responsibility and desire for fun.

The structure of the story of Pinocchio follows that of the folk-tales of peasants who venture out into the world but are naively unprepared for what they find, and get into ridiculous situations. At the time of the writing of the book, this was a serious problem, arising partly from the industrialization of Italy, which led to a growing need for reliable labour in the cities; the problem was exacerbated by similar, more or less simultaneous, demands for labour in the industrialization of other countries. One major effect was the emigration of much of the Italian peasantry to cities and to foreign countries, often as far away as South and North America.

Some literary analysts have described Pinocchio as an epic hero. According to Thomas J. Morrissey and Richard Wunderlich in Death and Rebirth in Pinocchio (1983) "such mythological events probably imitate the annual cycle of vegetative birth, death, and renascence, and they often serve as paradigms for the frequent symbolic deaths and rebirths encountered in literature. Two such symbolic renderings are most prominent: re-emergence from a journey to hell and rebirth through metamorphosis. Journeys to the underworld are a common feature of Western literary epics: Gilgamesh, Odysseus, Aeneas, and Dante all benefit from the knowledge and power they put on after such descents. Rebirth through metamorphosis, on the other hand, is a motif generally consigned to fantasy or speculative literature [...] These two figurative manifestations of the death-rebirth trope are rarely combined; however, Carlo Collodi's great fantasy-epic, The Adventures of Pinocchio, is a work in which a hero experiences symbolic death and rebirth through both infernal descent and metamorphosis. Pinocchio is truly a fantasy hero of epic proportions [...] Beneath the book's comic-fantasy texture—but not far beneath—lies a symbolic journey to the underworld, from which Pinocchio emerges whole."

The main imperatives demanded of Pinocchio are to work, be good, and study. And in the end Pinocchio's willingness to provide for his father and devote himself to these things transforms him into a real boy with modern comforts. "as a hero of what is, in the classic sense, a comedy, Pinocchio is protected from ultimate catastrophe, although he suffers quite a few moderate calamities. Collodi never lets the reader forget that disaster is always a possibility; in fact, that is just what Pinocchio's mentors —Geppetto, the Talking Cricket, and the Fairy— repeatedly tell him. Although they are part of a comedy, Pinocchio's adventures are not always funny. Indeed, they are sometimes sinister. The book's fictive world does not exclude injury, pain, or even death—they are stylized but not absent. [...] Accommodate them he does, by using the archetypal birth-death-rebirth motif as a means of structuring his hero's growth to responsible boyhood. Of course, the success of the puppet's growth is rendered in terms of his metamorphic rebirth as a flesh-and-blood human."

Adaptations

The story has been adapted into many forms on stage and screen, some keeping close to the original Collodi narrative while others treat the story more freely. There are at least fourteen English-language films based on the story, Italian, French, Russian, German, Japanese and other versions for the big screen and for television, and several musical adaptations.

Films

 The Adventures of Pinocchio (1911), a live-action silent film directed by Giulio Antamoro, and the first movie based on the novel. Part of the film is lost.
 The Adventures of Pinocchio (1936), a historically notable, unfinished Italian animated feature film.
 Pinocchio (1940), the widely known Disney animated film, considered by many to be one of the greatest animated films ever made.
  (1947), an Italian live action film with Alessandro Tomei as Pinocchio.
 Pinocchio in Outer Space (1965), Pinocchio has adventures in outer space, with an alien turtle as a friend.
 Turlis Abenteuer (1967), an East German version; in 1969 it was dubbed into English and shown in the US as Pinocchio.
 The Adventures of Pinocchio (1972), Un burattino di nome Pinocchio, literally A puppet named Pinocchio, an Italian animated film written and directed by Giuliano Cenci. Carlo Collodi's grandchildren, Mario and Antonio Lorenzini advised the production.
 The Adventures of Buratino (1975), a BSSR television film.
  (1979), an Indonesian movie.
 Pinocchio and the Emperor of the Night (1987), an animated movie which acts as a sequel of the story.
 Pinocchio (1992), an animated movie by Golden Films.
 The Adventures of Pinocchio (1996), a film by Steve Barron starring Martin Landau as Geppetto and Jonathan Taylor Thomas as Pinocchio.
The New Adventures of Pinocchio (1999), a direct-to-video film sequel of the 1996 movie. Martin Landau reprises his role of Geppetto, while Gabriel Thomson plays Pinocchio.
 Pinocchio (2002), a live-action Italian film directed by, co-written by and starring Roberto Benigni.
 Pinocchio 3000 (2004), a CGI animated Canadian film.
  (2007), an Italian animated film directed by Orlando Corradi, which acts as a sequel to the original story. Pinocchio is voiced by Federico Bebi.
 Pinocchio (2012), an Italian-Belgian-French animated film directed by Enzo D'Alò.
 Pinocchio (2015), a live-action Czech film featuring a computer-animated and female version of the Talking Cricket, given the name, Coco, who used to live in the wood Pinocchio was made out of.
 Pinocchio (2019), a live-action Italian film co-written, directed and co-produced by Matteo Garrone. It stars child actor Federico Ielapi as Pinocchio and Roberto Benigni as Geppetto. Prosthetic makeup was used to turn Ielapi into a puppet. Some actors, including Ielapi, dubbed themselves in the English-language version of the movie.
 Pinocchio: A True Story (2022), an animated Russian film. Gained infamy in the west for an English-dub by Lionsgate featuring the voices of Pauly Shore, Jon Heder, and Tom Kenny.
 Pinocchio (2022), a live-action film based on the 1940 animated Pinocchio. directed and co-written by Robert Zemeckis.
 Guillermo del Toro's Pinocchio (2022), a stop-motion musical film co-directed by Guillermo del Toro and Mark Gustafson. It is a darker story set in Fascist Italy. It won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.

