WWE Fatal 4-Way was a professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event took place on June 20, 2010, at the Nassau Coliseum in Uniondale, New York. The show was based around a few matches on the card being contested as fatal four-way matches. Fatal 4-Way replaced The Bash as the June 2010 PPV.

The event received 143,000 pay-per-view buys, down on The Bash's figure of 178,000 buys. This was the final WWE pay-per-view event to be held in Nassau Coliseum before its 2015 renovation. This was the only Fatal 4-Way PPV produced by WWE for their main roster, as it was replaced by Capitol Punishment in 2011; however, the promotion revived the name for their developmental territory NXT in 2014 as the brand's second TakeOver event titled NXT TakeOver: Fatal 4-Way.

Production

Background

World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) previously ran an annual summer pay-per-view (PPV) titled The Great American Bash from 2004 to 2009, which they had acquired in 2001 when the promotion purchased World Championship Wrestling. The 2009 event was titled The Bash. In 2010, WWE discontinued The Bash and replaced it with Fatal 4-Way. The event took place on June 20, 2010, at the Nassau Coliseum in Uniondale, New York and featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. Tickets went on sale on April 24 through Ticketmaster.

Storylines
The card included matches that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. The storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, Raw and SmackDown.

The main feud for the Raw brand was a fatal four-way match for the WWE Championship between defending champion John Cena, Randy Orton, Edge, and Sheamus. After Cena retained his title against Batista in an "I Quit" match at Over the Limit, Sheamus attacked Cena. On the May 24 episode of Raw, Bret Hart was announced as the new Raw General Manager. Before Batista could cut a promo, Hart interrupted and said that if Batista wanted his rematch, then he would have to qualify. Batista refused to wrestle, citing an injury and Hart then let Orton qualify by forfeit, causing Batista to quit the WWE afterwards. Edge and Sheamus won their respective qualifying matches to gain entry into the match alongside Orton. The following three weeks saw the four wrestlers compete against each other in singles and tag team bouts.

The main event for the SmackDown brand was a fatal four-way match for the World Heavyweight Championship between Jack Swagger, Big Show, CM Punk, and Rey Mysterio. At Over the Limit, Big Show defeated Swagger by disqualification but did not win the championship since it cannot change hands on a disqualification, and as a result qualified for the fatal four-way match. The Undertaker and CM Punk won their respective qualifying matches against Rey Mysterio and Kane. Later, Kane found his half-brother Undertaker in a storyline vegetative state, unable to compete and The Undertaker was removed from the match. A battle royal was put in place to determine The Undertaker's replacement in the match, which was won by Mysterio, who last eliminated Kane.

On the April 12 episode of Raw, Eve Torres beat Maryse for the Divas Championship. When Maryse attempted to seek revenge at Over the Limit, she was defeated by Eve. On the May 17 episode, Gail Kim teamed up with Evan Bourne to defeat Alicia Fox and Zack Ryder. After this, Kim and Fox started to feud for several weeks. On the June 14 episode, the current Divas Champion, Eve, teamed up with Kim in a winning effort against Maryse and Fox and a fatal four-way match was announced between the four.

Event

Preliminary matches

The event began with Kofi Kingston defending the Intercontinental Championship against Drew McIntyre. SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long was also in attendance near the announce table. The contest was even between both competitors. Kingston executed an S.O.S. on McIntyre for a near-fall. Kingston then applied a submission near the turnbuckle, but it was countered by McIntyre, who threw Kingston's legs into referee Charles Robinson, knocking him out. Since the referee was unable to officiate the match, McIntyre forced Long to fill in for the referee. When McIntyre attempted the pin, however, Long refused to count to three. As they argued, Matt Hardy interfered and attacked McIntyre, which allowed Kingston to perform Trouble in Paradise on McIntyre. Kingston then pinned McIntyre for the win and retained the title.

The WWE Divas Championship was defended next by Eve against Alicia Fox, Maryse, and Gail Kim in a fatal four-way match. Eve performed a moonsault on Maryse, but her pin attempt was broken up by Fox, who threw Eve out of the ring. She then covered Maryse and won her first title in the WWE.

Chris Jericho cut a promo, challenging Evan Bourne to an impromptu match. Jericho executed a Codebreaker on Bourne for a near-fall. The match ended when Bourne executed an Air Bourne on Jericho's back and pinned him for the win.

Main event matches

In the first main event match, Jack Swagger, Rey Mysterio, Big Show, and CM Punk competed in a fatal four-way match for the World Heavyweight Championship. Big Show dominated the first half of the match, quickly knocking down his opponents. The advantage turned when the other three concentrated their offense mainly on him taking him out for some time. The match was then contested evenly until Punk delivered a GTS to Swagger, but before he could pin him, Kane interrupted them, attempting to put Punk in a casket but Punk escaped with Kane in pursuit. Mysterio took advantage of the situation and delivered the 619 to Swagger and covered him to win the World Heavyweight Title.

In the next match, The Miz faced R-Truth for the United States Championship. The match went at a quick pace throughout and ended when Miz reversed R-Truth for a pin attempt to retain the title.

In the next match, Unified WWE Tag Team Champions The Hart Dynasty (Tyson Kidd, David Hart Smith and Natalya), faced The Usos and Tamina Snuka. The Hart Dynasty won after Natalya pinned Tamina after a Nattie-By-Nature.

In the main event, John Cena faced Sheamus, Randy Orton, and Edge in a fatal four-way match for the WWE Championship. None of the competitors stayed in the ring for long as when one would get an advantage over another opponent they would be interrupted by another one of the challengers. The match came to an abrupt end when the rookies from the first season of NXT who had previously formed a faction against the roster of the Raw brand, interrupted. The rookies first attacked Cena in the ring. Edge then tried to help him but instead was attacked by Nexus. In the midst of the commotion, Sheamus pinned Cena to win the title, bringing the event to a premature conclusion.

Reception
Approximately 10,000 people attended Fatal 4-Way live at the Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum in Uniondale, New York.

The event received generally mixed reviews. Bob Kapur from Canadian Online Explorer's wrestling section awarded the WWE Championship match an eight out of ten and the World Heavyweight Championship match a seven out of ten. He also appreciated Chris Jericho and Evan Bourne for their performances in their match and rated the match as eight out of ten. Overall, he awarded the event a score of eight out of ten.

Aftermath
This would be the only Fatal 4-Way PPV produced by WWE for their main roster as it was replaced by Capitol Punishment in 2011. In April 2011, WWE ceased using its full name with the "WWE" abbreviation becoming an orphaned initialism. WWE revived the event's name in 2014 for their developmental territory NXT as a TakeOver event titled NXT TakeOver: Fatal 4-Way.

Results

References

External links
Official WWE Fatal 4-Way website

2010 in New York (state)
Fatal 4-Way
2010 WWE pay-per-view events
June 2010 events in the United States
Professional wrestling in Uniondale, New York
Events on Long Island
Events in Uniondale, New York

WWE Fatal 4-Way


Gospel Oak School (formerly The Royal Society of Arts (RSA) Academy and Willingsworth High School) is one of the new academies opened in England.

The school's history dates back to September 1958, when Willingsworth Secondary Modern School to serve the Ocker Hill and Princes End areas of Tipton, replacing a smaller secondary modern at Ocker Hill and gaining comprehensive status in September 1969, when it became Willingsworth High.

It became the RSA Academy in September 2008 and moved into its current buildings in September 2010, with the old buildings being demolished the following spring. It was one of the seven schools in the RSA Family of Academies, all in the West Midlands, of the Royal Society of Arts.

In September 2021, the school was renamed Gospel Oak School after the Royal Society of Arts renounced their association with the school.

Senior staff
The Principal of the Academy is Mr Ross Trafford. Helen Tanner is Senior Vice Principal.

School building
The school is housed in the same building that originally housed the RSA Academy from September 2010 to its rebranding in September 2021. This building was constructed by Willmott Dixon. A new block, located to the rear of the existing building, was constructed to house additional students the academy would be taking on following the closure of a local school nearby. This building was completed in 2019 and was constructed by Interserve.

School day
The Academy operates a different school day from other schools, with lessons being 60 minutes long. Therefore there are five lessons per day. The Academy also follows a 5 term year, with 2 week holidays at the end of terms 1-4 and a 6 week summer holiday.

Debatemate
The Academy takes part in the Birmingham area Debatemate. The aims of the scheme are to mentor pupils in debating and therefore improve their public speaking skills, literacy skills and general knowledge. Gospel Oak School compete in two of the Debatemate competitions; the Urban Debate League and the Debatemate Cup formerly known as the Richard Koch Cup.

Derelict buildings fire
On the evening of 11 October 2010, the disused school buildings of the former Willingsworth High School were set on fire and around fifteen fire engines were sent to deal with the fire. Luckily nobody was hurt in the incident, and the police believed it may have been committed by the same arsonists who started a fire hours later at Wilkinson Primary School in nearby Bilston. The building's shell was demolished within the next six months.

References

Academies in Sandwell
Tipton
Secondary schools in Sandwell
International Baccalaureate schools in England

Gospel Oak School


Harry Levinson (1922 – June 26, 2012) was an American psychologist and consultant in work and organizational issues. He was a pioneer in the application of psychoanalytic theory to management and leadership. He linked the failure of managers to effectively contain the anxieties of workers to employee depression and low productivity.

Biography
Levinson was born in Port Jervis, New York on January 16, 1922. His parents were both immigrants. His father was a tailor, and his mother was a homemaker. He was the oldest of three children. He grew up in a time when anti-Semitism was prevalent, a barrier he overcame in his quest to become a teacher and writer. Although his beginnings were modest, he would become one of the most influential consulting psychologists of his time.

From an early age he loved reading and writing and won his first writing award when he was in the seventh grade. Levinson received his B.S. degree (1943) and his M.S. degree (1947) from Emporia State University.  He received his clinical training and completed his PhD (1952) at the University of Kansas from a joint clinical psychology program operated with the Topeka Veteran's Administration and the Menninger Clinic.

In the 1950s, Levinson played a key role in the reformation of the Kansas state hospital system, creating the Division of Industrial Mental Health of The Menninger Foundation in 1954. During the academic year 1961–62 he was a visiting professor at the Sloan School of Management at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and in 1967 at the School of Business at the University of Kansas.

In 1968 he moved to the Harvard Graduate School of Business, and simultaneously established The Levinson Institute which he headed until he retired in 1992.  The aim of the institute was to develop a psychoanalytic approach to the practice of management and a deeper understanding of leadership and its role in organizational processes.  From 1968 to 1972 Levinson was the Thomas Henry Carroll-Ford Foundation distinguished visiting professor in the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration.

