Hatred or hate is an intense negative emotional response towards certain people, things or ideas, usually related to opposition or revulsion toward something. Hatred is often associated with intense feelings of anger, contempt, and disgust. Hatred is sometimes seen as the opposite of love.

A number of different definitions and perspectives on hatred have been put forth. Philosophers have been concerned with understanding the essence and nature of hatred, while some religions view it positively and encourage hatred toward certain outgroups. Social and psychological theorists have understood hatred in a utilitarian sense. Certain public displays of hatred are sometimes legally proscribed in the context of pluralistic cultures that value tolerance.

Hatred may encompass a wide range of gradations of emotion and have very different expressions depending on the cultural context and the situation that triggers the emotional or intellectual response. Based on the context in which hatred occurs, it may be viewed favorably, unfavorably, or neutrally by different societies.

Emotion
As an emotion, hatred can be short-lived or long-lasting. It can be of low intensity - 'I hate broccoli' - or high intensity: 'I hate the whole world'.
In some cases, hatred can be a learned response from external influences, such as from being abused, misled, or manipulated. As a general rule, hatred is the deep psychological response to feeling trapped or being unable to understand certain sociological phenomena.
Robert Sternberg saw three main elements in hatred:
 a negation of intimacy, by creating distance when closeness had become threatening;
 an infusion of passion, such as fear or anger;
 a decision to devalue a previously valued object.
The important self-protective function, to be found in hatred, can be illustrated by Steinberg's analysis of 'mutinous' hatred, whereby a dependent relationship is repudiated in a quest for autonomy.

Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud defined hate as an ego state that wishes to destroy the source of its unhappiness, stressing that it was linked to the question of self-preservation. Donald Winnicott highlighted the developmental step involved in hatred, with its recognition of an outside object: "As compared to magical destruction, aggressive ideas and behaviour take on a positive value, and hate becomes a sign of civilization".

In his wake, object relations theory has emphasised the importance of recognising hate in the analytic setting: the analyst acknowledges his own hate (as revealed in the strict time-limits and the fee charged), which in turn may make it possible for the patient to acknowledge and contain their previously concealed hate for the analyst.

Adam Phillips went so far as to suggest that true kindness is impossible in a relationship without hating and being hated, so that an unsentimental acknowledgement of interpersonal frustrations and their associated hostilities can allow real fellow-feeling to emerge.

Legalities

In the English language, a hate crime (also known as a "bias-motivated crime") generally refers to criminal acts which are seen to have been motivated by hate. Those who commit hate crimes target victims because of their perceived membership in a certain social group, usually defined by race, gender, religion, sexual orientation, mental disorder, disability, class, ethnicity, nationality, age, gender identity, or political affiliation. Incidents may involve physical assault, destruction of property, bullying, harassment, verbal abuse or insults, or offensive graffiti or letters (hate mail).

Hate speech is speech perceived to disparage a person or group of people based on their social or ethnic group, such as race, sex, age, ethnicity, nationality, religion, sexual orientation, gender identity, mental disorder, disability, language ability, ideology, social class, occupation, appearance (height, weight, skin color, etc.), mental capacity, and any other distinction that might be considered a liability. The term covers written as well as oral communication and some forms of behaviors in a public setting. It is also sometimes called antilocution and is the first point on Allport's scale which measures prejudice in a society. In many countries, deliberate use of hate speech is a criminal offence prohibited under incitement to hatred legislation. It is often alleged that the criminalization of hate speech is sometimes used to discourage legitimate discussion of negative aspects of voluntary behavior (such as political persuasion, religious adherence and philosophical allegiance). There is also some question as to whether or not hate speech falls under the protection of freedom of speech in some countries.

Both of these classifications have sparked debate, with counter-arguments such as, but not limited to, a difficulty in distinguishing motive and intent for crimes, as well as philosophical debate on the validity of valuing targeted hatred as a greater crime than general misanthropy and contempt for humanity being a potentially equal crime in and of itself.

Neurology
The neural correlates of hate have been investigated with an fMRI procedure. In this experiment, people had their brains scanned while viewing pictures of people they hated. The results showed increased activity in the middle frontal gyrus, right putamen, bilaterally in the premotor cortex, in the frontal pole, and bilaterally in the medial insular cortex of the human brain.

Those suffering from Misophonia have been known to express hatred when triggered.

Ethnolinguistics
Hate, like love, takes different shapes and forms in different languages. While it may be fair to say that one single emotion exists in English, French (haine), and German (Hass), hate is historically situated and culturally constructed: it varies in the forms in which it is manifested. Thus a certain relationless hatred is expressed in the French expression J'ai la haine, which has no precise equivalent in English; while for English-speakers, loving and hating invariably involve a force, an object, or a person, and therefore, a relationship with something or someone, J'ai la haine (literally, I have hate) precludes the idea of an emotion directed at a person. This is a form of frustration, apathy and animosity which churns within the subject but establishes no relationship with the world, other than an aimless desire for destruction.

French forms of anti-Americanism have been seen as a specific form of cultural resentment, registering joy-in-hate.

Religion
A United Nations Special Rapporteur on freedom and religion cited the concept of collective hatred based on religion, which he described as a man-made phenomenon caused by deliberate actions and omissions of hate-mongers.

Hatred can also be sanctioned by religion. The Hebrew word describing the psalmist's "perfect hatred" (Ps. 139.22) means that it "brings a process to completion". Religion can employ extreme speech in an attempt convert new adherents and that extreme speech made against other religions or their adherents can result in situations of religious hatred.

Philosophy
Philosophers from the ancient time sought to describe hatred and today, there are different definitions available. Aristotle, for instance, viewed it as distinct from anger and rage, describing hate as a desire to annihilate an object and is incurable by time. David Hume also offered his own conceptualization, maintaining that hatred is an irreducible feeling that is not definable at all.

See also

References

Further reading

The Psychology of Hate by Robert Sternberg (Ed.)
Hatred: The Psychological Descent into Violence by Willard Gaylin
Why We Hate by Jack Levin
The Psychology of Good and Evil: Why Children, Adults, and Groups Help and Harm Others by Ervin Staub
Prisoners of Hate: The Cognitive Basis of Anger, Hostility, and Violence by Aaron T. Beck
Becoming Evil: How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing by James Waller
 Ethnolinguistics and Cultural Concepts: truth, love, hate & war, by James W. Underhill, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 "Hatred as an Attitude", by Thomas Brudholm (in Philosophical Papers 39, 2010).
 The Globalisation of Hate, (eds.) Jennifer Schweppe and Mark Walters, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Love
Issues in ethics
Emotions
Aggression
Social emotions
Articles containing video clips

Hatred


The 2020 Belizean general election will elect and the members of the House of Representatives in the National Assembly. On 14 March 2017, Prime Minister of Belize, Dean Barrow stated that he will call for early elections in November 2019. But in March 2018, Barrow pushed back and set it for 13 February 2020. On 22 May 2019, Barrow to the Media that he will strip off his call for early elections and insisted that there will be no General election before 1 November 2020 in Belize. Therefore, the next Belizean general election will be held on Sunday, 1 November 2020.

Date

Deadline
The Deadline for Candidate Nominations will be on 1 October 2020, with political Campaigning lasting for four Weeks until Polling day on 1 November 2020. On the Day of the Election, Polling stations across the Country will be open from 7 am, and closed at 10 pm. The Date chosen for the election made it the third to be held in November since 1979.