Television
 Spike Jones portrayed Pinocchio in a satirical version of the story aired 24 April 1954 as an episode of The Spike Jones Show.
 Pinocchio (1957), a TV musical broadcast live during the Golden Age of Television, directed and choreographed by Hanya Holm, and starring such actors as Mickey Rooney (in the title role), Walter Slezak (as Geppetto), Fran Allison (as the Blue Fairy), and Martyn Green (as the Fox). This version featured songs by Alec Wilder and was shown on NBC. It was part of a then-popular trend of musicalizing fantasy stories for television, following the immense success of the Mary Martin Peter Pan, which made its TV debut in 1955.
 The New Adventures of Pinocchio (1960), a TV series of 5-minute stop-motion animated vignettes by Arthur Rankin, Jr. and Jules Bass. The plots of the vignettes are mainly unrelated to the novel, but the main characters are the same and ideas from the novel are used as backstory.
 The Prince Street Players' musical version, starring John Joy as Pinocchio and David Lile as Geppetto, was broadcast on CBS Television in 1965.
 Pinocchio (1968), a musical version of the story that aired in the United States on NBC, with pop star Peter Noone playing the puppet. This one bore no resemblance to the 1957 television version.
 The Adventures of Pinocchio (1972), a TV mini-series by Italian director Luigi Comencini, starring Andrea Balestri as Pinocchio, Nino Manfredi as Geppetto and Gina Lollobrigida as the Fairy.
 Pinocchio: The Series (1972), also known as Saban's The Adventures of Pinocchio and known as  in Japan, a 52-episode anime is an animated series produced by Tatsunoko Productions. It has a distinctly darker, more sadistic theme, and portrays the main character, Pinocchio (Mokku), as suffering from constant physical and psychological abuse and freak accidents.
 In 1973, Piccolo, a kaiju based on Pinocchio, appeared in episode 46 of Ultraman Taro.
 Pinocchio (1976), still another live-action musical version for television, with Sandy Duncan in a trouser role as the puppet, Danny Kaye as Geppetto, and Flip Wilson as the Fox. It was telecast on CBS, and is available on DVD.
 Piccolino no Bōken (1976 animated series) Nippon Animation
 Pinocchio no Boken (1979 TV program) DAX International
 Pinocchio's Christmas (1980), a stop-motion animated TV special.
 A 1984 episode of Faerie Tale Theatre starring Paul Reubens as the puppet Pinocchio.
 The Adventures of Pinocchio was adapted in Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child where it takes place on the Barbary Coast.
 Geppetto (2000), a television film broadcast on The Wonderful World of Disney starring Drew Carey in the title role, Seth Adkins as Pinocchio, Brent Spiner as Stromboli, and Julia Louis-Dreyfus as the Blue Fairy.
 Pinocchio (2008), a British-Italian TV film starring Bob Hoskins as Geppetto, Robbie Kay as Pinocchio, Luciana Littizzetto as the Talking Cricket, Violante Placido as the Blue Fairy, Toni Bertorelli as the Fox, Francesco Pannofino as the Cat, Maurizio Donadoni as Mangiafuoco, and Alessandro Gassman as the original author Carlo Collodi.
 Once Upon a Time (2011), ABC television series. Pinocchio and many other characters from the story have major roles in the episodes "That Still Small Voice" and "The Stranger".
 Pinocchio appeared in GEICO's 2014 bad motivational speaker commercial, and was revived in 2019 and 2020 for its Sequels campaign.
 Pinocchio (2014), South Korean television series starring Park Shin-hye and Lee Jong-suk, airs on SBS starting on November 12, 2014, every Wednesdays and Thursdays at 21:55 for 16 episodes. The protagonist Choi In-ha has a chronic symptom called "Pinocchio complex," which makes her break into violent hiccups when she tells lies.
The Enchanted Village of Pinocchio (Il villaggio incantati di Pinocchio), an Italian computer-animated television series which premiered in Italy on May 22, 2022, on Rai YoYo.

Other books
 . Published in the United States in 1913 as Pinocchio under the Sea.
 .
 .
 .
 .
 , a loose adaptation. Illustrated by Alexander Koshkin, translated from Russian by Kathleen Cook-Horujy, Raduga Publishers, Moscow, 1990, 171 pages, SBN 5-05-002843-4. Leonid Vladimirsky later wrote and illustrated a sequel, Buratino in the Emerald City, bringing Buratino to the Magic Land that Alexander Melentyevich Volkov based on the Land of Oz, and which Vladimirski had illustrated.
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
  Children's book, illustrated by Emma Chichester Clark.
 London, Thomas (2015), Splintered: A Political Fairy Tale sets the characters of the story in modern-day Washington, D.C.
 Bemis, John Claude. Out of Abaton "duology" The Wooden Prince and Lord of Monsters (Disney Hyperion, 2016 and 2017) adapts the story to a science fiction setting.
 Carey, Edward (2021), The Swallowed Man tells the story of Pinnochio's creation and evolution from the viewpoint of Geppetto

Theater

 "Pinocchio" (1961-1999), by Carmelo Bene.
 "Pinocchio" (2002), musical by Saverio Marconi and musics by Pooh.
 An opera, The Adventures of Pinocchio, composed by Jonathan Dove to a libretto by Alasdair Middleton, was commissioned by Opera North and premièred at the Grand Theatre in Leeds, England, on 21 December 2007.
 .
 Le Avventure di Pinocchio (2009) musical by Mario Restagno.
 . The musical is based on . The composer is Antonio Furioso. Vito Costantini wrote "The other Pinocchio" after the discovery of a few sheets of an old manuscript attributed to Collodi and dated 21/10/1890. The news of the discovery appeared in the major Italian newspapers. It is assumed the Tuscan artist wrote a sequel to 'The Adventures of Pinocchio' he never published. Starting from handwritten sheets, Costantini has reconstructed the second part of the story. In 2000 'The other Pinocchio' won first prize in national children's literature Città of Bitritto.
 La vera storia di Pinocchio raccontata da lui medesimo, (2011) by Flavio Albanese, music by Fiorenzo Carpi, produced by Piccolo Teatro.
 L'altro Pinocchio (2011), musical by Vito Costantini based on L'altro Pinocchio (Editrice La Scuola, Brescia 1999).
 Pinocchio. Storia di un burattino da Carlo Collodi by Massimiliano Finazzer Flory (2012)
Disney's My Son Pinocchio: Geppetto's Musical Tale (2016), a stage musical based on the 2000 TV movie Geppetto.
 Pinocchio (2017), musical by Dennis Kelly, with songs from the 1940 Disney movie, directed by John Tiffany, premiered on the National Theatre, London.

Cultural influence
 Totò plays Pinocchio in Toto in Color (1952)
  was advertised with the memorable line, "It's not his nose that grows!"
 .
 The 1990 movie Edward Scissorhands contains elements both of Beauty and Beast, Frankenstein and Pinocchio.
 , a horror movie where Pinocchio supposedly goes on a murderous rampage.
 Android Kikaider was influenced by Pinocchio story.
 Astro Boy (鉄腕アトム, Tetsuwan Atomu) (1952), a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Osamu Tezuka, recasts loosely the Pinocchio theme.
 Marvel Fairy Tales, a comic book series by C. B. Cebulski, features a retelling of The Adventures of Pinocchio with the robotic superhero called The Vision in the role of Pinocchio.
The story was adapted in an episode of Simsala Grimm.
 , film, based on a Stanley Kubrick project that was cut short by Kubrick's death, recasts the Pinocchio theme; in it an android with emotions longs to become a real boy by finding the Blue Fairy, who he hopes will turn him into one.
 , Pinocchio is a recurrent supporting character.
 .
 A Tree of Palme, a 2002 anime film, is an interpretation of the Pinocchio tale.
  contains elements and references of the 1940 adaptation and A.I. Artificial Intelligence.
  Pinocchio appears as a secondary character.
 In The Simpsons episode "Itchy and Scratchy Land", there is a parody of Pinocchio called Pinnitchio where Pinnitchio (Itchy) stabs Geppetto (Scratchy) in the eye after he fibs to not to tell lies.
In the Rooster Teeth webtoon RWBY, the characters Penny Polendina and Roman Torchwick are based on Pinocchio and Lampwick respectively.
 He was used as the mascot for the 2013 UCI Road World Championships.

Video Games

 Lies of P (2023), a Soulslike video game loosely based on the story and characters of the novel.