Levinson was a Ford Foundation visiting professor at the H. C. Mathur Institute of Public Administration in Jaipur, India, in the summer of 1974. He was a visiting centennial professor at Texas A&M in April 1976, and in September 1979 conducted the international course on occupational social psychiatry for the Finnish Government Institute of Occupational Health, under the sponsorship of the Nordic Council of Ministers.

Levinson headed the Kansas Psychological Association and the Kansas Advisory Committee to the U.S. Civil Rights Commission. He was active throughout his life with the Society of Consulting Psychology, the International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organizations (ISPSO), of which he was a founding member, and the Society of Psychologists in Management which he helped found in 1985. Levinson played a "learned role" at each symposium of the International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organizations during its early years. He constantly challenged psychoanalytic organizational theorists to summarize what they had learned, and articulate where they were going in their work. He was an Honorary Associate at the Center for the Study of Organizational Change from 2010 until his death.

He married his first wife, Roberta, in 1946 and they divorced in 1970. They had four children together. He met his second wife, Miriam in 1989. Together they founded the Harry and Miriam Levinson Scholarship offered by the American Psychological Foundation and the Harry Levinson Scholarship in Organizational Behavior at Emporia State. They remained married until his death.

Levinson began losing his eyesight in 2001 due to macular degeneration. Although he could not longer read or write, he continued to consult with colleagues and students by phone. Harry Levinson died at the age of 90 on June 26, 2012. He was buried in the railway town of Port Jervis where he was born.

Awards
Perry L. Rohrer Consulting Psychology Practice Award for outstanding achievement in psychological consultation, 1985
Massachusetts Psychological Association's Career Award, 1985
Award of The Society of Psychologists in Management, 1985
Organization Development Professional Practice Award for Excellence from the American Society for Training and Development, 1988
I. Arthur Marshall Distinguished Alumnus Award of The Menninger Alumni Association, 1990
American Psychological Association Award for Distinguished Professional Contributions to Knowledge, 1992
American Psychological Foundation Gold Medal for Life Achievement in the Application of Psychology, 2000

Work
Levinson's contributions to the theory and practice of psychological organizational consulting were "extensive, relentless, and legendary." Levinson was known for his insightful and practical approach to the workplace, and he was responsible for raising awareness about the emotional well-being of workers.

His contributions, especially to the psychoanalytic study of organizations, are summarized by Diamond (2003). The 2003 article contains a detailed bibliography of Harry Levinson's work which is summarized here. Levinson consistently argued for a psychoanalytic approach to studying organizations, but was ultimately concerned with the application of theory to practice.

 Emotional First Aid : Levinson's conceptualization of the need for emotional support for workers in industry paved the way for today's employee assistance programs. The concept of "emotional first aid" had earlier been developed by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company's staff psychiatrist, Lydia Giberson, to denote interventions for employees suffering from relatively minor emotional problems.
 The Psychological Contract : The concept of a psychological contract is useful for understanding the expectations that workers and organizations have of each other. Levinson's definition includes conscious and unconscious dimensions of the investment that employees make in their relationships with the organizations that they work for. Understanding of the psychological contract is an important function of management and crucial for avoiding detachment and poor performance by workers. The concept is a useful tool for understanding management failure. The notion of the psychological contract was influenced by psychoanalytic thinking including the ego ideal.
 Psychological Anthropology : Levinson's conceptualization of psychoanalytic anthropology is clear in his emphasis on immersion and participant observation in psychoanalytic organizational consultation. He believed that to know an organization a researcher/consultant must have knowledge and experience from inside of it. Organizational fieldwork includes observing, participating, and interviewing. The goal is to understand how workers and organizations relate to one another in the course of doing work. Psychoanalytic concepts such as transference and countertransference contribute to an understanding of relational dynamics, workplace culture, and worker effectiveness.
 Management by Guilt : Levinson directly addressed the guilt associated with employee evaluations at work. He explicated the psychodynamics of managerial guilt and outlined the criteria for effective feedback, even when it was negative.
 People Learning in Institutions : In writing about worker motivation Levinson highlights three human needs: Ministration is the need for support and guidance. Maturation needs center on creativity and reality testing. Mastery needs are focused on achievement and ambition. Awareness of these needs can help managers improve their dialogue with and responsiveness to workers.
 Problem Analysis : Levinson developed a psychoanalytic framework for diagnosing relational problems in the workplace. The framework centers on the ego ideal of the worker, specifically the extent to which workers view themselves as living up to their ideal. Other important elements of the diagnostic process include attending to workers' need for close relationships in the workplace as well as dependency needs. This framework is influenced by both drive theory and ego psychology.
 Organizational Diagnosis : Levinson's 1972 book  is perhaps his most significant contribution to the theory and practice of psychoanalytic organizational diagnosis and change. It is an integration of systems and clinical models. The notion of organizational diagnosis places emphasis on understanding the manifest and latent aspects of organization's culture and practices before initiating change efforts or other interventions. Of particular importance is the emphasis on analyzing the transference dynamics between consultants and organizational members.
 Loss in Organizational Change : Levinson drew attention to loss as a part of organization change. He suggested that workers experience loss and grief in response to changes, even when they are positive. He equated resistance to change to the process of mourning, promoting a more compassionate and mindful approach to change efforts. Management attention to the pain experienced by workers during change is important for identifying and addressing conscious and unconscious sabotage of organizational change.
 The Great Jackass Fallacy (1973) : A psychoanalytic approach to understanding motivation in the workplace illuminates the problems associated with a management style that relies on carrots and sticks to motivate workers. Specifically, Levinson points out that such an approach relies on the "rational economic man" model, ignoring the complex and often unconscious nature of human motivation. It also ignores the "sentient" field of work (see also Czander, 1993, The Psychodynamics of Work and Organizations: Theory and Application).

Contemporaries
Harry Levinson's contemporaries are influential organizational theorists in their own right. At Harvard, Levinson interacted with Abraham Zaleznik (Harvard Business School), Chris Argyris (Education and Business Schools), and Michael Maccoby (Project on Character, Work, and Technology). Levinson also interacted with Edgar Schein, Donald Schon, and John Van Maanen at MIT. Rodney L. Lowman and Richard R. Kilburg worked with Levinson in association with the APA and in particular the division on Consulting Psychology.

The integration of organizational and psychoanalytic theory was the primary aim of the International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organizations (ISPSO) which was founded in the early 1980s. Many of the psychoanalytic theorists who were Levinson's contemporaries were at the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations in London including Isabel Menzies Lyth, Otto Kernberg, John Bowlby, Elliott Jaques, and Harold Bridger.

Harold Bridger, Abraham Zaleznik, and Harry Levinson were active in the ISPSO in its first decade during the time that Michael Diamond was president. Leopold Gruenfeld of Cornell University sponsored the first two meetings of what became ISPSO in the early 1980s.  Levinson and Zaleznik were seen as the pioneers or patriarchs of the psychoanalytic approach to studying organizations. Levinson's intellect and sharp criticisms challenged and inspired a new generation of organizational theorists including Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries, Larry Hirschhorn, Laurence Gould, Tom Gilmore, James Krantz, Howard Schwartz, Seth Allcorn, Shelley Reciniello, Gilles Amado, Michael A Diamond, and Donald M. Levine.

Major publications
Men, Management, and Mental Health (1962)
Emotional Health in the World of Work (1964)
Executive (1968, 1981)
Organizational Diagnosis (1972)
The Great Jackass Fallacy (1973)
Psychological Man (1976)

References

External links
Organizational Immersion and Diagnosis: The Work of Harry Levinson
Importance of Diagnosis in Organizational Assessment: Harry Levinson's Contributions

1922 births
2012 deaths
20th-century American psychologists
American business theorists
Emporia State University alumni
University of Kansas alumni

Harry Levinson


Albatrellus is a genus of 19 species of mushroom-producing fungi in the family Albatrellaceae. Species are common in northern temperate forests, producing medium to large fleshy fruit bodies of various colors.

Taxonomy
British botanist Samuel Frederick Gray first described the genus in his 1821 work "A Natural Arrangement of British Plants".

Parsimony analysis of internal transcribed spacer sequences of various Albatrellus species show that the genus is not monophyletic, and that the species may be divided into two clades. This corroborates prior phylogenetic analysis that suggested that Albatrellus consists of two separate groups with affinity to the Russuloid and Polyporoid clades.

Description

Species of Albatrellus are terrestrial, with fleshy fruit bodies that differentiate into caps and stipes; the stipe is either central or eccentric to lateral. Fruit bodies are solitary or in clusters with stem bases or cap margins fused. Context mostly tough-fleshy, white or becoming brightly colored. The hymenophore is regularly poroid. The hyphal system is monomitic, the generative hyphae septate with or without clamp connections, with thin or somewhat thick, amyloid or inamyloid, indextrinoid and acyanophilous walls; the majority of hyphae are distinctly inflated (the fundamental hyphae). The basidiospores are ellipsoid to roughly spherical in shape, thin-walled to slightly thick-walled, with smooth, amyloid or inamyloid, indextrinoid and acyanophilous walls.

Distribution
Twelve species of Albatrellus occur in North America. The edible Albatrellus ovinus is sold commercially in Finland. The Dictionary of the Fungi estimates there to be 16 species in the genus, but three new species (A. fumosus, A. microcarpus, A. tibetanus) were described from China in 2008.

Species

References

Extensive comparative discussion of some species at Albatrellus subrubescens

Russulales
Russulales genera
Taxa named by Samuel Frederick Gray
Taxa described in 1821

Albatrellus


In chemistry, dimerization refers to the process of joining two molecular entities by bonds.  The resulting bonds can be either strong or weak. Many symmetrical chemical species are described as dimers, even when the monomer is unknown or highly unstable.

The term homodimer is used when the two subunits are identical (e.g. A–A) and heterodimer when they are not (e.g. A–B). The reverse of dimerization is often called dissociation. When two oppositely-charged ions associate into dimers, they are referred to as Bjerrum pairs, after Danish chemist Niels Bjerrum.

Noncovalent dimers

Anhydrous carboxylic acids form dimers by hydrogen bonding of the acidic hydrogen and the carbonyl oxygen. For example, acetic acid forms a dimer in the gas phase, where the monomer units are held together by hydrogen bonds. Many OH-containing molecules form dimers, e.g. the water dimer.

Excimers and exciplexes are excited structures with a short lifetime. For example, noble gases do not form stable dimers, but they do form the excimers Ar2*, Kr2* and Xe2* under high pressure and electrical stimulation.

Covalent dimers

Molecular dimers are often formed by the reaction of two identical compounds e.g.: . In this example, monomer "A" is said to dimerize to give the dimer "". An example is a diaminocarbene, which dimerize to give a tetraaminoethylene:
2 C(NR2)2  ->  (R2N)2C=C(NR2)2
Carbenes are highly reactive and readily form bonds.

