A double eagle is a gold coin of the United States with a denomination of $20. (Its gold content of 0.9675 troy oz (30.0926 grams) was worth $20 at the 1849 official price of $20.67/oz.) The coins are 34 mm × 2 mm and are made from a 90% gold (0.900 fine = 21.6 kt) and 10% copper alloy and have a total weight of 1.0750 troy ounces (33.4362 grams).

The eagle, half eagle, and quarter eagle were defined by name in the Act of Congress originally authorizing them. Likewise, the double eagle was created by the Coinage Act of 1849. Since the $20 gold piece had twice the value of the eagle, these coins were designated "double eagles". Before, the most valuable American coin was the $10 gold eagle, first produced in 1795, two years after the United States Mint opened.

The production of the first double eagle coincided with the 1849 California Gold Rush. In that year, the mint produced two pieces in proof. The first now resides in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. The second was presented to Treasury Secretary William M. Meredith and was later sold as part of his estate—the present location of this coin remains unknown.

In 1904, President Theodore Roosevelt sought to beautify American coinage, and proposed Augustus Saint-Gaudens as an artist capable of the task. Although the sculptor had poor experiences with the Mint and its chief engraver, Charles E. Barber, Saint-Gaudens accepted Roosevelt's call. The work was subject to considerable delays, due to Saint-Gaudens's declining health and difficulties because of the high relief of his design. Saint-Gaudens died in 1907, after designing the eagle and double eagle, but before the designs were finalized for production. The new coin became known as the Saint-Gaudens double eagle.

Regular production continued until 1933, when the official price of gold was changed to $35/oz by the Gold Reserve Act. The 1933 double eagle is among the most valuable of U.S. coins, with the sole example currently known to be in private hands–the King Farouk specimen, which was purchased by King Farouk of Egypt in 1944–selling in 2002 for $7,590,020  and resold to an unknown buyer in 2021 for $18.8 million. Twelve other specimens exist, two of which are held in the National Numismatic Collection and the United States Bullion Depository at Fort Knox.

In July 2023, over 700 gold coins dated from 1840 to 1863, including Double Eagles,  were unearthed at a corn field in Kentucky, dubbed the Great Kentucky Hoard. Finder and location remain anonymous.

Regular issue
Regular issue double eagles come in two major types and six minor varieties as follows:

Liberty Head (Coronet)  1849–1907
Liberty Head, no motto, value "TWENTY D."  1849–1866
Liberty Head, with motto, value "TWENTY D."  1866–1876
Liberty Head, with motto, value "TWENTY DOLLARS"  1877–1907
Saint-Gaudens  1907–1933
Saint-Gaudens, high relief, Roman numerals, no motto  1907
Saint-Gaudens, low relief, Arabic numerals, no motto  1907–1908
Saint-Gaudens, low relief, Arabic numerals, with motto  1908–1933

Liberty Head

Due to the less desirable artwork and therefore lower demand, Liberty Head (Coronet) $20 gold pieces are less often encountered, and the common subtype commands less than the Saint-Gaudens type. In 1866, the motto "In God We Trust" was added to the double eagle, creating a second subtype. In 1877, the coin's denomination design on the reverse was changed from "TWENTY D." to "TWENTY DOLLARS" creating a third and final subtype for the series.  An 1879 pattern coin was made for the quintuple Stella using a design combining features of the Liberty Head double eagle and Stella pattern coin and using the same alloy as the Stella (90 parts gold, three parts silver, and seven parts copper); this coin was stolen in July 2008.

Saint-Gaudens

The Saint-Gaudens double eagle is named for the designer, Augustus Saint-Gaudens, one of the premier sculptors in American history. Theodore Roosevelt imposed upon him in his last few years to redesign the nation's coinage at the beginning of the 20th century. Saint-Gaudens' work on the high-relief $20 gold piece is considered to be one of the most extraordinary pieces of art on any American coin. The mint eventually insisted on a low-relief version, as the high-relief coin took up to eleven strikes to bring up the details and did not stack correctly for banking purposes. Only 12,367 of these coins were struck in 1907.  These coins easily top the $10,000 price in circulated grades, but can reach nearly a half million dollars in the best states of preservation.

There were several changes in the early years of this design.  The first coins issued in 1907 design featured a date in Roman numerals, but this was changed later that year to the more convenient Arabic numerals.  The motto "In God We Trust" was omitted from the initial design, as Roosevelt felt that putting the name of God on money that could be used for immoral purposes was inappropriate.  By act of Congress, the motto was added in mid-1908.

The design of the Saint-Gaudens coin was slightly changed once more when New Mexico and Arizona became states in 1912, and the number of stars along the rim was accordingly increased from 46 to 48.

Double eagles were routinely minted through 1933, although few of the very last years' coinages were released before the gold recall legislation of that year.  Accordingly, these issues (when the U.S. Treasury permits individuals to own them) bring very high prices.

The Saint-Gaudens obverse design was reused in the American eagle gold bullion coins that were instituted in 1986.  The early 1907 double eagles and the 1986-1991 gold American eagles are the only instances of Roman numerals denoting the date on American coinage. The 2009 ultra-high relief American Eagle also used Roman numerals.

On January 22, 2009, the U.S. Mint released ultra-high relief double eagles using the deep design that Saint-Gaudens envisioned, so that the U.S. Mint could, as its web site states "fulfill Augustus Saint-Gaudens' vision of an ultra high relief coin that could not be realized in 1907 with his legendary Double Eagle liberty design." Despite that claim, however, the mint actually reaffirmed just what doomed the first attempts in 1907. The coin's highly abradable 0.9999 fine gold composition and the multiple strikes required to bring up the design are not practical for business strikes. Because of their higher gold content, and greater striking pressure, the coins are 27 mm wide and 4 mm deep (the same diameter as a gold eagle), rather than the 34 mm × 2 mm that had been established for U.S. $20 gold coins.  The initial selling price was $1239.  With the rising price of gold by June it had climbed to $1339, and by December to $1489.  There was no limit on the coinage of these one time uncirculated issues, which bear the date "MMIX".  In September, the one coin per person ordering restriction was removed. The final mintage was 115,178. These coins were minted at the West Point Mint, but none of them bear the "W" mint mark, making them particularly unusual.

1933 double eagle

In 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt stopped the coinage of gold and made it illegal to own the metal (although coin collectors could retain their pieces).  With one exception, no 1933 double eagles were ever legally released, although some were stolen from the government, and over the years several were recovered.

In the summer of 2002, a 1933 double eagle was auctioned off for US$7,590,020 which shattered the old record of $4,140,000 paid at a public auction for an 1804 silver dollar. This piece is unique as the only 1933 double eagle the U.S. government has deemed legal for its citizens to own (having been negotiated as such through terms of a U.S. treaty with a foreign government).  Even illegal instances of the 1933 double eagle could be worth hundreds of thousands of dollars, but it would be illegal for a U.S. coin dealer to broker a deal with one of these coins. There is no other date of Saint-Gaudens double eagle that is worth a significant fraction of this extraordinary coin. A complete uncirculated set of all other Saint-Gaudens double eagles could be put together for just over three million dollars (less than half the price paid for the 1933), including the extremely rare, ultra-high relief, proof pattern. Without the rare pattern, the set would be less than $750,000.

In August 2005, the United States Mint recovered ten 1933 double eagle coins from a private collector who had contacted the United States Mint to ascertain their authenticity. Joan S. Langbord claimed that she inherited the coins from her father, a suspect in their original theft in 1933, and had found them in a safe deposit box in 2003.  The Mint announced that it would consider saving the coins for display.  Meanwhile, Langbord filed a federal suit to recover the coins after her hopes of receiving monetary compensation from the federal government were not realized.  In September 2009, a federal judge ruled that the government had until the end of the month to return the confiscated coins to the Langbord family, or to prove that they had indeed been stolen. On July 20, 2011, a civil-court jury awarded ownership of the ten coins to the U.S. government on grounds that the coins were stolen from the mint.  However, on April 17, 2015, the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit in Philadelphia overturned the jury's decision and ruled that the ten 1933 double eagles did indeed belong to Joan S. Langbord and that they must be returned to her family by the U.S. Mint. The appeals court returned the coins to the Langbords because U.S. officials had not responded within a 90-day limit to the family's seized-property claim. On August 1, 2016, the full appeals court reversed its earlier ruling and allowed the government to keep the coins.

Quintuple Stella

In response to international monetary conferences held in Europe, the United States Mint struck patterns of various gold coins for use as an international currency in the late 1870s and early 1880s.  The double eagle was one such coin, struck with a modified Liberty Head design featuring "★30★G★1.5★S★3.5★C★35★G★R★A★M★S★" on the obverse in 1879, similar to the Stella pattern.  Five of the resulting "Quintuple Stella" coins are known to exist in gold, plus about a dozen in copper, some of which have been plated in gold.  The period in the "3.5" was omitted in error on the first copper coin struck.

See also

Eagle (United States coin)
20 yen coin
Double sovereign
Gold coin
Commemorative coin
Gold as an investment
1933 double eagle

Notes

References

External links

All US Gold Double Eagles by year and type histories, photos, and more
Pictures of Gold Double Eagles
Modern double eagles

1849 introductions
Coins of the United States
United States gold coins
Sculptures by Augustus Saint-Gaudens
Goddess of Liberty on coins
Eagles on coins

Double eagle


Barnsley Court House railway station was a railway station in Barnsley, South Yorkshire, England.  It closed in 1960.