Monuments and art works dedicated to Pinocchio

The name of a district of the city of Ancona is "Pinocchio", long before the birth of the famous puppet. Vittorio Morelli built the Monument to Pinocchio.
, fountain in Milan, with bronze statues of Pinocchio, the Cat, and the Fox.
In Pescia, Italy, the park "Parco di Pinocchio" was built in 1956.
Near the Lake Varese was built a metal statue depicting Pinocchio.
12927 Pinocchio, a main-belt asteroid discovered on September 30, 1999 by M. Tombelli and L. Tesi at San Marcello Pistoiese, was named after Pinocchio.
In the paintings series La morte di Pinocchio, Walther Jervolino, an Italian painter and engraver, shows Pinocchio being executed with arrows or decapitated, thus presenting an alternative story ending.
In the central square of Viù, Turin, there is a wooden statue of Pinocchio which is 6.53 meters tall and weighs about 4000 kilograms.
In Collodi, the birthplace of the writer of Pinocchio, in February 2009 was installed a statue of the puppet 15 feet tall.
At the Expo 2010 in Shanghai, in the Italian Pavilion, was exposed to more than two meters tall an aluminum sculpture called Pinocchio Art of Giuseppe Bartolozzi and Clara Thesis.
The National Foundation Carlo Collodi together with Editions Redberry Art London has presented at the Milan Humanitarian Society the artist's book The Adventures of Pinocchio with the works of Antonio Nocera. The exhibition was part of a Tuscany region food and fable project connected to the Milan Expo 2015.

See also
 Pinocchio paradox
 Classic book
 List of best-selling books

References

Bibliography
 .
 , .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .

External links

1882 fantasy novels
Children's novels
Culture in Florence
Italian fantasy novels
Italian children's literature
Puppets
Fictional puppets
Novels set in Tuscany

Novels first published in serial form
Italian novels adapted into films
Italian novels adapted into plays
Novels adapted into operas
Italian novels adapted into television shows
1883 fantasy novels
Novels set in amusement parks
Children's fantasy novels
1880s children's books
Fiction about shapeshifting
Literature featuring anthropomorphic foxes
Articles containing video clips
19th-century Italian novels
NYRB Classics

The Adventures of Pinocchio


Louisiana Creole is a French-based creole language spoken by fewer than 10,000 people, mostly in the state of Louisiana. Also known as Kouri-Vini, it is spoken today by people who may racially identify as White, Black, mixed, and Native American, as well as Cajun and Creole. It should not be confused with its sister language, Louisiana French, a dialect of the French language. Many Louisiana Creoles do not speak the Louisiana Creole language and may instead use French or English as their everyday languages.

Due to the rapidly shrinking number of speakers, Louisiana Creole is considered an endangered language.

Origins and historical development

Louisiana was colonized by the French beginning in 1699, as well as Acadians who were forced out of Acadia around the mid-18th century. Colonists were large-scale planters, small-scale homesteaders, and cattle ranchers; the French needed laborers as they found the climate very harsh. They began to import enslaved Africans, as they had for workers on their Caribbean island colonies. It is estimated that, beginning about 1719, a total of 70,000 persons were transported from the Senegambia region of West Africa. These people originally spoke a Mande language related to Malinke. They were in contact with enslaved people speaking other languages, such as Ewe, Fon, and Igbo. The importation of enslaved people by the French regime continued until 1743.

The language developed in 18th-century Louisiana from interactions among speakers of the lexifier language of Standard French and several substrate or adstrate languages from Africa. Prior to its establishment as a creole, the precursor was considered a pidgin language. The social situation that gave rise to the Louisiana Creole language was unique, in that the lexifier language was the language found at the contact site. More often the lexifier is the language that arrives at the contact site belonging to the substrate/adstrate languages. Neither the French, the French-Canadians, nor the enslaved Africans were native to the area; this fact categorizes Louisiana Creole as a contact language that arose between exogenous ethnicities. Once the pidgin tongue was transmitted to the next generation as a lingua franca (who were considered the first native speakers of the new grammar), it could effectively be classified as a creole language.

No standard name for the language has existed historically. In the language, community members in various areas of Louisiana and elsewhere have referred to it by many expressions, though Kréyol/Kréyòl has been the most widespread. Until the rise of Cajunism in the 1970s and 1980s, many Louisiana Francophones also identified their language as Créole, since they self-identified as Louisiana Creoles. In Louisiana's case, self-identity has determined how locals identify the language they speak. This leads to linguistic confusion. To remedy this, language activists beginning in the 2010s began promoting the term Kouri-Vini, to avoid any linguistic ambiguity with Louisiana French.

The boundaries of historical Louisiana were first shaped by the French, then in statehood after 1812 took on its modern form. By the time of the Louisiana Purchase by the U.S in 1803, the boundaries came to include most of the Central U.S, ranging from present-day Montana; parts of North Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado; all of South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas; part of Southeast Texas; all of Oklahoma; most of Missouri and Arkansas; as well as Louisiana.

In 1978, researchers located a document from a murder trial in the colonial period that acknowledges the existence of Louisiana Creole.  The documentation does not include any examples of orthography or structure.

In an 1807 document, a grammatical description of the language is included in the experiences of an enslaved woman recorded by C.C. Robin. This was prior to arrival in Louisiana of French-speaking colonists and enslaved Africans from Saint-Domingue; the whites and free people of color (also French speaking), were refugees from the Haitian Revolution, that had established the first empire in the western hemisphere. The statements collected from Robin showed linguistic features that are now known to be typical of Louisiana Creole.

The term "Criollo" appears in legal court documents during the Spanish colonial period (1762-1803); the Spanish reference to the language stated that the language was used among enslaved people and whites.

The importation of enslaved Africans increased after France ceded the colony to Spain in 1763, following France's defeat by Great Britain in the Seven Years' War in Europe. Some Spaniards immigrated to the colony, but it was dominated by French language and culture. Like South Carolina, Louisiana had a "minority" population of Africans that greatly outnumbered the European settlers, including those white Creoles born in the colony.

Language shift, endangerment and revitalization
In the case of Louisiana Creole, a diglossia resulted between Louisiana Creole and Louisiana French. Michael Picone, a lexicographer, proposed the term "Plantation Society French" to describe a version of French which he associated with plantation owners, plantation overseers, small landowners, military officers/soldiers and bilingual, free people of color, as being a contributor to Louisiana Creole's lexical base. Over the centuries, Louisiana Creole's negative associations with slavery stigmatized the language to the point where many speakers are reluctant to use it for fear of ridicule. In this way, the assignment of "high" variety (or H language) was allotted to standard Louisiana French and that of "low" variety (or L language) was given to Louisiana Creole and to Louisiana French.

The social status of Louisiana Creole further declined as a result of the Louisiana Purchase. Americans and their government made it illegal for Louisiana Creoles to speak their language. Public institutions like schools refused to teach children in their native tongue and children and adults were often punished by corporal punishment, fines, and social degradation. By the 21st century, other methods were enforced. The promise of upward socioeconomic mobility and public shaming did the rest of the work, prompting many speakers of Louisiana Creole to abandon their stigmatised language in favor of English. Additionally, the development of industry, technology and infrastructure in Louisiana reduced the isolation of Louisiana Creolophone communities and resulted in the arrival of more English-speakers, resulting in further exposure to English. Because of this, Louisiana Creole exhibits more recent influence from English, including loanwords, code-switching and syntactic calquing.

Today, Louisiana Creole is spoken by fewer than 6,000 people. Though national census data includes figures on language usage, these are often unreliable in Louisiana due to respondents' tendencies to identify their language in line with their ethnic identity. For example, speakers of Louisiana Creole who identify as Cajuns often label their language 'Cajun French', though on linguistic grounds their language would be considered Louisiana Creole.