Dicyclopentadiene is an asymmetrical dimer of two cyclopentadiene molecules that have reacted in a Diels-Alder reaction to give the product. Upon heating, it "cracks" (undergoes a retro-Diels-Alder reaction) to give identical monomers:
C10H12 ->  2  C5H6

Many nonmetallic elements occur as dimers: hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and the halogens (i.e. fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine). Noble gases can form dimers linked by van der Waals bonds, such as dihelium or diargon. Mercury occurs as a mercury(I) cation (), formally a dimeric ion. Other metals may form a proportion of dimers in their vapour phase. Known metallic dimers include dilithium (), disodium (), dipotassium (), dirubidium () and dicaesium (). Such elemental dimers are homonuclear diatomic molecules.

Many small organic molecules, most notably formaldehyde, easily form dimers. The dimer of formaldehyde () is dioxetane ().

Borane () occurs as the dimer diborane (), due to the high Lewis acidity of the boron center.

Polymer chemistry
In the context of polymers, "dimer" also refers to the degree of polymerization 2, regardless of the stoichiometry or condensation reactions.

One case where this is applicable is with disaccharides. For example, cellobiose is a dimer of glucose, even though the formation reaction produces water:
 2 C6H12O6 -> C12H22O11 + H2O
Here, the resulting dimer has a stoichiometry different from the initial pair of monomers.

Disaccharides need not be composed of the same monosaccharides to be considered dimers. An example is sucrose, a dimer of fructose and glucose, which follows the same reaction equation as presented above.

Amino acids can also form dimers, which are called dipeptides. An example is glycylglycine, consisting of two glycine molecules joined by a peptide bond.  Other examples include aspartame and carnosine.

Inorganic dimers
Many molecules and ions are described as dimers, even when the monomer is elusive.

Group 13 dimers

Boranes

Diborane (B2H6) is an inorganic dimer of Borane. B2H6 exists as a structure where two hydrogen atoms bridge the two boron atoms.

Aluminium

Trialkylaluminium compounds can exist as either monomers or dimers, depending on the steric bulk of the groups attached. For example, trimethylaluminium exists as a dimer, but trimesitylaluminium adopts a monomeric structure.

Biochemical dimers

Pyrimidine dimers
Pyrimidine dimers (also known as thymine dimers) are formed by a photochemical reaction from pyrimidine DNA bases when exposed to ultraviolet light. This cross-linking causes DNA mutations, which can be carcinogenic, causing skin cancers. When pyrimidine dimers are present, they can block polymerases, decreasing DNA functionality until it is repaired.

Protein dimers

Protein dimers arise from the interaction between two proteins which can interact further to form larger and more complex oligomers. For example, tubulin is formed by the dimerization of α-tubulin and β-tubulin and this dimer can then polymerize further to make microtubules. For symmetric proteins, the larger protein complex can be broken down into smaller identical protein subunits, which then dimerize to decrease the genetic code required to make the functional protein.

G protein-coupled receptors
As the largest and most diverse family of receptors within the human genome, G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) have been studied extensively, with recent studies supporting their ability to form dimers. GPCR dimers include both homodimers and heterodimers formed from related members of the GPCR family. While not all, some GPCRs require dimerization to function, such as GABAB-receptor, emphasizing the importance of dimers in biological systems.

Receptor tyrosine kinase
Much like for G protein-coupled receptors, dimerization is essential for receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) to perform their function in signal transduction, affecting many different cellular processes. RTKs typically exist as monomers, but undergo a conformational change upon ligand binding, allowing them to dimerize with nearby RTKs. The dimerization activates the cytoplasmic kinase domains that are responsible for further signal transduction.

See also

Monomer
Trimer
Polymer
Protein dimer
Oligomer

References

Chemical compounds

Dimerization (chemistry)


Edgar Calabia Samar (born 1981) is a poet and novelist from San Pablo City, Philippines. He has received the Philippine National Book Awards for his novels and book of criticism, and the Palanca Awards for his poetry collections and short fiction. His novels Sa Kasunod ng 909, Si Janus Silang at ang Tiyanak ng Tabon and Si Janus Silang at ang Labanang Manananggal-Mambabarang all won the Philippine National Book Awards for Best Novel in a Philippine Language in 2012, 2015, and 2016, respectively. He has also been awarded the PBBY-Salanga Writer's Prize, the NCCA Writer's Prize for the Novel, the Gantimpalang Collantes sa Sanaysay, and the Gawad Surian sa Tula. His poetry books, Pag-aabang sa Kundiman: Isang Tulambuhay and Samantalang Sakop at Iniibig: Panibagong Tulambuhay were both nominated for the National Book Award. His award-winning children story Uuwi na ang Nanay Kong si Adarna has been adapted into play and was staged at the Cultural Center of the Philippines as part of The Virgin Labfest in July 2008. The same story was also adapted for television in a storytelling segment of GMA-7's Art Angel episode last May 29, 2008. His book, Walong Diwata ng Pagkahulog, was recipient of the 2005 NCCA Writer's Prize; its translation to English as Eight Muses of the Fall was longlisted in the 2009 Man Asian Literary Prize. Samar is also fellow to the 2010 International Writing Program of the University of Iowa.

Biography

Samar was born on 18 February 1981 in San Pablo City, Philippines. He attended a diocesan catholic school, the Liceo de San Pablo, from grade school to high school (1988–1998) before he entered the Ateneo de Manila University where he finished his AB in Psychology (2002) and MA in Filipino Literature (2004). In Ateneo, he became a member of Heights for four years (1998–2002). He received his Doctor of Philosophy from the University of the Philippines in Diliman, which awarded him the Gawad Antonio Abad for Best Dissertation in 2011.

Samar teaches Philippine Literature and Creative Writing at the Ateneo de Manila University since 2011. He served as President of Linangan sa Imahen, Retorika at Anyo in 2002–2004, and now acts as moderator of Heights. He has served as panelist to several national writers workshops in the Philippines. He also directed the 7th Ateneo National Writers Workshop held in October 2007 at the Sacred Heart Novitiate in Quezon City. He currently lives in Marikina.

Published works

Books
"Si Janus Sílang at ang Tiyanak ng Tábon" (Adarna House, 2014)

"Eight Muses of the Fall" (Anvil Publishing, 2013)
"Halos Isang Búhay: Ang Manananggal sa Pagsusulat ng Nobela" (UST Publishing House, 2012)
"Sa Kasunod ng 909" (UST Publishing House, 2012)
Walong Diwata ng Pagkahulog (Anvil Publishing, 2009)
Pag-aabang sa Kundiman: Isang Tulambuhay (ADMU Office of Research and Publications, 2006)
Isa na Namang Pagtingala sa Buwan (National Commission for Culture and the Arts, 2005)
Uuwi na ang Nanay Kong si Darna! (Adarna House, 2002).

Poetry
  "Kuwentong-Bayan" in Literatura 8: Tha Palanca 2004 Issue
 "Walang Diwata ng Apoy" in Literatura 8: The Palanca 2004 Issue
"2000" in High Chair Issue # 5 (July–December 2005)
"Gnosis" in  Volume 35

Essay
"Si Big Brother, Si Boy Bastos, at ang Pagsasalba ng Katawan sa Textong Popular Ayon Kay Antonio Pigafetta" in Malay 20, No. 1 (2007)
"Paghawak sa Panahon: Ang Salaysay Bilang Talinghaga sa Tula" in Loyola Schools Review 6 (2007)

Serialized novel
Kasaysayan ng Kalibutan (2019)

Awards, grants, fellowships
2010 International Writing Program, Fellow
2009 Man Asian Literary Prize, Longlist for "Eight Muses of the Fall"
2007 Gantimpalang Collantes sa Sanaysay, Second Prize for "Tungo sa Pag-awit ng Inadung"
2007 46th UP National Writers Workshop, Fellow for Poetry in Filipino
2005 NCCA Writer's Prize,  Grand Prize for Walong Diwata ng Pagkahulog
2004 Gawad Surian sa Tula, Grand Prize for "Kung Bakit Tayo Nakikinig sa Alamat"
2004 PBBY-Salanga Writer's Prize, Honorable Mention for "Magkano Papuntang Antipolo?"
2004 Palanca Awards for Poetry in Filipino, First Prize for "Tayong Lumalakad Nang Matulin"
2003 Palanca Awards for Future Fiction in Filipino, Second Prize for "Project: EYOD"
2003 1st Iyas-La Salle National Writers' Workshop, Fellow for Poetry in Filipino
2002 Palanca Awards for Poetry in Filipino, Second Prize for "Pag-aabang sa Kundiman at Iba Pang Tula"
2002 PBBY-Salanga Writer's Prize, Grand Prize for "Uuwi na ang Nanay Kong si Darna!"
2001 38th UP National Writers Workshop, Fellow for Poetry in Filipino
2000 1st UST National Writers' Workshop, Fellow for Poetry in Filipino
1999 6th Ateneo-Heights Writers' Workshop, Fellow for Poetry in Filipino
1997 National Schools Press Conference, Second Place for Editorial Writing in Filipino

References

External links
Tales of children's stories
The Pinay in Philippine children's literature
Wanted: New Tagalog Poets
Linangan sa Imahen, Retorika at Anyo
LasticMom recommends "Uuwi na ang Nanay Kong si Darna"
"Between the workshop and the ukay-ukay"
Ateneo celebrates Buwan ng Wika at Kultura 2007
Fellows to the 7th Ateneo National Writers Workshop named
 Books that help and give counsel
Likhaan awards 20 writing fellows
Palanca harvest for 2003
Wan dey isang araw
Adarna House and AILAP award 9 Barlaya Fellowships
Ilang tala hinggil sa Nationalism and Literature
Donita brings Christmas to read-along kids
8 fellows to the 6th Barlaya workshop
UP National Writers' Workshop ends on a high note
Neni Sta. Romana Cruz's favorite books
Pag-aabang sa Kundiman: Ang pagsagka ni Elias sa katagang alea iacta est ni Caesar
Books Featuring RP Literati's Newest Gems Launched
Eden estospace: Enter the world of podcasts

1981 births
Living people
20th-century Filipino poets
People from San Pablo, Laguna
Writers from Laguna (province)
Ateneo de Manila University alumni
Academic staff of Ateneo de Manila University
International Writing Program alumni
University of the Philippines Diliman alumni
21st-century Filipino poets
Filipino male poets
20th-century male writers
21st-century male writers

Edgar Calabia Samar


Hasištejn () is a ruined medieval castle in Bohemia, the Czech Republic. It is situated near Kadaň, Klášterec nad Ohří and Chomutov.

The castle, first mentioned in Maiestas Carolina, was probably founded by Friedrich of Schönburg to guard the way from Prague to Saxony. The castle was seized by Václav IV of Luxembourg in the early 15th century and given to Nicholas of Lobkowicz.

