The Center for Army Lessons Learned (CALL) continuously leads the Army Lessons Learned Program and identifies, collects, analyzes, disseminates, and archives lessons and best practices while maintaining global situational awareness in order to share knowledge and facilitate the Army's and Unified Action Partners' adaptation to win wars. CALL is a multi-media based operation that disseminates these lessons and other related materials through a variety of print and electronic media, including their web site.

After the Army's experience in Operation Urgent Fury, the Chief of Staff of the Army, General John A. Wickham Jr., tasked the Army Studies Group to conduct an analysis of the Army's ability to adapt forces to local conditions in combat. On June 15, 1984 the Army Studies Group, headed by Colonel Wesley Clark, proposed a system for capturing lessons learned and adapting units for combat. The Chief of Staff of the Army quickly approved the recommended approach. CALL was officially stood up on August 1, 1985 as a directorate of the Combined Arms Training Activity (CATA) located at Fort Leavenworth, KS. CALL is currently a subordinate organization to the Mission Command Center of Excellence.

Sources

#333: The Center for Lessons Learned, a May 2007 story about U.S. Army Center for Army Lessons Learned from This American Life
"Army Lessons Learned", Federal Computer Week, July 15, 2006.

Fort Leavenworth
Military in Kansas


In general, technical management is the systematic efforts used in the deployment of a system or process and in balancing its cost, effectiveness and supportability during its life cycle.

Technical managers can be found at the interface of application and technique; they act between the user and the technical means. Examples of technical management are: ICT management, real estate management, financial management, quality management. Often the managed field is a resource of the organisation. Technical managers combine technical and management knowledge for the benefit of the user.

In logistics, technical management involves the duties a shipping company must perform for the technical operation of a vessel. This involves management related to crew management with related tasks, logistics related to operations as well as operations, service and maintenance. Often technical management is performed by the ship owning company, but not always. Technical management is sometimes performed by separate companies than the commercial management, that involves chartering of the vessels and the financial aspects that is performed by the owner company.

References

Ship management

Technical management


Rebekah Bettelheim Kohut (September 9, 1864 – August 11, 1951) was an American educator, writer, and community leader, born in Hungary. She was the first president of the World Congress of Jewish Women, elected at its first convention in 1923. In 1935, Lillian Wald called Rebekah Kohut "American Jewry's First Lady."

Early life and education
Rebekah Bettelheim was born in Kassa, Hungary (now Košice, in Slovakia), the daughter of rabbi Albert Bettelheim and teacher Henrietta A. Weintraub Bettelheim. The Bettelheim family immigrated to the United States when Rebekah was a small child. They lived in Richmond, Virginia before settling in San Francisco, California, where Kohut finished high school. She attended but did not graduate from the University of California.

Career
As a rabbi's wife in New York City, she took a public role in community improvement. She founded a women's organization in her husband's congregation at Central Synagogue; the Central Synagogue Sisterhood of Personal Service helped new immigrants in the Lower East Side. She was also involved in the New York Women's Health Protective Association, which sought improved sanitation in the city.

As an educator, she was the only Jewish woman to address the National Congress of Mothers in 1897, on the topic of "Parental Reverence, as Taught in Hebrew Homes." In 1899, she started the Kohut College Preparatory School for Girls, a boarding school, which she ran until 1905 with her stepson George Alexander Kohut. They started and edited a Jewish school newspaper, Helpful Thoughts. She gave lectures on English literature for many years. In 1933 she began a two-year stint as head of the Columbia Grammar School.

In widowhood, she was president of the New York section of the National Council of Jewish Women (NCJW), served as a trustee of the Young Women's Hebrew Association, and was active in New York City politics. During World War I she worked with the city's Women's Committee for National Defense on placing women in war-related work, and she was a fundraiser for war relief. She became chair of the NCJW's Reconstruction Committee, tasked with aiding Jewish communities in war-ravaged Europe. In 1923, she was a founder and the first president of the World Congress of Jewish Women, organized at Vienna. In 1927, she was the first woman to serve as a judge on the Jewish Court of Arbitration in New York City. In 1932, New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed her the sole female member of the Joint Legislative Committee on Unemployment, where she called for the immediate establishment of state unemployment insurance.

She wrote two memoirs, My Portion (1925), and More Yesterdays (1950), and a biography of her stepson, His Father's House: The Story of George Alexander Kohut (1938). In the 1930s, she served as an advisor to the New York State Employment Service, and raised funding and awareness for addressing the plight of German Jewish refugees. "The Jewish woman," she proclaimed, "must choose between a disorganized, chaotic, and insecure world and a world in which there is peace, plenty, freedom, and security."

Personal life
She married rabbi Alexander Kohut in 1887, as his second wife (with rabbi Benjamin Szold performing the ceremony). Alexander Kohut had five sons and three daughters from his first marriage, most of them still young. She was widowed when Rabbi Kohut died in 1894. "I was born in Europe, grew to girlhood in Virginia, was educated in California, and hope to end my days in New York," she wrote in 1895.

Death and legacy
Kohut died in 1951, aged 86 years, in New York.

In 1952, Kohut's stepdaughter, Julia Kahn, donated two Assyrian tablets to Yale University in memory of Rebekah Kohut. The Kohut Family Papers, including ledgers from Rebekah Kohut's school for girls, are archived at Yale University.

Selected works
 My Portion (1925)
 More Yesterdays (1950)
 His Father's House: The Story of George Alexander Kohut (1938)

See also
List of first women lawyers and judges in New York

References

External links
Dora Askowith, Three Outstanding Women: Mary Fels, Rebekah Kohut, Annie Nathan Meyer (Bloch 1941).

1864 births
1951 deaths
American women in World War I
American women educators
20th-century American memoirists
American biographers
Hungarian emigrants to the United States
American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent
20th-century American women writers
Jewish women activists
Hungarian Jews
Jewish American community activists
American women editors
20th-century American newspaper editors
Women newspaper editors
20th-century American women journalists
20th-century American journalists

Rebekah Bettelheim Kohut


Michael Lantz (born April 6, 1908 – April 1988) was an American sculptor and medalist.

Lantz attended the National Academy of Design and the Beaux-Arts Institute of Design, and also worked as a "handy boy" in the sculptor Lee Lawrie's New York studio for ten years. In 1938, while working as an instructor for the Works Progress Administration (WPA), he won a competition to create two statues for the Federal Trade Commission Building in Washington, D.C. 247 artists entered the anonymous competition organized by the Department of the Treasury. The models that Lantz submitted for the competition are now in the collections of the Smithsonian American Art Museum.

Lantz created other sculptures for buildings and sites across the United States, including a statue of St. Avoid for the Lorraine American Cemetery and Memorial near St. Avoid, France. He also designed commemorative and historical medals and seals, including one in the Smithsonian American Art Museum.

Lantz was a member of the National Sculpture Society, where he was editor of its publication, the Sculpture Review, from 1955 to 1957 and 1973 to 1984, and served as its president from 1970 to 1973. He was awarded the Saltus Award in 1968. In 1951 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member and became a full Academician in 1954.

Lantz's brother Walter Lantz is well known as the creator of Woody Woodpecker. The National Sculpture Society awards the Walter and Michael Lantz Prize on an annual basis. Winners include Andrew DeVries in 1991.

Selected works
 Man Controlling Trade, Apex Building, Washington D.C., Federal Art Project, 1942
 The Bronze Medallion, the highest award conferred upon civilians by New York City.

References

1908 births
1988 deaths
20th-century American sculptors
20th-century American male artists
American male sculptors
Section of Painting and Sculpture artists
Federal Art Project artists
American medallists

Michael Lantz


In academia, an audit is an educational term for the completion of a course of study for which no assessment of the performance of the student is made nor grade awarded. Some institutions may record a grade of "audit" to those who have elected not to receive a letter grade for a course in which they are typically awarded.

In this case, 'audit' indicates that the individual merely has received teaching, rather than being evaluated as having achieved a given standard of knowledge of the subject. The term 'audit' is Latin, translating as, 'he/she hears'. In other words, the audit student has experienced the course, but has not been assessed.

Some students audit a class merely for enjoyment, including purposes of self-enrichment and academic exploration, with no need or desire of academic credit. Sometimes this technique is employed by individuals who wish to take a specific course without the risk of under-performance resulting in a poor or failing grade. This may be helpful when reviewing a long-unstudied subject, or when first beginning or exploring the study of a discipline where one has little experience or confidence.

Auditing is generally an option at institutions of higher learning, such as colleges and  universities, rather than grammar school or secondary school.

See also
 Academic administration

References

Academic terminology
Types of auditing

Academic audit


Paradise Systems, Inc., was an American video controller and graphics adapter card manufacturer active from 1982 to 1996. The company became a subsidiary of Western Digital when they purchased Paradise in 1986; in 1995, they sold the division to Philips, who subsequently folded it after less than a year.

History

Paradise Systems, Inc., was founded in San Francisco, California, by Paul Jain in 1982. A privately held company, Paradise was tightly knit in its first few years and had a team of seasoned electrical engineers as its base of designers. The company's first product, the Multi-Display Adapter card for the IBM PC, was released in late 1983. Paradise's Multi-Display Adapter allowed for three video outputs to occur simultaneously—digital (TTL) CGA output, analog color composite output, and monochrome (MDA) output. Users could switch between modes and monitors using a terminate-and-stay-resident program provided by Paradise; however, users could not use the board to drive multiple monitors at once, preventing it from being a true multi-monitor system. In 1984, they delivered the Modular Graphics Card, the first successful CGA-compatible expansion card for MDA monitors. It displayed CGA's sixteen colors in shades of monochrome. Because it was hardware-compatible with CGA, the Paradise card did not need special software support or additional drivers.

Jain was succeeded as president and CEO by Lawrence Finch in April 1984. In October 1986, Western Digital, then a fast-growing manufacturer of disk controllers (yet to be a manufacturer of hard drives), announced their acquisition of Paradise Systems in a stock swap valuated at approximately $35 million. The acquisition was finalized in December 1986, the terms of the stock swap increased to either $50 million or $80 million (sources disagree) worth of Western Digital shares. Western Digital allowed Paradise to exist as an independently managed subsidiary, with Western Digital's video controllers and graphics adapters continuing to bear the Paradise name. Jain left Paradise in February 1987 to focus on his second video controller business, Video Seven, which he founded earlier in 1985 following his replacement in Paradise by Finch. After LSI Logic acquired Video Seven for $50 million, he founded his third graphics card venture, Media Vision, in 1990.