Efforts to revitalize French in Louisiana have placed emphasis on Cajun French, to the exclusion of Creole. Zydeco musician Keith Frank has made efforts through the use of social media to not only promote his music, but preserve his Creole heritage and language as well most notably through the use of Twitter. Additionally, Frank developed a mobile application in 2012 titled the "ZydecoBoss App" which acts as a miniature social network linked to a user's Facebook and Twitter accounts, allowing users to provide commentary in real time amongst multiple platforms. Aside from social media activism, Frank also created a creole music festival in 2012 called the "Creole Renaissance Festival", which acts a celebration of Creole culture. A small number of community organizations focus on promoting Louisiana Creole, for example CREOLE, Inc. and the 'Creole Table' founded by Velma Johnson. Northwestern State University developed the Creole Heritage Centre designed to bring people of Louisiana Creole heritage together, as well as preserve Louisiana Creole through their Creole Language Documentation Project. In addition, there is an active online community of language-learners and activists engaged in language revitalization, led by language activist Christophe Landry. These efforts have resulted in the creation of a popular orthography, a digitalized version of Valdman et al.'s Louisiana Creole Dictionary, and a free spaced repetition course for learning vocabulary hosted on Memrise created by a team led by Adrien Guillory-Chatman. A first language primer was released in 2017 and revised into a full-length language guide and accompanying website in 2020. 2022 saw the publication of an anthology of contemporary poetry in Louisiana Creole, the first book written completely in the language.

Geographic distribution
Speakers of Louisiana Creole are mainly concentrated in south and southwest Louisiana, where the population of Creolophones is distributed across the region. St. Martin Parish forms the heart of the Creole-speaking region. Other sizeable communities exist along Bayou Têche in St. Landry, Avoyelles, Iberia, and St. Mary Parishes. There are smaller communities on False River in Pointe-Coupée Parish, in Terrebonne Parish, and along the lower Mississippi River in Ascension, St. Charles Parish, and St. James and St. John the Baptist parishes.

There once were Creolophones in Natchitoches Parish on Cane River and sizable communities of Louisiana Creole-speakers in adjacent Southeast Texas (Beaumont, Houston, Port Arthur, Galveston) and the Chicago area. Natchitoches, being the oldest colonial settlement in Louisiana, proved to be a predominantly creole since its inception. Native inhabitants of the local area Louisiana Creole speakers in California reside in Los Angeles, San Diego and San Bernardino counties and in Northern California (San Francisco Bay Area, Sacramento County, Plumas County, Tehama County, Mono County, and Yuba County). Historically, there were Creole-speaking communities in Mississippi and Alabama (on Mon Louis Island); however, it is likely that no speakers remain in these areas.

Phonology
The phonology of Louisiana Creole has much in common with those of other French-based creole languages. In comparison to most of these languages, however, Louisiana Creole diverges less from the phonology of French in general and Louisiana French in particular.

Consonants

The table above shows the consonant sounds of Louisiana Creole, not including semivowels  and . In common with Louisiana French, Louisiana Creole features postalveolar affricates  and , as in  'weak coffee' and  'mouth'. The nasal palatal  usually becomes a nasal palatal approximant when between vowels, which results in the preceding vowel becoming nasalized. At the end of a word, it typically is replaced by  or .

Vowels

The table above shows the oral and nasal vowels of Louisiana Creole as identified by linguists.

Vowel rounding
Speakers of the language may use rounded vowels ,  and  where they occur in French. This is subject to a high degree of variation with the same region, sociolinguistic group, and even within the same speaker. Examples of this process include:

  'rice', compare French du riz
  'old', compare French vieux
  'mouth', compare French gueule

Vowel lowering
The open-mid vowel  may lowered to the near-open vowel  when followed by , e.g.  'brother'.

Regressive and progressive nasalization of vowels
In common with Louisiana French, Louisiana Creole vowels are nasalized where they precede a nasal consonant, e.g.  'young',  'apple'. Unlike most varieties of Louisiana French, Louisiana Creole also exhibits progressive nasalization: vowels following a nasal consonant are nasalized, e.g.  'know'.

Grammar
Louisiana Creole exhibits subject-verb-object (SVO) word order.

Determiners
In nineteenth century sources, determiners in Louisiana Creole appear  related to specificity. Bare nouns are non-specific. As for specific nouns, if the noun is pre-supposed it took a definite determiner (-la, singular; -la-ye, plural) or by an indefinite determiner (en, singular; de or -ye, plural). Today, definite articles in Louisiana Creole vary between the le, la and lê, placed before the noun as in Louisiana French, and post-positional definite determiners -la for the singular, and -yé for the plural. This variation is but one example of the influence of Louisiana French on Louisiana Creole, especially in the variety spoken along the Bayou Têche which has been characterized by some linguists as decreolized, though this notion is controversial.

Some speakers of that variety display a highly variable system of number and gender agreement, as evidenced in possessive pronouns.

Personal pronouns

Possession is shown by noun-noun possessum-possessor constructions (e.g. lamézon mô papa  'house (of) my grandfather') or with the preposition a (e.g. lamézon a mô papa 'house of my grandfather').

Verbs

Verbal morphology
Older forms of Louisiana Creole featured only one form of each verb without any inflection, e.g.  'to eat'. Today, the language typically features two verb classes: verbs with only a single form ( 'to drink') and verbs with a 'long' or 'short' form (,  'to eat').

Tense, aspect, mood
Like other creole languages, Louisiana Creole features preverbal markers of tense, aspect and mood as listed in the table below

Vocabulary
The vocabulary of Louisiana Creole is primarily of French origin, as French is the language's lexifier. Some local vocabulary, such as topography, animals, plants are of Amerindian origin. In the domains folklore and Voodoo, the language has a small number of vocabulary items from west and central African languages. Much of this non-French vocabulary is shared with other French-based creole languages of North America, and Louisiana Creole shares all but a handful of its vocabulary with Louisiana French.

Writing system

The current Louisiana Creole alphabet consists of twenty-three letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet (not including c, q, or x) and several special letters and diacritics.

{| class="wikitable"
!Letter
!Name
!Name (IPA)
!Diacritics
!Phoneme correspondence
|-
| A a || a ||  ||Áá, Àà, Ââ ||
|-
| Æ æ || æ ||  || ||
|-
| B b || bé ||  || ||
|-
| Ç ç || çé ||  || ||
|-
| D d || dé ||  || ||
|-
| E e || e ||  || Éé, Èè, Êê, Ëë || e = ; é = ; è =
|-
| F f || èf ||  || ||
|-
| G g || gé ||  || ||
|-
| H h || hash ||  || ||
|-
| I i || i ||  || Íí, Ìì, Îî, Ïï || i = ; ì =
|-
| J j || ji ||  || ||
|-
| K k || ka ||  || ||
|-
| L l || èl ||  || ||
|-
| M m || èmm ||  || ||
|-
| N n || ènn ||  || ||
|-
| Ñ ñ || ñé ||  || ||
|-
| O o || o ||  ||Óó, Òò, Ôô, Öö || o = ; ò =
|-
| Œ œ || œ ||  || ||
|-
| P p || pé ||  || ||
|-
| R r || ær, èr || ,  || || (initial) ; (medial) , , , ; (final)
|-
| S s || ès ||  || ||
|-
| T t || té ||  || ||
|-
| U u || u ||  || Ûû ||
|-
| V v || vé ||  || ||
|-
| W w || double-vé ||  || ||
|-
| Y y || igrek ||  || Ÿÿ ||
|-
| Z z || zèd ||  || ||
|}

{| class="wikitable"
!Digraph
!Name
!Name (IPA)
!Phoneme correspondence
|-
| ch || ché ||  ||
|-
| dj || djé ||  ||
|-
| ou || ou ||  ||
|-
| sh || shé ||  ||
|-
| Nasals || || ||
|-
| an, am, en, em || || ||
|-
| in, im || || ||
|-
| on, om || || ||
|-
| un, um || || ||
|}

Language samples

Numbers

{| class="wikitable"
!Number
!French
!Louisiana Creole
|-
| 1 || un || un, in
|-
| 2 || deux || dé
|-
| 3 || trois || trò, trwa
|-
| 4 || quatre || kat
|-
| 5 || cinq || sink
|-
| 6 || six || sis
|-
| 7 || sept || sèt
|-
| 8 || huit || wit
|-
| 9 || neuf || nèf
|-
| 10 || dix || dis
|}

Greetings

Common phrases

The Lord's Prayer
Catholic prayers are recited in French by speakers of Louisiana Creole. Today, some language activists and learners are leading efforts to translate the prayers.