Before this station was built the Midland Railway's Barnsley station was at Cudworth on the former North Midland Railway's line between Leeds and Derby. To reach the town, in the 1860s, the Midland opened a line from Cudworth South Junction to Barnsley and a new, albeit temporary, station Regent Street railway station, in Barnsley, South Yorkshire, was opened. The new station was made necessary due to the cramped conditions at Barnsley Exchange station. The Midland opened the line for goods traffic in April 1869 and for passengers on 1 May the following year, the delay being caused by a signalling dispute with the MS&LR over the connection at Pindar Oaks. The facilities were on an elevated site which was immediately West of Barnsley Exchange.

The Midland Railway built a new passenger station on the Regent Street site and this opened for business on 23 August 1873. On 20 January 1872 the Midland completed the purchase of the Old Court House, which fronted onto Regent Street, to incorporate the building into their new construction as a ticket office and waiting room, the new station being named "Court House" as a result. The station had an overall glass roof over its two through platforms and with its magnificent frontage was considered to be the most 'glamorous' station in the area. There was also a short 'bay' platform (No.3) at the Penistone end of the station. It was known to generations of 'Barnsleyites' as "Top Station".

The Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway, which had acquired the South Yorkshire Railway, built a junction to the Midland line from Cudworth at Pindar Oaks, just to the east of the town, which gave it access to that company's new station and on 1 June 1870 it moved its Doncaster to Barnsley passenger service to this station. The MS&LR, which also entered Barnsley from the Penistone direction, constructed a junction, known as Court House Junction, from that line to the new station and this enabled them to run a through service from Penistone to Doncaster. This meant that the company was the only one of the railways serving the town to operate a through service, other services operated by the Midland to Court House and the Lancashire & Yorkshire to Exchange, stopping trains from Sheffield Midland, a shuttle service from Cudworth and the service from Wakefield, terminating in the town.

The MS&LR also constructed goods facilities on the site, to the west of the passenger station, but its engine shed remained adjacent and to the east of Exchange station with access over Jumble Lane crossing. The short section of line from Court House Junction to Exchange Junction was closed to passengers on 1 June 1870 when the MS&LR changed stations and reopened, following the closure of Court House station, on 19 April 1960.

The station was controlled by two signal boxes, Court House, a small box which sat on the south end of platform 2, with 16 levers, and Barnsley Goods Yard, with a 25 lever frame (2 spare), which also controlled the bay platform (No.3), cattle dock and the goods yard.

The approach to the station from the east (Pindar Oaks Junction) was almost all contained on a low viaduct and the remains of the bridge that carried the Court House line over Eldon Street could be seen to the north-west of the present station until the new bus interchange project was begun (February 2006).

Services into the station were gradually reduced in the 1950s (although the G.C service from Wakefield via Nostell ended in September 1930), with the Cudworth service ending on 9 June 1958 and the Doncaster to Penistone service just over a year later in June 1959.  That left only the stopping trains from Sheffield Midland, which were re-routed to Barnsley Exchange from 19 April 1960 using a new curve at Quarry Junction from the Midland route onto the old SYR line from Sheffield Victoria.  The station officially closed to passenger traffic the same day, although the last train had left four days previously.

In the early 1970s the station was demolished and the Regent Street site used as a temporary home for Barnsley's famous Open-Air markets (Remember the motto:"Barnsley for Bargains") until a new market complex was completed. The Regent Street site is now a car park. The Old Court House still stands, in use as a pub/restaurant.

References

Sources
 Barnsley Courthouse Station by J.H.Turner. "Forward", the journal of the Great Central Railway Society.

Disused railway stations in Barnsley
Former Midland Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1870
Railway stations in Great Britain closed in 1960

Barnsley Court House railway station


Prince Souvanna Phouma (; 7 October 1901 – 10 January 1984) was the leader of the neutralist faction and Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Laos several times (1951–1954, 1956–1958, 1960, and 1962–1975).

Early life
Souvanna Phouma was the son of Bounkhong, the last vice-king of Luang Prabang and a nephew of King Sisavang Vong of Laos, given a French education in Hanoi, Paris and Grenoble, where he obtained his degree in architecture and engineering. He returned to his homeland in 1931, married Aline Claire Allard, the daughter of a French father and a Lao mother, and entered the Public Works Service of French Indochina.

Souvanna Phouma, together with his brother, Prince Phetsarath Rattanavongsa (1891–1959) and his half-brother, Prince Souphanouvong (1909–1995), around the end of World War II, joined the Lao Issara (Free Laos) movement established to counter the French occupation and its provisional Vientiane government (1945–46).

When the French reoccupied Laos, Souvanna fled to exile in Bangkok, but returned to Laos in 1949 as France began conceding autonomy to Laos.

Souvanna Phouma and his wife had four children including Mangkra Souvanna Phouma and Princess Moune, who married Perry J. Stieglitz, cultural-affairs attaché of the U.S. embassy.

Prime Ministership
In 1951, Souvanna became Prime Minister of Laos under the National Progressive Party banner with a landslide victory, winning 15 of the 39 seats in the National Assembly. He was prime minister until 1954.

After elections in December 1955, Souvanna Phouma returned to the prime ministership on a platform of national reconciliation. In August 1956 Souvanna and the Communist Pathet Lao, which his half-brother Souphanouvong headed agreed on broad proposals for a 'government of national union'. Elections for 21 extra assembly seats were finally held in May 1958, with parties aligned with the Pathet Lao acquiring 13. Souphanouvong entered the government as Economic Minister. Another Pathet Lao leader, Phoumi Vongvichit, also acquired a Ministry.

In June 1958 Souvanna was again forced to resign by the rightists. The king accepted the vote as legal the next day when he signed Royal Ordinance No. 282, dismissing Souvanna Phouma's government and giving powers provisionally to the Revolutionary Committee. Royal Ordinance No. 283, approved a provisional government formed by Prince Boun Oum, who acted as front man for Phoui Sananikone. He was one of the Three Princes, whom Sisavang Vatthana appointed to form a coalition government between the rightists and Pathet Lao but it collapsed, and the Laotian Civil War began.

Souvanna Phouma was elected President of National Assembly from May 1960 to August 1960 following the 1960 elections.

Honours

Foreign Honours
 : Honorary Grand Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm (1971)
: Knight Grand Cordon (Special Class) of the Order of the White Elephant
: Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Cambodia
: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun
: Honorary Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG)
: Grand Cross 1st Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
: Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross
: Grand Collar of the Order of Sikatuna

References

Bibliography
 Stieglitz, Perry. In a Little Kingdom. 1990 M.E. Sharpe, Inc.

1901 births
1984 deaths
Laotian royalty
People of the Laotian Civil War
Presidents of the National Assembly of Laos
Prime Ministers of Laos
National Progressive Party (Laos) politicians
People from Luang Prabang
University of Paris alumni
Grenoble Alpes University alumni
Grand Crosses 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany

Souvanna Phouma


Bernard Lortie (born c. 1951) of Montreal, Quebec, Canada was a member of the Chenier Cell of the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) who were responsible for a decade of bombings and armed robberies in the province of Quebec.

During what became known as the October Crisis, on October 5, 1970, members of the FLQ's Liberation Cell kidnapped the British Trade Commissioner James Cross from his Montreal home as part of a violent attempt to overthrow the elected government and to establish a socialist Quebec state independent of Canada. On October 10, Bernard Lortie, along with Chenier Cell leader Paul Rose and his brother, Jacques Rose, and Francis Simard, kidnapped and then murdered Quebec Vice Premier and Cabinet Minister, Pierre Laporte. Believing many others would follow in an uprising, their goal was to create an independent state based on the ideals of Fidel Castro's Cuba.

On November 6, 1970, Bernard Lortie was arrested when the police raided the hiding place of the FLQ's Chenier cell. Although the other three members escaped the raid, they were later captured in St-Luc, Quebec in late December. All four members were charged with the kidnapping and murder of Pierre Laporte. For his part in the kidnapping and murder, Bernard Lortie was sentenced to 20 years in jail. He was granted parole by the Canadian Parole Board after seven years.

References
Chronology of the October Crisis, 1970, and its Aftermath

People from Montreal
Canadian assassins
Canadian people convicted of murder
Front de libération du Québec members
People convicted of murder by Canada
October Crisis
Canadian people convicted of kidnapping
Year of birth uncertain
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Bernard Lortie


Bamba may refer to:

 Amadou Bamba, Muslim religious leader and founder of Mouridism
 Souleymane Bamba, French-Ivorian footballer representing Hibernian F.C. and the Côte d'Ivoire national football team
 Bamba snack, peanut butter snack food made in Israel
 La Bamba (song)
 Bamba, an Aruban musical instrument - see Music of Aruba
 Bamba, alternate spelling for Quechua word "Pampa", meaning plain.
 Bambera, a Spanish cante or song form associated with flamenco.

Places
 Bamba, Burundi
 Bamba, Congo, town in the Democratic Republic of Congo
 Bamba, Kenya, a small town in the Kilifi District of Kenya
 Bamba, Guinea
 Bamba, Mali, a town
 Bamba, Mopti a small town in Mali
 Bamba Crater, on the planet Mars, named after Bamba, Congo

Bamba


A. H. Wheeler & Co. Pvt. Ltd., commonly known as A. H. Wheeler or simply Wheeler, is an Indian-owned company that owns a bookstore chain. Co-founded by Émile Moreau, a French businessman, T. K. Banerjee, an Indian businessman, and others, in Prayagraj in 1877, it mainly operates from railway stations.

A. H. Wheeler borrowed its name from the then-successful London bookstore and its owner, "Arthur Henry Wheelers", who was also a friend of Emile Moreau and helped him financially.