Western Digital merged their Paradise subsidiary in around 1989 following their acquisition of Verticom Inc., another computer graphics company, in 1988. They renamed the new division Western Digital Imaging. Despite the merger, Western Digital continued selling computer graphics devices under the Paradise brand, eventually expanding into the quickly growing segment of 3D accelerator chips. Although it generated Western Digital $100 million in sales in 1994, the division ran contrary to investors' strategic road-plan for the parent Western Digital company, and in October 1995, it was sold to Netherlands-based Philips in 1995 for an undisclosed sum. Philips subsequently christened the division Paradise. They let the division languish in the following months, however, most of Paradise's 40 employees being laid off through summer 1996. In August 1996, Philips announced that Paradise division was shuttered.

References

Western Digital
1982 establishments in California
1986 disestablishments in California
1986 mergers and acquisitions
1985 mergers and acquisitions
American companies established in 1982
American companies disestablished in 1986
Computer companies established in 1986
Computer companies disestablished in 1986
Defunct computer companies of the United States
Defunct computer hardware companies
Graphics hardware companies

Paradise Systems


Hidden () is a 2009 Norwegian psychological horror film written and directed by Pål Øie, which stars Kristoffer Joner, Karin Park and Bjarte Hjelmeland.

Plot
A small boy runs as fast as he can through a pitch-dark forest. Blinded by fear, the kid runs across a forest road without seeing the trailer truck coming. The truck misses the boy, with the driver starting to lose control of the vehicle. This triggers a chain reaction that leaves another boy without his family, who are killed when the trailer crashes into their car.

After his mother's death, KK (Kai Koss) returns to his hometown to settle her affairs. He has been away for 19 years, trying to escape and forget about his mother's cruel treatment of him. He soon realizes that he can't outrun his past. Various visions of past haunt the protagonist as he visits his ancestral house. At one point he decides to burn the house, but is deferred by the local police women. In the final catharsis of the protagonist he pushes his diabolic half burned brother Peter off the waterfall. In the end, police arrests KK for various murders which seem to have been committed by the alter ego Peter. Audience is left with the question of whether Peter is real or just a manifestation of KK's mangled distorted past.

Cast

Production
Hidden was produced by Alligator in Bergen, and the movie budget was slated by 12.6 million Norwegian krone.

Release
The film has received international attention as one of the featured films of the After Dark Horrorfest 4 and ran on 29 January 2010. The other seven films which ran at After Dark Horrorfest are Dread, The Graves, Lake Mungo, ZMD: Zombies of Mass Destruction, The Final, The Reeds and Kill Theory.

References

External links

2009 films
2009 horror films
2000s thriller films
Norwegian horror films
Norwegian slasher films
2000s Norwegian-language films

Hidden (2009 film)


Walter Thomas Frederick Hassan OBE, C.Eng., M.I. Mech.E. (25 April 1905 – 12 July 1996) was a distinguished UK automotive engineer who took part in the design and development of three very successful engines: Jaguar XK, Coventry Climax and Jaguar V12, as well as the ERA racing car.

Early life

Hassan was born in London where his father, of Northern Irish descent, owned a clothes store in Holloway. His natural interest was always in mechanical things. As it was told, his uncle encouraged him to be a creator since his uncle was building model ships.

He studied at the Northern Polytechnic Institute (subsequently renamed and amalgamated by stages into London Metropolitan University) and then Hackney Technical Institute of Engineering. The Regent Street Polytechnic (now incorporated into the University of Westminster) has also been named.

Bentley

Hassan's first job was as a 15 year-old shop boy in W. O. Bentley's newly founded Bentley Motors, employee No. 14. He was a fitter in the engine shop then in the chassis shop, gaining a complete experience of the 3-litre cars then in production.

He eventually moved to road testing working under the head of experimental department (today's R&D) Frank Clement, the company's professional racing driver, and was a riding mechanic in some races. In the off-season he was part of the Bentley Motors service department.

Establishing himself as the best Bentley mechanic, he was allotted to Woolf Barnato, their top driver and Bentley Motors chairman and shareholder. They established a close and lasting friendship.

After it was put into liquidation and taken over by Rolls-Royce at the end of 1931 Hassan left Bentley Motors and worked for Barnato. In 1933, he started to build a racing car that would become known as Barnato Hassan and was one of the fastest cars ever to lap Brooklands. Later he developed a car for Bill Pacey, known as the Pacey-Hassan. It was a success on the British racing circuits in the 1936 season.  By now he had become a family man and accordingly sought out more stable employment. He had married in 1933 and he went on to have four children.

ERA

Hassan then spent time at Raymond Mays' ERA at Bourne in Lincolnshire working there with Peter Berthon on engine development and at Brooklands with Thompson and Taylor on ERA chassis development.

The vast majority of prewar ERAs are still in existence and they have continuous and verifiable provenance. They still compete in historic events despite the youngest being nearly seventy years old (as of 2018).

Jaguar

In 1938 he joined SS Cars Ltd, later Jaguar Cars, as development engineer at Coventry. When the war started (1939) he moved to Bristol and worked on aero engine development for the Bristol Engine Company. At the end of the war he returned to Coventry to continue to work with Bill Heynes on what became the XK engine.

This engine remained in production with various displacements from 1948 until 1992.

This XK engine powered the winning car at Le Mans in 1951, 1953, 1955, , and 1957.

Coventry Climax

In 1950 Hassan joined Harry Mundy at Coventry Climax, and they designed the FW series (featherweight) lightweight overhead camshaft engine intended for fire pumps but further developed for motor racing.

In Colin Chapman's cars they had great successes in the Le Mans 24 Hours, Formula 2 and Formula 1, twice bringing the world championship to Jim Clark and Team Lotus.

This engine was also used in cars like the Lotus Elite.

Jaguar V12

Coventry Climax was bought by Jaguar in 1963. Bill Heynes and Claude Baily, the original V12 engine designers, were then joined by Hassan and together they went on to develop the Jaguar V12 engine.

In later years, Le Mans-winning Jaguars were powered with a modified V12 racing engine.

A 7.0-litre V12 based on the production 5.3-litre engine powered the winning Jaguar XJR-9 in June 1988.

A Jaguar XJR-12 powered by a 7-litre 60 degree SOHC V12 won in June 1990. During that race it covered 4882.4 km at an average speed of 204.036 km/h / 126.782 mph with a maximum trap speed of 353 km/h / 219 mph.

Retirement
Hassan married Ethel Murray in 1933 and they had a daughter and three sons. He retired on 28 April 1972 at the age of 67 and was awarded the OBE for his services to motor sport. After Ethel's death he lived with his son, Bill, at Kenilworth though he later moved to the Motor Industries Benevolent Home and died at Easenhall, Warwickshire, on 12 July 1996 aged, 91 years old.

External links
 Walter Hassan page at the Jaguar Daimler Heritage Trust site

References

British people of Irish descent
English people of Irish descent
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
British automotive engineers
1905 births
1996 deaths

Walter Hassan


B-Movie are a new wave band from Mansfield, England, initially active in the first half of the 1980s.

History
The band's original line-up included lead vocalist and bassist Steve Hovington, guitarist Paul Statham, keyboardist Rick Holliday and drummer Graham Boffey. B-Movie's initial 1980 EP releases, the Take Three 7-inch and Nowhere Girl 12-inch, were issued on the small UK indie label Dead Good Records. They were eventually signed to the Some Bizzare label, and their song "Moles" was featured on the original 1981 Some Bizzare Album.

In 1981, B-Movie signed with Phonogram imprint Deram, and had their biggest UK commercial success with the single "Remembrance Day", which reached No. 61 on the UK Singles Chart. The follow-up single, "Marilyn Dreams", failed to chart.

In 1982, they re-released "Nowhere Girl" as a single, which reached No. 67 in the UK, but there was no immediate follow-up or studio album.

A revolving door of members started at this point. Drummer Boffey left and was replaced by Andy Johnson, while Martin Winter (aka Smedley) joined on bass. Next, Holliday left in 1983 to form Six Sed Red with Soft Cell associate Cindy Ecstasy (their biggest success came when Six Sed Red's song "Dream Baby" was covered by Bananarama on that band's 1984 eponymous studio album). Statham switched from guitar to keyboards and was briefly replaced by Stuart McLean (Charming Snakes) for a tour of Israel. B-Movie then resurfaced in early 1984 (with Al Cash on drums) with the single "A Letter from Afar", produced by John "Jellybean" Benitez but it only reached No. 81 on the UK Singles Chart. Cash then left, leaving B-Movie as a three piece of Hovington, Statham and Winter augmented by session players.

Towards the end of 1985, they finally released a studio album on Sire Records called Forever Running, containing re-recorded versions of their two hits, but both it and the single "Switch On - Switch Off" were flops despite a tour to promote them. The band broke up soon after.

Frontman Hovington formed a band called One in the late 1980s with Seven Webster and drummer Bob Thompson, releasing an album and two singles on Chrysalis. He later formed another band called Laughing Gas, releasing one 7-inch single.

After his departure, Boffey joined Slaughterhouse 5, releasing two singles, "Pathetic Girlfriend" and "Things She Did", and a studio album, Wide Open on IRS. After this venture, Boffey and Davy Lawrence formed Enormous.

Guitarist Statham collaborated with ex-Bauhaus lead vocalist Peter Murphy, successfully participating as part of Murphy's solo backing band, the Hundred Men. He co-wrote and performed on Murphy's solo studio albums Love Hysteria (1988) and Deep (1990). He co-wrote Dido's first single "Here with Me", which became an international hit single, and also the title track of her debut studio album No Angel (2001), which has sold almost 20 million copies. Statham also co-wrote several songs, including "Return of the King", on Simple Minds lead vocalist Jim Kerr's first solo studio album, Lostboy! AKA Jim Kerr.

After a long hiatus, B-Movie reformed and played one-off shows in October 2004 (with the original line-up) and March 2006 (featuring Hovington and Statham) at The Metro nightclub in London, followed by additional one-off shows from the original line-up in Mansfield, Nottingham, London and Germany.

In 2012, they digitally released the track Echoes, their first new release in 22 years. This was followed in 2013 by the Distant Skies EP and The Age of Illusion album, both available digitally and on CD. The band played a short tour in June 2013, visiting Portsmouth, Cambridge, London and Nottingham.

Their third studio album, Climate of Fear, was released on 18 March 2016. It included new material as well as a re-recorded version of "Nowhere Girl".

On 23 July 2018, B-Movie previewed two tracks from the forthcoming Take 2 EP on Statham's label Loki Records.