Eligibility
Individuals eligible to vote have to be registered to vote by Midnight on 26 September 2020. To be eligible to vote, Individuals had to be aged 18 or over; residing as a Commonwealth citizen at an address in Belize, or a Belizean citizen overseas who registered to Vote in the last 15 years and not legally excluded (on grounds of detainment in Prison, a Mental hospital, or on the run from Law enforcement) or disqualified from Voting. Anyone who qualified as an Anonymous elector will have until midnight on 26 October to Register.

Previous election
The previous general election was held on 4 November 2015, and the new National Assembly was opened on 13 November 2015, which was also the date that the first sitting of the National Assembly of Belize began after the 2015 Belizean general election. According to Section 84 of the Constitution of Belize, the National Assembly of Belize (House of Representatives and Senate) must be dissolved every "five years from the date when the two Houses, first met" unless dissolved sooner by the Governor-General of Belize upon the advice of the Prime Minister. A general election must be called within three months of a dissolution, meaning the latest possible date for Barrow to call the next Belizean general election is on 13 February 2021. If by any chance the next Belizean general election is not held by 13 February 2021, Barrow may be forced to vacate the office of Prime Minister, however he may still remain as Leader of the United Democratic Party (UDP), but he will have to make a Snap! decision on a Caretaker Prime Minister of Belize to formally announce a date for the next general election. The Caretaker Prime Minister must be from the ruling, UDP and must also be a Cabinet minister in government.

Despite the five-year term of the National Assembly, three of the last four general elections have been called at least a year early. Both Prime Minister, Dean Barrow and Leader of the Opposition, Johnny Briceño of the People's United Party (PUP) are on record supporting lowering the maximum five-year term of the National Assembly of Belize to four years. This was also one of the promises that Briceño promised the People of Belize should the PUP be elected in the next election.

Leadership
Barrow first declared on 1 March 2016 that he would be stepping down as Prime Minister on 13 February 2020 and is currently finding a suitable successor to succeed him for that position. He also told the Media that the next election is likely to be held in early 2020 and also scheduled a UDP Leadership convention and election in May 2019. His remarks came as he was being questioned about the then pending United Democratic Party First Deputy Leadership election and convention. On 1 April 2017, at the Belize Chamber of Commerce and Industry annual general meeting Barrow narrowed down his departure as Prime Minister to less than a year and stated that he will retire in March 2018. He also narrowed down the date of the Leadership convention to 13 February 2018. He also declared that "Since this will be my last opportunity to address your annual gathering, I close by saying how thankful I am for what has in the main been a constructive relationship with the Chamber".

It's important to point out that in early 2017, Barrow was ailing with excruciating back pain; a serious condition that he was enduring for some time. He could barely sit upright without visible signs of pain on his face, It is understandable then, that in such a poor and un-stabilised state of health and having archived a historic 3-peat in government, he would welcome retirement. But on 1 September 2018, things changed, after swiftly enduring the back pain for more than a year, Barrow with uncontrollable pain vested in his back, proceeded to Cuba and requested the Doctors in a hospital there to perform a Spinal Surgery, the Cuban Doctors did as they were told by Barrow and they also did a phenomenal job. The surgery was a success and after one week of rest and recovery, Barrow returned to perfect health. So after the surgery was over, Barrow rescheduled his retirement once again this time to December 2019 and hinted he could do so earlier and also rescheduled the date for the UDP's Leadership convention back to May 2019.

On 18 November 2018, Barrow's cabinet by way of a strange press release urged him to remain as Prime Minister until the 2020 general election on 1 November 2020. They also urged him to remain as Leader of the UDP until February 2020. He said he will take that move and eventually for the final time, rescheduled the convention to February 2020. A significant walking back from his declaration at the 2017 Chamber meeting. On 4 December 2018, Minister of Human Development and Minister of Social Transformation, Anthony Martinez reveled to the media on why he and the Cabinet urged Barrow to remain as Prime Minister until 2020. Martinez stayed on course saying that Barrow ultimately took the decision and that the goal is for the currently leadership to take the UDP into a fourth term in government. A fourth term will be historic for the UDP as no political party in post-independence Belize has ever embarked on a fourth term. Plus this will also be a major upset for the majority of Belizeans who are expecting the PUP to cling win at the Next election.

Timetable

The key dates are:

Monday 10 February

Minister of National Security, John Saldivar elected as Leader of the UDP he swears in the Title of UDP Leader-elect while Barrow remains Official Leader. Saldivar defeats his opponent Deputy prime minister, Patrick Faber receiving 342 votes of the 569 votes cast. Faber only received 227 votes.

Tuesday 11 February

Barrow continues to lead the UDP despite Sunday's Leadership convention, the Party confirmed via Press release in the Evening.

Wednesday 12 February

John Saldivar resigns as UDP Leader-elect and suspended indefinitely as Minister of National Security by Barrow after he was found guilty of taking Money from accused United States Fraudster and Businessman, Lev Dermen and associates. In the morning of that day, Barrow called a Meeting in which all 31 UDP Standard-Bareers and Member of Parliaments were in attendance. There, he asked Saldivar to submit to Barrow his resignation Leader-Elect of the UDP and Saldivar agreed to do so. Soon after, Barrow issued a Statement to the Nation on the recent developments in the Party.

Thursday 13 February

John Saldivar formally resigns from Cabinet, in light of mounting allegations and calls for his Resignation. As a result, Saldivar is no longer Belize's Minister of National Security and is no longer on the indefinite suspension he was placed on yesterday. This afternoon Saldivar submitted his letter of resignation to Prime minister, Dean Barrow.

Friday 14 February

Former UDP Leader-elect and Minister of National Security, John Saldivar issued a Statement confessing that he did receive Campaign contributions from International fraudster Lev Derman.

Saturday 15 February

The People's United Party called for Press conference where it unveiled it's policies along with holding a National demonstration against Corruption and other ills. Leader Johnny Briceño sounded the clarion in the Morning as the fallout from from the John Saldivar saga continues to unravel. The PUP also introduced it's manifesto for the 2020 Election.

Sunday 16 February

New Financial year starts. Barrow is expected to leave office as Prime minister and UDP Leader, unless he wishes to stay on which is quite unlikely and will affect his party's chances of winning the next Election.

Saturday 26 September

Deadline to register for Voting closes by Midnight.

Thursday 1 October

Nominations for Candidates closes and official start of Campaigning.

Saturday 3 October

Candidates lists are Published for each Constituency.

Monday 26 October

Deadline to register for Anonymous electors closes by Midnight.

Sunday 1 November

Polling Day - polls open 7 am to 10 pm

Monday 2 November

Results announced for all the 31 Constituencies. End of Purdah.

Friday 13 November

First Meeting of the new National Assembly of Belize, for the formal Election of a Speaker of the House of Representatives (Belize) and the swearing-in of Members, ahead of the State opening of the new National Assembly's first Session.

Sunday 15 November

State Opening of Parliament.