The most renowned inhabitant of the castle was Bohuslav Hasištejnský z Lobkovic, a poet and traveller who was born in Hassenstein and lived there permanently from 1503 to his death, in 1510. He gathered a huge library (comprising more than 650 volumes) in the castle, resulting in many scholars and humanists visiting Hasištejn Castle to borrow his books. Martin Luther and Philipp Melanchthon were among his visitors.

After Bohuslav's death in 1510, Hasištejn Castle began to fall into disrepair, which was exacerbated when it caught fire in 1560. Although the castle is now a ruin, its tower and walls remain standing to this day. The castle became state property during the communist regime, but it was returned to the Lobkowicz family after 1989.

Chomutov District
Ore Mountains
Castles in the Ústí nad Labem Region
Ruined castles in the Czech Republic

Hasištejn Castle


Yuri Lvov is a micromanufacturing specialist, a chemistry professor, and the Tolbert Pipes Eminent Endowed Chair on Micro and Nanosystems at the Institute for Micromanufacturing (Louisiana Tech University). He earned his B.S. in 1974 and his Ph.D. in 1979 in Physical Chemistry (protein crystallography) from Moscow State University, Russia. He worked at the Max Planck Institute, on the Japanese ERATO Supramolecule Project, and at the USA Naval Research Laboratory before moving to Louisiana Tech in 1999. Love was named to his professorship in 2004.

Luvov's area of specialization is nanotechnology, specifically the nanoassembly of ultrathin organized films, bio/nanocomposites, nano/construction of ordered shells on tiny templates (drug nanocapsules, shells on microbes and viruses), and clay nanotubes for controlled release of bioactive agents. Lvov holds nine US and Japanese patents on nanoassembly. He helped develop the polyelectrolyte layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly - a nanotechnology method which was first described in papers in 1993. LbL nanoassembly has found industrial applications including eye lens modification, improvement of cellulose fiber for better fabric and paper, microcapsules for insulin sustained release and cancer drug nanocapsules.

His group's funding exceeded $4 million in the last five years.

References

External links

 Dr. Yuri Lvov

Louisiana Tech University faculty
Moscow State University alumni
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Russian physical chemists

Yuri Lvov


Asterix and Cleopatra is the sixth book in the Asterix album series by René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo. It was first published in serial form in Pilote magazine, issues 215–257, in 1963.

Synopsis
The book begins with an argument between greek  Cleopatra, Queen of hellenistic greek kingdom Egypt , and Julius Caesar.  As a triumphant invader, Caesar belittles the Egyptian people and suggests that Egypt, as a realm, is past its best.  Infuriated, Cleopatra makes a wager with Caesar promising to build a new palace in Alexandria within three months. Cleopatra summons Edifis, who claims to be the best architect in Egypt. She promises Edifis that if he builds the palace on time he will be covered with gold; if he fails, he will be a meal for the sacred crocodiles.

Edifis responds to this assignment by enlisting the help of the Gauls, Asterix, Obelix, Getafix, and Dogmatix. Thanks to Getafix and his magic potion, the work goes forward on schedule, despite multiple attempts by Edifis's arch rival, Artifis, to sabotage the construction after Edifis says he doesn't want his help, claiming Artifis works people too hard. Artifis tells the workers to demand less whipping, which would slow construction. However Getafix gives the workers magic potion. Artifis bribes the stone-delivery man to throw his load away, before Obelix beats him up, causing him to reveal the truth, a henchman tries to lock the Gauls inside a pyramid, but Dogmatix helps them find their way out. He subsequently tries to frame the Gauls by sending a poisoned cake to Cleopatra, but Getafix makes an antidote enabling the Gauls to eat it, then cures the taster and claims eating too much rich food was giving him a bad stomach. Edifis is kidnapped and hidden in a sarcophagus in the house of Artifis, but Obelix frees him. Artifis and his henchman are forced to work on the palace, but without magic potion.

Just before the palace is due to be completed, Caesar intervenes by sending legions to try to arrest the Gauls, after he realises the three Gauls are in Egypt when a spy disguises himself as a worker, and sees the effects of the magic potion. The Gauls fight off the Roman soldiers, but the commanding officer proceeds to shell the building with his catapults. In desperation, Asterix and Dogmatix deliver the news to Cleopatra. A furious Cleopatra then hurries to the construction site to berate Caesar. Caesar's legions are ordered to fix the damage they caused (without any magic potion to help them) and the palace is successfully completed on time. Cleopatra wins her bet and covers Edifis with gold. Edifis and Artifis reconcile and agree to build pyramids together, and Cleopatra gives Getafix some papyrus manuscripts from the Library of Alexandria as a gift. The Gauls return, but Vitalstatistix criticises Obelix trying to give an Egyptian style point to menhirs.

Adaptations
Asterix and Cleopatra has been adapted for film twice: first as an animated 1968 film entitled Asterix and Cleopatra, and then as a live-action 2002 film called Asterix & Obelix: Mission Cleopatra.

An audiobook of Asterix and Cleopatra adapted by Anthea Bell and Derek Hockridge and narrated by Willie Rushton was released on Hodder and Stoughton's Hodder Children's Audio.

Relationship to other Asterix books
Obelix's dog, Dogmatix (Idéfix in the original French), is named for the first time in this story. It is also the first story in which Dogmatix takes a significant role (rescuing the heroes from a maze inside a Pyramid).

In most Asterix books, Obelix is not permitted to drink the Magic Potion, because he fell into a cauldron of Magic Potion in his childhood, resulting in a permanent effect, and Getafix fears that giving Obelix any more potion would have an unpredictable effect on him. However, in this book Getafix makes an exception due to an extraordinary requirement (the need to force open a solid stone door inside a pyramid which apparently even Obelix's regular level of strength is incapable of doing). Obelix notices no difference, but keeps asking for more potion in subsequent volumes.

The recurring pirate characters appear in this book, though on this occasion they sink their own ship rather than endure a fight with the Gauls. The captain's son Erix (seen in the previous book Asterix and the Banquet) is mentioned as having been left as a deposit to pay for the short-lived ship. After he and his crew have been forced to take jobs as galley slaves on Cleopatra's barge, the captain expresses the unusual determination to wreak revenge on the Gauls — in other books, he simply wishes never to encounter them again.

References

External links
Asterix and Cleopatra Official English Website

Cleopatra, Asterix and
Depictions of Cleopatra in comics
Depictions of Julius Caesar in comics
Ancient Alexandria in art and culture
Comics set in deserts
Comics set in ancient Egypt
Works originally published in Pilote
Literature first published in serial form
1965 graphic novels
Works by René Goscinny
Comics by Albert Uderzo
Comics based on real people

Asterix and Cleopatra


Classical or Greco-Roman mythology usually means the mythology, and the related polytheistic rituals and practices, of Classical Antiquity.

Roman religion joined with Greek religion over time. This began in the eighth century BC when Greeks colonized Magna Graecia in southern Italy. The two traditions had joined to the point of being almost the same by the first century BC. See

Greek mythology
Roman mythology

mythology

he:המיתולוגיה הקלאסית

Classical mythology


The white-fronted woodpecker (Melanerpes cactorum) is a species of bird in the family Picidae. It is found mainly in Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests, subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, and subtropical or tropical high-altitude shrubland.

Description
The adult white-fronted woodpecker is about  in length. The sexes are similar in appearance except for a small patch of red, not always visible, on the crown in males. The crown, nape and upper parts are glossy black, apart from a thin white line running from a white nape patch down the centre of the back. A black mask surrounds the eye and extends to the mantle. The upper side of the wings is bluish-black, boldly barred with white, and the underside is browner. The upper side of the tail is black with white markings and the underside is browner. The fore-crown and cheeks are white, and the chin and throat are white, yellow or buff. The breast and belly are some shade of grey, with indistinct barring on the flanks and lower belly. The iris is reddish-brown, the beak greyish-black and the legs grey. Juveniles are similar to the adults but are generally a duller black, the underparts being more heavily barred, and both sexes having traces of red or orange on the mid-crown.

Distribution and habitat
The white-fronted woodpecker is native to central South America. Its range includes southeastern Peru, Bolivia, Uruguay, northern Argentina, Paraguay and southeastern Brazil. Its typical habitat is chaco, savannah and semi-desert with scattered trees, shrubs and cacti. It also occurs in palm groves, gallery forest and agricultural land with scattered trees. It lives at altitudes of up to . It is a non-migratory, sedentary species.

Status
This woodpecker has a very extensive range, the population seems stable and no particular threats have been recognised. It is described as a common species and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of "least concern".

References

External links

white-fronted woodpecker
Birds of the Gran Chaco
white-fronted woodpecker
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot

White-fronted woodpecker


Percy Bysshe Shelley ( ; 4 August 1792 – 8 July 1822) was a British writer who is considered one of the major English Romantic poets. A radical in his poetry as well as in his political and social views, Shelley did not achieve fame during his lifetime, but recognition of his achievements in poetry grew steadily following his death, and he became an important influence on subsequent generations of poets, including Robert Browning, Algernon Charles Swinburne, Thomas Hardy, and W. B. Yeats. American literary critic Harold Bloom describes him as "a superb craftsman, a lyric poet without rival, and surely one of the most advanced sceptical intellects ever to write a poem."

Shelley's reputation fluctuated during the 20th century, but in recent decades he has achieved increasing critical acclaim for the sweeping momentum of his poetic imagery, his mastery of genres and verse forms, and the complex interplay of sceptical, idealist, and materialist ideas in his work. Among his best-known works are "Ozymandias" (1818), "Ode to the West Wind" (1819), "To a Skylark" (1820), "Adonais" (1821), the philosophical essay "The Necessity of Atheism"  (1811), which his friend T. J. Hogg may have co-authored, and the political ballad "The Mask of Anarchy" (1819). His other major works include the verse drama The Cenci (1819) and long poems such as Alastor, or The Spirit of Solitude (1815), Julian and Maddalo (1819), Adonais (1821), Prometheus Unbound (1820)—widely considered his masterpiece—Hellas (1822), and his final, unfinished work, The Triumph of Life (1822).

Shelley also wrote prose fiction and a quantity of essays on political, social, and philosophical issues. Much of this poetry and prose was not published in his lifetime, or only published in expurgated form, due to the risk of prosecution for political and religious libel. From the 1820s, his poems and political and ethical writings became popular in Owenist, Chartist, and radical political circles, and later drew admirers as diverse as Karl Marx, Mahatma Gandhi, and George Bernard Shaw.

Shelley's life was marked by family crises, ill health, and a backlash against his atheism, political views, and defiance of social conventions. He went into permanent self-exile in Italy in 1818 and over the next four years produced what Zachary Leader and Michael O'Neill call "some of the finest poetry of the Romantic period". His second wife, Mary Shelley, was the author of Frankenstein. He died in a boating accident in 1822 at the age of 29.