Discography

Studio albums
 Forever Running (1985, Sire Records)
 The Age of Illusion (2013, No Emb Blanc)
 Climate of Fear (2016, No Emb Blanc)

Singles and EPs
 Take Three 7-inch EP (1980, Dead Good Records)
 Nowhere Girl 12-inch EP (1980, Dead Good Records)
 "Remembrance Day" (1981, Some Bizzare/Deram)
 "Marilyn Dreams" (1982, Some Bizzare/Sire)
 "Nowhere Girl" (re-release) (1982, Some Bizzare) UK No. 67
 "A Letter from Afar" (1985, Sire)
 "Switch On - Switch Off" (1985, Sire)
 "Polar Opposites" (1989, Wax Records)
 Distant Skies EP (2013, No Emb Blanc)
 Demo 7-inch single (2015, Vinyl Revival)
 Take 2 EP (2018, Loki Records)

Compilation albums
 The Dead Good Tapes (1988, Wax Records)
 Volume 1 - Remembrance Days (1995, Dead Good Records)
 Volume 2 - Radio Days (1995, Dead Good Records)
 Remembrance Days - The Dead Good Years (1997, Cherry Red)
 BBC Radio Sessions 1981-84 (2001, Cherry Red)
 The Platinum Collection (2006, Warner Platinum Records)

Compilation appearances
 "Man on a Threshold" and "Refugee" on East (1980, Dead Good Records)
 "Moles" on Some Bizzare Album (1981, Some Bizzare)

References

Sources

External links

 B-Movie on Soundcloud
 B-Movie on Facebook

Musical groups established in 1979
Deram Records artists
English pop music groups
English electronic music groups
English synth-pop groups
English post-punk music groups
English new wave musical groups
British synth-pop new wave groups
Sire Records artists
Some Bizzare Records artists
Musical groups from Nottinghamshire

B-Movie (band)


The Pisonian conspiracy was a plot to assassinate the Roman Emperor Nero in AD 65, led by Gaius Calpurnius Piso. Piso was a prominent senator and nobleman who was dissatisfied with Nero's leadership and wanted to overthrow him. The conspiracy involved a number of other high-ranking individuals, including members of the Roman Senate, and was intended to take place during a public performance of the emperor's musical compositions.

However, the plot was uncovered by one of the conspirators, and Piso and his associates were arrested and executed. The Pisonian conspiracy is significant in Roman history because it represents one of the most serious threats to the stability of the Roman Empire during the reign of Nero, and highlights the tensions and conflicts that existed within the Roman elite at the time.

Ancient Rome
65

Pisonian conspiracy


Central China Expeditionary Army (, Nakashina hakengun) was a field army of the Imperial Japanese Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

On November 7, 1937 Japanese Central China Area Army (CCAA) was organized as a reinforcement expeditionary army by combining the  Shanghai Expeditionary Army (SEF) and the IJA Tenth Army.  General Iwane Matsui was appointed as its commander-in-chief, concurrent with his assignment as commander-in-chief of the SEF.  Matsui reported directly to Imperial General Headquarters.  After the Battle of Nanjing, the CCAA was disbanded on February 14, 1938 and its component units were reassigned to the Central China Expeditionary Army.

On September 12, 1939 by Army Order 362, the China Expeditionary Army was formed with the merger of the Central China Expeditionary Army with the Northern China Area Army.

List of Commanders

Commanding officer

Chief of Staff

Japanese armies
Military units and formations established in 1937
Military units and formations disestablished in 1939
Expeditionary units and formations

Central China Expeditionary Army


Modesto Lafuente y Zamalloa (1 May 1806 at Rabanal de los Caballeros, Cervera de Pisuerga, Palencia Province – 25 October 1866 at Madrid) was a Spanish critic and historian. In 1861 he was elected Vice President of the Congress of Deputies and, in February 7, 1862, he assumed the office of acting president of the Congress due to the death in office of Francisco Martínez de la Rosa until February 18, 1862.

Biography
He received his early education in his native town, but later took courses at the Universities of Santiago, Astorga and Valladolid, receiving at the last institution the degree of Bachelor of Theology in 1832.

He was appointed to the chair of philosophy and later to that of theology at the University of Astorga, but he remained only a short time, for he decided to devote himself to journalism, and moved to Madrid.

Writings
Under the pseudonyms of Fray Gerundio and Pelegrin Tirabeque, he wrote many capilladas or essays on a great variety of subjects, including the political questions of the day. According to Ferrer del Rio, he borrowed the pseudonym Fray Gerundio from the work of Father Isla. His essays, and all his works, were written in an easy, flowing, popular style, and they became so popular that it was not long before his paper was read in every corner of Spain. The essays were collected as Capilladas (1837–40) and as Teatro social del siglo XIX (1846), the latter dealing with the manners and customs of the day.

Lafuente's chief work, by which he is best known, is his Historia general de España, which he published in Madrid (1850–1869, 30 volumes). A second edition (13 volumes) was published in 1874–1875. It was later edited and revised by Juan Valera (25 vols., 1887–90).

Another notable work is Viaje aerostático del Fray Gerundio y Tirabeque. It is divided into two parts, the first being a review of aerial navigation, and the second, a satire on the political situation in Europe.

The important events of 1848 caused him to write his Revista Europea which he published as a periodical for about one year.

Notes

Sources

1806 births
1866 deaths
People from the Province of Palencia
19th-century Spanish historians
Spanish journalists
Spanish satirists
19th-century journalists
Male journalists
19th-century male writers

Modesto Lafuente


Clark Heinrich (born 1945) is an American author living in the coastal mountains of California, specializing in comparative religion and ethno-botany since 1974. He has reportedly studied with masters of yoga and Western mysticism.

He is known for his views on consuming the mushroom fly agaric or Amanita muscaria as a hallucinogenic to achieve religious ecstasy. His book Magic Mushrooms in Religion and Alchemy, which is an improved second edition of his earlier Strange Fruit, explores the role that Amanita muscaria may have played in various mythologies, belief systems and religious art throughout history, such as Native American Anishinaabeg mythology, the Rig Veda, the Puranas, the biblical Old Testament and New Testament, Gnosticism, the Holy Grail legend, Alchemy and Renaissance painting.

The book The Apples of Apollo: Pagan and Christian Mysteries of the Eucharist deals with possible occurrences of entheogens in general, and Amanita muscaria in particular, in Greek and biblical mythology and later on in Renaissance painting, most notably in the Isenheim Altarpiece by Matthias Grünewald.

Bibliography
 Magic Mushrooms in Religion and Alchemy, Park Street Press, 2002
 The Apples of Apollo: Pagan and Christian Mysteries of the Eucharist, with Carl A.P. Ruck and Blaise Daniel Staples, Carolina Academic Press, 2001
 Strange Fruit: Alchemy, Religion and Magical Foods : a Speculative History, Bloomsbury, 1995

References

External links
Summary of The Apples of Apollo

American psychedelic drug advocates
Psychedelic drug researchers
American non-fiction writers
Living people
1945 births
Psychonautics researchers

Clark Heinrich


Segen is a German word translating to "blessing, benediction; charm; prayer; spell, incantation".

It is in origin a loan from Latin signum  sīgnāre "to make a sign", viz. the Sign of the Cross used to confer a Christian blessing,
The term is attested as  Old High German seganōn from as early as c. AD 800, resulting in a modern segnen "to bless". The noun Segen "blessing" was derived from the verb at an early time, attested in the 9th century as segan.
Old English had the corresponding sægnan, which survives as the dialectal (esp. Scottish) sain (popularized by Scott, Heart of Mid-Lothian "God sain us").
The concept of Segen, understood magically, was very productive in the folklore, folk religion and superstition of German-speaking Europe, studied in great detail by the German philologists and folklorists of the 19th century.

The medieval church used the Segen (the sign of the cross with a spoken formula) liberally, intended as an act with protective effect, putting the person or thing blessed under the protection of God. Nor was the action reserved for priests or clerics, but any Christian was permitted to make the sign of the cross and invoke the protection of God. Thus the Segen came to be seen as the inverse of the curse (Fluch), magical acts with the power to either protect or harm.

The concept of Segen thus became the continuant of the incantation formulas of the pre-Christian period  (the only surviving samples of which are the Merseburg Incantations).

Use of such formulas was partly encouraged by the Church, as they did superficially involve an expression of piety by the invocation of God, Christ or the Virgin Mary, but at the same time their magical use was viewed with scepticism and was sometimes repressed.

By the time  of the Early Modern witch-hunts, the term segen had become ambiguous, and depending on context could refer to a harmless farewell, to a  pious invocation of God, or to a Satanic or superstitious spell  (pro incantamento et adjuratione magica Stieler 1669; e.g. Wolfssegen "contra lupos").

This early modern usage survives in dialectal variation throughout the rural parts of German-speaking Europe.
For German-speaking Switzerland, the Schweizerisches Idiotikon 7,444 "Sëgeⁿ"
records some  two dozen compounds in -sëgeⁿ, in some of which Segen takes the meaning "prayer" and in others "spell, charm".

A notable concept in Swiss folklore is the Alpsegen (Alpe(n)sëgeⁿ, Alpsëgeⁿ  7,451), a folk religious custom in Alpine Switzerland where every night
a prayer must be sung over each Alpine pasture. This combined the function of an apotropaic charm with a practical aspect of communicating between remote pastures; if the Alpsegen was not heard from a neighbouring site, it would be a sign that a misfortune or accident had befallen and the neighbours would come to aid.

References

Folk Christianity
Magical thinking
German folklore
Austrian folklore
Swiss folklore

Segen


James Valoue (also spelled Valouë, Valoué or Valouè in various references) was an 18th-century watchmaker. He is most remembered for his 1737 design of a horse-powered pile driver which was used in the construction of Westminster Bridge. In 1738 the Royal Society of London gave Valoue the Copley Medal for his invention of "an engine for driving piles to make a foundation for the bridge to be erected in Westminster, the model whereof had been shown to the society". The Science Museum of London holds a model of Valoue's pile driver constructed by Stephen Demainbray.

References

18th-century British people
English inventors
Recipients of the Copley Medal
Year of birth missing
Year of death missing
English watchmakers (people)

James Valoue


Una storia semplice (internationally released as A Simple Story) is a 1991 Italian drama film directed by Emidio Greco. It is based on the novel with the same name written by Leonardo Sciascia. It premiered at the 1991 Venice International Film Festival, in which it entered the main competition.  The film was awarded with a Nastro d'Argento for best screenplay, two Globi d'oro for best film and best screenplay and a Grolla d'oro for best actor to the ensemble cast.