Background

United Democratic Party

The ruling United Democratic Party, which has been in power since 7 February 2008, will attempt to win a fourth consecutive general election. However, both major parties will be contesting this election with first-time leaders. UDP Leader and Prime Minister, Dean Barrow has stated he will step down from both positions on 2 November 2020, after the new Prime Minister of Belize has been officially sworn-in by Govonor-General, Colville Young. The UDP has initially scheduled a May 2019 convention and election, but after Barrow's cabinet urged him to stay on as Prime Minister and Leader of the UDP, he pushed back that date in January 2019 to February 2020. Thus the United Democratic Party Leadership Convention and election will take place in February 2020. On 10 August 2019, The UDP's National Party Council met and set the date of the UDP's leadership convention and election on 9 February 2019. The venue will be at the Belize Civic Centre, according to the party organ, The Guardian. Deputy Prime Minister of Belize, Patrick Faber and Minister of National Security and Defence, John Saldivar will contest the position of, UDP Leader through other candidates can apply. Minister of Health, Pablo Marin will contest the position of, Deputy Leader of the UDP. Minister of Natural Resources, Hugo Patt is also expected to contest for Deputy Leader as well. Patt and Minister of Foreign Affairs, Wilfred Elrington was mentioned as possible candidates to contest the position of, UDP Leader. However, both declined the offer back in June 2018. On 5 June 2019, Belize Breaking News (BBN) published an article stating that the UDP has a high chance of capitalising and making history by wining a fourth consecutive term come 2020, given the results of the 2019 Belizean territorial dispute referendum went in the favour of the UDP. The UDP was Long campaigning for an "Yes" vote to bring Guatemala's claim to the International Court of Justice (ICJ), while the PUP eyed the "No" vote while some of its Politicians still supported "Yes" as they thought that was the right thing to do. Nevertheless, results are results and this could determine who would win the next general election. The UDP, which has already served an unprecedented three consecutive terms has gone the extra mile in securing their mandate. A victory in the next election would be monumental as the party navigates new Leadership with the departure of several senior members. The UDP Cabinet, though marred by waves of Scandal and revelations of systemic Corruption across Government departments throughout its 11-year reign, has withered the political Storms. The UDP looks to continue its decade-Long Dominance (ethology) over Belizean Politics.

People's United Party

The People's United Party has yet to prove it can win a general election since its last victory in 2005, 14 years ago; a virtual eon in politics. Despite gains in Belize City in 2015, most notably Kareem Musa's upset win over Belize City Mayor, Darrell Bradley in the Caribbean Shores constituency, the opposition PUP remained at 11 seats overall thanks to losses in the Cayo and Corozal Districts. However, after Former Senate President, Lee Mark Chang bested opponent Leila Peyrefitte in the UDP convention held in Carribean Shores constituency, there have been rumours that if the win indicated that Caribbean Shores would go red next year, also given that the "Yes" vote prevailed in Caribbean Shores for the 2019 Referendum. Area Representative, Kareem Musa said that he did not ask a single voter to vote yes or no in the referendum and that he is confident of next victory at polls. The PUP will run with Johnny Briceño as it's Leader. Francis Fonseca, who led the party during the past two general elections, resigned from leadership soon after the party's 2015 loss. Although Briceño served a previous term as PUP leader from 2008 to 2011, he has yet to led the party during a General election and do what Fonseca could not, steer the party into a victory. On the morning of Briceño swearing-in as Leader of the party.

Belizean
Elections in Belize
General elections

2020 Belizean general election


Dik Trom is the main character in a series of five children's books written in the Dutch language.  The author, C.Joh. Kieviet wrote the first book in 1891.  It was called "Uit het leven van Dik Trom" ("From the life of Dik Trom").  The books became extremely popular and they continue to be very popular today, more than 100 years after they were written.

The Life of Dik Trom
Dik Trom was a naughty boy who got up to lots of tricks with his friends.  However, he is a very honest boy and he is very kind, so the readers like him.

Dik Trom lived in the village of Hoofddorp in the Harlemmermeer in the north of Holland.  This is the village where the author grew up, so he was setting the stories in his own village, and based a lot of the characters on real people he had known.

Dik's real name was "Dirk".  This is a common Dutch name.  Dirk was very fat, even as a boy, so he soon became known as "Dik" (the Dutch word "dik" means "fat").  The word "trom" means "drum" so his name really means "Fat Drum".

Dik's parents love him very much, but they are no good at disciplining him.  When he does something naughty his father just says: "'t is toch een bijzonder kind - dat is-ie" ("he's a really special child, that he is").

Dik is always brave, he is never a coward.  His friends want to go and annoy a little old lady, but Dik persuades them to go and annoy the village policeman, and he has a leading role in that adventure.

Another adventure tells how Dik said he could ride a donkey without falling off.  The donkey belonged to the village merchant, and it was a stubborn beast that always tried to throw off its riders.  Dik managed to stay on by sitting backwards on the donkey and holding on to its tail.  This is how Dik is usually seen in pictures, and there is a statue of him in the village of Hoofddorp which shows him on the donkey.

Other books about Dik Trom
Kieviet found it difficult at first to find a publisher for his book, because the main character was naughty.  Once it had appeared in a second edition with some illustrations it became very popular, and Kieviet followed it with four other books about Dik, and one about Dik's son.  Eight films have been made about Dik Trom, the most recent in 2010.

List of Dik Trom books
 1891 Uit het leven van Dik Trom  ("From the life of Dik Trom") Valkhoff & Co.
 1907 De zoon van Dik Trom ("Dik Trom's son") Valkhoff & Co.
 1912 Toen Dik Trom een jongen was ("When Dik Trom was a boy") Kluitman.
 1920 Dik Trom en zijn dorpsgenoten ("Dik Trom and his fellow villagers") Kluitman.
 1923 Het tweede boek van Dik Trom en zijn dorpsgenoten. ("The second book of Dik Trom and his fellow villagers") Kluitman.
 1931 De avonturen van Dik Trom. ("The Adventures of Dik Trom") Kluitman.

References
 "Uit het leven van Dik Trom" by C.Joh. Kieviet - Alkmaar gebr. Kluitman

Dutch children's books
Characters in written fiction

Dik Trom


The Holy Cross Church () is a Catholic church in Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is often also referred to as Kreuzkirche ().

Architecture
The Holy Cross Church is a Gothic Revival Basilica on a cross layout. The crossing is expanded to a star shape and has a dragon rider on the elevated roof. The spire is 87 metres tall.

History
The church was under construction from 1899 to 1902 after the plans of Bernhard and Hilger Hertel. First as a quasi-parish of the Liebfrauen-Überwasser community it was established as a parish in 1905. The spire was completed in 1908. Until the reconstruction of the Münster Cathedral after World War II the Holy Cross Church served as temporary cathedral. After his return from Rome the newly appointed cardinal  Clemens August Graf von Galen celebrated on 17 March 1946 his first and only Pontifical High Mass. Just five days later the Pontifical High Mass was held for the suddenly deceased cardinal.

External links
Heilig Kreuz Münster

Roman Catholic churches in Münster
Basilica churches in Germany

Holy Cross Church, Münster


Tughlaqabad Fort is a ruined (collapsed or broken) fort in Delhi. It was built by Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq in 1321. He was the founder of Tughlaq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate  of India. Ghiyasuddin built the third historic city of Delhi, the Tughlaqabad. This fort was built in Tughlaqabad. This city was later abandoned (left) in 1327.

History

In 1321, Ghazi Malik drove away the Khalji ruler Khusrau Khan and became the ruler. He assumed (got) the title of Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq. He started the Tughlaq dynasty.He immediately started the construction of his Tughlaqabad city.

The Curse of Nizamuddin Auliya
Ghiyasuddin is a liberal (free and soft) ruler. However he eager (passionate) about his city of Tughlaqabad. He wanted all his labourers in Delhi to work on his fort. Saint Nizamuddin Auliya, a Sufi saint got angry with the king's decision. This was because his well was under construction. The fight between the saint and the king became huge. The saint gave a curse for the fort. It was translated as "it won't be inhabited (occupied), if occupied, it will be by the gujjars (cattle shepherding group)". After the fall of the Delhi sultanate, Gujjars of the area captured the Fort.  Till at present, Tughlaqabad is in it.