Life

Early life and education
Shelley was born on 4 August 1792 at Field Place, Warnham, West Sussex, England. He was the eldest son of Sir Timothy Shelley (1753–1844), a Whig Member of Parliament for Horsham from 1790 to 1792 and for Shoreham between 1806 and 1812, and his wife, Elizabeth Pilfold (1763–1846), the daughter of a successful butcher. He had four younger sisters and one much younger brother. Shelley's early childhood was sheltered and mostly happy. He was particularly close to his sisters and his mother, who encouraged him to hunt, fish and ride. At age six, he was sent to a day school run by the vicar of Warnham church, where he displayed an impressive memory and gift for languages.

In 1802 he entered the Syon House Academy of Brentford, Middlesex, where his cousin Thomas Medwin was a pupil. Shelley was bullied and unhappy at the school and sometimes responded with violent rage. He also began suffering from the nightmares, hallucinations and sleep walking that were to periodically affect him throughout his life. Shelley developed an interest in science which supplemented his voracious reading of tales of mystery, romance and the supernatural. During his holidays at Field Place, his sisters were often terrified at being subjected to his experiments with gunpowder, acids and electricity. Back at school he blew up a paling fence with gunpowder.

In 1804, Shelley entered Eton College, a period which he later recalled with loathing. He was subjected to particularly severe mob bullying which the perpetrators called "Shelley-baits". A number of biographers and contemporaries have attributed the bullying to Shelley's aloofness, nonconformity and refusal to take part in fagging. His peculiarities and violent rages earned him the nickname "Mad Shelley". His interest in the occult and science continued, and contemporaries describe him giving an electric shock to a master, blowing up a tree stump with gunpowder and attempting to raise spirits with occult rituals. In his senior years, Shelley came under the influence of a part-time teacher, Dr James Lind, who encouraged his interest in the occult and introduced him to liberal and radical authors. Shelley also developed an interest in Plato and idealist philosophy which he pursued in later years through self-study. According to Richard Holmes, Shelley, by his leaving year, had gained a reputation as a classical scholar and a tolerated eccentric.

In his last term at Eton, his first novel Zastrozzi appeared and he had established a following among his fellow pupils. Prior to enrolling for University College, Oxford, in October 1810, Shelley completed  Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire (written with his sister Elizabeth), the verse melodrama The Wandering Jew and the gothic novel St. Irvine; or, The Rosicrucian: A Romance (published 1811).

At Oxford Shelley attended few lectures, instead spending long hours reading and conducting scientific experiments in the laboratory he set up in his room. He met a fellow student, Thomas Jefferson Hogg, who became his closest friend. Shelley became increasingly politicised under Hogg's influence, developing strong radical and anti-Christian views. Such views were dangerous in the reactionary political climate prevailing during Britain's war with Napoleonic France, and Shelley's father warned him against Hogg's influence.

In the winter of 1810–1811, Shelley published a series of anonymous political poems and tracts: Posthumous Fragments of Margaret Nicholson, The Necessity of Atheism (written in collaboration with Hogg) and A Poetical Essay on the Existing State of Things. Shelley mailed The Necessity of Atheism to all the bishops and heads of colleges at Oxford, and he was called to appear before the college's fellows, including the Dean, George Rowley. His refusal to answer questions put by college authorities regarding whether or not he authored the pamphlet resulted in his expulsion from Oxford on 25March 1811, along with Hogg. Hearing of his son's expulsion, Shelley's father threatened to cut all contact with Shelley unless he agreed to return home and study under tutors appointed by him. Shelley's refusal to do so led to a falling-out with his father.

Marriage to Harriet Westbrook
In late December 1810, Shelley had met Harriet Westbrook, a pupil at the same boarding school as Shelley's sisters. They corresponded frequently that winter and also after Shelley had been expelled from Oxford. Shelley expounded his radical ideas on politics, religion and marriage to Harriet, and they gradually convinced each other that she was oppressed by her father and at school. Shelley's infatuation with Harriet developed in the months following his expulsion, when he was under severe emotional strain due to the conflict with his family, his bitterness over the breakdown of his romance with his cousin Harriet Grove, and his unfounded belief that he might have a fatal illness. At the same time, Harriet Westbrook's elder sister Eliza, to whom Harriet was very close, encouraged the young girl's romance with Shelley. Shelley's correspondence with Harriet intensified in July, while he was holidaying in Wales, and in response to her urgent pleas for his protection, he returned to London in early August. Putting aside his philosophical objections to matrimony, he left with the sixteen-year-old Harriet for Edinburgh on 25 August 1811, and they were married there on the 28th.

Hearing of the elopement, Harriet's father, John Westbrook, and Shelley's father, Timothy, cut off the allowances of the bride and groom. (Shelley's father believed his son had married beneath him, as Harriet's father had earned his fortune in trade and was the owner of a tavern and coffee house.)

Surviving on borrowed money, Shelley and Harriet stayed in Edinburgh for a month, with Hogg living under the same roof. The trio left for York in October, and Shelley went on to Sussex to settle matters with his father, leaving Harriet behind with Hogg. Shelley returned from his unsuccessful excursion to find that Eliza had moved in with Harriet and Hogg. Harriet confessed that Hogg had tried to seduce her while Shelley had been away. Shelley, Harriet and Eliza soon left for Keswick in the Lake District, leaving Hogg in York.

At this time Shelley was also involved in an intense platonic relationship with Elizabeth Hitchener, a 28-year-old unmarried schoolteacher of advanced views, with whom he had been corresponding. Hitchener, whom Shelley called the "sister of my soul" and "my second self", became his confidante and intellectual companion as he developed his views on politics, religion, ethics and personal relationships. Shelley proposed that she join him, Harriet and Eliza in a communal household where all property would be shared.

The Shelleys and Eliza spent December and January in Keswick where Shelley visited Robert Southey whose poetry he admired. Southey was taken with Shelley, even though there was a wide gulf between them politically, and predicted great things for him as a poet. Southey also informed Shelley that William Godwin, author of Political Justice, which had greatly influenced him in his youth, and which Shelley also admired, was still alive. Shelley wrote to Godwin, offering himself as his devoted disciple. Godwin, who had modified many of his earlier radical views, advised Shelley to reconcile with his father, become a scholar before he published anything else, and give up his avowed plans for political agitation in Ireland.

Meanwhile, Shelley had met his father's patron, Charles Howard, 11th Duke of Norfolk, who helped secure the reinstatement of Shelley's allowance. With Harriet's allowance also restored, Shelley now had the funds for his Irish venture. Their departure for Ireland was precipitated by increasing hostility towards the Shelley household from their landlord and neighbours who were alarmed by Shelley's scientific experiments, pistol shooting and radical political views. As tension mounted, Shelley claimed he had been attacked in his home by ruffians, an event which might have been real or a delusional episode triggered by stress. This was the first of a series of episodes in subsequent years where Shelley claimed to have been attacked by strangers during periods of personal crisis.

Early in 1812, Shelley wrote, published and personally distributed in Dublin three political tracts: An Address, to the Irish People; Proposals for an Association of Philanthropists; and Declaration of Rights. He also delivered a speech at a meeting of O'Connell's Catholic Committee in which he called for Catholic emancipation, repeal of the Acts of Union and an end to the oppression of the Irish poor. Reports of Shelley's subversive activities were sent to the Home Secretary.

Returning from Ireland, the Shelley household travelled to Wales, then Devon, where they again came under government surveillance for distributing subversive literature. Elizabeth Hitchener joined the household in Devon, but several months later had a falling out with the Shelleys and left.

The Shelley household had settled in Tremadog, Wales, in September 1812, where Shelley worked on Queen Mab, a utopian allegory with extensive notes preaching atheism, free love, republicanism and vegetarianism. The poem was published the following year in a private edition of 250 copies, although few were initially distributed because of the risk of prosecution for seditious and religious libel.

In February 1813, Shelley claimed he was attacked in his home at night. The incident might have been real, a hallucination brought on by stress, or a hoax staged by Shelley in order to escape government surveillance, creditors and his entanglements in local politics. The Shelleys and Eliza fled to Ireland, then London.

Back in England, Shelley's debts mounted as he tried unsuccessfully to reach a financial settlement with his father. On 23 June Harriet gave birth to a girl, Eliza Ianthe Shelley (known as Ianthe), and in the following months the relationship between Shelley and his wife deteriorated. Shelley resented the influence Harriet's sister had over her, while Harriet was alienated by Shelley's close friendship with an attractive widow, Mrs. Harriet de Boinville, and her daughter Cornelia Turner. Mrs. Boinville had married a French revolutionary émigré and hosted a salon where Shelley was able to discuss politics, philosophy and vegetarianism. Mrs. Boinville became a confidante of Shelley during his marital crisis and he probably fell in love with her daughter.

Following Ianthe's birth, the Shelleys moved frequently across London, Wales, the Lake District, Scotland and Berkshire to escape creditors and search for a home. In March 1814, Shelley remarried Harriet in London to settle any doubts about the legality of their Edinburgh wedding and secure the rights of their child. Nevertheless, the Shelleys lived apart for most of the following months, and Shelley reflected bitterly on: "my rash & heartless union with Harriet".

Elopement with Mary Godwin
In May 1814, Shelley began visiting his mentor Godwin almost daily, and soon fell in love with Mary, the sixteen-year-old daughter of Godwin and the late feminist author Mary Wollstonecraft. Shelley and Mary declared their love for each other during a visit to her mother's grave in the churchyard of St Pancras Old Church on 26 June. When Shelley told Godwin that he intended to leave Harriet and live with Mary, his mentor banished him from the house and forbade Mary from seeing him. Shelley and Mary eloped to Europe on 28 July, taking Mary's step-sister Claire Clairmont with them. Before leaving, Shelley had secured a loan of £3,000 but had left most of the funds at the disposal of Godwin and Harriet, who was now pregnant. The financial arrangement with Godwin led to rumours that he had sold his daughters to Shelley.

Shelley, Mary and Claire made their way across war-ravaged France where Shelley wrote to Harriet, asking her to meet them in Switzerland with the money he had left for her. Hearing nothing from Harriet in Switzerland, and unable to secure sufficient funds or suitable accommodation, the three travelled to Germany and Holland before returning to England on 13 September.

Shelley spent the next few months trying to raise loans and avoid bailiffs. Mary was pregnant, lonely, depressed and ill. Her mood was not improved when she heard that, on 30 November, Harriet had given birth to Charles Bysshe Shelley, heir to the Shelley fortune and baronetcy. This was followed, in early January 1815, by news that Shelley's grandfather, Sir Bysshe, had died leaving an estate worth £220,000. The settlement of the estate, and a financial settlement between Shelley and his father (now Sir Timothy), however, was not concluded until April the following year.