History

After its foundation in 1877, the company grew to have stores at railway stations all over India, especially in the north. The first store was opened at Prayagraj railway station in 1877. In 1888 the company began publishing a series of booklets known as the Indian Railway Library.

The Banerjees took over the company in 1950 and it was registered with the Registrar of Companies on 31 October 1953. In 2004 it had bookstores at 258 railway stations all over India. It contributed to about 80% of the revenue earned by the Indian Railways from book sales. Up to 2004, it had a monopoly on selling books at railway stations. it is headquartered in Prayagraj and the distribution network is also managed from there.

A 2004 Indian Railways circular stated: "At present M/s. A.H. Wheeler & Co. is enjoying sole selling rights for running bookstalls at platforms on which this company had been running the same till 01.01.1976.  It has now been decided that M/s. A.H. Wheeler & Co. shall not have any sole selling rights henceforth and their rights are brought at par with others.  The number of bookstalls held by M/s. A.H. Wheeler & Co. and M/s. Higginbothams Ltd. are at present frozen.  Since, the sole selling rights of M/s.A.H. Wheeler & Co. have been withdrawn and their rights have been brought at par with others, the freezing on the holding of stalls by M/s. A.H. Wheeler & Co. and M/s. Higginbothams Ltd. is also removed.  In view of the need for decongesting the platform, any fresh allotment of any new bookstall to any category at the stations where railways had frozen the holding of M/s. A.H. Wheeler & Co. and M/s. Higginbothams Ltd. should have to be amply justified before any such decision is taken. The allotment at such stations should be done only with the personal approval of General Manager, irrespective of the type of station."

According to The Financial Express this loss of monopoly was a result of a "New Book policy" being implemented by the Indian Railways. It also carries Wheeler's claims that it was the first Indian company to be granted "total rights of any business" by the British, which it gained in 1937.

The following restrictions have been introduced by the Indian Railways on the nature of books sold on its platforms: "Sale of all types of obscene, scurrilous, smutty, pornographic, offensive or objectionable publications including pirated books is prohibited at all bookstalls.  Zonal railways should exercise strict supervision and in case any licensee is found indulging in sale of such literature
serious view should be taken including termination of licence."

Notable publications

Plain Tales from the Hills written by Rudyard Kipling were issued as the "Indian Railway Library Series" by Wheeler. These were the first publications of Kipling's collection of stories. These books were sold on railway stations. They cost One rupee, then fifteenth part of a pound. Richard Jaffa considers them "amongst the early paperbacks".

References

A city isn't a city without a bookstore: An ode to A.H. Wheelers. Data Driven Investor.

Publishing companies of India
Retail companies established in 1877
Bookstores of India
Book publishing companies of India
Transport culture of India
Railway culture
1877 establishments in India
Companies based in Prayagraj
Companies established in 1877
Indian companies established in 1876
Indian companies established in 1953

A. H. Wheeler


The Southern Vermont Arts Center is a multi-disciplinary arts organization in Manchester, Vermont.  It is located on the west side of West Road, at the former Yester House country estate.  The center includes art galleries with permanent and rotating exhibits, the area's largest sculpture park, a performance space, and educational facilities.  Its grounds are open to the public for recreational pursuits, with trails for hiking and cross-country skiing.  The center's campus is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Programs

Campus history
The center's campus, first used as a farm and woodlot by members of the Orvis family, was established as a summer country estate by William and Gertrude Divine Ritter, then of Columbus, Ohio, in 1916.  The Ritters hired the New York City architectural firm Murphy and Dana to design the main buildings of the estate, include the large 28-room Colonial Revival main house, now known as the Yester House Gallery.  The Ritters apparently separated during the development of the estate's plans, and were soon divorced. Gertrude Divine Ritter retained ownership of the estate, soon afterward remarrying, to Hugh Webster.  Mrs. Webster used the estate for entertainment, and to display collected artworks, including more than 6,000 pieces of hand-blown glass.  Although she wanted the house to become a museum for her collections, they were auctioned off after her death in 1947, and the property was put up for sale.  Southern Vermont Artists, Inc. purchased it in 1950, and began development of the arts center with summer exhibits.

The campus has since then grown to include a modern gallery, open-air performance pavilion, and an education center.

See also

National Register of Historic Places listings in Bennington County, Vermont

References

External links
Southern Vermont Arts Center web site

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Vermont
Colonial Revival architecture in Vermont
Houses completed in 1917
Buildings and structures in Manchester, Vermont
National Register of Historic Places in Bennington County, Vermont
Arts centers in Vermont
Museums in Bennington County, Vermont

Southern Vermont Arts Center


Niccolò dell'Arca (c. 1435-1440 – 2 March 1494)  was an Italian Early Renaissance sculptor, who worked mostly in terracotta. He is also known under the names Niccolò da Ragusa, Niccolò da Bari and Niccolò d'Antonio d'Apulia. The surname "dell'Arca" refers to his contribution to the Arca di San Domenico.

The place and the year of his birth are not certain. He was probably born in Apulia, perhaps in Bari, and then most likely lived for some time in Dalmatia. According to C. Gnudi (see ref.) he received training there by the Dalmatian sculptor Giorgio da Sebenico.

The Burgundian elements in his sculpture are attributed by some art historians to his presumed participation in the triumphal arch of the Castel Nuovo in Naples during the 1450s (where he would have known the Catalan sculptor Guillem Sagrera and would be influenced by his style).

Others, rejecting his training in Naples, contend instead that he travelled to France in the late 1460s. According to them, his further training then allegedly took place in Siena, influenced by the works of Jacopo della Quercia and Donatello.

Career and works
He was mentioned for the first time in September 1462 in Bologna as Maestro Nicolò da Puglia, a "master of terracotta figures". This probably refers to the "Compianto sul Cristo morto", terracotta group in the sanctuary of Santa Maria della Vita in Bologna (also mentioned in a Bull of 1464 by Pope Paul II). A life-size group of six separate figures stand lamenting in a semicircle around the dead Christ in a lying posture. The dramatic pathos, the expressions of grief and torment of the figures is intensified by the realism of their dramatic facial details. However the date of this innovative  contribution to Renaissance sculpture is uncertain. Instead of c. 1460, some date it between 1485 and 1490.

In 1469 he got the commission of an ambitious new addition on the Arca di San Domenico: a spiral superstructure and several free-standing figures on top of the sarcophagus. This sarcophagus with the remains of Saint Dominic had been sculpted two centuries before by Nicola Pisano and his workshop (between 1265 and 1267). It had been completed by Arnolfo di Cambio and fra Guglielmo Agnelli. Niccolò dell'Arca added an elaborate spire with an impressive statue of "God the Father" on top of a candelabrum, held by two putti and four dolphins, all covered with festoons with fruit. On the cornice at its base is in the middle a small Pietà, flanked by two angels, while on the four corners stand the four Evangelists in oriental dress. The lower part of the superstructure is surrounded by free-standing figures: the Patron Saints of Bologna (Saint Francis of Assisi), San Petronio (began by Niccolò but finished by young Michelangelo in 1494), Saint Dominic and Saint Florian. On the back stand St Anne, St John the Baptist (sculpted by Girolamo Cortellini in 1539), San Procolo and San Vitale. Niccolò also added the Candlestick-holding Angel on the left side of the altar slab (the one on the right side is by Michelangelo).

Niccolò dell'Arca worked on this masterpiece between 1469 and 1473, leaving it unfinished. He probably continued intermittently at it until his death. Art critics see in this masterpiece a blend of influences: Burgundian, Florentine and non-Tuscan (such as details in clothing). The way these statuettes express their emotions and the patterns in their dresses and hair evoke the style of Jacopo della Quercia.

Some other important works include the terracotta bust of Saint Dominic (1474) (in the museum of the Basilica of San Domenico in Bologna), a marble statue of St. John the Baptist (in the Escorial in Madrid) and the terracotta figure of Saint Monica (c. 1478-1480) (Museum Palace in Modena).

Also notable is the terracotta high relief of Madonna di Piazza (1478) on the wall of the Palazzo Comunale in Bologna. In the marked drapery folds is seen the influence of Jacopo della Quercia and also traces of the dynamic naturalism of his contemporary Andrea del Verrocchio.

References

Italian Renaissance sculptors
15th-century births
1494 deaths
People from Apulia
15th-century Italian sculptors
Italian male sculptors
Catholic sculptors

Niccolò dell'Arca


Fire, later known as Fire Graphics, was an underground computer artscene group that released ANSI, ASCII, and high resolution artwork from 1994 to 1998.

History

Fire was founded in July 1994 by ANSI artists Donut Hole and Vendetta as a parody of iCE, one of the top art groups of the time.  From the second pack onward, the group was ostensibly led by Halaster, who gradually elevated Fire by recruiting talented artists from regional art groups, and by becoming a competent ANSI artist himself.  After releasing monthly collections of their work, Fire planned a merger with Canadian artscene group Mistigris, in March 1995. The merger was unsuccessful and Fire collapsed shortly thereafter when Halaster quit the group to join ACiD.

In August 1995, Halaster quit ACiD and re-formed Fire.  After its rebirth, Fire became a popular and critically successful group, releasing artwork and applications such as the DOS based ANSI editor, Pyrodraw.  At various points in time, Fire was home to some of the most respected ANSI artists in the scene, including Iodine, Eerie and Prisoner #1.

Through most of its history, Fire was headquartered at The Regency BBS, located in Atlanta's 404 area code.  The Regency was one of the few dial-up BBSs that transitioned to IP technology via use of the telnet protocol.  This transition was short-lived and only marginally successful, but allowed Fire to retain its headquarters after most BBSs had closed.  The Regency's geographic location contributed to the early history of the group, as most of its initial artistic roster hailed from Atlanta.