Nouzòt Popá, ki dan syèl-la
Tokin nom, li sinkifyè,
N'ap spéré pou to
rwayonm arivé, é n'a fé ça
t'olé dan syèl; parèy si latær
Donné-nou jordi dipin tou-lé-jou,
é pardon nouzòt péshé paréy nou pardon
lê moun ki fé nouzòt sikombé tentasyon-la,
Mé délivré nou depi mal.

See also

 Louisiana Creole people
 Louisiana French
 Haitian Creole
 Franglais
 Frespañol

References

Sources

 Partial preview at [ Google Books].

Further reading
 Partial preview at [ Google Books].

External links
 Learn Louisiana Creole
 Louisiana Creole Dictionary - Online
 Learn Pointe-Coupée Parish Creole
 Brian J. Costello – La Language Créole de la Paroisse Pointe Coupée
 Centenary University Bibliothèque Tintamarre Texts in Louisiana Creole
 Christophe Landry, Ph.D.
 Le bijou sur le Bayou Teche

 "Allons Manger" Cajun French with Creole dialect

 English - Louisiana creole Glosbe dictionary
 louisiana creole - English Glosbe dictionary

Louisiana Creole culture
Endangered pidgins and creoles
French-based pidgins and creoles
French-American culture in Louisiana
French language in the United States
African-American culture
African-American English
Languages of the African diaspora
Languages of Louisiana

Louisiana Creole


Albert Maria Gomes (25 March 1911 – 13 January 1978) was a Trinidadian unionist, politician, and writer of Portuguese descent, was the first Chief Minister of Trinidad and Tobago. He was the founder of the Political Progress Groups and later led the Party of Political Progress Groups. He was active in the formation of the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) in Trinidad and Tobago and played a role in forcing Sir Alexander Bustamante out of the Federal Democratic Labour Party. Gomes briefly led DLP in 1963 when factions loyal to briefly ousted Rudranath Capildeo after Capildeo left Trinidad and Tobago to take up a position at the University of London. However, the rank and file of the party stood behind Capildeo, and Gomes left the party.

Biography
Albert Gomes was born in Belmont, Port of Spain, Trinidad. His father had immigrated from Madeira in 1892; his mother's family had arrived in Trinidad in 1878 via Nevis and Antigua. After completing secondary school Gomes studied journalism at City College of New York between 1928 and 1930. Returning to Trinidad, Gomes established a literary magazine called The Beacon, the first of its kind in the country, with contributors that included C. L. R. James, Alfred Mendes and Ralph de Boissière. The Beacon was controversial and iconoclastic, and helped set the stage for Gomes' future work.

Gomes published The Beacon for three years until his father (who had financed the magazine) forced him to stop. He was installed in a pharmacy owned by his father, and for the next six years Gomes developed his connection with the working class. Gomes established a reputation as a writer for the Trinidad Guardian and through public lectures and work with the labour movement. In 1938, after the Labour riots of the previous year, he was elected to the Port of Spain City Council. He served on the Council for nine years and was Deputy Mayor for three years. In 1947 he lost his seat. In 1945, he was elected the Legislative Council in a by-election. He was re-elected to the revamped Legislative Council in 1946 as a member of the West Indian National Party (WINP) for Port of Spain North. He retained that position until the 1956 General Elections when Eric Williams and the People's National Movement (PNM) swept to power.

During the 1940s, Gomes was the President of the Federated Workers Trade Union (FWTU), with Quintin O'Connor as the Secretary. Their success building up the FWTU was critical to the establishment of unionism in Trinidad and Tobago.

In 1958, Gomes was elected to the House of Representatives of the short-lived West Indies Federation, representing the district of St. George East.

After independence in 1962 Gomes was subject to heavy criticism by Eric Williams and the PNM. He left Trinidad and Tobago and settled in the United Kingdom. There he worked in local government until he retired in 1976. He died in England two years later, at the age of 66. His achievements are largely unrecognised and he has faded from the popular consciousness of Trinidad and Tobago.

Publications
 1973: "I Am an Immigrant", in Andrew Salkey (ed.), Caribbean Essays: An Anthology, London: Evans Brothers, pp. 53–59.
 1974: Through a Maze of Colour (autobiography), Port of Spain: Key Caribbean Publications.
 1978: All Papa's Children (novel), Surrey: Cairi Publishing House.
 1978: "Back to 'Banana Bottom'" (from The Beacon, III, 3, October 1933), and "Black Man" (from The Beacon, I, 4, July 1931), in Reinhard W. Sander (ed.), From Trinidad: An Anthology of Early West Indian Writing, Hodder & Stoughton, 1978, pp. 33–35 and 223–26.

References

External links
"Missing in Action", an essay by Jeremy Taylor in Caribbean Beat, Issue 68 (July/August 2004).

1911 births
1978 deaths
20th-century male writers
20th-century non-fiction writers
20th-century novelists
Democratic Labour Party (Trinidad and Tobago) politicians
Male non-fiction writers
Members of the Federal Parliament of the West Indies Federation
Members of the Legislative Council of Trinidad and Tobago
People from Port of Spain
People of Madeiran descent
Trinidad and Tobago male writers
Trinidad and Tobago non-fiction writers
Trinidad and Tobago people of Portuguese descent
Trinidad and Tobago trade unionists

Albert Gomes


The Economic and Financial Affairs Council (ECOFIN) is one of the oldest configurations of the Council of the European Union and is composed of the economics and finance ministers of the 27 European Union member states, as well as Budget Ministers when budgetary issues are discussed.

ECOFIN often works with the European Commissioner for Economic and Financial Affairs and the President of the European Central Bank.

Tasks
The Council covers a number of EU policy areas, such as economic policy coordination, economic surveillance, monitoring of Member States' budgetary policy and public finances, the euro (legal, practical and international aspects), financial markets and capital movements and economic relations with third countries. It also prepares and adopts every year, together with the European Parliament, the budget of the European Union which is about €145 bn.

Decision making
The council meets once a month and decides mainly by qualified majority, in consultation or codecision with the European Parliament, with the exception of fiscal matters which are decided by unanimity. When the Ecofin Council examines dossiers related to the euro and EMU, the representatives of the Member States whose currency is not the euro do not take part in the vote of the council.

ECOFIN delegates some of its tasks to the Code of Conduct Group.  For example, that Group has resolved issues of tax policy on Jersey, Gibraltar and other "dependent or associated territories", and investigated the UK Patent Box tax treatment.