In February 1815, Mary gave premature birth to a baby girl who died ten days later, deepening her depression. In the following weeks, Mary became close to Hogg who temporarily moved into the household. Shelley was almost certainly having a sexual relationship with Claire at this time, and it is possible that Mary, with Shelley's encouragement, was also having a sexual relationship with Hogg. In May Claire left the household, at Mary's insistence, to reside in Lynmouth.

In August Shelley and Mary moved to Bishopsgate where Shelley worked on Alastor, a long poem in blank verse based on the myth of Narcissus and Echo. Alastor was published in an edition of 250 in early 1816 to poor sales and largely unfavourable reviews from the conservative press.

On 24 January 1816, Mary gave birth to William Shelley. Shelley was delighted to have another son, but was suffering from the strain of prolonged financial negotiations with his father, Harriet and William Godwin. Shelley showed signs of delusional behaviour and was contemplating an escape to the continent.

Byron
Claire initiated a sexual relationship with Lord Byron in April 1816, just before his self-exile on the continent, and then arranged for Byron to meet Shelley, Mary, and her in Geneva. Shelley admired Byron's poetry and had sent him Queen Mab and other poems. Shelley's party arrived in Geneva in May and rented a house close to Villa Diodati, on the shores of Lake Geneva, where Byron was staying. There Shelley, Byron and the others engaged in discussions about literature, science and "various philosophical doctrines". One night, while Byron was reciting Coleridge's Christabel, Shelley suffered a severe panic attack with hallucinations. The previous night Mary had had a more productive vision or nightmare which inspired her novel Frankenstein.

Shelley and Byron then took a boating tour around Lake Geneva, which inspired Shelley to write his "Hymn to Intellectual Beauty", his first substantial poem since Alastor. A tour of Chamonix in the French Alps inspired "Mont Blanc", which has been described as an atheistic response to Coleridge's "Hymn before Sunrise in the Vale of Chamoni". During this tour, Shelley often signed guest books with a declaration that he was an atheist. These declarations were seen by other British tourists, including Southey, which hardened attitudes against Shelley back home.

Relations between Byron and Shelley's party became strained when Byron was told that Claire was pregnant with his child. Shelley, Mary, and Claire left Switzerland in late August, with arrangements for the expected baby still unclear, although Shelley made provision for Claire and the baby in his will. In January 1817 Claire gave birth to a daughter by Byron who she named Alba, but later renamed Allegra in accordance with Byron's wishes.

Marriage to Mary Godwin
Shelley and Mary returned to England in September 1816, and in early October they heard that Mary's half-sister Fanny Imlay had killed herself. Godwin believed that Fanny had been in love with Shelley, and Shelley himself suffered depression and guilt over her death, writing: "Friend had I known thy secret grief / Should we have parted so." Further tragedy followed in December when Shelley's estranged wife Harriet drowned herself in the Serpentine. Harriet, pregnant and living alone at the time, believed that she had been abandoned by her new lover. In her suicide letter she asked Shelley to take custody of their son Charles but to leave their daughter in her sister Eliza's care.

Shelley married Mary Godwin on 30 December, despite his philosophical objections to the institution. The marriage was intended to help secure Shelley's custody of his children by Harriet and to placate Godwin who had refused to see Shelley and Mary because of their previous adulterous relationship. After a prolonged legal battle, the Court of Chancery eventually awarded custody of Shelley and Harriet's children to foster parents, on the grounds that Shelley had abandoned his first wife for Mary without cause and was an atheist.

In March 1817 the Shelleys moved to the village of Marlow, Buckinghamshire, where Shelley's friend Thomas Love Peacock lived. The Shelley household included Claire and her baby Allegra, both of whose presence Mary resented. Shelley's generosity with money and increasing debts also led to financial and marital stress, as did Godwin's frequent requests for financial help.

On 2 September Mary gave birth to a daughter, Clara Everina Shelley. Soon after, Shelley left for London with Claire, which increased Mary's resentment towards her stepsister. Shelley was arrested for two days in London over money he owed, and attorneys visited Mary in Marlowe over Shelley's debts.

Shelley took part in the literary and political circle that surrounded Leigh Hunt, and during this period he met William Hazlitt and John Keats. Shelley's major work during this time was Laon and Cythna, a long narrative poem featuring incest and attacks on religion. It was hastily withdrawn after publication due to fears of prosecution for religious libel, and was re-edited and reissued as The Revolt of Islam in January 1818. Shelley also published two political tracts under a pseudonym: A Proposal for putting Reform to the Vote throughout the Kingdom (March 1817) and An Address to the People on the Death of Princess Charlotte (November 1817). In December he wrote "Ozymandias", which is considered to be one of his finest sonnets, as part of a competition with friend and fellow poet Horace Smith.

Italy

On 12 March 1818 the Shelleys and Claire left England to escape its "tyranny civil and religious". A doctor had also recommended that Shelley go to Italy for his chronic lung complaint, and Shelley had arranged to take Claire's daughter, Allegra, to her father Byron who was now in Venice.

After travelling some months through France and Italy, Shelley left Mary and baby Clara at Bagni di Lucca (in today's Tuscany) while he travelled with Claire to Venice to see Byron and make arrangements for visiting Allegra. Byron invited the Shelleys to stay at his summer residence at Este, and Shelley urged Mary to meet him there. Clara became seriously ill on the journey and died on 24 September in Venice. Following Clara's death, Mary fell into a long period of depression and emotional estrangement from Shelley.

The Shelleys moved to Naples on 1 December, where they stayed for three months. During this period Shelley was ill, depressed and almost suicidal: a state of mind reflected in his poem "Stanzas written in Dejection – December 1818, Near Naples".

While in Naples, Shelley registered the birth and baptism of a baby girl, Elena Adelaide Shelley (born 27 December), naming himself as the father and falsely naming Mary as the mother. The parentage of Elena has never been conclusively established. Biographers have variously speculated that she was adopted by Shelley to console Mary for the loss of Clara, that she was Shelley's child by Claire, that she was his child by his servant Elise Foggi, or that she was the child of a "mysterious lady" who had followed Shelley to the continent. Shelley registered the birth and baptism on 27 February 1819, and the household left Naples for Rome the following day, leaving Elena with carers. Elena was to die in a poor suburb of Naples on 9 June 1820.

In Rome, Shelley was in poor health, probably having developed nephritis and tuberculosis which later was in remission. Nevertheless, he made significant progress on three major works: Julian and Maddalo, Prometheus Unbound and The Cenci. Julian and Maddalo is an autobiographical poem which explores the relationship between Shelley and Byron and analyses Shelley's personal crises of 1818 and 1819. The poem was completed in the summer of 1819, but was not published in Shelley's lifetime. Prometheus Unbound is a long dramatic poem inspired by Aeschylus's retelling of the Prometheus myth. It was completed in late 1819 and published in 1820. The Cenci is a verse drama of rape, murder and incest based on the story of the Renaissance Count Cenci of Rome and his daughter Beatrice. Shelley completed the play in September and the first edition was published that year. It was to become one of his most popular works and the only one to have two authorised editions in his lifetime.

Shelley's three-year-old son William died in June, probably of malaria. The new tragedy caused a further decline in Shelley's health and deepened Mary's depression. On 4 August she wrote: "We have now lived five years together; and if all the events of the five years were blotted out, I might be happy".The Shelleys were now living in Livorno where, in September, Shelley heard of the Peterloo Massacre of peaceful protesters in Manchester. Within two weeks he had completed one of his most famous political poems, The Mask of Anarchy, and despatched it to Leigh Hunt for publication. Hunt, however, decided not to publish it for fear of prosecution for seditious libel. The poem was only officially published in 1832.

The Shelleys moved to Florence in October, where Shelley read a scathing review of the Revolt of Islam (and its earlier version Laon and Cythna) in the conservative Quarterly Review. Shelley was angered by the personal attack on him in the article which he erroneously believed had been written by Southey. His bitterness over the review lasted for the rest of his life.

On 12 November, Mary gave birth to a boy, Percy Florence Shelley. Around the time of Percy's birth, the Shelleys met Sophia Stacey, who was a ward of one of Shelley's uncles and was staying at the same pension as the Shelleys. Sophia, a talented harpist and singer, formed a friendship with Shelley while Mary was preoccupied with her newborn son. Shelley wrote at least five love poems and fragments for Sophia including "Song written for an Indian Air".

The Shelleys moved to Pisa in January 1820, ostensibly to consult a doctor who had been recommended to them. There they became friends with the Irish republican Margaret Mason (Lady Margaret Mountcashell) and her common-law husband George William Tighe. Mrs Mason became the inspiration for Shelley's poem "The Sensitive Plant", and Shelley's discussions with Mason and Tighe influenced his political thought and his critical interest in the population theories of Thomas Malthus.

In March, Shelley wrote to friends that Mary was depressed, suicidal and hostile towards him. Shelley was also beset by financial worries, as creditors from England pressed him for payment and he was obliged to make secret payments in connection with his "Neapolitan charge" Elena.

Meanwhile, Shelley was writing A Philosophical View of Reform, a political essay which he had begun in Rome. The unfinished essay, which remained unpublished in Shelley's lifetime, has been called "one of the most advanced and sophisticated documents of political philosophy in the nineteenth century".

Another crisis erupted in June when Shelley claimed that he had been assaulted in the Pisan post office by a man accusing him of foul crimes. Shelley's biographer James Bieri suggests that this incident was possibly a delusional episode brought on by extreme stress, as Shelley was being blackmailed by a former servant, Paolo Foggi, over baby Elena. It is likely that the blackmail was connected with a story spread by another former servant, Elise Foggi, that Shelley had fathered a child to Claire in Naples and had sent it to a foundling home. Shelley, Claire and Mary denied this story, and Elise later recanted.

In July, hearing that John Keats was seriously ill in England, Shelley wrote to the poet inviting him to stay with him at Pisa. Keats replied with hopes of seeing him, but instead, arrangements were made for Keats to travel to Rome. Following the death of Keats in 1821, Shelley wrote Adonais, which Harold Bloom considers one of the major pastoral elegies. The poem was published in Pisa in July 1821, but sold few copies.

In early July 1820, Shelley heard that baby Elena had died on 9 June. In the months following the post office incident and Elena's death, relations between Mary and Claire deteriorated and Claire spent most of the next two years living separately from the Shelleys, mainly in Florence.

That December Shelley met Teresa (Emilia) Viviani, who was the 19-year-old daughter of the Governor of Pisa and was living in a convent awaiting a suitable marriage. Shelley visited her several times over the next few months and they started a passionate correspondence which dwindled after her marriage the following September. Emilia was the inspiration for Shelley's major poem Epipsychidion.

In March 1821 Shelley completed "A Defence of Poetry", a response to Peacock's article "The Four Ages of Poetry". Shelley's essay, with its famous conclusion "Poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world", remained unpublished in his lifetime.