In February 1997, Halaster stepped down from his leadership position and chose hirez artist God Among Lice, coordinator of the hirez section since April 1996, and ANSI artist Eerie to assume his duties of group leader and coordinator of the ANSI section respectively.
After just one pack Eerie unexpectedly left the group and German ANSI artist Nail took over coordination of the ANSI section in April 1997, subsequently recruiting more European artists into the group's ranks.

However, with the rising popularity of the Internet and dropping interest in ANSI art Fire found itself struggling to stay true to its roots with more and more of its ANSI artists quitting the medium altogether.

God Among Lice and Nail eventually decided to end the group after pack #33 rather than keep going and being forced to release packs that they deemed unfitting for Fire, which they ultimately still considered an ANSI art based group.

fire #33 - the final combustion was eventually released several months late in September 1998.

In 2021 Blocktronics released their 34th pack as Fire #34 with contributions by several former Fire members.

Other projects
Fire had a separate ASCII sub-group called Fire ASCII, but unlike the relationship between ACiD Productions and Remorse ASCII the art was, with just a few exceptions, released in the Fire packs instead of separate ASCII packs.

Fire also maintained a separate music/tracking entity called Radiance.

Coderz
Fire had a small crew of coders, headed up by Wintermute aka  Winmutt and Maxwell.  This group was responsible for creating Pyroview, which was among the first art-scene viewers to support JPEG images.

Another of the groups ground breaking creation was a raster based graphics protocol with embedded sound support that was supported in Dialtone! (a serial communications / terminal emulation program) and the System/75 BBS software written for the DOS operating systems.  System/75 BBS was a full featured message board and file sharing center. Dialtone! was one of the first serial comm apps to integrate a war dialer with a fully fledged dial comm supporting all of the popular file transfer protocols of the day.

Releases

Fire released its members' artwork in monthly artpacks.
 Fire Pack #01 (First pack)
 Fire Pack #08 (Post-Mistigris Merger)
 Fire Pack #30
 Fire Pack #33 (Final pack)
 Fire Pack #34 (2021 pack with Blocktronics)

External links
 Dark Domain The ACiD Artpacks Archive on DVD (), contains all available Fire Packs.
 16colors Fire at the 16colors ANSI/ASCII Archive.

1994 establishments in the United States
Artscene groups

Fire (artscene group)


A computer terminal or data terminal is a device made up of a display unit and a keyboard. It is used to access a computer system in order to run programs and manage computer files. Terminals output only characters, not graphics.

They were developed from teletypewriters. At that time, computers were still very bulky and did not yet have a computer monitor or keyboard on its own.

Some technical terms are:
 terminal identity = a unique code to provide identification and authorization of a user.
 terminal interface = a text-based user interface to access computers.
 terminal emulator = a software like PuTTY that emulates a physical terminal. They are still used today to access computers that do not have a graphical user interface. Such as, for example, all supercomputers and most cloud computers.
 terminal adapter = a modem that connects a computer to a telephone line. They are not used anymore.
Computer hardware

Computer terminal


Chorizo is a pork (pig-meat) sausage which people first made in the Iberian Peninsula. It is made with large pieces of fatty pork, chili pepper and paprika. The special taste of this sausage comes from the mild Spanish paprika in it.

In the western hemisphere, the Mexican and Caribbean types are better known. These types of chorizo are made with smaller pieces of pork and different seasonings and peppers are used.

Cured smoked chorizo is edible and can be eaten without cooking. Fresh chorizo must be cooked before eating. It can be eaten by its self, or as part of meal. It can also be used in place of ground beef or pork.

Chorizo can be fresh. Also it can be dried. It can be spicy or not spicy depending on the recipe. There are many ways to eat chorizo. It can be sliced and eaten as a snack, or cooked. Dishes like stews, soups and rice dishes also use Chorizo. In Spain, chorizo is served as a small plate of food with drinks. In Latin America, chorizo is served with beans and eggs for breakfast. To make chorizo, the pork is cut into small pieces. Then it is mixed with spices and other ingredients. The mixture is then put into a casing. Casing is a thin, tube-like skin. Casing is made from the intestine of a pig. The chorizo is then left to dry for a few weeks. By doing this chorizo gets its special flavor and texture. There are many kinds of chorizo. Recipe of chorizo also different in different countries. In Spain, there are two main kinds of chorizo: chorizo de verdeo, and chorizo de cantimpalo. Chorizo de verdeo made with white wine and chorizo de cantimpalomade with red wine. In Latin America, chorizo is made with a mixture of chili peppers and other spices. It makes chorizo spicy. There are a few different ways to cook with chorizo. One popular way is to slice the chorizo and fry it in a pan until it is crispy. It can then be added to dishes like soups, stews and rice dishes. Chorizo can also be grilled, which gives it a smoky flavor. It can be sliced and added to sandwiches or served as a topping on pizza. Chorizo is a tasty and versatile food that can be enjoyed in many different ways.

References

Sausage

Chorizo


İlkel ya da Primitif şu anlamlara gelebilir:

 Anarko-ilkelcilik ya da Anarko-primitivizm uygarlığın kökeni ve gelişiminin anarşist bir eleştirisi
 İlkel kültür, ekonomik kalkınma ya da modernitenin önemli belirtilerinden yoksun kültür
 Noble savage, uncorrupted by the influences of civilization
 İlkel komünizm, Karl Marx ve Friedrich Engels'e göre avcı ve toplayıcı ilk insan toplulukları
 Primitive Church, another name for early Christianity
 Primitive Baptist, a religious movement seeking to retain or restore early Christian practices
 Primitive (phylogenetics) characteristic of an early stage of development or evolution, cf. basal

Biyoloji
İlkel memeliler, tek delikliler, Protheria

Meteoroloji
 Primitive equations, a set of nonlinear differential equations that are used to approximate atmospheric flow

Matematik
 Primitive element (field theory)
 Primitive element (finite field)
 Primitive cell (crystallography)
 Primitive notion, axiomatic systems
 Primitive polynomial (disambiguation), one of two concepts
 İlkel fonksiyon, F′ = f
 Primitive permutation group
 Primitive root of unity; see Root of unity#Definition.

Bilgisayar bilimi
 Language primitive, the simplest element provided by a programming language
 Makine dili, instructions and data directly understandable by a CPU
 Primitive data type, a datatype provided by a programming language
 Geometric primitive, the simplest kinds of figures in computer graphics
 Cryptographic primitives, low-level cryptographic algorithms frequently used to build computer security systems

Sanat
 Naif sanat, çocuksu bir basitlik taşıyan bir sanat türü
 Yeni ilkelcilik, looks to early human history, folk art and non-Western or children's art for inspiration
 İlkelcilik, an early 20th century art movement

Edebiyat
Primitive, a novel by J. F. Gonzalez
Primitive, a novel by Mark Nykanen

Müzik
 Primitive (Cyndi Lauper song), by Cyndi Lauper
 Primitive (The Groupies song), by The Groupies and covered by The Cramps
 The Primitives, a British indie rock band
 Primitive (album), by Soulfly
 Primitive (Neil Diamond album), by Neil Diamond
 Primitive Radio Gods, an American alternative rock band
 "Primitive", a song by Annie Lennox, from her album "Diva" (1992).

İlkel


The Baby Islands are a group of small islands located about  northeast of Unalga Island in the Fox Islands group of the Aleutian Islands of southwestern Alaska. The group consists of five islands ranging from 980 to 3280 feet (300 to 1000 m) long and several smaller islets. The islands are uninhabited and none of them rise more than a few metres above sea level. Large numbers of birds, notably the whiskered auklet, nest on the islands, making them a frequent stop for nature tours in the area (the group is located only  from Dutch Harbor on Unalaska Island). However, the ocean near the islands is extremely hazardous for ships because of the shallow water and numerous rocks that lie just below water's surface.

References

Fox Islands (Alaska)
Islands of Aleutians East Borough, Alaska
Uninhabited islands of Alaska
Islands of Alaska

Baby Islands


Siblings Day is a holiday recognized annually in parts of the United States and Canada on April 10, and as Brothers and Sisters Day on May 31 in Europe which honours the relationship of brothers and sisters of all ages. Unlike Mother's Day and Father's Day, it is not federally recognized in the United States, though the Siblings Day Foundation is working to change this. Since 1998, the governors of 49 states have officially issued proclamations to recognize Siblings Day in their state.

Siblings Days are celebrated also in India. The Hindu holiday of Raksha Bandhan, which is the oldest festival in this category, also celebrates the bond of brothers and sisters.

History
The US holiday was conceived by Claudia Evart in 1995 to honor the memory of her brother and sister, who died at early ages. The Siblings Day Foundation was incorporated in 1997 and achieved non-profit status in 1999. Carolyn Maloney, then the U.S. representative for , officially saluted the holiday and introduced it into the official Congressional Record of the United States Congress on April 10, 1997; and in subsequent years 2001, 2005 and 2008.

Claudia Evart, a native New Yorker and resident of NYC, founded the Siblings Day Foundation (SDF) as a tax-exempt organization. Inspired by the loss of her siblings Alan (age 36) and Lisette (age 19) at a young age, Evart created the SDF with the aim of establishing a National Siblings Day to be celebrated annually on April 10, Lisette's birthday.