See also
 Code of Conduct Group
 Eurogroup (finance ministers only of the eurozone states)
 List of acronyms: European sovereign-debt crisis

References

External links
 About the Economic and Financial Affairs Council
Press releases of the Economic and Financial Affairs Council

Council of the European Union
Finance in the European Union

Economic and Financial Affairs Council


A Meadow in the Mountains: Le Mas de Saint-Paul was painted by Vincent van Gogh in December 1889. It depicts fields of young wheat with a background of lilac mountains and yellowish sky.

In May 1889 Van Gogh voluntarily entered the asylum of St. Paul near Saint-Rémy in Provence. There Van Gogh had access to an adjacent cell he used as his studio. He was initially confined to the immediate asylum grounds and painted the world he saw from his room, such as ivy covered trees, lilacs, and irises of the garden.  Van Gogh could also see an enclosed wheat field, subject of many paintings at Saint-Rémy. As he ventured outside the asylum walls he painted the wheat fields, olive groves and cypress trees of the surrounding countryside, which he saw as "characteristic of Provence". Over the course of the year, he painted about 150 canvases.

Van Gogh sent the painting to his brother Theo on 3 January 1890, with an accompanying letter in which he refers to the work as The Fields. It is now held in the Kröller-Müller Museum in the Netherlands.

See also
 List of works by Vincent van Gogh

References

Paintings by Vincent van Gogh
Paintings of Saint-Rémy-de-Provence by Vincent van Gogh
1889 paintings
Collections of the Kröller-Müller Museum


Robert Parrillo (born March 14, 1941), is an American businessman and attorney.  Parrillo is a founder and managing partner of Parrillo, Weiss, & O'Halloran, a Chicago-based law firm specializing in personal injury and insurance cases. Parrillo was also the largest shareholder of Safeway Insurance Group, which was founded by his brother, William Parrillo.

Education
Parrillo graduated from the University of Colorado and earned his juris doctor from Northwestern University School of Law.  Parrillo is an active alumni and donor to Northwestern Law School.  He has dedicated the Parrillo Courtroom, and has funded the Parrillo CPS Scholarship which is designed to aide Chicago Public School students.

Business interests
As of 1990, Robert Parrillo was the largest shareholder  of Safeway Insurance Group owning approximately 40 percent of Safeway's stock. The Safeway Insurance Group is the largest, privately held, family owned insurance company in the United States.

Parrillo, Weiss, & O'Halloran ("PWO")
In 1967 Parrillo founded the law firm which in 2012 was named Parrillo, Weiss, & O'Halloran (PWO). In 2005, Parrillo was named an Illinois super lawyer by the Thomson Reuter super lawyers rating service.

PWO primarily defends insurance companies in automobile accident injury claims. PWO has previously been the most active in Cook County's mandatory arbitration system, and handled the most jury trials in Cook County, which boasts the largest unified court system in the nation.

Sun-Times Media Group
In 2009, Parrillo was among a ten-member group of investors (along with his brother William, Jim Tyree and Rocky Wirtz) that purchased the Sun-Times Media Group. Parrillo served as lead director. The investor group is credited for rescuing the Chicago Sun-Times from bankruptcy and ensuring that Chicago remained a two-newspaper town.

Other pursuits
As of 2006 Parrillo owned three penthouses, in Chicago on Wacker Drive, on Lake Shore Drive, and at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, Chicago

Parrillo has filed lawsuits as a plaintiff. In 1983, Parrillo represented his future wife, Elizabeth Ackerman, in a $1.6 million breach of contract suit.  Parrillo has also sued Panasonic, American Airlines, S.A.S., William H. Kelly Co., Hayman Co., and United Airlines.

References

University of Colorado alumni
Northwestern University Pritzker School of Law alumni
Living people
1941 births

Robert J. Parrillo


Lars Johan Werle (23 June 1926 – 3 August 2001) was a Swedish modernist composer.

Life and career
Werle was born in Gävle, Sweden, and taught himself how to compose, before going on to study musicology at the University of Uppsala from 1948 to 1950, and then counterpoint with Sven-Erik Bäck from 1949 to 1952  He sang in the chorus Bel Canto, was active as a jazz musician, and worked as a producer for Swedish Radio from 1958 to 1970, after which he took a professorship at the National Music Drama School, and then at the Gothenburg Music Academy starting in 1977.

Werle was known for his avant-gardist, post-Webernian composition Pentagram for string quartet that won first prize at the Gaudeamus Festival in Bilthoven in 1960. He became known for his vocal and choral music, as well as his operas, such as Drömmen om Thérèse and "Resan", the latter of which he made with psychedelic rock group Mecki Mark Men. Werle also scored the films of Ingmar Bergman, Persona and Hour of the Wolf.

Selected works

Orchestra
 Sinfonia da camera (1961)
 Summer Music for piano and strings (1965)
 Zodiac, ballet score (1966)
 Vaggsång för jorden (Lullaby for the Earth) (1977)

Chamber
 Pentagram for string quartet (1960)

Vocal
 Nattjakt (Night Hunt) for soprano and orchestra (1973)
 Smultronvisa for voice, flute and strings (1976)

Opera
 Drömmen om Thérèse (Dreaming about Thérèse) (1964)
 Resan (The Journey) with Mecki Mark Men (1969)
 Tintomara (1973)

Sources
 Obituary in The Independent

 Work List

1926 births
2001 deaths
Swedish composers
Swedish male composers
Gaudeamus Composition Competition prize-winners
People from Gävle
Uppsala University alumni
Litteris et Artibus recipients
20th-century Swedish male musicians

Lars Johan Werle


Kharmang District is a political sub-division of Pakistan. It is part of Baltistan and currently constitutes one of the ten districts of the Gilgit–Baltistan territory of Pakistan. It is bounded on the south by Kargil district of the Jammu and Kashmir, on the northeast by Ghanche District of GB, on the north by Skardu District of GB and on the west by Astore District of GB.

Kharmang District is one of the five biggest valleys of Baltistan; recently it became a district, whose headquarters is Temporarily at Tolti. The valley is located about 100 km from the capital city of Baltistan Skardu.

Districts of Gilgit-Baltistan

Kharmang District


The term generativity was coined by the psychoanalyst Erik Erikson in 1950 to denote "a concern for establishing and guiding the next generation." He first used the term while defining the Care stage in his theory of the stages of psychosocial development.

Jonathan Zittrain adopted the term in 2006 to refer to the ability of a technology platform or technology ecosystem to create, generate or produce new output, structure or behavior without input from the originator of the system.

History

In 1950 Erik Erikson created the term generativity to explain the 7th stage in his theory of the stages of psychosocial development. The 7th stage encompasses the middle ages of one's life, from 45 through 64. Generativity was defined as the "ability to transcend personal interests to provide care and concern for younger and older generations." It took over 30 years for generativity to become a subject of empirical research. Modern psychoanalysts, starting in the early 1990s, have included a concern for one's legacy, referred to as an "inner desire for immortality", in the definition of generativity.

More recently, the term has been adopted by people who deal with technology, first used by Johnathan Zittrain in 2006. Generativity in technology is defined as "the ability of a technology platform or technology ecosystem to create, generate or produce new output, structure or behavior without input from the originator of the system." An example of this could be any computing platform, such as the iOS and Android mobile operating systems, for which other developers have created millions of unique applications. It has been argued that the open Internet is both an inspiration of generativity and a means to spread the products of generativity. However, some people including Johnathan Zittrain fear that society and technology are moving away from a generative internet, claiming "A shift in consumer priorities from generativity to stability will compel undesirable responses from regulators and markets and, if unaddressed, could prove decisive in closing today's open computing environments."