Shelley went alone to Ravenna in early August to see Byron, making a detour to Livorno for a rendezvous with Claire. Shelley stayed with Byron for two weeks and invited the older poet to spend the winter in Pisa. After Shelley had heard Byron recite his newly completed fifth canto of Don Juan he wrote to Mary: "I despair of rivalling Byron."

In November Byron moved into Villa Lanfranchi in Pisa, just across the river from the Shelleys. Byron became the centre of the "Pisan circle" which was to include Shelley, Thomas Medwin, Edward Williams and Edward Trelawny.

In the early months of 1822 Shelley became increasingly close to Jane Williams, who was living with her partner Edward Williams in the same building as the Shelleys. Shelley wrote a number of love poems for Jane, including "The Serpent is shut out of Paradise" and "With a Guitar, to Jane". Shelley's obvious affection for Jane was to cause increasing tension among Shelley, Edward Williams and Mary.

Claire arrived in Pisa in April at Shelley's invitation, and soon after they heard that her daughter Allegra had died of typhus in Ravenna. The Shelleys and Claire then moved to Villa Magni, near Lerici on the shores of the Gulf of La Spezia. Shelley acted as mediator between Claire and Byron over arrangements for the burial of their daughter, and the added strain led to Shelley having a series of hallucinations.

Mary almost died from a miscarriage on 16 June, her life only being saved by Shelley's effective first aid. Two days later Shelley wrote to a friend that there was no sympathy between Mary and him and if the past and future could be obliterated he would be content in his boat with Jane and her guitar. That same day he also wrote to Trelawny asking for prussic acid. The following week, Shelley woke the household with his screaming over a nightmare or hallucination in which he saw Edward and Jane Williams as walking corpses and himself strangling Mary.

During this time, Shelley was writing his final major poem, the unfinished The Triumph of Life, which Harold Bloom has called "the most despairing poem he wrote".

Death
On 1 July 1822, Shelley and Edward Williams sailed in Shelley's new boat the Don Juan to Livorno where Shelley met Leigh Hunt and Byron in order to make arrangements for a new journal, The Liberal. After the meeting, on 8 July, Shelley, Williams, and their boat boy sailed out of Livorno for Lerici. A few hours later, the Don Juan and its inexperienced crew were lost in a storm. The vessel, an open boat, had been custom-built in Genoa for Shelley. Mary Shelley declared in her "Note on Poems of 1822" (1839) that the design had a defect and that the boat was never seaworthy. The sinking, however, was probably due to the severe storm and poor seamanship of the three men on board.

Shelley's badly decomposed body washed ashore at Viareggio ten days later and was identified by Trelawny from the clothing and a copy of Keats's Lamia in a jacket pocket. On 16 August, his body was cremated on a beach near Viareggio and the ashes were buried in the Protestant Cemetery of Rome.

The day after the news of his death reached England, the Tory London newspaper The Courier printed: "Shelley, the writer of some infidel poetry, has been drowned; now he knows whether there is God or no."

Shelley's ashes were reburied in a different plot at the cemetery in 1823. His grave bears the Latin inscription Cor Cordium (Heart of Hearts), and a few lines of "Ariel's Song" from Shakespeare's The Tempest:

Shelley's remains
When Shelley's body was cremated on the beach, his presumed heart resisted burning and was retrieved by Trelawny. The heart was possibly calcified from an earlier tubercular infection, or was perhaps his liver. Trelawny gave the scorched organ to Hunt, who preserved it in spirits of wine and refused to hand it over to Mary. He finally relented and the heart was eventually buried either at St Peter's Church, Bournemouth or in Christchurch Priory. Hunt also retrieved a piece of Shelley's jawbone which, in 1913, was given to the Shelley-Keats Memorial in Rome.

Family history
Shelley's paternal grandfather was Bysshe Shelley (21 June 1731 – 6 January 1815), who, in 1806, became Sir Bysshe Shelley, First Baronet of Castle Goring. On Sir Bysshe's death in 1815, Shelley's father inherited the baronetcy, becoming Sir Timothy Shelley.

Shelley was the eldest of several legitimate children. Bieri argues that Shelley had an older illegitimate brother but, if he existed, little is known of him. His younger siblings were: John (1806–1866), Margaret (1801–1887), Hellen (1799–1885), Mary (1797–1884), Hellen (1796–1796, died in infancy) and Elizabeth (1794–1831).

Shelley had two children by his first wife Harriet: Eliza Ianthe Shelley (1813–1876) and Charles Bysshe Shelley (1814–1826). He had four children by his second wife Mary: an unnamed daughter born in 1815 who only survived ten days; William Shelley (1816–1819); Clara Everina Shelley (1817–1818); and Percy Florence Shelley (1819–1889). Shelley also declared himself to be the father of Elena Adelaide Shelley (1818–1820), who might have been an illegitimate or adopted daughter. His son Percy Florence became the third baronet of Castle Goring in 1844, following the death of Sir Timothy Shelley.

Ancestry

Political, religious and ethical views

Politics
Shelley was a political radical influenced by thinkers such as Rousseau, Paine, Godwin, Wollstonecraft, and Leigh Hunt. He advocated Catholic Emancipation, republicanism, parliamentary reform, the extension of the franchise, freedom of speech and peaceful assembly, an end to aristocratic and clerical privilege, and a more equal distribution of income and wealth. The views he expressed in his published works were often more moderate than those he advocated privately because of the risk of prosecution for seditious libel and his desire not to alienate more moderate friends and political allies. Nevertheless, his political writings and activism brought him to the attention of the Home Office and he came under government surveillance at various periods.

Shelley's most influential political work in the years immediately following his death was the poem Queen Mab, which included extensive notes on political themes. The work went through 14 official and pirated editions by 1845, and became popular in Owenist and Chartist circles. His longest political essay, A Philosophical View of Reform, was written in 1820, but not published until 1920.

Nonviolence
Shelley's advocacy of nonviolent resistance was largely based on his reflections on the French Revolution and rise of Napoleon, and his belief that violent protest would increase the prospect of a military despotism. Although Shelley sympathised with supporters of Irish independence, such as Peter Finnerty and Robert Emmet, he did not support violent rebellion. In his early pamphlet An Address, to the Irish People (1812) he wrote: "I do not wish to see things changed now, because it cannot be done without violence, and we may assure ourselves that none of us are fit for any change, however good, if we condescend to employ force in a cause we think right."

In his later essay A Philosophical View of Reform, Shelley did concede that there were political circumstances in which force might be justified: "The last resort of resistance is undoubtably [sic] insurrection. The right of insurrection is derived from the employment of armed force to counteract the will of the nation." Shelley supported the 1820 armed rebellion against absolute monarchy in Spain, and the 1821 armed Greek uprising against Ottoman rule.

Shelley's poem "The Mask of Anarchy" (written in 1819, but first published in 1832) has been called "perhaps the first modern statement of the principle of nonviolent resistance". Gandhi was familiar with the poem and it is possible that Shelley had an indirect influence on Gandhi through Henry David Thoreau's Civil Disobedience.

Religion
Shelley was an avowed atheist, who was influenced by the materialist arguments in Holbach's Le Système de la nature. His atheism was an important element of his political radicalism as he saw organised religion as inextricably linked to social oppression. The overt and implied atheism in many of his works raised a serious risk of prosecution for religious libel. His early pamphlet The Necessity of Atheism was withdrawn from sale soon after publication following a complaint from a priest. His poem Queen Mab, which includes sustained attacks on the priesthood, Christianity and religion in general, was twice prosecuted by the Society for the Suppression of Vice in 1821. A number of his other works were edited before publication to reduce the risk of prosecution.

Free love
Shelley's advocacy of free love drew heavily on the work of Mary Wollstonecraft and the early work of William Godwin. In his notes to Queen Mab, he wrote: "A system could not well have been devised more studiously hostile to human happiness than marriage." He argued that the children of unhappy marriages "are nursed in a systematic school of ill-humour, violence and falsehood". He believed that the ideal of chastity outside marriage was "a monkish and evangelical superstition" which led to the hypocrisy of prostitution and promiscuity.

Shelley believed that "sexual connection" should be free among those who loved each other and last only as long as their mutual love. Love should also be free and not subject to obedience, jealousy and fear. He denied that free love would lead to promiscuity and the disruption of stable human relationships, arguing that relationships based on love would generally be of long duration and marked by generosity and self-devotion.

When Shelley's friend T. J. Hogg made an unwanted sexual advance to Shelley's first wife Harriet, Shelley forgave him of his "horrible error" and assured him that he was not jealous. It is very likely that Shelley encouraged Hogg and Shelley's second wife Mary to have a sexual relationship.

Vegetarianism
Shelley converted to a vegetable diet in early March 1812 and sustained it, with occasional lapses, for the remainder of his life. Shelley's vegetarianism was influenced by ancient authors such as Hesiod, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Ovid and Plutarch, but more directly by John Frank Newton, author of The Return to Nature, or, A Defence of the Vegetable Regimen (1811). Shelley wrote two essays on vegetarianism: A Vindication of Natural Diet (1813) and "On the Vegetable System of Diet" (written circa 1813–1815, but first published in 1929). Michael Owen Jones argues that Shelley's advocacy of vegetarianism was strikingly modern, emphasising its health benefits, the alleviation of animal suffering, the inefficient use of agricultural land involved in animal husbandry, and the economic inequality resulting from the commercialisation of animal food production. Shelley's life and works inspired the founding of the Vegetarian Society in England (1847) and directly influenced the vegetarianism of George Bernard Shaw.

Reception and influence
Shelley's work was not widely read in his lifetime outside a small circle of friends, poets and critics. Most of his poetry, drama and fiction was published in editions of 250 copies which generally sold poorly. Only The Cenci went to an authorised second edition while Shelley was alive – in contrast, Byron's The Corsair (1814) sold out its first edition of 10,000 copies in one day.

The initial reception of Shelley's work in mainstream periodicals (with the exception of the liberal Examiner) was generally unfavourable. Reviewers often launched personal attacks on Shelley's private life and political, social and religious views, even when conceding that his poetry contained beautiful imagery and poetic expression. There was also criticism of Shelley's intelligibility and style, Hazlitt describing it as "a passionate dream, a straining after impossibilities, a record of fond conjectures, a confused embodying of vague abstraction".

Shelley's poetry soon gained a wider audience in radical and reformist circles. Queen Mab became popular with Owenists and Chartists, and Revolt of Islam influenced poets sympathetic to the workers' movement such as Thomas Hood, Thomas Cooper and William Morris.

However, Shelley's mainstream following did not develop until a generation after his death. Bieri argues that editions of Shelley's poems published in 1824 and 1839 were edited by Mary Shelley to highlight her late husband's lyrical gifts and downplay his radical ideas. Matthew Arnold famously described Shelley as a "beautiful and ineffectual angel".