Since its establishment in 1995, the Siblings Day Foundation, a nonprofit volunteer organization, has received formal recognition from three American presidents. Presidents Clinton, Bush, and Obama each signed Presidential Messages in 2000, 2008, and 2016, respectively, praising the foundation's efforts. The foundation has also garnered widespread support from 49 U.S. governors, and Congresswoman Carolyn B. Maloney has issued six congressional records in their favor since 1997.  Notable individuals such as Senator Edward Kennedy, New York Senators Schumer, Clinton, and Gillibrand, seven White House cabinet members, three NYC mayors, the Manhattan Borough President, various state and local elected officials, celebrities including Oprah Winfrey, and siblings across America have also commended the Siblings Day Foundation.

Siblings Day has expanded internationally, with fourteen countries including Australia, Brazil, Canada, Ghana, India, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Nigeria, the Philippines, Singapore, South Africa, Sweden, and the United Kingdom either continuing or adopting the celebration since 2014.

Siblings Day has gained attention through its coverage in various media outlets including CNN, Voice of America, International Business Times, and YouTube's global blog. It's also a popular topic on social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, and Tumblr.

Since its inception in 1995, Siblings Day has garnered widespread recognition. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office granted it a "Service Mark" in 2007, which was renewed in 2020, marking its ongoing relevance.

In Europe, the holiday was launched in 2014 by the European Large Families Confederation (ELFAC) to celebrate siblings' bonds and relationships on May 31st. The May 31 feast spread in different ways in the European countries where ELFAC is present. In Portugal, Dia dos Irmãos has become very popular and the President of Republic of Portugal has greeted it publicly, in 2016 and 2017.

In the United States, a non-profit organization the Siblings Day Foundation has been working towards official recognition of the day. On February 25, 2023, the foundation penned a letter to President Biden requesting a Presidential Proclamation to establish the day as a commemorative event.

The siblings' day is celebrated across European countries: Austria, Cyprus, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Portugal, Romania, Serbia and Switzerland. But adherence to the date and spirit of May 31 or April 10th, the original date established for the Siblings Day, is open to any other European or non-European country.

Celebration
In the United States, approximately 80% of people have siblings. The holiday is intended to be a celebration of the relationship of brothers and sisters.

Examples of commemoration during this observance include giving your sibling a gift (including a surprise gift), a giftcard, and taking one out for dinner. Nonmaterial examples of observances during this day includes giving hugs to your sibling(s), enjoying time with them, honoring their presence in your life, and greeting them on various social media platforms using childhood photos.

Gallery

See also
 Children's Day
 Rakhri
 Raksha Bandhan: a popular, traditionally Hindu, annual Siblings Day

References

External links
 Siblings Day Foundation
 Fox News Video on Siblings Day
 Brothers and Sisters Day

April observances
Customs involving siblings
Family member holidays
May observances
Sibling

Siblings Day


Robert John Slater (6 December 1960 – August 13, 1995) was an American mountaineer known for his first ascent of the big wall route Wyoming Sheep Ranch on El Capitan.  A tireless outdoor recreationalist, Slater built up an impressive climbing resume during his college years and later as he worked as a trader on the Chicago Board of Trade and for Goldman Sachs. He died on August 13, 1995, while descending from the summit of K2.

Rob started climbing early, summiting the Grand Teton at age 13 with mountaineering pioneer Paul Petzoldt.  He attended high school in Cheyenne, Wyoming and college at the University of Colorado at Boulder, an institution he chose for its beautiful location beneath the Flatirons and, according to fellow climber John Sherman, its beautiful female students.  Slater soon demonstrated his nerve in nearby Eldorado Canyon by dispatching the testpiece route Wide Country (11a R), still difficult today even though the availability of sticky rubber climbing shoes and micronuts has reduced the challenge.

While in college, Slater began making summer trips to Yosemite Valley, where he climbed his first big wall route Zodiac with Tom Cosgriff and climbed Aquarian Wall with Robert Kayen.  During his junior year Slater met Randy Leavitt, who taught Slater how to BASE jump.  Attempting a risky jump with Leavitt in the Black Canyon of the Gunnison, Slater was forced to make a downwind landing on the wrong side of the river, twisting his foot and scrubbing their plans to exit the canyon by climbing one of the walls.

Slater was one of the top aid climbers of his day.  In 1982, he made the first solo ascent of the Pacific Ocean Wall, at the time one of the hardest routes on El Capitan.  Slater naturally capped his ascent with a BASE jump.  In 1984 Slater put up Wyoming Sheep Ranch (A5) with John Barbella.  Caught by nightfall in the middle of a difficult and overhung pitch, Slater lowered off 40' on hooks, and Barbella had to pull him in 20' to the belay.  Wyoming Sheep Ranch held title for many years as the most difficult and dangerous aid climb on El Cap, but the inevitable widening of placements and appearance of fixed gear has subsequently reduced the grade to A4.

As a specialist in climbs with poor protection, Slater was drawn to the Fisher Towers near Moab, Utah, famous for their soft, crumbly rock.   Slater was the first and as of 1995 the only climber to summit all of the towers.

Slater may be the first person to take a leash-protected fall on a highline slackline.  In 1983 he set up a short 22' line under a freeway overpass in Pasadena with Scott Balcom and others.  The line was 80' above the ground.  Even though Slater only had 15 minutes of slacklining practice at the ground level, he was the first in the group to attempt to walk the line.

Slater excelled at all types of climbing, having ascended the 3000' ice route Slipstream in the Canadian Rockies as well as K2 without bottled oxygen.  Slater perished in a storm on the descent from K2 along with 5 other climbers, including his team member, noted English climber Alison Hargreaves.

Bibliography

"Honed: Rob Slater, Summit or Death, Either Way I Win"  By Rich Slater 2011

See also
1995 K2 disaster

External links
 The Last Ascent of Alison Hargreaves – Originally from Outside Magazine

1960 births
1995 deaths
American rock climbers
Mountaineering deaths on K2

Rob Slater


Thomas Ochse Honiball (1905–1990) was a well known South African cartoonist.

T.O. Honiball (as he was commonly referred to) was born on 7 December 1905 in Cradock, Cape Colony. Honiball attended the well known high school for boys in Stellenbosch, Paul Roos Gymnasium. He originally studied architecture at the University of Cape Town. However, he needed a less structured way to express his artistic capabilities and from 1927 to 1930 he lived in Chicago where he studied commercial art. During this period he was introduced to American cartoons.

On his return to Cape Town he worked in advertising and later as freelance caricaturist and cartoonist. In 1941 he became the political cartoonist for a major Afrikaans newspaper group, and quickly became one of the best known South African cartoon artists.

In addition to his political cartoons he also published the Oom Kaspaas series, wherein Uncle Kaspaas boasts about his colorful past to his "nephew" Nefie - always to be reminded by some unfortunate event of what had really happened. (Note that in Afrikaans "Neef" (diminutive "nefie") can mean either cousin or nephew. "Oom" literally means "uncle", but the contexts determine the significance. "Oom" is used as a form of address informally denoting (possibly affectionate) respect for any older male, whether a relative or stranger. "Neef", and more strongly "Nefie", is used in the converse sense as "(little) nephew". The usage in the Oom Kaspaas books strongly implies nephew, not cousin. On the other hand, it could very well be that Kaspaas and Nefie are not related at all. In the past "neef" was also an Afrikaans term with a wider meaning, used for all one's male peers, and "nefie" an affectionate term for men and boys younger than the speaker, much in the same way as "oom" is still used for older men today.)

He loved to portray animals as having human personalities and qualities, and he produced two series to that effect. Jakkals en Wolf covered the good and bad times of two friends, a jackal and a wolf, while Adoons-Hulle related the experiences of a baboon family from the Magaliesberg. In 1939 he produced Oom Kaspaas, Jakkals en Wolf in 1942, Faan Brand in 1946 and Adoons-Hulle in 1948.

On retiring in 1974, he held his first solo exhibition in Pretoria and continued his political caricatures and cartoons until 1978. He died on 22 February 1990 in Montagu.

Family
He married Iona Boesen in 1934 and they had four children. After Iona's death in 1971, Honiball married Essie de Villiers - Dreyer (Esther Maria Wiese) in 1973, later known as Essie Honiball.

External links
 Stellenbosch Writers

References

1905 births
1990 deaths
Afrikaner people
South African people of Dutch descent
People from Cradock, Eastern Cape
South African editorial cartoonists
South African comics artists
South African comic strip cartoonists
South African caricaturists
University of Cape Town alumni
Alumni of Paul Roos Gymnasium

T. O. Honiball


Los Alamos chess (or anti-clerical chess) is a chess variant played on a 6×6 board without bishops. This was the first chess-like game played by a computer program. This program was written at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory by Paul Stein and Mark Wells for the  computer in 1956. The reduction of the board size and the number of pieces from standard chess was due to the very limited capacity of computers at the time.

The program was very simple, containing only about 600 instructions. It was mostly a minimax tree search and could look 4 plies ahead. For scoring the board at the end of the 4-ply-lookahead, it estimates a score for material and a score for mobility, then add them up. A pseudocode for the chess program is described in Figure 11.4 of . In 1958, a revised version was written for MANIAC II, for the actual 8x8 chess, though its pseudocode was never published. There is a record of a single game by it, circa November 1958 (Tabel 11.2 of ).

Game rules

The starting position is illustrated. All rules are as in chess except:
 There is no pawn double-step move, nor is there the en passant capture;
 Pawns may not be promoted to bishops;
 There is no castling.

Los Alamos trials

The computer played three games. The first it played against itself. The second one was against a strong human player, who played without a queen. The human player won. In the third game, MANIAC I played against a laboratory assistant who had been taught the rules of chess in the preceding week specifically for the game. The computer won, marking the first time that a computer had beaten a human player in a chess-like game.