Plot
The Sciascia story unfolds with the arrival in Sicily of a medicine rep from Verona. He is unaware that he witnessed a double murder at a rural railway station until he hears about the event on his car radio. He calls on the local police station to help with the enquiries. The police have discovered the body of a retired ambassador, returned after years of absence, in his remote farmhouse, after he had called them about the discovery of an item (a stolen painting) rolled up in the attic. The police did not call that night, since the duty Inspector thought it might be a hoax (he knew the farm house to be abandoned). The following day the strange appearance of the retired ambassador's body, which appears to have been a suicide, raises suspicion that he may have been murdered. This is the investigating policeman's opinion but it is rejected by the Police Commissioner, who insists on a simple and uncomplicated suicide. There is a suggestion that the Carabinieri who have also turned up at the crime scene are aware of the alternative theory. Meanwhile, interrogation of the medicine rep from Verona clarifies that he had not seen the railway staff, but rather their murderers rolling up a "carpet" (actually the painting) in the station. The investigation proceeds with an old friend of the "suicide," a professor Franzo who reveals more about the telephone conversations they had exchanged before the ambassador's death. It looks to the police as though the farm buildings had been used for criminal activity for some time. The inspector, however, appears to be overly familiar with the inside of the main house and real doubts enter the Brigadiere's mind as to his real involvement in the crime.  The judge insists unreasonably that the police Commissioner and Carabinieri should give him cast iron evidence if he is to proceed with any case, as in his view all he heard were conjectures. The estranged widow and son of the ambassador arrive and the extent of the family rift is evident. They appear to have relied on the local parish priest Don Cricco to oversee the mainly abandoned family properties in the area. The film ends with an accident in which the Inspector and Brigadiere exchange pistol shots, killing the Inspector. The police call it an accident.

Cast
Gian Maria Volonté: Professor Franzò
Massimo Dapporto: The Inspector
Ennio Fantastichini: The Commissioner
Ricky Tognazzi: Brigadier Lepri
Massimo Ghini: The representative of medicines
Paolo Graziosi: Colonel of the Carabinieri
Omero Antonutti: Father Cricco
Gianmarco Tognazzi: Roccella's son
Macha Méril: Roccella's mother
Gianluca Favilla: The prosecutor
Tony Sperandeo: The first agent
Giovanni Alamia: The second agent

References

External links

1991 films
Italian drama films
Films based on Italian novels
Films directed by Emidio Greco
Films based on works by Leonardo Sciascia
Films scored by Luis Bacalov
1991 drama films

Una storia semplice (film)


Left communism, or the communist left, is a position held by the left wing of communism, which criticises the political ideas and practices espoused by Marxist–Leninists and social democrats. Left communists assert positions which they regard as more authentically Marxist than the views of Marxism–Leninism espoused by the Communist International after its Bolshevization by Joseph Stalin and during its second congress.

In general, there are two currents of left communism, namely the Italian and Dutch–German left. The communist left in Italy was formed during World War I in organizations like the Italian Socialist Party and the Communist Party of Italy. The Italian left considers itself to be Leninist in nature, but denounces Marxism–Leninism as a form of bourgeois opportunism materialized in the Soviet Union under Stalin. The Italian left is currently embodied in organizations such as the Internationalist Communist Party and the International Communist Party. The Dutch–German left split from Vladimir Lenin prior to Stalin's rule and supports a firmly council communist and libertarian Marxist viewpoint as opposed to the Italian left which emphasised the need for an international revolutionary party.

Left communism differs from most other forms of Marxism in believing that communists should not participate in bourgeois parliaments, and some argue against participating in conservative trade unions. However, many left communists split over their criticism of the Bolsheviks. Council communists criticised the Bolsheviks for elitist party functions and emphasised a more autonomous organisation of the working class, without political parties.

Although she was murdered in 1919 before left communism became a distinct tendency, Rosa Luxemburg has been heavily influential for most left communists, both politically and theoretically. Proponents of left communism have included Herman Gorter, Antonie Pannekoek, Otto Rühle, Karl Korsch, Amadeo Bordiga and Paul Mattick. Other proponents of left communism have included Onorato Damen, Jacques Camatte, and Sylvia Pankhurst. Later prominent theorists are shared with other tendencies such as Antonio Negri, a founding theorist of the autonomist tendency. Specific currents that can be labelled part of left communism include Bordigism, De Leonism, Luxemburgism, and communization.

Early history and overview
Two major traditions can be observed within left communism, namely the Dutch–German current and the Italian current. The political positions those traditions share are opposition to popular fronts, to many kinds of nationalism and national liberation movements and to parliamentarianism.

The historical origins of left communism come from World War I. Most left communists are supportive of the October Revolution in Russia, but retain a critical view of its development. However, some in the Dutch–German current would in later years come to reject the idea that the revolution had a proletarian or socialist nature, arguing that it had simply carried out the tasks of the bourgeois revolution by creating a state capitalist system.

Left communism first came into focus as a distinct movement around 1918. Its essential features were a stress on the need to build a communist party or workers' council entirely separate from the reformist and centrist elements who "betrayed the proletariat", opposition to all but the most restricted participation in elections and an emphasis on militancy. Apart from this, there was little in common between the two wings. Only the Italians accepted the need for electoral work at all for a very short period of time which they later vehemently opposed, attracting criticism from Vladimir Lenin in "Left-Wing" Communism: An Infantile Disorder.

Russian left communism
Left Bolshevism emerged in 1907 as the Vpered group challenged Vladimir Lenin's perceived authoritarianism and parliamentarianism. The group included Alexander Bogdanov, Maxim Gorky, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky, Grigory Aleksinsky, Stanislav Volski and Martyn Liadov. The Otzovists, or Recallists, advocated the recall of RSDLP representatives from the Third Duma. Bogdanov and his allies accused Lenin and his partisans of promoting liberal democracy through "parliamentarism at any price".

In 1918, a faction known as the Left Communists (or the Left Bolsheviks) emerged within the Russian Communist Party. It opposed a separate peace treaty with the Central Powers of World War I, held radical views on economic and social policy (including cultural, educational, and family policy) and on military organization, and opposed national self-determination. Its members included Andrei Bubnov, Nikolai Bukharin, Alexandra Kollontai, Valerian Osinsky, Georgy Pyatakov, Yevgeni Preobrazhensky, Karl Radek, and Vladimir Smirnov. After the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed in March 1918, the Left Bolsheviks continued to criticize the "pragmatism" and "conservatism" of Lenin and his allies, urging immediate nationalization of industry, workers' control, and no compromise with capitalist forces.

The faction largely died out by the end of 1918, as its leaders accepted that much of their program was unrealistic under the circumstances of the Russian Civil War and as the policies of War Communism satisfied their demands for a radical transformation of the economy. The Military Opposition and the Workers' Opposition inherited some characteristics and members of the Left Bolsheviks, as did Gavril Myasnikov's Workers Group of the Russian Communist Party during the debates on the New Economic Policy and the succession to Lenin. Most Left Bolsheviks were affiliated with the Left Opposition in the 1920s, and were expelled from the party in 1927 and later killed during Joseph Stalin's Great Purge.

Dutch–German left communism until 1933

Left communism emerged in both countries together and was always very closely connected. Among the leading theoreticians of the more powerful German movement were Antonie Pannekoek and Herman Gorter and German activists found refuge in the Netherlands after the Nazis came to power in 1933. The critique of social democratic reformism can be traced back before World War I since in the Netherlands a revolutionary wing of social democracy had broken from the reformist party even before the war and had built links with German activists. By 1915, the Antinational Socialist Party was founded by Franz Pfemfert and was linked to Die Aktion. After the beginning of the German Revolution in 1918, a leftist mood could be found among sections of the communist parties of both countries. In Germany, this led directly to the foundation of the Communist Workers Party of Germany (KAPD) after its leading figures were expelled from the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) by Paul Levi. This development was mirrored in the Netherlands and on a smaller scale in Bulgaria, where the left communist movement was to mimic that of Germany.

When it was founded, the KAPD included some tens of thousands of revolutionaries. However, it had broken up and practically dissolved within a few years. This was because it was founded on the basis of revolutionary optimism and a purism that rejected what became known as frontism. Frontism entailed working in the same organisations as reformist workers. Such work was seen by the KAPD as unhelpful at a time when the revolution was thought to be an imminent event and not merely a goal to be aimed at. This led the members of the KAPD to reject working in the traditional trade unions in favour of forming their own revolutionary unions. These unionen, so called to distinguish them from the official trade unions, had 80,000 members in 1920 and peaked in 1921 with 200,000 members, after which they declined rapidly. They were also organisationally divided from the beginning, with those unionen linked to the KAPD forming the AAU-D and those in Saxony around Otto Rühle who opposed the conception of a party in favour of a unitary class organisation being organised as the AAU-E.

The KAPD was unable to reach even its founding congress prior to suffering its first split when the so-called National Bolshevik tendency around Fritz Wolffheim and Heinrich Laufenberg appeared (this tendency has no connection with modern political tendencies in Russia which use the same name). More seriously, the KAPD lost most of its support very rapidly as it failed to develop lasting structures. This also contributed to internecine quarrels and the party actually split into two competing tendencies known as the Essen and Berlin tendencies to the historians of the left. The recently established Communist Workers International (KAI) split on exactly the same lines as did the tiny Communist Workers Party of Bulgaria. The only other affiliates of the KAI were the Communist Workers Party of Britain led by Sylvia Pankhurst, the Communist Workers Party of the Netherlands (KAPN) in the Netherlands and a group in Russia. The AAU-D split on the same lines and it rapidly ceased to exist as a real tendency within the factories.

Left communism and the Communist International

Left communists generally supported the Bolshevik seizure of power in October 1917 and entertained enormous hopes in the founding of the Communist International, or Comintern. In fact, they controlled the first body formed by the Comintern to coordinate its activities in Western Europe, the Amsterdam Bureau. However, this was little more than a very brief interlude and the Amsterdam Bureau never functioned as a leadership body for Western Europe as was originally intended. The Vienna Bureau of the Comintern may also be classified as left communist, but its personnel were not to evolve into either of the two historic currents that made up left communism. Rather, the Vienna Bureau adopted the ultra-left ideas of the earliest period in the history of the Comintern.

Left communists supported the Russian revolution, but did not accept the methods of the Bolsheviks. Many of the Dutch–German tradition adopted Rosa Luxemburg's criticism as outlined in her posthumously published essay entitled The Russian Revolution. In this essay, she rejected the Bolshevik position on distribution of land to the peasantry and their espousal of the right of nations to self-determination which she rejected as historically outmoded. The Italian left communists did not at the time accept any of these criticisms and both currents would evolve.