Death of Ghiyasuddin
Another of the saint's curses was Hunuz Dilli dur ast (Delhi is still far away). Emperor Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq succeeded in his Bengal attack. On his way to Delhi, he was crushed to death by the collapse of a tent. The tent was prepared by his son Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

Gallery

Reference

Tughlaq dynasty
14th-century buildings and structures

Tughlaqabad Fort


The 20 ItK 40 VKT or 20 mm dual anti-aircraft cannon model 1940 manufactured by VKT was a Finnish light anti-aircraft gun designed by the Finnish gunsmith Aimo Lahti. As the only multi-barrel 20 mm anti-aircraft gun, the 20 ItK 40 VKT was the most effective 20 mm air defence weapon used by the Finnish Army during World War II. A total of 174 guns were built, used in training until the 1970s and kept in reserve until 1988. The gun received the nickname Vekotin (gadget) from Finnish soldiers. The nickname was reached by adding to the abbreviation of manufacturer, VKT.

Background
The 20 ItK 40 VKT is a dual anti-aircraft gun designed by Aimo Lahti. The gun barrels and mechanisms are based on the L-39 anti-tank rifle converted from semi-automatic to full automatic fire and with the stock and barrel shroud removed. A prototype L-39 anti-aircraft gun was completed just before the Winter War, but Lahti made some improvements to the design and the mass-production version was designated L-40. Airforce headquarters ordered a series of 50 guns from Valtion Kivääritehdas (VKT, State Rifle Factory) in January 1940 and a further 120 guns in June 1941. Production was delayed, however, and the first guns were finished only in 1943. Of the total number of 174 guns, 155 were produced in 1943 and 19 in 1944. The guns were distributed to units in small batches soon after they were completed.

Design
Unlike the L-39 anti-tank rifle, weapons in the 20 ItK 40 VKT are designed for full-automatic fire and so do not suffer from the similar structural weaknesses as the full-automatic conversion L-39/44 anti-aircraft rifles. The rate of fire for the gun is adjustable, with a maximum cyclic rate of 2 × 700 rounds per minute, and a more commonly used rate of 2 × 360 rounds per minute. The gun is loaded from 20 round magazines, with an empty weight of 5.6 kg and 11–12 kg full, depending on the type of ammunition. The 20×138B Long Solothurn cartridge used in 20 ItK 40 VKT was also used in the L-39 anti-tank rifle as well as the other 20 mm anti-aircraft guns, the 20 ITK 30 and 20 ITK 35, used by field army units. The gun sight, designed by Osmo Niskanen and manufactured by Strömberg company, was not entirely satisfactory and was more complicated to use than the sight in the German 20 ITK 30. The gun trailer was also problematic, as it was rather frail and offered a ground clearance of only 20 cm. Thus the towing speed was limited to 30–40 km/h and the mobility of the gun was limited. Equipment used with the gun included spare magazines with a transport case, gun tarpaulin, a transport case for the gun sight and a toolkit.

Service use
The 20 ItK 40 VKT was used by Finnish light anti-aircraft batteries in Continuation War and Lapland War along with other 20 mm guns. At the end of the war the 20 ItK 40 VKT was the most numerous field army 20 mm anti-aircraft gun (the 20 mm Madsen was more numerous, but used primarily by navy and coastal artillery or at the home front). The guns made through the war mostly intact. After the war the 20 ItK 40 VKT was considered to be the only still satisfactory 20 mm anti-aircraft gun, although it was recommended to re-design the gun sight. The re-design was realized in 1955 when a new m/55 pendulum ring sight was accepted into service. The same sight was also later used on 20 ITK 30. The 20 ItK 40 VKT was used in training until the 1970s and they were kept in storage as reserve weapons until 1988.

See also
 7,62 ITKK 31 VKT anti-aircraft machine gun, also designed by Aimo Lahti

References

External links

20 mm artillery
Artillery of Finland
World War II anti-aircraft guns
World War II military equipment of Finland
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1943

20 ITK 40 VKT


Actual skulls and bones were long used to mark the entrances to Spanish cemeteries (campo santo). The practice, dating back many centuries, led to the symbol eventually becoming associated with the concept of death. Some crucifixes feature a skull and crossbones beneath the corpus (the depiction of Jesus'  body), in reference to a legend that the place of the crucifixion was also the burial place of Adam or, more likely, in reference to the New Testament statement (King James Version: Matthew 27:33, Mark 15:22, and John 19:17) that the place of his crucifixion was called "Golgotha" (tr. "the Place of a Skull").

Today, an example of a real skull and crossbones may be seen in the 1732 Nuestra Señora del Pilar church overlooking the famous Recoleta Cemetery in Buenos Aires, Argentina. It contains several altars rescued from other early Spanish churches in South America. One of these has twenty rectangular window boxes arrayed behind and above the altar, five wide by four tall. The size of these glass window boxes is such that the femurs of the priests thus interred are a bit too long to lie flat and so must be leaned up in an "X" formation. The other bones fill in the spaces around the femurs with the skull sitting prominently on top of the bone pile centered above the "X".

Other countries
The Jolly Roger, and the similar Totenkopf was a popular symbol of mortality across at this time across Europe and has its origins in the medieval Danse Macabre.

Tombstones from the 18th century in Southern Scotland fairly frequently feature skull and crossbones.

The Church of St Nicholas in Deptford features two Deaths Heads on its gateposts dating to the early 18th century.

References

Cultural aspects of death
Culture of Spain
Christian art about death

Skull and crossbones (Spanish cemetery)


Internet Protocol television (IPTV) is the delivery of television content over Internet Protocol (IP) networks. This is in contrast to delivery through traditional terrestrial, satellite, and cable television formats. Unlike downloaded media, IPTV offers the ability to stream the source media continuously. As a result, a client media player can begin playing the content (such as a TV channel) almost immediately. This is known as streaming media.

Although IPTV uses the Internet protocol it is not limited to television streamed from the Internet (Internet television). IPTV is widely deployed in subscriber-based telecommunications networks with high-speed access channels into end-user premises via set-top boxes or other customer-premises equipment. IPTV is also used for media delivery around corporate and private networks. IPTV in the telecommunications arena is notable for its ongoing standardisation process (e.g., European Telecommunications Standards Institute).

IPTV services may be classified into live television and live media, with or without related interactivity; time shifting of media, e.g., catch-up TV (replays a TV show that was broadcast hours or days ago), start-over TV (replays the current TV show from its beginning); and video on demand (VOD) which involves browsing and viewing items of a media catalogue.

Definition
Historically, many different definitions of IPTV have appeared, including elementary streams over IP networks, MPEG transport streams over IP networks and a number of proprietary systems. One official definition approved by the International Telecommunication Union focus group on IPTV (ITU-T FG IPTV) is:

IPTV is defined as multimedia services such as television/video/audio/text/graphics/data delivered over IP-based networks managed to provide the required level of quality of service and experience, security, interactivity and reliability.

Another definition of IPTV, relating to the telecommunications industry, is the one given by Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions (ATIS) IPTV Exploratory Group in 2005:

IPTV is defined as the secure and reliable delivery to subscribers of entertainment video and related services.  These services may include, for example, Live TV, Video On Demand (VOD) and Interactive TV (iTV). These services are delivered across an access agnostic, packet switched network that employs the IP protocol to transport the audio, video and control signals. In contrast to video over the public Internet, with IPTV deployments, network security and performance are tightly managed to ensure a superior entertainment experience, resulting in a compelling business environment for content providers, advertisers and customers alike.