Use in Psychology
Psychologically, generativity is concern for the future, a need to nurture and guide younger people and contribute to the next generation. Erikson argued that this usually develops during middle age (which spans ages 45 through 64) in keeping with his stage-model of psychosocial development. After having experienced old age himself, Erikson believed that generativity maintains a more important role in later life than he initially had thought.

In Erikson's theory Generativity is contrasted with Stagnation. During this stage, people contribute to the next generation through caring, teaching, engaging in creative work which contributes to society. Generativity involves answering the question "Can I Make My Life Count?", and in this process, finding your life's work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and contributing to future generations. It has also been described as a concern for one's legacy, accepting the independence lives of family and increasing philanthropic pursuits. Generative concern leads to concrete goals and actions such as "providing a narrative schematic of the generative self to the next generation".

McAdams and de St. Aubin developed a 20-item scale to assess generativity, and to help discover who it is that is nurturing and leading the next generation. This model is not restricted to stages, with generativity able to be a concern throughout adulthood, not just in middle adulthood, as Erikson suggested. Example items include "I try to pass along the knowledge that I have gained through my experiences", "I have a responsibility to improve the neighborhood in which I live", and (reversed) "In general, my actions do not have a positive effect on other people."

Use in Technology

Generativity in technology refers to cases where a technology supports the creation of novel products. Such technologies are referred to as generative systems. Canonical examples are the personal computer and the Internet. From its inception, the Internet has acted as a generative force allowing users to create and communicate in ways unimagined but foreseen by its creators who for this purpose built-in an openness and hardware and software agnosticism.

Zittrain was first to apply this term outside psychology, in cases where a generative technology leads to "unanticipated change through unfiltered contributions from broad and varied audiences." Zittrain has also highlighted that precarious nature of generative technology: arguing that features which, for instance, may enhance security and stability may, even unintentionally reduce or destroy a generativity in a system. He highlighted cases in which apparently innocuous producer, consumer, and government actions from a move away from PCs to one-way systems such as "smart" appliances cause a decline in generativity. As a result, he emphasised the need to be clear about treating generativity, rather than apparent means supporting this as the key valued characteristic of the system. In the case of the internet/PC complex this is its capacity as a generative networked grid, rather than traits associated with this, such as "open internet" or "network neutrality". He termed a focus on these mere-means to the end of generativity a "myopic" "end-to-end theory" which confused means with ends. Zittrain argued:focusing on "network" without regard to a particular network policy's influence on the design of network endpoints such as PCs. As a result of this focus, political advocates of end-to-end are too often myopic; many writers seem to presume current PC and OS architecture to be fixed in an "open" position. If they can be persuaded to see a larger picture, they may agree to some compromises at the network level. If complete fidelity to end-to-end network neutrality persists, our PCs may be replaced by information appliances or may undergo a transformation from open platforms to gated communities to prisons, creating a consumer information environment that betrays the very principles that animate end-to-end theory. ( p. 1978)

References

Further reading
 http://aging.wisc.edu/
 https://arstechnica.com/features/2008/06/book-review-2008-06-2-admin/
 https://bostonreview.net/archives/BR33.2/zittrain.php

 http://www.johnkotre.com/generativity.htm

Developmental psychology
Psychological concepts

Generativity


Tajhat Palace, Tajhat Rajbari, is a historic palace of Bangladesh, located in Tajhat, Rangpur. This palace now holds the Rangpur museum.  Tajhat Palace is situated six km. south-east of the city of Rangpur, on the outskirts of town.

Structure
The palace, with about 76 metres frontage, rises two storeys and faces east. An imposing broad staircase in the centre, paved with imported white marble, leads directly above the portico to the upper storey.

The palace is crowned by a ribbed conical dome in the centre of the roof with a tall octagonal neck, partly supported on a series of slender semi-Corinthian columns. The balustrade on either side of the imposing staircase was originally embellished with various sculptures of classical Roman figures in Italian marble, but now these are missing. There are two semi-octagonal projections at each end of the front face and a central projecting porch. The balcony roof above the porch is carried on four graceful Corinthian columns with round shafts, while two similar columns on each of the projecting ends of the building support a triangular gable.

The palace is laid out in the form on a "U", with its open end to the west. Beyond the entrance at ground-floor level there is a very large hall, measuring more than 18 x 13 meters. A 3 meter wide corridor runs the entire length of the inner block. Two broad wooden staircases provide access to the upper floor. There are about 22 apartments on two floors.

History
The palace was built by Maharaja Kumar Gopal Lal Roy in the beginning of the 20th century. It is believed that from the conspicuous appearance of his Taj or jeweled crown, his estate derived the name of Tajhat.

From 1984 to 1991 the palace was used as a Rangpur High Court Branch of the Supreme Court of Bangladesh. In 1995 the palace was declared as a protected monument by the Department of Archaeology. Recognizing its outstanding architectural value the Government of Bangladesh shifted the Rangpur Museum to the second floor of the palace in 2005. The main room at the top of the marble stairs have a number of display cases which show 10th–11th century terracotta artifacts. There are a number of fine examples of Sanskrit and Arabic manuscripts, including copies of the Mahabharat, Ramayan, and a Quran whose provenance is attributed to none other than the Mughal Aurangzeb. The back rooms have several examples of black stone Hindu carvings in its back rooms, mainly of the deity Vishnu. Photography is not permitted in the museum itself.

Gallery

References

External links

Museums in Bangladesh
Palaces in Bangladesh
Rangpur District
Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture

Tajhat Palace


Multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) is a sub-field of reinforcement learning. It focuses on studying the behavior of multiple learning agents that coexist in a shared environment. Each agent is motivated by its own rewards, and does actions to advance its own interests; in some environments these interests are opposed to the interests of other agents, resulting in complex group dynamics.

Multi-agent reinforcement learning is closely related to game theory and especially repeated games, as well as multi-agent systems. Its study combines the pursuit of finding ideal algorithms that maximize rewards with a more sociological set of concepts. While research in single-agent reinforcement learning is concerned with finding the algorithm that gets the biggest number of points for one agent, research in multi-agent reinforcement learning evaluates and quantifies social metrics, such as cooperation, reciprocity, equity, social influence, language and discrimination.

Definition

Similarly to single-agent reinforcement learning, multi-agent reinforcement learning is modeled as some form of a Markov decision process (MDP). For example,

 A set  of environment states.
 One set  of actions for each of the agents .
  is the probability of transition (at time ) from state  to state  under joint action .
  is the immediate joint reward after the transition from  to  with joint action .

In settings with perfect information, such as the games of chess and Go, the MDP would be fully observable. In settings with imperfect information, especially in real-world applications like self-driving cars, each agent would access an observation that only has part of the information about the current state. In the partially observable setting, the core model is the partially observable stochastic game in the general case, and the decentralized POMDP in the cooperative case.

Cooperation vs. competition

When multiple agents are acting in a shared environment their interests might be aligned or misaligned. MARL allows exploring all the different alignments and how they affect the agents' behavior:

 In pure competition settings, the agents' rewards are exactly opposite to each other, and therefore they are playing against each other.
 Pure cooperation settings are the other extreme, in which agents get the exact same rewards, and therefore they are playing with each other.
 Mixed-sum settings cover all the games that combine elements of both cooperation and competition.

Pure competition settings

When two agents are playing a zero-sum game, they are in pure competition with each other. Many traditional games such as chess and Go fall under this category, as do two-player variants of modern games like StarCraft. Because each agent can only win at the expense of the other agent, many complexities are stripped away. There's no prospect of communication or social dilemmas, as neither agent is incentivized to take actions that benefit its opponent.