To a considerable degree, Lenin's well known polemic Left-Wing Communism: An Infantile Disorder is an attack on the ideas of the emerging left communist currents. His main aim was to polemicise with currents moving towards pure revolutionary tactics by showing them that they could remain based on firmly revolutionary principles while utilising a variety of tactics. Therefore, Lenin defended the use of parliamentarism and working within the official trade unions.

As the Kronstadt rebellion occurred at a time when the debate on tactics was still raging within the Comintern, it has been wrongly seen as being left communist by some commentators. In fact, the left communist currents had no connection with the rebellion, although they did rally to its support when they learned of it. In later years, the German–Dutch tradition in particular would come to see the suppression of the revolt as the historic turning point in the evolution of the Russian state after October 1917.

1939–1945

Many small currents to the left of the mass communist parties collapsed at the beginning of World War II and the left communists were initially silent too. Despite having foreseen the war more clearly than some other factions, when it began they were overwhelmed. Many were persecuted by either German Nazism or Italian fascism. Leading militants of the communist left such as Mitchell, who was Jewish, were to die in the Buchenwald concentration camp.

Meanwhile, the final council communist groups in Germany had disappeared in the maelstrom and the International Communist Group (GIK) in the Netherlands was moribund. The former centrist group led by Henk Sneevliet (the Revolutionary Socialist Workers Party, RSAP) transformed itself into the Marx–Lenin–Luxemburg Front. In April 1942, its leadership was arrested by the Gestapo and killed. The remaining activists then split into two camps as some turned to Trotskyism forming the Committee of Revolutionary Marxists (CRM) while the majority formed the CommunistenBond-Spartacus. The latter group turned to council communism and was joined by most members of the GIK.

In 1941, the Italian fraction was reorganised in France and along with the new French Nucleus of the Communist Left came into conflict with the ideas which the fraction had propagated from 1936, namely of the social disappearance of the proletariat and localised wars and so on. These ideas continued to be defended by Vercesi in Brussels. Gradually, the left fractions adopted positions drawn from German left communism. They abandoned the conception that the Russian state remained in some way proletarian and also dropped Vercesi's conception of localised wars in favour of ideas on imperialism inspired by Rosa Luxemburg. Vercesi's participation in a Red Cross committee was also fiercely contested.

The strike at FIAT in October 1942 had a huge impact on the Italian fraction, which was deepened by the fall of Mussolini's regime in July 1943. The Italian fraction now saw a pre-revolutionary situation opening in Italy and prepared to participate in the coming revolution. In 1943 the Internationalist Communist Party was founded by Onorato Damen and Luciano Stefanini, amongst others. By 1945 the party had 5,000 members all over Italy with some supporters in France, Belgium and the US. It published a Manifesto of the Communist Left to the European Proletariat, which called upon workers to put class war before national war.

In France, revived by Marco in Marseilles, the Italian fraction now worked closely with the new French fraction, which was formally founded in Paris in December 1944. However, in May 1945 the Italian fraction, many of whose members had already returned to Italy, voted to dissolve itself so that its militants could integrate themselves as individuals into the Internationalist Communist Party. The conference at which this decision was made also refused to recognise the French fraction and expelled Marco from their group.

This led to a split in the French fraction and the formation of the  (GCF) by the French fraction led by Marco. The history of the GCF belongs to the post-war period. Meanwhile, the former members of the French fraction who sympathised with Vercesi and the Internationalist Communist Party formed a new French fraction which published the journal  and was joined at the end of 1945 by the old minority of the fraction who had joined  in the 1930s.

One other development during the war years merits mention at this point. A small grouping of German and Austrian militants came close to left communist positions in these years. Best known as the Revolutionary Communist Organisation, these young militants were exiles from Nazism living in France at the start of World War II and were members of the Trotskyist movement but they had opposed the formation of the Fourth International in 1938 on the grounds that it was premature. They were refused full delegates' credentials and only admitted to the founding conference of the Youth International on the following day. They then joined Hugo Oehler's International Contact Commission for the Fourth (Communist) International and in 1939 were publishing  in Antwerp.

With the beginning of the war, they took the name Revolutionary Communists of Germany (RKD) and came to define Russia as state capitalist in agreement with Ante Ciliga's book The Russian Enigma. At this point, they adopted a revolutionary defeatist position on the war and condemned Trotskyism for its critical defence of Russia (which was seen by Trotskyists as a degenerated workers' state). After the fall of France, they renewed contact with militants in the Trotskyist milieu in Southern France and recruited some of them into the  (CR) in 1942. This group became known as  in 1943 and then  in 1944. The CR and RKD were autonomous and clandestine, but worked closely together with shared politics. As the war ran its course, they evolved in a councilist direction while also identifying more and more with Luxemburg's work. They also worked with the French Fraction of the Communist Left and seem to have disintegrated at the end of the war. This disintegration was sped no doubt by the capture of leading militant Karl Fischer, who was sent to the Buchenwald concentration camp where he was to participate in writing the Declaration of the Internationalist Communists of Buchenwald when the camp was liberated.

1952–1968

The year 1952 signalled the end of mass influence on the part of Italian left communism as its sole remaining representative, the Internationalist Communist Party, split in two sections: the group led by Bordiga took the name International Communist Party, while the group around Damen retained the name Internationalist Communist Party. The Gauche Communiste de France (GCF) dissolved in the same year. Left communists entered a period of almost constant decline from this point onwards, although they were somewhat rejuvenated by the events of 1968.

Examples of left communism ideological currents existed in China during the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (GPCR). For example, the Hunan rebel group the Shengwulian argued for "smashing" the existing state apparatus and establishing a "People's Commune of China" based on the democratic ideals of the Paris Commune.

Since 1968
The uprisings of May 1968 led to a large resurgence of interest in left communist ideas in France where various groups were formed and published journals regularly until the late 1980s when the interest started to fade. A tendency called communization was invented in the early 1970s by French left communists, synthesizing different currents of left communism. It remains influential in libertarian marxist and left communist circles today. Outside of France, various small left communist groups emerged, predominantly in the leading capitalist countries. In the late 1970s and early 1980s the Internationalist Communist Party initiated a series of conferences of the communist left to engage those new elements, also attended by the International Communist Current. As a result of these, in 1983 the International Bureau for the Revolutionary Party (later renamed as the Internationalist Communist Tendency) was established by the Internationalist Communist Party and the British Communist Workers Organisation.

Prominent post-1968 proponents of left communism have included Paul Mattick and Maximilien Rubel. Prominent left communist groups existing today include the International Communist Party, the International Communist Current and the Internationalist Communist Tendency. In addition to the left communist groups in the direct lineage of the Italian and Dutch traditions, a number of groups with similar positions have flourished since 1968, such as the workerist and autonomist movements in Italy; Kolinko, Kurasje, Wildcat; Subversion and Aufheben in England;  in France; TPTG and Blaumachen in Greece; Kamunist Kranti in India; and Collective Action Notes and Loren Goldner in the United States.

See also

 Marxism
 Orthodox Marxism
 Autonomism
 Authoritarian socialism
 Council communism
 Left-wing politics
 Left communism in China
 Libertarian socialism
 List of left-wing internationals
 List of left communists
 Luxemburgism
 Ultra-leftism

References

Further reading
 Non-Leninist Marxism: Writings on the Workers Councils (2007) (includes texts by Herman Gorter, Antonie Pannekoek, Sylvia Pankhurst and Otto Rühle). St. Petersburg, Florida: Red and Black Publishers. .
 Alexandra Kollontai: Selected Writing. Allison & Busby, 1984.
 Pannekoek, Anton. Workers Councils. AK Press, 2003. Introduction by Noam Chomsky
 The International Communist Current, itself a left communist grouping, has produced a series of studies of what it views as its own antecedents. In particular, the book on the Dutch–German current, which is by Philippe Bourrinet (who later left the ICC), contains an exhaustive bibliography.
The Italian Communist Left 1926–1945 ().
 The Dutch-German Communist Left ().
 The Russian Communist Left, 1918–1930 ().
 The British Communist Left, 1914–1945 ().
 Also of interest is volume 5 number 4 of Spring 1995 of the journal Revolutionary History. "Through Fascism, War and Revolution: Trotskyism and Left Communism in Italy".
 In addition, there is a good deal of material published on the Internet in various languages. A useful starting point is the Left Communism collection published on the Marxists Internet Archive.

Communism
Anti-Stalinist left
Marxist schools of thought
Types of socialism

Left communism


The Cheese World Museum is part of the Allansford Cheese World Tourist complex, located in Allansford, Victoria. The museum contains objects and exhibits related to the farming industry and the history of Australia's dairy industry, including cheese and butter making implements.

The museum is located on the site of the original Warrnambool Cheese and Butter factory, which was established in 1888. The museum also exhibits the history of the company and the growth of the dairy industry in Victoria from the early 1900s.

As well as covering dairy history, the museum also houses a wide range of motor engines and motoring accessories which have been donated and are maintained by the Warrnambool & District Historical Vehicle Club. This collection includes the Dave Lee Vintage Engine Collection, which contains over 110 engines donated by Dave Lee, who was a water hole boring contractor and windmill merchant in the Warrnambool district as well as a Ruston & Hornsby tractor engine.

Awards

The museum was nominated for the Archival Survival award for volunteer-run museums category at the 2014 Victorian Museum Awards.

References

Agriculture museums in Australia
Museums in Victoria (state)
Food museums in Australia

Allansford Cheese World Museum


CFIX-FM is a French-language Canadian radio station located in Saguenay, Quebec. Its studios are located at Rue Racine Est (co-located with sister stations CJAB-FM and Noovo owned-and-operated station CFRS-DT) in the former city of Chicoutimi.

Owned and operated by Bell Media, it broadcasts on 96.9 MHz using a directional antenna with an maximum effective radiated power of 100,000 watts (class C). The station's transmitter is located at Mount Valin.

The station has an adult contemporary format and is part of the "Rouge FM" network which operates across Quebec and Eastern Ontario.

The station received CRTC approval in 1986. CFIX started operations on July 31, 1987 as a sister station to the now-defunct CJMT 1420 with a beautiful music format. The latter closed on September 30, 1994 when the Télémédia network and the Radiomutuel network merged to form the Radiomédia (now Corus Québec) network.

Up until 1992, CFIX had a beautiful music format. The station switched to adult contemporary and became part of the "RockDétente" network as the station was renamed CFIX Rock-Détente.

In 2004, Astral Media revamped the Rock Détente network with a new logo. This resulted in CFIX Rock-Détente being renamed to simply 96,9 Rock Détente. As such, the station no longer publicly uses its callsign (although the callsign was resurrected on the station ID in 2011).