History
Up until the early 1990s, it was not thought possible that a television programme could be squeezed into the limited telecommunication bandwidth of a copper telephone cable to provide a video-on-demand (VOD) television service of acceptable quality, as the required bandwidth of a digital television signal was around 200Mbit/s, which was 2,000 times greater than the bandwidth of a speech signal over a copper telephone wire. VOD services were only made possible as a result of two major technological developments: motion-compensated DCT video compression and asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) data transmission. Motion-compensated DCT algorithms for video coding standards include the H.26x formats from 1988 onwards and the MPEG formats from 1991 onwards. Motion-compensated DCT video compression significantly reduced the amount of bandwidth required for a television signal, while at the same time ADSL increased the bandwidth of data that could be sent over a copper telephone wire. ADSL increased the bandwidth of a telephone line from around 100kbit/s to 2Mbit/s, while DCT compression reduced the required bandwidth of a digital television signal from around 200Mbit/s down to about 2Mbit/s. The combination of DCT and ADSL technologies made it possible to practically implement VOD services at around 2Mbit/s bandwidth in the 1990s.

The term IPTV first appeared in 1995 with the founding of Precept Software by Judith Estrin and Bill Carrico. Precept developed an Internet video product named IP/TV. IP/TV was an Mbone compatible Windows and Unix-based application that transmitted single and multi-source audio and video traffic, ranging from low to DVD quality, using both unicast and IP multicast Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) and Real time control protocol (RTCP). The software was written primarily by Steve Casner, Karl Auerbach, and Cha Chee Kuan. Precept was acquired by Cisco Systems in 1998. Cisco retains the IP/TV trademark.

Telecommunications company US West (later Qwest) launched an IPTV service called TeleChoice in Phoenix, Arizona in 1998 using VDSL technology, becoming the first company in the United States to provide digital television over telephone lines. The service was shut down in 2008.

Internet radio company AudioNet started the first continuous live webcasts with content from WFAA-TV in January 1998 and KCTU-LP on 10 January 1998.

Kingston Communications, a regional telecommunications operator in the UK, launched Kingston Interactive Television (KIT), an IPTV over digital subscriber line (DSL) service in September 1999. The operator added additional VOD service in October 2001 with Yes TV, a VOD content provider. Kingston was one of the first companies in the world to introduce IPTV and IP VOD over ADSL as a commercial service. The service became the reference for various changes to UK Government regulations and policy on IPTV. In 2006, the KIT service was discontinued, subscribers having declined from a peak of 10,000 to 4,000.

In 1999, NBTel (now known as Bell Aliant) was the first to commercially deploy Internet protocol television over DSL in Canada using the Alcatel 7350 DSLAM and middleware created by iMagic TV (owned by NBTel's parent company Bruncor). The service was marketed under the brand VibeVision in New Brunswick, and later expanded into Nova Scotia in early 2000 after the formation of Aliant.  iMagic TV was later sold to Alcatel.

In 2002, Sasktel was the second in Canada to commercially deploy IPTV over DSL, using the Lucent Stinger DSL platform.

In 2005, SureWest Communications was the first North American company to offer high-definition television (HDTV) channels over an IPTV service.

In 2005, Bredbandsbolaget launched its IPTV service as the first service provider in Sweden. As of January 2009, they are not the biggest provider any longer; TeliaSonera, who launched their service later, now has more customers.

In 2007, TPG launched their IPTV service in Australia after a limited beta. By 2010, iiNet and Telstra launched IPTV services in conjunction to internet plans.

In 2008, Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited (PTCL) launched IPTV under the brand name of PTCL Smart TV in Pakistan. This service is available in 150 major cities of the country offering 140 live channels.

In 2010, CenturyLink – after acquiring Embarq (2009) and Qwest (2010) – entered five U.S. markets with an IPTV service called Prism. This was after successful test marketing in Florida.  Later in 2010, Bell Canada (a major division, if not the largest division of BCE) announced it would begin offering residential and business/commercial customers in Montreal, Quebec and Toronto, Ontario IPTV over a number of different modalities, including fibre to the home, fibre to the node and DSL.  This flavour of IPTV would be packaged with other services and branded as "Bell Fibe," providing Canadian customers with everything from local analogue trunk connectivity (POTS), to DSL and fibre Internet to TV service via IPTV.  Bell further announced in the September 13th (2010) press release it would begin deploying fiber optic Ethernet to homes in Montreal and Toronto.  Bell has since continued to install fiber optic Ethernet to homes (fibre to the home) across Ontario and Quebec, Bell Canada's two largest customer territories.  Bell was very successful with the deployment of the Bell Fibe product offering.  Many customers in Ontario and Quebec switched from legacy (coaxial) cable companies to Bell's Fibe product because of Bell's marketing around IPTV and their at-home wireless PVR offering.  Bell's wireless PVR would permit customers to place a TV anywhere they wanted - as long as they had a power outlet.  Bell Fibe TV commercials would show young families watching TV outside on the couch with large 70+ inch LCDs and their Bell Fibe wireless PVR.

In Brazil, since at least 2012, Vivo has been offering the service Vivo TV Fibra in 200+ cities where it has FTTH coverage (4Q 2020 data) . Since at least 2018, Oi has also been offering IPTV under its FTTH service "Oi Fibra". Also, several regional FTTH providers also offer IPTV along with FTTH internet services.

In 2016, Korean Central Television (KCTV) introduced the set-top box called Manbang, reportedly providing video-on-demand services in North Korea via quasi-internet protocol television (IPTV). Manbang allows viewers to watch five different TV channels in real-time, and find political information regarding the Supreme Leader and Juche ideology, and read articles from state-run news organizations.

Markets

Residential
The global IPTV market was expected to grow from 28 million subscribers at US$12 billion revenue in 2009 to 83 million and US$38 billion in 2013. Europe and Asia are the leading territories in terms of the overall number of subscribers.  But in terms of service revenues, Europe and North America generate a larger share of global revenue, due to very low average revenue per user (ARPU) in China and India, the fastest growing (and ultimately, the biggest markets) is Asia.

Services also launched in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Pakistan, Canada, Croatia, Lithuania, Moldova, Montenegro, Morocco, North Macedonia, Poland, Mongolia, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, the Netherlands, Georgia, Greece, Denmark, Finland, Estonia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Norway, Sweden, Iceland, Latvia, Turkey, Colombia, Chile and Uzbekistan. The United Kingdom launched IPTV early and after a slow initial growth, in February 2009 BT announced that it had reached 398,000 subscribers to its BT Vision service. Claro has launched their own IPTV service called "Claro TV". This service is available in several countries in which they operate, such as Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua. IPTV is just beginning to grow in Central and Eastern Europe and Latin America, and now it is growing in South Asian countries such as Sri Lanka, Nepal Pakistan and India. but significant plans exist in countries such as Russia. Kazakhstan introduced its own IPTV services by the national provider Kazakhtelecom JSC and content integrator Alacast under the "iD TV" brand in two major cities Astana and Almaty in 2009 and is about to go nationwide starting 2010. Australian ISP iiNet launched Australia's first IPTV with Fetch TV.

In India, IPTV was launched by MTNL, BSNL and Jio in New Delhi, Mumbai and Punjab. APSFL is another IPTV provider in the state of Andhra Pradesh.

