In the United States, evangelicalism is a movement among Protestant Christians who believe in the necessity of being born again, emphasize the importance of evangelism, and affirm traditional Protestant teachings on the authority as well as the historicity of the Bible. Comprising nearly a quarter of the U.S. population, evangelicals are a diverse group drawn from a variety of denominational backgrounds, including Baptist, Mennonite, Methodist, Pentecostal, Plymouth Brethren, Quaker, Reformed and nondenominational churches.

Evangelicalism has played an important role in shaping American religion and culture. The First Great Awakening of the 18th century marked the rise of evangelical religion in colonial America. As the revival spread throughout the Thirteen Colonies, evangelicalism united Americans around a common faith. The Second Great Awakening of the early 19th century led to what historian Martin Marty calls the "Evangelical Empire", a period in which evangelicals dominated U.S. cultural institutions, including schools and universities. Evangelicals of this era in the northern United States were strong advocates of reform. They were involved in the temperance movement and supported the abolition of slavery, in addition to working toward education and criminal justice reform. In the southern United States, evangelicals split from their northern counterparts on the issue of slavery, establishing new denominations that opposed abolition and defended the practice of racial slavery that the South's expanding cash-crops-for-export agricultural economy was built upon. During the bloody Civil War, each side confidently preached in support of its own cause using Bible verses and Evangelical arguments, which exposed a deep theological conflict that had been brewing for decades and would continue long after Lee's surrender at Appomattox.

By the end of the 19th century, the old evangelical consensus that had united much of American Protestantism no longer existed. Protestant churches became divided over ground-breaking new intellectual and theological ideas, such as Darwinian evolution and historical criticism of the Bible. Those who embraced these ideas became known as modernists, while those who rejected them became known as fundamentalists. Fundamentalists defended the doctrine of biblical inerrancy and adopted a dispensationalist theological system for interpreting the Bible. As a result of the fundamentalist–modernist controversy of the 1920s and 1930s, fundamentalists lost control of the Mainline Protestant churches and separated themselves from non-fundamentalist churches and cultural institutions.

After World War II, a new generation of conservative Protestants rejected the separatist stance of fundamentalism and began calling themselves evangelicals. Popular evangelist Billy Graham was at the forefront of reviving use of the term. During this time period, several evangelical institutions were established, including the National Association of Evangelicals, the magazine Christianity Today, and educational institutions such as Fuller Theological Seminary. As a reaction to the 1960s counterculture and the U.S. Supreme Court's 1973 Roe v. Wade decision, many white evangelicals became politically active and involved in the Christian right, which became an important voting bloc in the Republican Party. Recently, however, observers such as journalist Frances FitzGerald have noted that since 2005 the influence of the Christian right among evangelicals has been in decline. Though less visible, some evangelicals identify as progressive evangelicals.

Definition
Many scholars have adopted historian David Bebbington's definition of evangelicalism. According to Bebbington, evangelicalism has four major characteristics. These are conversionism (an emphasis on the new birth), biblicism (an emphasis on the Bible as the supreme religious authority), activism (an emphasis on individual engagement in spreading the gospel), and crucicentrism (an emphasis on Christ's sacrifice on the cross as the heart of true religion). However, this definition has been criticized for being so broad as to include all Christians.

Historian Molly Worthen writes "history—rather than theology or politics—is the most useful tool for pinning down today's evangelicals." She finds that evangelicals share common origins in the religious revivals and moral crusades of the 18th and 19th centuries. She writes, "Evangelical catchphrases like 'Bible-believing' and 'born again' are modern translations of the Reformers' slogan sola scriptura and Pietists' emphasis on internal spiritual transformation."

Evangelicals are often defined in opposition to mainline Protestants. According to sociologist Brian Steensland and colleagues, "evangelical denominations have typically sought more separation from the broader culture, emphasized missionary activity and individual conversion, and taught strict adherence to particular religious doctrines." Mainline Protestants are described as having "an accommodating stance toward modernity, a proactive view on issues of social and economic justice, and pluralism in their tolerance of varied individual beliefs."

Historian George Marsden writes that during the 1950s and 1960s the simplest definition of an evangelical was "anyone who likes Billy Graham". During that period, most people who self-identified with the evangelical movement were affiliated with organizations that had some connection to Graham. It can also be defined narrowly as a movement centered around organizations such as the National Association of Evangelicals and Youth for Christ.

News media often conflate evangelicalism with "conservative Protestantism" or the Christian right. However, not every conservative Protestant identifies as evangelical, nor are all evangelicals political conservatives.

Types
Scholars have found it useful to distinguish among different types of evangelicals. One scheme by sociologist James Davison Hunter identifies four major types: the Baptist tradition, the Holiness and Pentecostal tradition, the Anabaptist tradition, and the Confessional tradition (evangelical Anglicans, pietistic Lutherans, and evangelicals within the Reformed churches).

Ethicist Max Stackhouse and historians Donald W. Dayton and Timothy P. Weber divide evangelicalism into three main historical groupings. The first, called "Puritan" or classical evangelicalism, seeks to preserve the doctrinal heritage of the 16th century Protestant Reformation, especially the Reformed tradition. Classical evangelicals emphasize absolute divine sovereignty, forensic justification, and "literalistic" inerrancy. The second, pietistic evangelicalism, originates from the 18th-century pietist movements in Europe and the Great Awakenings in America. Pietistic evangelicals embrace revivalism and a more experiential faith, emphasizing conversion, sanctification, regeneration, and healing. The third, fundamentalist evangelicalism, results from the Fundamentalist-Modernist split of the early 20th century. Fundamentalists emphasize certain "fundamental" beliefs against modernist criticism and often use an apocalyptic, premillennialist interpretation of the Bible. These three categories are more fluid than Hunter's, so an individual could identify with only one, any two, or all three.