The second game

White: Martin Kruskal  Black: MANIAC I1. d3 Na4 2. b3 Nb6 3. c3 d4 4. c4 bxc4 5. dxc4 a4 6. Na3 e4 7. Kd2 Ke5 8. f3 e3+ 9. Kc2 axb3+ 10. axb3 Nf4 11. Nd3+ Nxd3 12. Kxd3 Kf4 13. Kc2 Ra5 14. Kb2 Re6 15. Rfd1 Re5 16. Nc2 Rxa1 17. Kxa1 Re6 18. Kb2 Re5 19. Ne1 Qe4 20. fxe4 fxe4 21. Kc2 d3+ 22. exd3 e2 23. Ra1 Re6 24. Ra5 exd3+ 25. Kd2 Re4 26. Rxc5 Re6 27. Nxd3+ Ke4 28. Kxe2 Kd4+ 29. Re5 Rxe5+ 30. Nxe5 Kc5 31. Kd3 Kb4 32. Kd4 Nxc4 33. bxc4 Kb3 34. c5 Kb4 35. c6=Q Kb3 36. Nd3 Ka2 37. Qc3 Kb1 38. Qb2

The third game

White: MANIAC I  Black: Beginner 1.d3 b4 2.Nf3 d4 3.b3 e4 4.Ne1 a4 5.bxa4 Nxa4 6.Kd2 Nc3 7.Nxc3 bxc3+ 8.Kd1 f4 9.a3 Rb6 10.a4 Ra6 11.a5 Kd5 12.Qa3 Qb5 13.Qa2+ Ke5 14.Rb1 Rxa5 15.Rxb5 Rxa2 16.Rb1 Ra5 17.f3 Ra4 18.fxe4 c4 19.Nf3+ Kd6 20.e5+ Kd5 21.exf6=Q Nc5 22.Qxd4+ Kc6 23.Ne5

See also
 Minichess

References

External links
 Los Alamos Chess by Hans L. Bodlaender, The Chess Variant Pages
 A short history of computer chess by Frederic Friedel
 BrainKing.com - internet server to play Los Alamos chess.

Chess variants
Computer chess
1956 in chess
Board games introduced in 1956

Los Alamos chess


A concentrate is a special form of a substance, where one of the base components is mostly removed. The most common case is the removal of the solvent from a solution: Fruit juice concentrate will have most of the water removed. The benefit of this is that the concentrate takes up less volume, and weighs less than the original solution. This can save transportation costs. When needed, the solvent can simply be added again.

Physical chemistry
Chemical compounds

Concentrate


Swedish three-foot gauge railways (Swedish: "trefotsbanor") are railways with the gauge , or 3 Swedish feet in the old Swedish measurement system. Railways with this gauge have only existed in Sweden. This was the most common narrow gauge in Sweden. As of 2016, the total network with this gauge is , all of which is electrified (excluding lines which only remain as heritage railways).

Sweden once had some fairly extensive narrow-gauge railways, but most are now closed. Some were converted to standard gauge (the latest one was KBJ, Kalmar - Berga Järnväg, between Berga and Kalmar in the 1970s) and some remain as heritage railways.

The only commercial Swedish three foot gauge railway still in use is the suburban railway Roslagsbanan ('the Roslagen Railway') in north-eastern Stockholm. The parts of this railway which is still in use will be in continual use in the foreseeable future, with new trains to be delivered in 2020 and there are even plans for a new line to connect this railway to Arlanda Airport.

A branch line of Roslagsbanan, Långängsbanan, was built in 1911 and ran for some years as an isolated  tramway in anticipation of a planned conversion of the main line to raise its capacity, but those plans came to naught and the branch was rebuilt to narrow gauge in 1934; it is closed since 1966.

The Nordmark-Klarälvens Järnväg (NKlJ) was a  network issued from different lines built from 1873. It was electrified in 1920, with 15 AEG-locomotives. A new class of 5 locomotives (ASEA) went in 1961. The network was dismantled in 1990. Only Karlstad-Skoghall was regauged to standard gauge and transferred to SJ.

The longest remaining Swedish three foot gauge railway is the  heritage line from Åseda to Virserum, Hultsfred and Västervik.  between Hultsfred and Västervik are served by daily tourist trains in the summer, including  of dual gauge track.  Tourist railbuses also run along the southernmost  (Åseda–Virserum), albeit less frequent.  The middle section (Virserum–Hultsfred, , is only used by draisines or not at all.

The Vadstena–Fågelsta narrow gauge railway was part of a larger network in Östergötland.

The gauge difference to the internationally much more used  is small, only 9 mm, and some used 900 mm vehicles have been brought to Sweden and given a slight wheel adaptation (reducing the flange by  using turning).

See also

Narrow-gauge railways in Sweden

References

Track gauges by name
Rail transport in Sweden

Swedish three foot gauge railways


Amanda Blake Waller is a fictional main character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character first appeared in Legends #1 in 1986, and was created by John Ostrander, Len Wein, and John Byrne.

Amanda Waller is a villain and sometimes ally to the superheroes of the DC Universe. She created the anti-hero group Suicide Squad.

Waller is played by Viola Davis in the live-action DC Extended Universe movie Suicide Squad. Davis will return to portray the role in the sequel.

Other websites
Amanda Waller's "official blog" (via archive.org)
DCU Guide: Amanda Waller
Comic Book Awards Almanac

DC Comics characters

Amanda Waller


Brian David Noble (born September 6, 1962) is a former American football linebacker. He was drafted in the fifth round (125th overall) of the 1985 NFL draft by the Green Bay Packers. He played college football at Arizona State.

Early life and education
Noble attended Anaheim High School where he played football and baseball, and football at Fullerton College before attending Arizona State University. At Fullerton College he played football for head coach Hal Sherbeck, who he credits for setting him straight, and helping him to understand what it would take to be successful in football and life.

Professional career
For the 1985 NFL Draft, Noble was selected in the fifth round (125th overall) by the Green Bay Packers. By Week 2, he was starting at right inside linebacker and had an outstanding first season, recording 104 tackles with three sacks. For that, he was named to the Pro Football Writers Association's NFL All-Rookie Team.

Noble shifted to right outside linebacker in 1986, but the following year he returned to the interior at left inside linebacker and had a career-high five fumble recoveries in the strike-shortened 1987. For the remainder of his career, Noble was settled in at inside linebacker and led the Packers in tackles in three out of four seasons (1986, 1987, and 1989). The only reason he missed out on the team tackles lead in 1988 was because he sat out the season's first four games due to a contract dispute, and his holdout lasted 67 days but by his third week back, he had reclaimed his starting position. The following season, in a Week 9 game at Tampa Bay, Noble recovered a fumble from Buccaneers quarterback Chris Chandler and took it into the end zone for the only touchdown of his NFL career in 27-0 Packers victory.

Noble had missed only four games due to injury leading up to the second week of the 1993 season when he tore ligaments in his right knee in a loss to Philadelphia. Diagnosed with a torn ACL, Noble was placed on injured reserve for the rest of the season and thus was denied the opportunity to play in his first playoff game as the Packers with Brett Favre and Reggie White began their rise to becoming an NFL powerhouse under head coach Mike Holmgren. In 117 career games, Noble was credited with 543 unassisted tackles.

Post-football career
After retiring from the National Football League, Noble was hired by WBAY-TV in Green Bay on to produce his own outdoor television program called Hitting the Outdoors which aired throughout the Midwest, while also becoming a member of the station's telecast team during Packers preseason games. He later owned the Green Bay Blizzard until October 2009, which played in the af2. He and his wife Cindy are the co-founders of a 501(c)(3) corporation "A Noble Cause" for kids with cancer which raises money for children and their families dealing with cancer by selling multi-colored cancer awareness bracelets. Noble and his wife have four daughters, and as of June 11, 2008, the entire family lives in Las Vegas, Nevada, where he later became an assistant football coach at Coronado High School.

References

1962 births
Living people
American football linebackers
Arizona State Sun Devils football players
Green Bay Packers players
Players of American football from Green Bay, Wisconsin
Arena Football League executives
Players of American football from Anaheim, California
Green Bay Blizzard coaches

Brian Noble (American football)


The flatback turtle or sea turtle (Natator depressus) is an Australian species of  turtle in the family Cheloniidae. The species is endemic to the sandy beaches and shallow coastal waters of the Australian continental shelf. It was previously called Chelonia depressa.

The turtle gets its common name from  the fact that its shell has a flattened or lower dome than the other turtles. It may be olive green to grey with a cream underside. It averages from 76 to 96 cm (30 to 38 inches) in carapace length and can weigh from 70 to 90 kg (154 to 198 lb).
The hatchlings, when emerging from nests, are larger than other turtle hatchlings. The flatback turtle is listed by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as Data Deficient, meaning there is insufficient scientific information to decide its conservation status at present.

The flatback turtle is the least endangered of all of the sea-going turtles. Unlike other  turtles, there is not a big human demand for the meat of the flatback. It does not swim far from shore, so it does not get caught in nets as often as other sea turtles. These reasons may be why it is not in more danger of extinction.

References

Turtles of Australia

Flatback turtle


Creosote gall midges are a species of gall-inducing flies in the Asphondylia auripila group (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae). This group consists of 15 closely related species of flies which inhabit creosote bush (Zygophyllaceae: Larrea tridentata) sensu lato. They have partitioned the plant ecologically with different gall midge species inhabiting the leaves, stems, buds, and flowers of creosote bush. Each species induces a uniquely shaped gall but the insects are otherwise morphologically very similar and very difficult to tell apart.