In Nepal, IPTV was first launched by NEW IT VENTURE CORPORATION called Net TV Nepal, the service can be accessed through its app, web app and Set-top boxes provided by local ISPs, another IPTV was started by Nepal Telecom called WOW Time in 2016 which can be accessed through its app.

In Sri Lanka, IPTV was launched by Sri Lanka Telecom (operated by SLT VisionCom) in 2008, under the brand name of PEO TV. This service is available throughout the country. Dialog TV has been available through the service since 2018.

In Pakistan, IPTV was launched by PTCL in 2008, under the brand name of PTCL Smart TV. This service is available in 150 major cities of the country.

In the Philippines, PLDT offers Cignal IPTV services as an add-on in certain ADSL and fiber optic plans.

In Malaysia, various companies have attempted to launch IPTV services since 2005. Failed PayTV provider MiTV attempted to use an IPTV-over-UHF service but the service failed to take off. HyppTV was supposed to use an IPTV-based system, but not true IPTV as it does not provide a set-top box and requires users to view channels using a computer. True IPTV providers available in the country at the moment are Fine TV and DETV. In Q2 2010, Telekom Malaysia launched IPTV services through their fibre to the home product Unifi in select areas.  In April 2010, Astro began testing IPTV services on TIME dotCom Berhad's high-speed fibre to the home optical fibre network. In December 2010, Astro began trials with customers in high-rise condominium buildings around the Mont Kiara area. In April 2011, Astro commercially launched its IPTV services under the tag line "The One and Only Line You'll Ever Need", a triple play offering in conjunction with TIME dotCom Berhad that provides all the Astro programming via IPTV, together with voice telephone services and broadband Internet access all through the same fibre optic connection into the customer's home. In 2020, Astro launched "Plug-and-Play", which uses Unicast technology for streaming TV.

In Turkey, TTNET launched IPTV services under the name IPtivibu in 2010. It was available in pilot areas in the cities of Istanbul, İzmir and Ankara. As of 2011, IPTV service is launched as a large-scale commercial service and widely available across the country under the trademark "Tivibu EV". Superonline plans to provide IPTV under the different name "WebTV" in 2011. Türk Telekom started building the fibre optic substructure for IPTV in late 2007.

Commercial and corporate

IPTV has been widely used since around 2002 to distribute television and audio-visual (AV) media around businesses and commercial sites, whether as live TV channels or Video on Demand (VOD). Examples of types of commercial users include airports, schools, offices, hotels, and sports stadiums, to name just a few.

Hotel television systems are the in-suite television content presented in hotel rooms, other hotel environments and in the hospitality industry for in-room entertainment, as well as hospitals, assisted living, senior care and nursing homes. These services may be free for the guest or paid, depending on the service and the individual hotel's or hotel chain's policy. Generally, these services are controlled by using the remote control.

Architecture

Elements
An IPTV head-end is a place where live TV channels and AV sources are encoded, encrypted, and delivered as IP multicast streams. Meanwhile, a Video on Demand (VOD) platform stores on-demand video assets and serves them as IP unicast streams when a user requests them. Sometimes, the VOD platform is located within the IPTV head-end. An interactive portal allows users to navigate within the different IPTV services, such as the VOD catalogue. A delivery network is a packet-switched network that carries IP packets, including unicast and multicast streams. Endpoints refer to user equipment that can request, decode, and deliver IPTV streams for display to the user. This can include computers, mobile devices, and set-top boxes. At a residential IPTV user's home, the home TV gateway is the piece of equipment that terminates the access link from the delivery network. Lastly, the user set-top box is the piece of endpoint equipment that decodes and decrypts TV and VOD streams for display on the TV screen.

Architecture of a video server network
Depending on the network architecture of the service provider, there are two main types of video server architecture that can be considered for IPTV deployment: centralised and distributed.

The centralised architecture model is a relatively simple and easy-to-manage solution. Because all media content is stored in centralised servers, it does not require a comprehensive content distribution system. Centralised architecture is generally good for a network that provides relatively small VOD service deployment, has adequate core and edge bandwidth or has an efficient content delivery network (CDN).

A distributed architecture has bandwidth usage advantages and inherent system management features that are essential for managing a larger server network. Distributed architecture requires intelligent and sophisticated content distribution technologies to augment effective delivery of multimedia contents over the service provider's network.

Residential IPTV home networks
In many cases, the residential gateway that provides connectivity with the Internet access network is not located close to the IPTV set-top box. This scenario becomes very common as service providers start to offer service packages with multiple set-top boxes per subscriber.

Networking technologies that take advantage of existing home wiring (such as power lines, phone lines or coaxial cables) or of wireless hardware have become common solutions for this problem, although fragmentation in the wired home networking market has limited somewhat the growth in this market.

In December 2008, ITU-T adopted Recommendation G.hn (also known as G.9960), which is a next-generation home networking standard that specifies a common PHY/MAC that can operate over any home wiring (power lines, phone lines or coaxial cables).

Groups such as the Multimedia over Coax Alliance, HomePlug Powerline Alliance, Home Phoneline Networking Alliance, and Quasar Alliance (Plastic Optical Fibre) each advocate their own technologies.

Telecomms IMS architecture
There is a growing standardisation effort on the use of the 3GPP IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) as an architecture for supporting IPTV services in telecommunications carrier networks. Both ITU-T and ETSI are working on so-called "IMS-based IPTV" standards (see e.g. ETSI TS 182 027). Carriers will be able to offer both voice and IPTV services over the same core infrastructure and the implementation of services combining conventional TV services with telephony features (e.g. caller ID on the TV screen) will become straightforward.

Protocols
IPTV supports both live TV as well as stored video-on-demand. Playback requires a device connected to either a fixed or wireless IP network in the form of a standalone personal computer, smartphone, touch screen tablet, game console, connected TV or set-top box. Content is compressed by Video and audio codecs and then encapsulated in MPEG transport stream or Real-time Transport Protocol or other packets.  IP multicasting allows for live data to be sent to multiple receivers using a single multicast group address.

In standards-based IPTV systems, the primary underlying protocols used are:
 Service-provider-based streaming:
 IGMP for subscribing to a live multicast stream (TV channel) and for changing from one live multicast stream to another (TV channel change). IP multicast operates within LANs (including VLANs) and across WANs also. IP multicast is usually routed in the network core by Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM), setting up correct distribution of multicast streams (TV channels) from their source all the way to the customers who wants to view them, duplicating received packets as needed.  On-demand content uses a negotiated unicast connection. Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) over User Datagram Protocol (UDP) or the lower overhead H.222 transport stream over Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) are generally the preferred methods of encapsulation.
 Web-based unicast only live and VOD streaming:
 Adobe Flash Player prefers RTMP over TCP with setup and control via either AMF or XML or JSON transactions.
 Apple iOS uses HLS adaptive bitrate streaming over HTTP with setup and control via an embedded M3U playlist file.
 Microsoft Silverlight uses smooth streaming (adaptive bitrate streaming) over HTTP.
 Web-based multicast live and unicast VOD streaming:
 The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) recommends RTP over UDP or TCP transports with setup and control using RTSP over TCP.
 Connected TVs, game consoles, set-top boxes and network personal video recorders:
 Local network content uses UPnP AV for unicast via HTTP over TCP or for multicast live RTP over UDP.
 Web-based content is provided through either inline Web plug-ins or a television broadcast-based application that uses a middleware language such as MHEG-5 that triggers an event such as loading an inline Web browser using an Adobe Flash Player plug-in.