On August 18, 2011, at 4:00 p.m. EDT, all "RockDétente" stations, including CFIX, rebranded as Rouge FM.

CFIX was formerly the callsign of a now-defunct AM radio station at 1170 kHz out of Cornwall, Ontario until 1983 when the station went dark due to technical and financial problems.

References

External links
96,9 Rouge

Fix
Fix
Fix
Fix
Radio stations established in 1987
1987 establishments in Quebec

CFIX-FM


The Association for the Teaching English as a Foreign Language in Indonesia is an academic and professional association that helps teachers of English as a Foreign Language (EFL). It is often called TEFLIN for short.

History
TEFLIN started in 1972 as a meeting of a small group of teachers. In 1982, it became organized as a group of these nine universities:
 IKIP Yogyakarta
 IKIP Sanata Dharma
 Universitas Gajah Mada
 Universitas Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa
 Universitas Sebelas Maret
 Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana
 IKIP Semarang
 Universitas Diponegoro
 Universitas Tujuh Belas Agustus (UNTAG) Semarang

Annual conference
TEFLIN has a conference every year with papers, keynote speakers, workshops, and social events. It held its first international conference in 2003.

Partners
TEFLIN has relationships with several other language teaching associations including:
 Applied Linguistics Association of Korea
 Cambodia TESOL
 International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language
 Japan Association for Language Teaching
 Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Language Centre Singapore
 TESOL International Association
 Thailand TESOL (ThaiTESOL)

References

Other websites
TEFLIN Home Page

Language education


Samurai is the 45th official video game for the Philips Videopac. in North America, the same game as released as Dynasty! for the Magnavox Odyssey² console.

The game is identical to the game Reversi. It also contains two-player mode, gameplay against the computer, as well as a digital timing handicap which allows newcomers to have a better chance in beating grandmaster players in the game. Similar to other Videopac games, the game did not compare favorably to those for Atari's consoles.

References

External links
 Classic Consoles Center

1979 video games
Magnavox Odyssey 2 games
Video games developed in the United States

Dynasty!


Henrik Fig is a retired Danish association football midfielder who played professionally in Denmark, Germany and the United States.

Fig began his career with Vejle Boldklub, playing on the club's first team from 1991 to 1995.  In the spring of 1995, he moved to the United States to sign with the Colorado Foxes of the American Professional Soccer League.  In 1996, he returned to Vejle where he played until 2002.  That year, he moved to Flensburg 08, a German lower-division club.

He is an assistant coach with .

He is the brother of the player Thomas Fig.

References

External links

Living people
1972 births
American Professional Soccer League players
Colorado Foxes players
Danish men's footballers
Danish expatriate men's footballers
Vejle Boldklub players
Men's association football midfielders

Henrik Fig


Matthew Forster Heddle FRSE (28 April 1828 – 19 November 1897) was a Scottish physician and amateur mineralogist active through the 19th century.

Life

He was born at Melsetter in Orkney, the son of Robert Heddle (1780–1842) and his wife, Henrietta Moodie.

After receiving his early education at Edinburgh Academy 1837 to 1843 he moved to Merchiston Castle School. In 1845, he entered as a medical student at the University of Edinburgh, and subsequently studied chemistry and mineralogy at Klausthal and Freiburg. In 1851 he took his degree of MD at Edinburgh, and for about five years practised there.

In the 1850s, together with Patrick Dudgeon, he undertook a survey of the Faroe Islands also collecting many minerals. This was followed by similar survey expeditions to the Shetland Islands and Orkney. They co-founded the Mineralogical Society of Great Britain in 1876.

Medical work, however, possessed for him little attraction. He became an assistant to Arthur Connell, who held the chair of chemistry at St Andrews, and in 1862 succeeded him as professor. This post he held until in 1880 he was invited to report on some gold mines in South Africa. On his return he devoted himself with great assiduity to mineralogy, and formed one of the finest collections by means of personal exploration in almost every part of Scotland. His specimens are now in the Royal Scottish Museum at Edinburgh. In 1874 he joined Ben Peach on various scientific explorations and from 1878 was also joined by John Horne.

In 1876, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. His proposers were John Hutton Balfour, Peter Guthrie Tait, Alexander Crum Brown, and Sir Archibald Geikie. He won the society's Keith Prize for the period 1875–1877.

It had been his intention to publish a comprehensive work on the mineralogy of Scotland. This he did not live to complete, but the manuscripts fell into able hands, and The Mineralogy of Scotland, in two volumes, edited by JG Goodchild, was issued in 1901.

Heddle was one of the founders of the Mineralogical Society, and he contributed many articles on Scottish minerals, and on the geology of the northern parts of Scotland, to the Mineralogical Magazine, as well as to the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

He was a keen amateur mountaineer and one of the first honorary members of the Scottish Mountaineering Club. He is known to have climbed with his friend, the artist Colin Bent Phillip, and the chemist, William Inglis Clark.

He died in St Andrews on 19 November 1897. He is buried in the ground of A. MacKechnie, surgeon, his father-in law, with his wife in the churchyard of St Andrews Cathedral. The grave lies on the south wall of the original churchyard, midway between the door to the south cemetery and the Whyte-Melville monument in the south-east corner.

Publications
The Mineralogy of Scotland (1923) co-written with Donald Esme Innes

Family
He was a cousin of Charles Heddle.

He married Mary Jane Sinclair MacKechnie (1831–1891) in 1858. They had ten children.

Their daughter Clementina Christian Sinclair Heddle (1860–1942) married the mineralogist Alexander Thoms FRSE.

A plaque in St Andrews marks the house where they lived from 1871, now in the grounds of St Leonards School.

Bibliography
Dr. Heddle and his Geological Work (with portrait), by JG Goodchild, Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc. (1898) vii. 317.
 M. Forster Heddle and R. P. Greg, Esq. "On British Pectolites", April 1855, Philosophical Magazine, pp. 1–6
 M. Forster Heddle "Mesolite and Faröelite (Mesole)", January 1857, Philosophical Magazine, pp. 1–6.

References

External links

1828 births
1897 deaths
British mineralogists
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
People educated at Edinburgh Academy
People educated at Merchiston Castle School

Matthew Forster Heddle


Bloodborne is an action RPG made by FromSoftware led by Hidetaka Miyazaki. It is very similar to FromSoftware's other games, the Souls series. The game has many similar features from the Souls series. Below are the similarities.

 Both games have a high level of difficulty that cannot be changed.
 Enemies and bosses can kill the player in only a few hits.
 Experience points are earned by killing enemies, dropped if the player dies, and disappear forever if the player dies again before getting them back.
 Upgradeable weapons and armor can be found in the game world or be bought using experience points.
 Rolling is important for dodging enemy attacks.

While the game has many similarities with the Souls series, there are also some big differences as well. Below are the differences.

 The games have a different setting. Bloodborne takes place in an dark Industrial Revolution-like world rather then a Medieval Europe-like one, such as one of the Souls series.
Bloodborne has a faster pace, where the player can move and attack more quickly.
 The player does not have shields, the player cannot block or parry enemy attacks.
 The player can use guns in their offhand for stunning enemies and attacking them from far away.
 If the player is hit, the player can regain health if he hits the enemy back before the enemy hits the player again.
 In the Souls games, experience points can be picked up simply by go to where the player died last. In Bloodborne, dropped experience points must be regained by killing the same enemy who killed the player.

2015 video games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation 4-only games
Role-playing video games
Video games developed in Japan

Bloodborne


The Fundación Proa is a private art center in La Boca, Buenos Aires, Argentina. It was founded in 1996 and develops educational programs and exchange with cultural institutions. Its focus is on the dissemination of the great artistic movements of the twentieth century.

The foundation is located at Pedro de Mendoza Avenue, 1929.

New headquarters

Ten years after its opening, Fundación Proa faced a renewal process that concluded in 2008 with the opening of its new headquarters. It is an old building Italianate facade and three floors with four exhibition halls, a multimedia auditorium, a specialized library, a restaurant and terrace, plus spaces for action and opening to the public and a transparent facade to communicate experiences from inside to the neighborhood. The project and direction of works is the Caruso-Torricella Milan studio, the same as in 1996 transformed the old building into an iconic landmark for contemporary art in Buenos Aires.

In the remodeling project, on both sides of the historic and restored front of the house that originally hosted the Fundación Proa in La Boca, two facades of glass incorporated contemporary style, both technologically and visually.

Principal exhibitions
Louise Bourgeois (2011)
Ron Mueck (2013)
Kazimir Malevich (2016)
 Yves Klein (2017)
Ai Weiwei (2017)
Alexander Calder (2018)
Anish Kapoor (2019)

References

External links
Official site

Museums in Buenos Aires
Art museums and galleries in Argentina
Art museums established in 1996
1996 establishments in Argentina

Fundación Proa


Lover (pronounced like Dover, ) is a small village in Wiltshire, England, close to the county border with Hampshire. It is part of the parish of Redlynch and lies about  southeast of Redlynch and  southeast of the city of Salisbury. The village is within the boundaries of the New Forest National Park.

The settlement was once called Warminster Green, but by 1876 it was known as Lover, possibly a corruption of Lower Redlynch. Lover consists of three roads that connect together to form a triangle. These are Besomer Drove, School Road and Church Hill. The name Besomer Drove refers to the tradition of broom-making in the area.

Lover has St Mary's church, built in 1837 to serve the Redlynch area. Nearby is Redlynch Village Hall.

A National School was built c. 1839 and rebuilt in 1878; it became Redlynch Church of England Voluntary Aided Primary School. After the school closed in 2006 its playing fields were transferred to the parish council. Renamed Lover Green, the area is maintained by the community and is the venue for the annual Lover Country Fayre. In 2016 the school buildings were bought by the community.

The Lover post office used to do much business around Valentine's Day, as items posted there were postmarked "Lover". Although the post office was regarded as a "vital" service for the 100 people a week who used it, it was closed on 2 April 2008. Since the closure, a temporary post office opens during the week of Valentine's Day so that the cards can be stamped with "Lover".

Lover also once had a village store and pub, but both have been closed.

References

External links

Villages in Wiltshire

Lover, Wiltshire


The Forstbotanischer Garten Eberswalde (8 hectares) is a botanical garden and arboretum located at Am Zainhammer 5, Eberswalde, Brandenburg, Germany. It is open daily without charge.

The garden was established in 1830 as part of the Royal Prussian Higher Forestry College by Friedrich Wilhelm Leopold Pfeil (1783-1859) with Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835). By 1835 its plant list included more than 600 types of trees. Between 1868 and 1874, under the direction of Bernhard Danckelmann (1831-1901), the garden moved to its current location. It was severely damaged during World War II but restored in subsequent years.