Their life cycle begins when the female oviposits into the part of the plant which her species prefers, she inserts her egg along with a fungal spore from a mycangia (a small pocket to store fungal spores). A gall forms and the fungal mycelium grows to line the inside of the gall, when the egg hatches the developing larva feeds upon the fungus. Adult emergence is timed with periods of plant growth associated with winter, spring, or summer rain fall. In contrast to many other groups of plant-feeding insects (which form new species through changes to new host plants) the evolution of new species in the A. auripila group seems to be a result of colonizing new parts of the same plant and/or colonization of new seasons of plant growth.

List of species
The Asphondylia genus has over 60 described species.  Within the genus the creosote gall midge species form a species group, the A. auripila group.
Species described this far (by host-plant part) include:

 Asphondylia clavata – leaf gall
 Asphondylia pilosa – leaf gall
 Asphondylia villosa – leaf gall
 Asphondylia barbata – leaf gall
 Asphondylia digitata – leaf gall
 Asphondylia discalis – leaf gall
 Asphondylia silicula – leaf gall
 Asphondylia fabalis – leaf gall
 Asphondylia bullata – stem gall
 Asphondylia resinosa – stem gall
 Asphondylia foliosa – stem gall
 Asphondylia auripila – stem gall
 Asphondylia rosetta – stem gall
 Asphondylia florea – flower gall
 Asphondylia apicata – bud gall

References
Gagne, R.J, and Waring, G. 1990. The Asphondylia (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera) of creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) in North America. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 92:649–671.

Cecidomyiidae
Insect common names

Creosote gall midge


Kjell Erfjord (born 24 July 1940) is a Norwegian former educator and politician for the Christian Democratic Party.

He was born in Hjelmeland as a son of Bernt Erfjord (1898–1981) and Karen Hagen (1905–1990). He was educated in Årdal and Stavanger before attending the Norwegian College of Teaching from 1966 to 1970. He worked as a teacher at Lundheim Folk High School from 1963 to 1970, and headmaster from 1970 to 1985 and 1995 to 1999.

He became involved in politics, and  was a member of Lund municipal council from 1971 to 2007, serving as deputy mayor from 1975 to 1979 and mayor from 1981 to 1991 and 1999 to 2007. He was a member of Rogaland county council from 1983 to 1995, serving as deputy county mayor () from 1985. He has chaired the local party chapter several times, chaired the county chapter from 1975 to 1979 and was a member of the national board during the same period. He also served as a deputy representative to the Parliament of Norway from Rogaland during the terms 1981–1985, 1985–1989 and 1989–1993. In total, he met during 205 days of parliamentary session.

Erfjord was a member of the county school board from 1979 to 1987. He was the deputy chair of Norges Kristelige Folkehøgskolelag from 1981 to 1985, and chaired Folkehøgskolerådet from 1983 to 1985. He is a Christian, and was a national board member of the Norwegian Missionary Society from 1993 to 1999, serving as deputy leader since 1996. In 2008 he tried to become board chairman of the Norwegian Missionary Society, but at the organizational meeting he lost the vote 188–369 to Kari Sørheim.

In 2007 he was awarded the HM The King's Medal of Merit in gold.

References

1940 births
Living people
People from Hjelmeland
Christian Democratic Party (Norway) politicians
Deputy members of the Storting
Mayors of places in Rogaland
Heads of schools in Norway
Norwegian Lutherans
Recipients of the King's Medal of Merit in gold

Kjell Erfjord


The Church of St Philip and St James in Norton St Philip within the English county of Somerset is a Grade II* listed building.

The parish is part of the Hardington Vale benefice within the archdeaconry of Wells.

History
The current building has elements dating back from the 13th and 14th centuries, however it is likely there was a church on the site before the Norman Conquest.

In 1345 the fair which had been granted to Hinton Priory was transferred to Norton St Philip which provided much of the income for the church.

Samuel Pepys visited the church in the 17th century and described the tomb of one of the Knights Templar which is now thought to be that of a lawyer or merchant from 1460. He also described the story of the "Fair Maids of Foscott", believed to be conjoined twins from a local village now known as Foxcote.

The north aisle was probably added in the 17th century.

A major Victorian restoration was undertaken by George Gilbert Scott in the 1840s. In 2000 further restoration work was undertaken with new wood and steel vestry, toilets and meeting facilities being installed. As a result of this work, known as "The Hub", and the services it provides to the community, the church was awarded the Village Church for Village Life Award in 2008.

Architecture
The building is made of rubble Doulting Stone which is rough in some areas with more finely dressed ashlar to the south and east sides, which was probably added during 19th century renovation. It has a slate roof above an oak barrel roof and a three-stage west tower.

The tower has a clock by Benjamin Lewis Vulliamy and Charles Frodsham dating from 1841, and six bells.

The east window has stained glass by Christopher Webb. In other windows there is much older glass.

The memorials in the church include one to a soldier slain in Norton St Philip in 1643 during the English Civil War. There were further military casualties in the village during a skirmish in the Monmouth Rebellion.

References

Church of England church buildings in Mendip District
13th-century church buildings in England
Grade II* listed churches in Somerset
Grade II* listed buildings in Mendip District

Church of St Philip and St James, Norton St Philip


Darius Grala (born July 7, 1964 in Słupsk, Poland) is an endurance sports car racing driver.  He is currently racing in North America and living in the United States.  In 2007, Grala was one of the founding instructors for Supercar Life.  In 2006, Grala was one of the founding instructors of the Ferrari Driving Experience. He continued working with Ferrari in 2007.

In 2005, while driving for the BMW Southard Motorsports team, he won the Grand-Am Daytona Prototype Sportsman of the Year Award.  Grala has been a Daytona Prototype driver since the class debuted in the 2003 Rolex 24 Hours of Daytona. In that first race he ran in the top five through most of the night until a mechanical failure in the fifteenth-hour took him out of the race while running in second place overall.

On June 22, 2003, Grala had his first podium finish in a Daytona Prototype at his home track in Watkins Glen, New York.

Prior to the introduction of the Daytona Prototype class, Grala competed in the Grand-Am GTS class. He got his first Rolex Series win in the GTS Class, also at Watkins Glen International.

Before racing in the Rolex Series, Grala competed in the Ferrari Challenge. The three-year effort netted multiple wins and pole positions, and culminated with Grala being crowned the 2002 North American Champion.

He is the owner of NASCAR Xfinity Series team Fury Race Cars. His son, Kaz Grala, races in the series.

External links

1964 births
Living people
Polish racing drivers
Sportspeople from Słupsk

Darius Grala


Tel Aviv, the Hebrew word for "Spring Mound" (where "spring" means the season), is the second largest city of Israel.

It may also refer to:
"Tel Aviv", an instrumental on Duran Duran (1981 album)
Tel Aviv District, a district of Israel
Tel Aviv Metropolitan Area, the largest metropolitan area in Israel
An alternative transcription of Tel Abib, a place mentioned in the Bible

Distinguish from
Telavi, the main city and administrative center of Georgia (Caucasus)'s eastern province of Kakheti

See also

Tel Aviv (disambiguation)


A shakerato is an Italian drink prepared using espresso and ice cubes. It is popular and easily obtainable in Italy.

Preparation
The shakerato is prepared by shaking together a shot of espresso with ice cubes in a cocktail shaker and simple syrup. Once a frothy consistency has been obtained it is strained into a glass. It is usually served in a martini glass.  Sometimes, Baileys is added to give an alcoholic twist.

References

Espresso
Coffee in Italy

Shakerato


Guillaume-René Meignan (12 April 1817 at Chauvigné, France – 20 January 1896 at Tours) was a French Catholic apologist and scriptural exegete, Archbishop of Tours and Cardinal.

Life
Having ascertained his vocation to the priesthood, on the completion of his academic studies at the Angers lycée and at Château-Gontier, he studied philosophy in the seminary of Le Mans, where he received the subdiaconate in 1839. From this institution he passed to the Collège de Tessé, which belonged to the Diocese of Le Mans, where, while teaching in one of the middle grades, he continued his own ecclesiastical studies.

The Abbé Bercy, an Orientalist of some distinction, whose notice he attracted at Le Mans and later at Tessé, advised him to make scriptural exegesis his special study. Jean-Baptiste Bouvier ordained him priest (14 June 1840) and sent him to Paris for a further course in philosophy under Victor Cousin. Meignan made the acquaintance of Ozanam, Montalembert, and others like them, who urged him to prepare for the controversial needs of the day by continuing his studies in Germany.

Following this advice, he became the pupil at Munich of such teachers as Joseph Görres, Ignaz von Döllinger, and Karl Joseph Hieronymus Windischmann; and when his earlier attraction for Scriptural studies was thoroughly reawakened under the stimulus of the then fresh Tübingen discussions, he repaired to Berlin where he attended the lectures of August Neander, Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg, and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling.

In, or soon after May, 1843, Meignan returned to Paris to be numbered among the clergy of the archdiocese, but was soon (1845) obliged to visit Rome for the good of his health, which had become impaired. He seemed to recover immediately, and was able to follow his studies so successfully that he won a Doctorate of Theology at the Sapienza (March, 1846). Here again he was helped by the interest and advice of many eminent men, of Giovanni Perrone and Olympe-Philippe Gerbet, as well as by the teaching of Carlo Passaglia, Francis Xavier Patrizi, and Augustin Theiner. Between this period and 1861, when he became professor of Sacred Scripture at the Sorbonne, he filled various academical positions in the Archdiocese of Paris, of which Mgr Darboy made him vicar-general in 1863. In 1864 he was elevated to the Bishopric of Châlons, in 1882 transferred to the See of Arras, and in 1884 to the Archbishopric of Tours.