Local IPTV, as used by businesses for audio visual AV distribution on their company networks is typically based on a mixture of:
 Conventional TV reception equipment and IPTV encoders
 TV gateways that receive live Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) MPEG transport streams (channels) from terrestrial aerials, satellite dishes, or cable feeds and convert them into IP streams

Via satellite
Although IPTV and conventional satellite TV distribution have been seen as complementary technologies, they are likely to be increasingly used together in hybrid IPTV networks. IPTV is largely neutral to the transmission medium, and IP traffic is already routinely carried by satellite for Internet backbone trunking and corporate VSAT networks.

The copper twisted pair cabling that forms the last mile of the telephone and broadband network in many countries is not able to provide a sizeable proportion of the population with an IPTV service that matches even existing terrestrial or satellite digital TV distribution. For a competitive multi-channel TV service, a connection speed of 20 Mbit/s is likely to be required, but unavailable to most potential customers. The increasing popularity of high-definition television increases connection speed requirements or limits IPTV service quality and connection eligibility even further.

However, satellites are capable of delivering in excess of 100 Gbit/s via multi-spot beam technologies, making satellite a clear emerging technology for implementing IPTV networks. Satellite distribution can be included in an IPTV network architecture in several ways. The simplest to implement is an IPTV-direct to home (DTH) architecture, in which hybrid DVB-broadband set-top boxes in subscriber homes integrate satellite and IP reception to give additional bandwidth with return channel capabilities. In such a system, many live TV channels may be multicast via satellite and supplemented with stored video-on-demand transmission via the broadband connection. Arqiva's Satellite Media Solutions Division suggests "IPTV works best in a hybrid format. For example, you would use broadband to receive some content and satellite to receive other, such as live channels".

Hybrid IPTV

Hybrid IPTV refers to the combination of traditional broadcast TV services and video delivered over either managed IP networks or the public Internet. It is an increasing trend in both the consumer and pay TV markets.

The growth of Hybrid IPTV is driven by two major factors. Since the emergence of online video aggregation sites, like YouTube and Vimeo in the mid-2000s, traditional pay TV operators have come under increasing pressure to provide their subscribers with a means of viewing Internet-based video on their televisions. At the same time, specialist IP-based operators have looked for ways to offer analogue and digital terrestrial services to their operations, without adding either additional cost or complexity to their transmission operations. Bandwidth is a valuable asset for operators, so many have looked for alternative ways to deliver these new services without investing in additional network infrastructures.

A hybrid set-top allows content from a range of sources, including terrestrial broadcast, satellite, and cable, to be brought together with video delivered over the Internet via an Ethernet connection on the device. This enables television viewers to access a greater variety of content on their TV sets, without the need for a separate box for each service. Hybrid IPTV set-top boxes may also enable users to access a range of advanced interactive services, such as VOD, catch-up TV, as well as Internet applications, including video telephony, surveillance, gaming, shopping, e-government accessed via a television set.

From a pay-TV operator's perspective, a hybrid IPTV set-top box gives them greater long-term flexibility to deploy new services and applications as and when consumers require, most often without the need to upgrade equipment or for a technician to visit and reconfigure or swap out the device. This reduces the cost of launching new services, increases speed to market and limits disruption for consumers.

The Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV (HbbTV) consortium of industry companies the establishment of an open European standard for hybrid set-top boxes for the reception of broadcast and broadband digital TV and multimedia applications with a single user interface. These trends led to the development of Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV set-top boxes that included both a broadcast tuner and an Internet connection – usually via an Ethernet port. The first commercially available hybrid IPTV set-top box was developed by Advanced Digital Broadcast, a developer of digital television hardware and software, in 2005. The platform was developed for Spanish pay TV operator Telefonica, and used as part of its Movistar TV service, launched to subscribers at the end of 2005.

An alternative approach is the IPTV version of the Headend in the Sky cable TV solution. Here, multiple TV channels are distributed via satellite to the ISP or IPTV provider's point of presence (POP) for IP-encapsulated distribution to individual subscribers as required by each subscriber. This can provide a huge selection of channels to subscribers without overburdening incoming Internet to the POP, and enables an IPTV service to be offered to small or remote operators outside the reach of terrestrial high-speed WAN connection. An example is a network combining fibre and satellite distribution via an SES New Skies satellite of 95 channels to Latin America and the Caribbean, operated by IPTV Americas.

Advantages
The Internet protocol-based platform offers significant advantages, including the ability to integrate television with other IP-based services like high-speed Internet access and VoIP.

A switched IP network also allows for the delivery of significantly more content and functionality. In a typical TV or satellite network, using broadcast video technology, all the content constantly flows downstream to each customer, and the customer switches the content at the set-top box. The customer can select from as many choices as the telecomms, cable or satellite company can stuff into the pipe flowing into the home. A switched IP network works differently. Content remains in the network, and only the content the customer selects is sent into the customer's home. That frees up bandwidth, and the customer's choice is less restricted by the size of the pipe into the home.

Interactivity
An IP-based platform also allows significant opportunities to make the TV viewing experience more interactive and personalised. The provider may, for example, include an interactive programme guide that allows viewers to search for content by title or actor's name, or a picture-in-picture functionality that allows them to channel surf without leaving the programme they're watching. Viewers may be able to look up a player's stats while watching a sports game or control the camera angle. They also may be able to access photos or music from their PC on their television, use a wireless phone to schedule a recording of their favourite show, or even adjust parental controls so their child can watch a documentary for a school report, while they're away from home.

A feedback channel from the viewer to the provider is required for this interactivity. Terrestrial, satellite, and some cable networks for television do not feature a feedback channel and thus don't allow interactivity. However, interactivity with those networks can be possible by combining TV networks with data networks such as the Internet or a mobile communication network.

Video on demand
IPTV technology is used for video on demand (VOD), which permits a customer to browse an online programme or film catalogue, to watch trailers and to then select a program. The playout of the selected item starts nearly instantaneously on the customer's TV or PC.

Technically, when the customer selects the program, a point-to-point unicast connection is set up between the customer's decoder (set-top box or PC) and the delivering streaming server. The signalling for the trick mode functionality (pause, slow-motion, wind/rewind etc.) may be communicated using, for instance, RTSP.

In an attempt to avoid content piracy, the VOD content is usually encrypted and digital rights management may be applied. A film that is chosen, for example, may be playable for 24 hours following payment, after which time it becomes unavailable.

IPTV-based converged services
Another advantage is the opportunity for integration and convergence. This opportunity is amplified when using IMS-based solutions. Converged services implies interaction of existing services in a seamless manner to create new value-added services. One example is on-screen caller ID, getting caller ID on a TV, and the ability to handle the call (send it to voice mail, etc.). IP-based services help to provide consumers anytime and anywhere access to content over their televisions, PCs, and mobile device, and to integrate services and content to tie them together. Within businesses and institutions, IPTV eliminates the need to run a parallel infrastructure to deliver live and stored video services.

Limitations
IPTV is sensitive to packet loss and delays. An IPTV channel has a minimum bandwidth requirement. Some systems are able to adapt to lower available bandwidth by reducing picture quality.

Although a few countries have very high-speed broadband-enabled populations, in other countries legacy networks struggle to provide 3–5 Mbit/s and so simultaneous use of IPTV, VOIP and Internet access may not be viable. The last-mile delivery for IPTV usually has a bandwidth restriction that only allows a small number of simultaneous TV channel streams – typically from one to three – to be delivered.