Shelley was a major influence on a number of important poets in the following decades, including Robert Browning, Algernon Swinburne, Thomas Hardy and William Butler Yeats. Shelley-like characters frequently appeared in nineteenth-century literature; they include Scythrop in Thomas Love Peacock's Nightmare Abbey, Ladislaw in George Eliot's Middlemarch and Angel Clare in Hardy's Tess of the d'Urbervilles.

Twentieth-century critics such as Eliot, Leavis, Allen Tate and Auden variously criticised Shelley's poetry for deficiencies in style, "repellent" ideas, and immaturity of intellect and sensibility. However, Shelley's critical reputation began to rise in the 1960s as a new generation of critics highlighted Shelley's debt to Spenser and Milton, his mastery of genres and verse forms, and the complex interplay of sceptical, idealist, and materialist ideas in his work. American literary critic Harold Bloom describes him as "a superb craftsman, a lyric poet without rival, and surely one of the most advanced sceptical intellects ever to write a poem". According to Donald H. Reiman, "Shelley belongs to the great tradition of Western writers that includes Dante, Shakespeare and Milton".

Legacy

Shelley died leaving many of his works unfinished, unpublished or published in expurgated versions with multiple errors. There have been a number of recent projects aimed at establishing reliable editions of his manuscripts and works. Among the most notable of these are:

 Reiman, D. H. (gen ed), The Bodleian Shelley Manuscripts (23 vols.), New York (1986–2002)
 Reiman, D. H. (gen ed), The Manuscripts of the Younger Romantics: Shelley (9 vols., 1985–97)
 Reiman, D. H., and Fraistat, N. (et al.) The Complete Poetry of Percy Bysshe Shelley (3 vols.), 1999–2012, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press
 Cameron, K. N., and Reiman, D. H. (eds), Shelley and his Circle 1773–1822, Cambridge, Mass., 1961– (8 vols.)
 Everest K., Matthews, G., et al. (eds), The Poems of Shelley, 1804–1821 (4 vols.), Longman, 1989–2014
 Murray, E. B. (ed), The Prose Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley, Vol. 1, 1811–1818, Oxford University Press, 1995

Shelley's long-lost "Poetical Essay on the Existing State of Things" (1811) was rediscovered in 2006 and subsequently made available online by the Bodleian Library in Oxford.

John Lauritsen and Charles E. Robinson have argued that Shelley's contribution to Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein was extensive and that he should be considered a collaborator or co-author. Professor Charlotte Gordon and others have disputed this contention. Fiona Sampson has said: "In recent years Percy's corrections, visible in the Frankenstein notebooks held at the Bodleian Library in Oxford, have been seized on as evidence that he must have at least co-authored the novel. In fact, when I examined the notebooks myself, I realised that Percy did rather less than any line editor working in publishing today."

The Keats–Shelley Memorial Association, founded in 1903, supports the Keats–Shelley House in Rome which is a museum and library dedicated to the Romantic writers with a strong connection with Italy. The association is also responsible for maintaining the grave of Percy Bysshe Shelley in the non-Catholic Cemetery at Testaccio. The association publishes the scholarly Keats–Shelley Review. It also runs the annual Keats–Shelley and Young Romantics Writing Prizes and the Keats–Shelley Fellowship.

Selected works
Works are listed by estimated year of composition. The year of first publication is given when this is different. Source is Bieri, unless otherwise indicated.

Poetry, fiction and verse drama

 (1810) Zastrozzi
 (1810) Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire (collaboration with Elizabeth Shelley)
 (1810) Posthumous Fragments of Margaret Nicholson: Being Poems Found Amongst the Papers of That Noted Female Who Attempted the Life of the King in 1786
 (1810) St. Irvyne; or, The Rosicrucian (published 1811)
 (1810) The Wandering Jew (published 1831)
 (1812) The Devil's Walk: A Ballad
 (1813) Queen Mab: A Philosophical Poem
 (1815) Alastor, or The Spirit of Solitude (Published 1816)
 (1816) Mont Blanc
 (1816) On Death
 (1817) Hymn to Intellectual Beauty (text)
 (1817) Laon and Cythna; or, The Revolution of the Golden City: A Vision of the Nineteenth Century (published 1818)
 (1818) The Revolt of Islam, A Poem, in Twelve Cantos
 (1818) Ozymandias (text)
 (1818) Rosalind and Helen: A Modern Eclogue (published in 1819)
 (1818) Lines Written Among the Euganean Hills, October 1818
 (1819) Love's Philosophy
 (1819) The Cenci, A Tragedy, in Five Acts
 (1819) Ode to the West Wind (text)
 (1819) The Mask of Anarchy (published 1832)
 (1819) England in 1819
 (1819) Julian and Maddalo: A Conversation
 (1820) Peter Bell the Third (published in 1839)
 (1820) Prometheus Unbound, A Lyrical Drama, in Four Acts
 (1820) To a Skylark
 (1820) The Cloud
 (1820) The Sensitive Plant
 (1820)  Oedipus Tyrannus; Or, Swellfoot The Tyrant: A Tragedy in Two Acts
 (1820) The Witch of Atlas (published in 1824)
 (1821) Adonais
 (1821) Epipsychidion
 (1822) Hellas, A Lyrical Drama
 (1822) The Triumph of Life (unfinished, published in 1824)

Short prose works
 "The Assassins, A Fragment of a Romance" (1814)
 "The Coliseum, A Fragment" (1817)
 "The Elysian Fields: A Lucianic Fragment" (1818)
 "Una Favola (A Fable)" (1819, originally in Italian)

Essays

 The Necessity of Atheism (with T. J. Hogg) (1811)
 Poetical Essay on the Existing State of Things (1811)
 An Address, to the Irish People (1812)
 Declaration of Rights (1812)
 A Letter to Lord Ellenborough (1812)
 A Vindication of Natural Diet (1813)
 A Refutation of Deism (1814)
 Speculations on Metaphysics (1814)
 On the Vegetable System of Diet (1814–1815; published 1929)
 On a Future State (1815)
 On The Punishment of Death (1815)
 Speculations on Morals (1817)
 On Christianity (incomplete, 1817; published 1859)
 On Love (1818)
 On the Literature, the Arts and the Manners of the Athenians (1818)
 On The Symposium, or Preface to The Banquet Of Plato (1818)
 On Frankenstein (1818; published in 1832)
 On Life (1819)
 A Philosophical View of Reform (1819–20, first published 1920)
 A Defence of Poetry (1821, published 1840)

Chapbooks
 Wolfstein; or, The Mysterious Bandit (1822)
 Wolfstein, The Murderer; or, The Secrets of a Robber's Cave (1830)

Translations

 The Banquet (or The Symposium) of Plato (1818) (first published in unbowdlerised form 1931)
 Ion of Plato (1821)

Collaborations with Mary Shelley
 (1817) History of a Six Weeks' Tour
 (1820) Proserpine
 (1820) Midas

See also

 List of peace activists
 Godwin–Shelley family tree
 Rising UniverseA 1996 water sculpture celebrating the life of Shelley in Horsham, West Sussex, near his birthplace; largely removed in 2016
 "Percy Bysshe Shelley" by Stephen Behrendt, in Then & Now: Romantic-Era Poets in the Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910-1911, ed. G. Kim Blank (2023)

References
Notes

Bibliography

 James Bieri, Percy Bysshe Shelley: A Biography, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008, .
 Altick, Richard D., The English Common Reader. Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1998.
 Cameron, Kenneth Neill. The Young Shelley: Genesis of a Radical. First Collier Books ed. New York: Collier Books, 1962, cop. 1950.
 Edward Chaney. 'Egypt in England and America: The Cultural Memorials of Religion, Royalty and Religion', Sites of Exchange: European Crossroads and Faultlines, eds. M. Ascari and A. Corrado. Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2006, pp. 39–69.
 Holmes, Richard. Shelley: The Pursuit. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1974.
 Leighton, Angela. Shelley and the Sublime: An Interpretation of the Major Poems Cambridge University Press, 1984.
 Meaker, M. J. Sudden Endings, 12 Profiles in Depth of Famous Suicides, Garden City, New York, Doubleday, 1964 pp. 67–93: "The Deserted Wife: Harriet Westbrook Shelley".
 Maurois, André, Ariel ou la vie de Shelley, Paris, Bernard Grasset, 1923
 St Clair, William. The Godwins and the Shelleys: A Biography of a Family. London: Faber and Faber, 1990.
 St Clair, William. The Reading Nation in the Romantic Period. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
 Hay, Daisy. Young Romantics: The Shelleys, Byron, and Other Tangled Lives, Bloomsbury, 2010.
 Everest K., Matthews, G., et al. (eds), The Poems of Shelley, 1804–1821 (4 vols), Longman, 1989–2014
 Murray, E. B. (ed), The Prose Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley, Vol 1, 1811–1818, Oxford University Press, 1995
 Reiman, D. H., and Fraistat, N. (et al.) The Complete Poetry of Percy Bysshe Shelley, (3 vols) 1999–2012, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press
 Shelley, Mary, with Percy Shelley. The Original Frankenstein. Edited with an Introduction by Charles E. Robinson. NY: Random House Vintage Classics, 2008.

External links

 Percy Bysshe Shelley Resources
 Percy Bysshe Shelley: Profile and Poems at Poets.org
 Selected Poems of Shelley
 A Guide to the Percy Bysshe Shelley Manuscript Material in the Pforzheimer Collection
 A talk on Shelley's politics (MP3) by Paul Foot: part 1, *part 2
 A pedigree of the Shelley family
 Plato's Ion, the Shelley translation
 The Complete Poetical Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley

 Online exhibition of Shelley's notebooks, objects, letters and drafts alongside artefacts of Mary Wollstonecraft, Mary Shelley and William Godwin
 Percy Bysshe Shelley at the British Library
Walter Edwin Peck papers (MS 390). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
 Fragment of an Address to the Jews – General Library, University of Tokyo

1792 births
1822 deaths
19th-century atheists
19th-century British novelists
19th-century British dramatists and playwrights
19th-century British translators
19th-century English non-fiction writers
19th-century English poets
19th-century English essayists
19th-century male writers
Accidental deaths in Italy
Alumni of University College, Oxford
Anti-monarchists
British atheism activists
British male dramatists and playwrights
British male poets
British radicals
British republicans
British vegetarianism activists
Boating accident deaths
Burials in the Protestant Cemetery, Rome
British critics of Christianity
Critics of deism
English atheists
English essayists
English expatriates in Italy
English humanists
English male novelists
English religious sceptics
English translators
Epic poets
Godwin family
Heirs apparent who never acceded
Left-wing politics in the United Kingdom
Liberalism in the United Kingdom
Male essayists
Nonviolence advocates
People educated at Eton College
People from Warnham
Persecution of atheists
Romantic poets
Secular humanists
Percy Bysshe
Sonneteers
Writers from Sussex
Writers of Gothic fiction

Percy Bysshe Shelley