Today the garden contains over 1200 native and exotic trees and shrubs, with major sections including perennial flower beds; a root laboratory; alpine garden; African and East Asian gardens; trial garden; systematic garden; herb garden; and a Salicetum containing 230 types of willow trees. A special feature is the garden's geological trail highlighting representative crystalline sedimentary rocks deposited in this location by ice age glaciers.

See also
 List of botanical gardens in Germany

References
 Forstbotanischer Garten Eberswalde
 Garden map
 Unterwegs in Brandenburg article
 Wikimapia entry

Eberswalde
Eberswalde, Forstbotanischer Garten
Eberswalde, Forstbotanischer Garten
Eberswalde, Forstbotanischer Garten
Eberswalde University for Sustainable Development

Forstbotanischer Garten Eberswalde


The Hindustan Ghadar (Hindi: हिन्दुस्तान  ग़दर; Punjabi: : ਹਿੰਦੁਸਤਾਨ ਗ਼ਦਰ; Punjabi , Urdu: ) was a weekly publication that was the party organ of the Ghadar Party. It was published under the auspices of the Yugantar Ashram (Advent of a New Age Ashram) in San Francisco. Its purpose was to further the militant nationalist faction of the Indian independence movement, especially amongst Indian sepoys of the British Indian Army.

In 1912–1913, the Pacific Coast Hindustan Association was formed by Indian immigrants under the leadership of Har Dayal, with Sohan Singh Bhakna as its president, which later came to be called the Ghadar Party. With donations raised with the help of the Indian diaspora, especially with the aid of Indian students at the University of California, Berkeley, the party established the Yugantar Ashram at 436 Hill Street where a printing press was set up with the donations. The first Urdu edition of Hindustan Ghadar appeared on 1 November 1913, followed by a Punjabi edition 9 December 1913.
The issues were first handwritten before being printed on the press. Careful measures were taken to shield the party and its supporters from British intelligence, which included the measure of memorising over a thousand names of the subscribers so that no incriminating evidence could fall into the hands of the British government.

The articles in the paper were initially authored by Har Dayal, with the printing operation run by Kartar Singh Sarabha, then a student of UC Berkeley. Copies of the paper began to be shipped to India with returning Ghadarites and immigrants, and were quickly deemed to be seditious and banned by the British Indian government. Later publications from the Yugantar Ashram included compilations of nationalist compositions and pamphlets, including Ghadar di gunj, Talwar and other publications which were also banned from British India.

References

External links
Echoes of Freedom: South Asian pioneers in California 1899-1965. University of California, Berkeley. Bancroft Library.
 .
 .
.

Asian-American culture in San Francisco
Ghadar Party
Indian-American culture in California
Literature of Indian independence movement
Newspapers published in San Francisco
Non-English-language newspapers published in California
Pakistani-American culture in California
Punjabi-American culture
Revolutionary movement for Indian independence
Urdu-language newspapers published in the United States
1913 establishments in California
Weekly newspapers published in California

Hindustan Ghadar


The Unknown Terror is a 1957 widescreen American horror science fiction film directed by Charles Marquis Warren and starring John Howard, Mala Powers, Paul Richards and May Wynn. It was produced by Robert Stabler. The narrative follows a group of explorers who, while searching for a missing man, come across the "Cave of the Dead", filled with parasitic fungi and inhabited by foamy, fungus-covered monster men. The film was released theatrically in the US in August 1957 on a double bill with Back from the Dead.

Plot

The mysterious disappearance of Jim Wheatley (Charles Gray) while exploring the legendary "Cave of the Dead" brings his sister Gina Matthews (Mala Powers) and her husband Dan (John Howard) to what Dan calls the "shores of the Caribbean." But at a pre-expedition party, Gina is taken aback when Pete Morgan (Paul Richards) arrives uninvited. Pete, Gina and Dan had been a romantic triangle. Pete saved Dan's life on an earlier expedition, but was injured and now limps on his permanently damaged right leg; after the injury, Gina and Dan married. He convinces Dan to take him on the new expedition.

Sir Lancelot, the King of the Calypso, performs a song with cryptic lyrics that Dan believes refer to the Cave of the Dead: Down, down, down in the bottomless cave/Down, down, down beyond the last grave/If he's got the stuff of fame/If he's worthy of his name/He may get another chance but he's never more the same/He's got to suffer to be born again. But when Dan asks Raoul Koom (Gerald Gilden), whose village is near the cave, to interpret the song, Raoul refuses, saying that it is better for both him and them if he keeps his mouth shut. Nevertheless, Dan, Gina, Pete and Raoul set off in search of the cave.

Upon their arrival in Raoul's village, where the residents deny that the cave exists, Raoul runs away. Dan, Gina and Pete go to the home of "Americano doctor" Ramsey (Gerald Milton). They find him boiling fruit in a large pot and putting it up in mason jars. Ramsey is married to a villager, Concha (May Wynn), whom he treats like a servant. When she drops a jar of fruit, he beats her. Pete stops him, but Gina notices that the fruit has fungus growing on it. Ramsey tells them that he uses the fruit on his research on fungi, bacteria and slime molds. Ramsey also says there is no Cave of the Dead. Dan, Pete and Gina, however, are determined to find it, and Dan offers to pay $200 to anyone in the village who will lead them to the cave.

The situation becomes tense when Concha takes Pete and Dan to a place where they can hear the voices of the dead crying from beneath the earth. While they are gone, a foamy fungus-covered man-monster chases Gina, who has stayed behind, into the jungle. She is saved when two passing men kill the creature.

Lino (Duane Gray), who works for Ramsey, agrees to guide Dan and Pete to the cave entrance for the $200. While exploring the cave, Dan and Pete find several skeletons and Raoul's body. A storm floods the cave, trapping Dan. Pete escapes. After the storm abates, he and Gina return to the cave, again led by Lino. After they enter, Lino sets off a dynamite charge to trap them inside, but it also causes a rockslide which kills him.

Pete and Gina discover that the cave walls are thick with a fast-growing parasitic fungus, the same stuff that grows on Ramsey's canned fruit. They find Dan, his back broken. He warns them of the fungus-covered monster-men in the cave. The man-monsters attack, but Pete fights them off with his flaming torch. The fungus begins sliding in large blobs down the sides of the cave.

Pete finds a shaft that runs to Ramsey's house. Leaving Gina with Dan, he climbs up for help and learns that Ramsey himself has created the monster-making fungus. Ramsey refuses to help until Pete tells him that the fungus, which had so far been unable to live in fresh air, is now growing out of control. "We can't let it out!" exclaims Ramsey. "We can seal it in the cave! Otherwise it'll destroy the world!" Pete yanks Ramsey into the cave with him as Concha sets off explosives to collapse the shaft. The blast kills Ramsey, whose body is then consumed by his fungus.

Dan dies from his injuries. Pete and Gina don the diving gear they've brought along and swim from the cave to the safety of a beautiful tropical beach.

Cast
Starring:
 John Howard as Dan Matthews
 Mala Powers as Gina Matthews
 Paul Richards as Peter Morgan
 May Wynn as Concha Ramsey
With:
 Gerald Milton as Dr. Ramsey
 Duane Grey as Lino (as Duane Gray)
 Richard Gilden Raoul Koom
 Martin Garralaga as Old Native Villager
 Patrick O'Moore as Dr. Willoughby
 William Hamel as Mr. Trainer
 Charles H. Gray as Jim Wheatley (as Charles Gray)
 Charles Postal as The Butler
And:
 The King of the Calypso, Sir Lancelot

Production
The project was originally known as Beyond Terror. Sir Lancelot signed to appear in the film to take advantage of the calypso craze.

It was the first of an eight-picture deal between Charles Marquiss Warren's Emirau Productions and 20th Century Fox.

The Unknown Terror was filmed during late March and early April 1957 at what Powers called "the old Producers Studio" in Hollywood. The film's working title was Beyond Terror, of which Powers said, "I think that might have been a better title." According to the American Film Institute (AFI), the name and composer of the song performed by Sir Lancelot during the movie is unknown. Music for the film is listed in the credits as being by Raoul Kraushaar, but without mention of individual pieces of music.

Release

The Unknown Terror was the first film on a double-bill with Back from the Dead, both of which were made by Regal Films and were released in the US on August 12, 1957. The pressbook for the films refers to them as "2 Supermonstrous Superhuman Supershockers!"

When the film was released in the UK in October 1957, it was granted an A-certificate by the British Board of Film Censors. An "A-Cert" meant that the film was considered to be "more suitable for adults." The Unknown Terror opened in Sweden on December 1, 1957, and in Mexico and Greece at unspecified dates. Twentieth Century Fox distributed the film to theaters in the UK and the US.

The film went into television syndication through National Telefilm Associates in 1960. In Chicago, for example, it was shown repeatedly after 1964, when WBBM-TV instituted "Science Fiction Wednesdays" as part of the station's Early Show daily movie series, shown at 4:00 pm Central Time, which had been on the air since the 1950s. It was also shown regularly on Chicago's WGN-TV film series Creature Features in various time slots and on various days, usually starting between 10:30 pm and 1:25 am Central Time. The movie was not available for individual home viewing until 2004, when Teakwood Studios put on sale an "unauthorized" release in VHS and DVD formats.

Critical reception
The Unknown Terror does not appear to have gotten particularly favorable reviews at the time of its release. BoxOffice in its regular feature "Review Digest" summarized the overall ratings given the film by six publications: The Hollywood Reporter and The Film Daily wrote that it was "good"; Parent's and Harrison's Reports called it "fair"; and Variety and BoxOffice both rated it as "poor." For the magazines that placed the film in the "poor" category, "Kove", writing in Variety after having previewed the film at the studio on July 30, 1957, said it was for "uncritical clientele" and that the direction is "at the elementary level. The Kenneth Higgins script is distinguished only by its moldy quality." BoxOffice offered readers only a brief synopsis of the plot, which noted that Gina and Pete "escape to bring to fruition the love they had always had for each other." The magazine suggested in its "Exploitips" that exhibitors create public interest by having "an aid" from a newspaper, TV or radio station watch the film with an audience and arranging "with a local doctor or psychology teacher to test the person afterward for pulse rate, effects, etc." BoxOffice also recommended decorating the theater lobby with "weird masks and Indian lore, with simulated fungus growing about."