The Deep Blue and AlphaGo projects demonstrate how to optimize the performance of agents in pure competition settings.

One complexity that isn't stripped away in pure competition settings is autocurricula. As the agents' policy is improved using self-play, multiple layers of learning may occur.

Pure cooperation settings

MARL is used to explore how separate agents with identical interests can communicate and work together. Pure cooperation settings are explored in recreational cooperative games such as Overcooked, as well as real-world scenarios in robotics.

In pure cooperation settings all the agents get identical rewards, which means that social dilemmas do not occur.

In pure cooperation settings, oftentimes there are an arbitrary number of coordination strategies, and agents converge to specific "conventions" when coordinating with each other. The notion of conventions has been studied in language and also alluded to in more general multi-agent collaborative tasks.

Mixed-sum settings

Most real-world scenarios involving multiple agents have elements of both cooperation and competition. For example, when multiple self-driving cars are planning their respective paths, each of them has interests that are diverging but not exclusive: Each car is minimizing the amount of time it's taking to reach its destination, but all cars have the shared interest of avoiding a traffic collision.

Zero-sum settings with three or more agents often exhibit similar properties to mixed-sum settings, since each pair of agents might have a non-zero utility sum between them.

Mixed-sum settings can be explored using classic matrix games such as prisoner's dilemma, more complex sequential social dilemmas, and recreational games such as
Among Us, Diplomacy and
StarCraft II.

Mixed-sum settings can give rise to communication and social dilemmas.

Social dilemmas
As in game theory, much of the research in MARL revolves around social dilemmas, such as prisoner's dilemma, chicken and stag hunt.

While game theory research might focus on Nash equilibria and what an ideal policy for an agent would be, MARL research focuses on how the agents would learn these ideal policies using a trial-and-error process. The reinforcement learning algorithms that are used to train the agents are maximizing the agent's own reward; the conflict between the needs of the agents and the needs of the group is a subject of active research.

Various techniques have been explored in order to induce cooperation in agents: Modifying the environment rules, adding intrinsic rewards, and more.

Sequential social dilemmas
Social dilemmas like prisoner's dilemma, chicken and stag hunt are "matrix games". Each agent takes only one action from a choice of two possible actions, and a simple 2x2 matrix is used to describe the reward that each agent will get, given the actions that each agent took.

In humans and other living creatures, social dilemmas tend to be more complex. Agents take multiple actions over time, and the distinction between cooperating and defecting isn't as clear cut as in matrix games. The concept of a sequential social dilemma (SSD) was introduced in 2017 as an attempt to model that complexity. There is ongoing research into defining different kinds of SSDs and showing cooperative behavior in the agents that act in them.

Autocurricula
An autocurriculum (plural: autocurricula) is a reinforcement learning concept that's salient in multi-agent experiments. As agents improve their performance, they change their environment; this change in the environment affects themselves and the other agents. The feedback loop results in several distinct phases of learning, each depending on the previous one. The stacked layers of learning are called an autocurriculum. Autocurricula are especially apparent in adversarial settings, where each group of agents is racing to counter the current strategy of the opposing group.

The Hide and Seek game is an accessible example of an autocurriculum occurring in an adversarial setting. In this experiment, a team of seekers is competing against a team of hiders. Whenever one of the teams learns a new strategy, the opposing team adapts its strategy to give the best possible counter. When the hiders learn to use boxes to build a shelter, the seekers respond by learning to use a ramp to break into that shelter. The hiders respond by locking the ramps, making them unavailable for the seekers to use. The seekers then respond by "box surfing", exploiting a glitch in the game to penetrate the shelter. Each "level" of learning is an emergent phenomenon, with the previous level as its premise. This results in a stack of behaviors, each dependent on its predecessor.

Autocurricula in reinforcement learning experiments are compared to the stages of the evolution of life on earth and the development of human culture. A major stage in evolution happened 2-3 billion years ago, when photosynthesizing life forms started to produce massive amounts of oxygen, changing the balance of gases in the atmosphere. In the next stages of evolution, oxygen-breathing life forms evolved, eventually leading up to land mammals and human beings. These later stages could only happen after the photosynthesis stage made oxygen widely available. Similarly, human culture couldn't have gone through the industrial revolution in the 18th century without the resources and insights gained by the agricultural revolution at around 10,000 BC.

Applications

Multi-agent reinforcement learning has been applied to a variety of use cases in science and industry:

AI alignment
Multi-agent reinforcement learning has been used in research into AI alignment. The relationship between the different agents in a MARL setting can be compared to the relationship between a human and an AI agent. Research efforts in the intersection of these two fields attempt to simulate possible conflicts between a human's intentions and an AI agent's actions, and then explore which variables could be changed to prevent these conflicts.

Limitations
There are some inherent difficulties about multi-agent deep reinforcement learning. The environment is not stationary anymore, thus the Markov property is violated: transitions and rewards do not only depend on the current state of an agent.

Software
There are various tools and frameworks for working with multi-agent reinforcement learning environments:

Further reading

 Stefano V. Albrecht, Filippos Christianos, Lukas Schäfer. Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning: Foundations and Modern Approaches. MIT Press, 2023. https://www.marl-book.com
 Kaiqing Zhang, Zhuoran Yang, Tamer Basar. Multi-agent reinforcement learning: A selective overview of theories and algorithms. Studies in Systems, Decision and Control, Handbook on RL and Control, 2021.

References

Reinforcement learning
Multi-agent systems
Deep learning
Game theory

Multi-agent reinforcement learning


A virtuoso is an individual who possesses outstanding technical ability in a particular art.

Virtuoso may also refer to:

Arts and entertainment
Virtuoso (comics), a fictional supervillain
Virtuoso (Joe Pass album), 1973
Virtuoso (David Garrett album), 2007
"Virtuoso" (Star Trek: Voyager), a 2000 episode
Virtuoso Quartet, a British music group founded in 1924
Virtuoso (video game), 1994
The Virtuoso (play), a Restoration comedy
The Virtuoso (film), a 2021 film
Virtuoso (sculpture), a concrete sculpture by David Adickes in downtown Houston, 1988

Other uses
Deonna Purrazzo (born 1994), an American professional wrestler nicknamed "The Virtuosa"
Virtuoso Universal Server, middleware and database engine hybrid
Aeros Virtuoso, a Ukrainian paraglider
Ricardo Virtuoso (born 1984), a Brazilian football player

See also

Mills Violano-Virtuoso, a machine manufactured by Mills Novelty Company that played a violin or piano

Virtuoso (disambiguation)


Rana Pohap Singh was the  Jat ruler of Dholpur  state in (1836) in Rajasthan, India. He was from Bamraulia gotra of Jats. He was elder son of Rana Kirat Singh and his successor. He ruled for nine months and died in 1836. After his death his younger brother Rana Bhagwant Singh ascended to the throne.

References
Dr. Ajay Kumar Agnihotri (1985) : "Gohad ke jaton ka Itihas" (Hindi)
Dr. Natthan Singh (2004) : "Jat Itihas"
Jat Samaj, Agra: October–November 2004
Dr. Natthan Singh (2005): Sujas Prabandh (Gohad ke Shasakon ki Veer gatha – by Poet Nathan), Jat Veer Prakashan Gwalior

Rulers of Dholpur state
1836 deaths
Year of birth unknown

Pohap Singh