Latency
The network delay inherent in the use of satellite Internet access is often held up as a reason why satellites cannot be successfully used for IPTV. In practice, however, delay is not an important factor for IPTV, since it is a service that does not require real-time transmission, as is the case with telephony or videoconferencing services. It is the delay of response to requests to change channel, display an EPG, etc. that most affects customers' perceived quality of service.

Existing video transmission systems of both analogue and digital formats already introduce known quantifiable delays. Existing DVB TV channels that simulcast by both terrestrial and satellite transmissions experience the same 0.25-second delay difference between the two services with no detrimental effect, and it goes unnoticed by viewers.

Bandwidth requirements

Digital video is a sequence of digital images, called frames, each made up of pixels or picture elements. Three bytes are typically used to represent the colour of the high quality image.

Movies use 24 frames per second, North America television uses approximately 30 frames per second where the Europe television frame rate is 25 frames per second. Each digital video has dimensions width and height; SDTV is  pixels, HDTV uses up to  pixels.

For checking the bandwidth requirements, you need to dimension your IPTV service, such as defining number of SD and HD TV channels, number of planned subscribers, VOD and nPVR concurrency. Based on these, you can calculate required bandwidth on each DSL line, in access network and in core IP network.

Privacy implications
Due to limitations in bandwidth, an IPTV channel is delivered to the user one at a time. Changing a channel requires requesting the head-end server to provide a different broadcast stream, much like VOD. This could enable the service provider to accurately track each and every programme watched and the duration of watching for each viewer. In conjunction with regulatory differences between IPTV and cable TV, this tracking could pose a threat to privacy according to critics.  For IP multicast scenarios, since a particular multicast group (TV channel) needs to be requested before it can be viewed, the same privacy concerns apply.

Vendors

Some major telecoms vendors are active in this space, notably Accenture (Accenture Video Solution), Alcatel-Lucent (sometimes working with Movistar TV), Ericsson (notably since acquiring Tandberg Television), Huawei, NEC, PTCL Smart TV, Sri Lanka Telecom, Thomson, and ZTE, as are some IT houses, led by Microsoft. Miami-based AlphaOTT, Tokyo-based The New Media Group, Malaysian-based Select-TV, Oslo/Norway-based SnapTV, and California-based UTStarcom, Inc. also offer end-to-end networking infrastructure for IPTV-based services, and Hong Kong-based BNS Ltd. provides turnkey open platform IPTV technology solutions. Others include Movistar TV and PCCW.

Google Fiber offers an IPTV service in various US cities which includes up to 1 Gigabit-speed internet and over 290 channels depending on package via the fibre optic network being built out in Kansas City Kansas and Kansas City Missouri.

Many of these IPTV solution vendors participated in the biennial Multiservice Switching Forum Interoperability 2008 (GMI) event which was coordinated by the MultiService Forum (MSF) at five sites worldwide from 20 to 31 October 2008. Test equipment vendors including Netrounds, Codenomicon, Empirix, Ixia, Mu Dynamics, and Spirent joined solution vendors such as the companies listed above in one of the largest IPTV proving grounds ever deployed.

Service bundling
For residential users, IPTV is often provided in conjunction with VOD and may be bundled with Internet services such as Internet access and voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) telecommunications services. Commercial bundling of IPTV, VoIP and Internet access is sometimes referred to in marketing as triple play service.  When these three are offered with cellular service, the combined service may be referred to as quadruple play.

Regulation
Historically, cable TV operators have been regulated differently from telecommunication operators. As IPTV allows TV and VOD to be transmitted over the Internet, new regulatory issues arise. Professor Eli M. Noam highlights in his report "TV or Not TV: Three Screens, One Regulation?" some of the key challenges with sector-specific regulation that is becoming obsolete due to convergence in this field.

See also
 Comparison of music streaming services
 Comparison of streaming media software
 Comparison of video hosting services
 Content delivery network
 P2PTV
 Protection of Broadcasts and Broadcasting Organizations Treaty
 SAT>IP
 Software as a service

Notes

References

Further reading

Digital television
Internet broadcasting
Internet radio
Streaming television
Video on demand
Television technology
Television terminology
Computer-related introductions in 1995
Telecommunications-related introductions in 1995
1990s neologisms

Internet Protocol television


Punta Dúngeness is a headland at the eastern entrance of the Strait of Magellan on its north shore, opposite Cabo del Espiritu Santo in Tierra del Fuego. West of the Punta Dungeness lies the Bahía Posesión. Punta Dungeness marks the border between Chile and Argentina, and according to the Treaty of Peace and Friendship the line between Punta Dungeness and Cabo del Espiritu Santo marks the limits of each country's territorial waters and the border between the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean. It is the southernmost point on the mainland of Argentina, and the easternmost point on the mainland of Chile. There is a lighthouse on the Chilean side. This is the only place where the Atlantic Ocean touches the shores on the mainland of Chile, at the entrance to the Strait of Magellan.

The headland was named after Dungeness on the south coast of England, to which it bears some resemblance. It was named on 17 December 1766 by the English navigator Samuel Wallis.

Climate

References

Landforms of Magallanes Region
Landforms of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina
Dungeness
Dungeness
Argentina–Chile border
Strait of Magellan

External links

Video of a visit to the lighthouse

Punta Dúngeness


Fujiwara no Yoritada (藤原 頼忠; 924 – 31 July 989), the second son of Saneyori, was a kugyo (high-ranked Japanese noble) who served as regent for Emperor En'yū and Emperor Kazan. His mother was a daughter of Fujiwara no Tokihira. His elder brother from the same mother Atsutoshi died before their father's death.

In 977 he became Sadaijin, and when his cousin, the regent Fujiwara no Kanemichi was in a critical medical condition, he ceded the position of Kampaku (regent) to Yoritada, instead of his rival brother Kaneie.

Although Yoritada's two daughters were consorts of Emperor En'yū and Emperor Kazan, they did not have any sons. Yoritada thus had only a tenable blood relationship with the Emperors. His cousin Kaneie was the grandfather of Crown Prince Yasuhito (Emperor Ichijō), and he encouraged Emperor Kazan to abdicate a throne. By the accession of Emperor Ichijō, Yoritada retired from his post as Kampaku, and Kaneie became Sessho (regent) for his grandson Emperor Ichijō. Yoritada was Daijō Daijin from 978, and he is referred to as Rengi-kō (廉義公) (posthumous name of Daijō Daijin).

His poet son Fujiwara no Kintō compiled the Shūi Wakashū, and also a collection of Chinese verse and prose (~600 selections) and 25 Japanese poems in his Wakan Rōeishū (和漢朗詠集), a widely admired collection that helped spread the influence of Chinese culture (and especially the poetry of Bai Juyi) in the Japanese Imperial court. Kintō's collection would be imitated by a successor, Fujiwara no Mototoshi's Shinsen Rōeishū (新撰朗詠集).  Kintō also wrote an influential critical guide to incorporating Bai Juyi's poetic techniques (and more generally, T'ang dynasty poetry) into Japanese poetry called Shinsen Zuinō (新撰髄脳) ("The Essence of Poetry Newly Selected").

References
pg. 483 and 181-183 of Japanese Court Poetry, Earl Miner, Robert H. Brower. 1961, Stanford University Press, LCCN 61-10925
Nihonshi Shoka Keizu Jimmei Jiten, Owada,T. et al. 2003, Kodansya. (Japanese)
Ōkagami, Hosaka,H.(translation into modern Japanese) 1981, Kodansya. (Japanese)

924 births
989 deaths
Fujiwara clan
Regents of Japan

Fujiwara no Yoritada