The film's financial success varied by location. BoxOffice's "Boxoffice Barometer" measured gross receipts from exhibitors in 1957 in "20 key cities" using a scale on which 100 percent represented normal gross receipts. The magazine reported scores from seven of the 20 cities: Chicago, 200 percent of normal; Denver and New Haven, Connecticut, 100 percent; Detroit, 75 percent; Los Angeles, 55 percent; Pittsburgh, 45 percent; and San Francisco, 40 percent. The average score was calculated at 88 percent.

Film critics have disagreed about the film's precise setting, calling it variously Mexico, Central America, South America and the Caribbean. Dialogue within the film refers to the location only as the "shores of the Caribbean."

Much of the critical commentary about The Unknown Terror has focused on the special effects; i.e., the fungus and the fungus-covered man-monsters. Most critics, both at the time of the film's release and later, agree that the fungus looks much like soap suds. Per American film critic Bill Warren, The Monthly Film Bulletin said in its 1957 review that "the fungus looks like gargantuan quantities of good-quality detergent." Warren went on to write himself that "some fungi do resemble soap suds, but the reverse isn't true: soap suds do not convince as a fungal menace" and, as such, "credibility washes away in the foam." Bryan Senn, the American film critic, says in a similar vein that "it's difficult to make a bunch of advancing soapsuds look menacing" and that "the creatures themselves are never shown too clearly, which is just as well since they inspire more menace in spongy silhouette than in full bubbly view (upon which they look just like what they are – actors with bits of dirty cotton stuck to their faces)." British film critic Phil Hardy writes that "the monsters are unintentionally hilarious – they are simply actors entirely covered in soap suds." And Warren says he "wonders hopelessly why the filmmakers didn't consider how audiences might react when they saw huge quantities of suds pouring down cave walls. It's not likely they didn't care ... it's more likely they sadly misjudged the look of their menace, and the intelligence of most horror and science fiction audiences."

Two of the actors in The Unknown Terror have also commented on the special effects. Powers said in an interview that the fungus-covered monster-men's makeup "was just cotton, put on with a liquid adhesive or spirit gum." And while Howard called the monsters "just nonsense" in an interview, he also said that "in viewing the movie, I thought that it looked like soap bubbles coming down the cave walls. I didn't see how this would frighten anybody, but it sure frightened the hell out of my kids – they were scared to death!"

Other critics have dug more deeply into the film, peering through the suds to find more complex meanings. American academic film historian Rob Craig notes a religious theme within The Unknown Terror. He writes that the songs performed by Sir Lancelot "are well used as purveyors of taboo folk wisdom, with one line, 'He's got to suffer to be born again,' vividly foreshadowing the ensuing religious emphasis on the film." As an example, Craig writes that when he's asked about the Cave of the Dead's precise location, "Ramsey chuckles, 'I can show you how to find that – it's their purgatory ...' as he points his spoon towards the flames under his boiling pot. A more literal reference to the fiery flames of the Christian Hell cannot be imagined and the audience now knows that what the natives fear, and the white men seek, is access to death."

Laurence Raw, a British film scholar, makes special note of the role of Sir Lancelot in The Unknown Terror. To Raw, Sir Lancelot's importance is that he embodies "mainstream Euro representations of the African American experience – on the one hand he portrays the Caribbean as a holiday-maker's paradise, full of sunshine, sea and limitless pleasures; on the other hand it is also a place of great danger, wherein westerners are perpetually vulnerable to attack by unknown forces."

Aspects of Sir Lancelot's career in music and film were included in a Campbell Gallery exhibit at the University of Illinois, titled "Calypso Music in Postwar America: Photographs and Illustrations, 1945–1990." The exhibit featured "rare photographs and promotional graphics [which] are used to trace calypso in phonograph recordings, song publishing, nightclub acts, concerts, Broadway shows and Hollywood movies." The exhibit ran from March 25 to August 10, 2008.

See also
 List of American films of 1957

References

External links

1957 films
1957 horror films
Films directed by Charles Marquis Warren
1950s science fiction horror films
American science fiction horror films
Films scored by Raoul Kraushaar
1950s English-language films
1950s American films

The Unknown Terror


Ælfwine (c. 661 – 679) was the King of Deira from 670 to 679. He was a son of Oswiu of Northumbria and a brother of Ecgfrith of Northumbria.

After the succession of Ecgfrith as king of Northumbria in 670, he made Ælfwine king of the sub-kingdom of Deira. Ælfwine was still a boy at the time, and the title may have been intended to designate him as the heir of the childless Ecgfrith. He was, however, killed in battle against the Mercians at the Battle of the Trent in 679. Although his death could have led to an escalation of the war, further conflict was averted by the intervention of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Theodore, and King Æthelred of Mercia paid a weregild to Ecgfrith in compensation for Ælfwine's death.

Bede writes: "In the ninth year of the reign of King Ecgfrith (in 679), a great battle was fought between him and Æthelred, king of the Mercians, near the river Trent, and Ælfwine, brother to King Ecgfrith, was slain, a youth about eighteen years of age, and much beloved by both provinces; for King Æthelred had married his sister Osthryth. There was now reason to expect a more bloody war, and more lasting enmity between those kings and their fierce nations; but Theodore, the bishop, beloved of God, relying on the Divine aid, by his wholesome admonitions wholly extinguished the dangerous fire that was breaking out; so that the kings and their people on both sides were appeased, and no man was put to death, but only the due mulct paid to the king who was the avenger for the death of his brother; and this peace continued long after between those kings and between their kingdoms."

References

External links

661 births
679 deaths
Deiran monarchs
Anglo-Saxon warriors
Anglo-Saxons killed in battle
7th-century English monarchs
Monarchs killed in action
Royal House of Northumbria

Ælfwine of Deira


Robert Michael Lombardo (born 5 March 1932) is an American composer and composition teacher.

Life
Born in Hartford, Connecticut, to Sicilian immigrants, Lombardo received his musical training at the Hartt College of Music, the University of Hartford (BMus., composition cum laude, 1954, MMus., composition, 1955), Hochschule für Musik, Berlin (1958–1959) and the University of Iowa (Ph.D., composition, 1959–1961). His principal composition teacher was Arnold Franchetti. He also studied with Philip Bezanson and Boris Blacher.

Lombardo began teaching music theory at the University of Iowa in 1959, then moved to Hartt College in 1963. In 1964, Lombardo became Professor of theory and composition and Composer-in-Residence at The Music Conservatory of Chicago College of Performing Arts at Roosevelt University in Chicago, a position he would hold for 35 years until 1999.

Works
Lombardo's compositions include over 200 works for opera, orchestra, chamber music, instrumental solos, choral music, musicals, and electronic music. He has collaborated with his wife, Kathleen, poet and playwright, on several compositions. Lombardo is also one of the few composers writing for the mandolin. Dimitris Marinos performed his Concerto for Mandolin and String Quartet in a world premiere in Chicago in 1995. In addition, Marinos has recorded six of Lombardo's compositions.

Lombardo's works have been performed all over the world. In 1992, contemporary music group CUBE performed his work, in Chicago. Roosevelt University hosted a performance of several of his works on his 80th birthday. And for these, Lombardo has been the recipient of multiple awards. In 1964, he received a Guggenheim Fellowship in Music Composition, and two grants from the National Endowment for the Arts and three Ford Foundation Grants in 1962, 1963 and 1964 among others.

Lombardo's works are not limited to simply compositions; he is also respected for his commissions, which include an important work commissioned by the Serge Koussevitzky Foundation and housed in the Library of Congress. Lombardo's papers, including musical scores and correspondence, are housed at the Northwestern University Library.

References

External links
Official website

http://www.crosssound.com/CSarchives/SOLOISTS/musiciansall.html
Interview with Robert Lombardo, January, 1992

American male composers
21st-century American composers
1932 births
Living people
21st-century American male musicians

Robert Lombardo


Johann Ruchrat von Wesel (died 1481) was a German Scholastic theologian. He objected to the system of indulgences, and has been called a "reformer before the Reformation".

He was born at Oberwesel early in the 15th century. He appears to have been one of the leaders of the humanist movement in Germany, and to have had some intercourse and sympathy with the leaders of the Hussites in Bohemia.

Erfurt was in his day the headquarters of a humanism which was both devout and opposed to the realist metaphysics and the Thomist theology which prevailed in the universities of Cologne and Heidelberg. Wesel was one of the professors at Erfurt between 1445 and 1456, and was vice-rector in 1458. In 1460 he was appointed preacher at Mainz, in 1462 at Worms, and in 1479, when an old and worn-out man, he was brought before the Dominican inquisitor Gerhard Elten of Cologne. The charges brought against him took a theological turn, though they were probably prompted by dislike of his philosophical views. They were chiefly based on a treatise, De indulgentiis, which he had composed while at Erfurt twenty-five years before. He had also written De potestate ecclesiastica. He died under sentence of imprisonment for life in the Augustinian convent in Mainz in 1481.

Theology
It is somewhat difficult to determine the exact theological orientation of Wesel. Ullmann claims him as a "reformer before the Reformation", but, while he mastered the formal principle of Protestantism, that scripture is the sole rule of faith, it is more than doubtful that he had that experimental view of the doctrines of grace which lay at the basis of Reformation theology. He held that Christ is men's righteousness in so far as they are guided by the Holy Ghost, and the love towards God is shed abroad in their hearts, which clearly shows that he held the medieval idea that justification is an habitual grace implanted in men by the gracious act of God. He seems, however, to have protested against certain medieval ecclesiastical ideas which he held to be excrescences erroneously grafted on Christian faith and practice. He objected to the whole system of indulgences; he denied the infallibility of the church, on the ground, that the church contains within it sinners as well as saints; he insisted that papal authority could be upheld only when the pope remained true to the evangel; and he held that a sharp distinction ought to be drawn between ecclesiastical sentences and punishments, and the judgments of God.

Johann also held that God chooses some people to salvation, and believed in a church invisible.

Literature
The best account of Wesel is to be found in K. Ullmann's Reformers before the Reformation. His tract on Indulgences is published in Walch's Monumenta Medii Aevi, vol. i., while a report of his trial is given in Ortwin's Fasciculus rerum expetendarum et fugiendarum (ed. by Browne, London, 1690), and d'Argentré's Collectio judiciorum de novis erroribus (Paris, 1728).

See also
 Wessel Gansfort
 Johann von Goch

Notes

Further reading
Heiko Oberman, The Harvest of Medieval Theology:  Gabriel Biel and Late Medieval Nominalism, Grand Rapids, MI:  Baker Academic, 2001.

External links

 legal deeds, digitalised manuscripts

Year of birth missing
1481 deaths
15th-century German Catholic theologians
German Renaissance humanists
People from Oberwesel

Johann Ruchrat von Wesel