Works

He was one of the chief antagonists of Ernest Renan. He aimed to enlighten the lay mind on current topics of controversy and to supply his readers with the Christian point of view. His career as an apologist began as early as 1856 with the publication of "Les prophéties messianiques. Le Pentateuque" (Paris). In 1860 appeared "M. Renan réfuté par les rationalistes allemands" (Paris) and "Les Evangiles et la critique au XIXe siècle" (Paris); in 1886 "De l'irréligion systématique, ses influences actuelles" (Paris); in 1890 "Salomon, son règne, ses écrits" (Paris); in 1892 "Les prophètes d'Israël et le Messie, depuis Daniel jusqu'à Jean-Baptiste" (Paris).

He wrote many other works on kindred topics. His treatment of Messianic prophecy extends beyond mere verbal exegesis, and includes a critical examination of historical events and conditions. Like other great Catholic controversialists of his time, he had to suffer adverse criticisms; these were answered by Pope Leo XIII, who raised him to the cardinalate, 15 December 1892.

References

Boissonot, Le cardinal Meignan (Paris, 1899)

External links

Source

1817 births
1896 deaths
Bishops of Arras
Bishops of Châlons-sur-Marne
Archbishops of Tours
19th-century French cardinals
Cardinals created by Pope Leo XIII

Guillaume-René Meignan


Thomas Kyd (baptised 6 November 1558; buried 15 August 1594) was an English playwright, the author of The Spanish Tragedy, and one of the most important figures in the development of Elizabethan drama.

Although well known in his own time, Kyd fell into obscurity until 1773 when Thomas Hawkins, an early editor of The Spanish Tragedy, discovered that Thomas Heywood, in his Apologie for Actors (1612), attributed the play to Kyd. A hundred years later, scholars in Germany and England began to shed light on his life and work, including the controversial finding that he may have been the author of a Hamlet play pre-dating Shakespeare's, which is now known as the Ur-Hamlet.

Early life
Thomas Kyd was the son of Francis and Anna Kyd. There are no records of the day he was born, but he was baptised in the church of St Mary Woolnoth in the Ward of Langborn, Lombard Street, London on 6 November 1558. The baptismal register at St Mary Woolnoth carries this entry: "Thomas, son of Francis Kydd, Citizen and Writer of the Courte Letter of London". Francis Kydd was a scrivener and in 1580 was warden of the Scriveners' Company.

In October 1565 the young Kyd was enrolled in the newly founded Merchant Taylors' School, whose headmaster was Richard Mulcaster. Fellow students included Edmund Spenser and Thomas Lodge. Here, Kyd received a well-rounded education, with the curriculum including Italian, Latin, Greek, music, drama, physical education, and "good manners". There is no evidence that Kyd went on to university. He may have followed in his father's professional footsteps because there are two letters written by him where his handwriting style is similar to that of a scrivener.

Career

Evidence suggests that in the 1580s Kyd became an important playwright, but little is known about his activity. Francis Meres placed him among "our best for tragedy" and Heywood elsewhere called him "Famous Kyd". Ben Jonson mentions him in the same breath as Christopher Marlowe (with whom, in London, Kyd at one time shared a room) and John Lyly in the Shakespeare First Folio.

The Spanish Tragedy was probably written in the mid to late 1580s, with its first recorded performance on 23 February 1592 by Lord Strange's Men. The earliest surviving edition was printed in 1592; the full title being, The Spanish Tragedie, Containing the lamentable end of Don Horatio, and Bel-imperia: with the pittifull death of olde Hieronimo. However, the play was usually known simply as "Hieronimo", after the protagonist. It was arguably the most popular play of the "Age of Shakespeare" and set new standards in effective plot construction and character development. There were "twenty-nine performances between 1592 and 1597" and "eleven editions between 1592 and 1633", to which the historian J. R. Mulryne states is "a tally unequaled by any of the plays of Shakespeare". In 1602 a version of the play with "additions" was published. Philip Henslowe's diary records payment to Ben Jonson for additions that year, but it is disputed whether the published additions reflect Jonson's work or if they were actually composed for a 1597 revival of The Spanish Tragedy also mentioned by Henslowe.

Other works by Kyd are his translations of Torquato Tasso's Padre di Famiglia, published as The Householder's Philosophy (1588), and of Robert Garnier's Cornélie (1594), along with the play Soliman and Perseda. Plays disputedly attributed, in whole or in part, to Kyd include King Leir, Fair Em, Arden of Faversham and parts of 1 Henry VI and Edward III. A play related to The Spanish Tragedy called The First Part of Hieronimo (surviving in a quarto of 1605) may be a bad quarto or memorial reconstruction of a play by Kyd, or it may be an inferior writer's burlesque of The Spanish Tragedy inspired by that play's popularity. Kyd is supposed by some to have been the author of a Hamlet, the precursor of the Shakespearean play (see: Ur-Hamlet).

The success of Kyd's plays extended to Europe. Versions of The Spanish Tragedy were popular in Germany and the Netherlands for generations. The influence of these plays on European drama was largely the reason for the interest in Kyd among German scholars in the nineteenth century.

Later life
From 1587 to 1593 Kyd was in the service of an unidentified noble, since, after his imprisonment in 1593 (see below), he wrote of having lost "the favours of my Lord, whom I haue servd almost theis vi yeres nowe". Proposed nobles include the Earl of Sussex, the Earl of Pembroke, Lord Strange. and Edward De Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford. He may have worked as a secretary, if he did not also write plays. Around 1591 Christopher Marlowe also joined this patron's service, and for a while Marlowe and Kyd shared lodgings, and perhaps even ideas.

On 11 May 1593 the Privy Council ordered the arrest of the authors of "divers lewd and mutinous libels" which had been posted around London. One libel was found on the property of a Dutch Church and contained violent anti-foreigner sentiments and multiple allusions to the works of Marlowe. The next day, Kyd was among those arrested; he would later believe that he had been the victim of an informer. His lodgings were searched and instead of evidence of the "libels" there was found an Arianist tract, described by an investigator as "vile heretical conceits denying the eternal deity of Jesus Christ found amongst the papers of Thos. Kydd (sic), prisoner ... which he affirmeth he had from C. Marley (sic)". Historians such as Frederick Boas believe that Kyd was tortured brutally to obtain this information. Kyd told authorities the writings found in his possession belonged to Christopher Marlowe, a fellow dramatist and former roommate. Kyd "accused his former roommate of being a blasphemous traitor, an atheist who believed that Jesus Christ was a homosexual," an uninformed confusion over the Arian and Early Gnostic concept of homoousios. Following the accusation, Marlowe was summoned by the Privy Council and, while waiting for a decision on his case, was killed in an incident in Deptford involving known government agents.

Kyd was eventually released but was not accepted back into his lord's service. Believing he was under suspicion of atheism himself, he wrote to the Lord Keeper, Sir John Puckering, protesting his innocence, but his efforts to clear his name were apparently fruitless. The last we hear from the playwright is the publication of Cornelia early in 1594. In the dedication to the Countess of Sussex he alludes to the "bitter times and privy broken passions" he had endured. Kyd died later that year at the age of 35, and was buried on 15 August in St Mary Colechurch in London. In December of that same year, Kyd's mother legally renounced the administration of his estate, probably because it was debt-ridden.

St Mary Colechurch was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666, and not rebuilt.

Works
The dates of composition are approximate.

 Don Horatio (partially extant in The First Part of Hieronimo, c. 1586)
 The Spanish Tragedy (c. 1587)
 The Householder's Philosophy (translation, 1588)
 The Murder of John Brewen (pamphlet, 1592)
 Arden of Faversham (attributed, 1592)
 Solyman and Perseda (attributed, c. 1593)
 Cornelia (translation of Robert Garnier, 1594)

References

Bibliography
Philip Edwards, The Spanish Tragedy, Methuen, 1959, reprinted 1974. .
Charles Nicholl, The Reckoning: The Murder of Christopher Marlowe, Vintage, 2002 (revised edition).  (especially for the circumstances surrounding Kyd's arrest).

External links

 Thomas Kyd at the Lumniarum website

  (University of West Alabama)
 Perverse justice in Kyd's Spanish Tragedy, by John Nettles (University of Georgia)

1558 births
1594 deaths
English Renaissance dramatists
People educated at Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood
16th-century English writers
16th-century male writers
16th-century English dramatists and playwrights
English male dramatists and playwrights
University Wits

Thomas Kyd


The Indian Society of International Law (ISIL) is an institution for the teaching, research and promotion of International Law in India.  It is located opposite the Supreme Court of India and next to the Indian Law Institute (ILI).  The ISIL was established due to the efforts of V.K. Krishna Menon and was inaugurated by Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru, who served as Patron of the society. It held its inaugural meeting on August 29, 1959. It set out as its objectives:to foster nation-wide the study and development of international law; establish the Indian Institute of International Law; interpret through its forums and publications the application of international law chiefly as affecting India; encourage the comparative study of the application of intermational law in other states; promote research in international law; organize regional branches of the Society and maintain libraries; and for these purposes to co-operate with similar societies in India and in other countries.The Indian Society of International Law has been notified as an approved organisation u/s 35(1)(iii) of the Income Tax Act, 1961 vide Notification No. 22 [F.NO.203/43/2010/ITA-II], Dated 28-04-2011.

References

External links

Legal education in India
Organisations based in Delhi
Research institutes in Delhi
1959 establishments in Delhi

Indian Society of International Law