John C. Green, a senior fellow at the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, used polling data to separate evangelicals into three broad camps, which he labels as traditionalist, centrist and modernist:

 Traditionalist evangelicals, characterized by high affinity for certain Protestant beliefs, (especially penal substitutionary atonement, justification by faith, the authority of scripture, and the priesthood of all believers) which, when fused with the highly political milieu of Western culture (especially American culture), has resulted in the political disposition that has been labeled the Christian right, with public figures like Jerry Falwell and the television evangelist Pat Robertson among its most visible spokesmen.
 Centrist evangelicals, described as socially conservative and mostly avoiding politics, who still support much of traditional Christian theology.
 Modernist evangelicals, a small minority in the movement, who have lower levels of church attendance and "have much more diversity in their beliefs".

History

18th century
The roots of American evangelicalism lie in the merger of three older Protestant traditions: New England Puritanism, Continental Pietism and Scotch-Irish Presbyterianism. Within their Congregational churches, Puritans promoted experimental or experiential religion, arguing that saving faith required an inward transformation. This led Puritans to demand evidence of a conversion experience (in the form of a conversion narrative) before a convert was admitted to full church membership. In the 1670s and 1680s, Puritan clergy began to promote religious revival in response to a perceived decline in religiosity. The Ulster Scots who immigrated to the American colonies in the early 18th century brought with them their own revival tradition, specifically the practice of communion seasons. Pietism was a movement within the Lutheran and Reformed churches in Europe that emphasized a "religion of the heart": the ideal that faith was not simply acceptance of propositional truth but was an emotional "commitment of one's whole being to God" in which one's life became dedicated to self-sacrificial ministry. Pietists promoted the formation of cell groups for Bible study, prayer, and accountability.

These three traditions were brought together with the First Great Awakening, a series of revivals in Britain and its American Colonies during the 1730s and 1740s. The Awakening began within the Congregational churches of New England. In 1734, Jonathan Edwards' preaching on justification by faith instigated a revival in Northampton, Massachusetts. Earlier Puritan revivals had been brief, local affairs, but the Northampton revival was part of a larger wave of revival that affected the Presbyterian and Dutch Reformed churches in the middle colonies as well. There the Reformed minister Theodore Frelinghuysen and Presbyterian minister Gilbert Tennent led revivals.

The English evangelist George Whitefield was responsible for spreading the revivals through all the colonies. An Anglican priest, Whitefield had studied at Oxford University prior to ordination, and there he befriended John Wesley and his brother Charles, the founders of a pietistic movement within the Church of England called Methodism. Whitefield's dramatic preaching style and ability to simplify doctrine made him a popular preacher in England, and in 1739 he arrived in America preaching up and down the Atlantic coastline. Thousands flocked to open-air meetings to hear him preach, and he became a celebrity throughout the colonies.

The Great Awakening hit its peak by 1740, but it shaped a new form of Protestantism that emphasized, according to historian Thomas S. Kidd, "seasons of revival, or outpourings of the Holy Spirit, and converted sinners experiencing God's love personally" [emphasis in original]. Evangelicals believed in the "new birth"—a discernible moment of conversion—and believed that it was normal for a Christian to have assurance of faith. While the Puritans had also believed in the necessity of conversion, they "had held that assurance is rare, late and the fruit of struggle in the experience of believers". Emphasis on the individual's relationship to God gave evangelicalism an egalitarian streak as well, which was perceived by anti-revivalists as undermining social order. Radical evangelicals ordained uneducated ministers (sometimes nonwhite men) and sometimes allowed nonwhites and women to serve as deacons and elders. They also supported laypeople's right to dissent from their pastors and form new churches.The Awakening split the Congregational and Presbyterian churches over support for the revival movement, between Old and New Lights, leading to the Old Side–New Side controversy. Ultimately, the evangelical New Lights became the larger faction among both Congregationalists and Presbyterians. The New England theology, based on Edwards' work, would become the dominant theological outlook within Congregational churches. In New England, radical New Lights broke away from the established churches and formed Separate Baptist congregations. In the 1740s and 1750s, New Side Presbyterians and Separate Baptists began moving to the southern colonies and establishing churches. Many traveled along the difficult Great Wagon Road on their way to the southern colonies. There they challenged the Anglican religious establishment, which was identified with the planter elite. In contrast, evangelicals tended to be neither very rich nor very poor, but hardworking farmers and tradesmen who disapproved of worldliness they saw in the planter class. In the 1760s, the first Methodist missionaries came to America and focused their ministry in the South as well. By 1776, evangelicals outnumbered Anglicans in the South.

During and after the American Revolution, the Anglican Church (now known as the Episcopal Church) experienced much disruption and lost its special legal status and privileges. The four largest denominations were the Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Baptists, and Methodists. In the 1770s and 1780s, the Baptists and Methodists had experienced dramatic growth. In 1770, there were only 150 Baptist and 20 Methodist churches, but in 1790 there were 858 Baptist and 712 Methodist churches. These two evangelical denominations were most successful in the southern states and along the western frontier. They also appealed to African slaves; on the Delmarva Peninsula, for example, over a third of Methodists were black. In the 1790s, evangelical influence on smaller groups such as Quakers, Lutherans, and the Dutch and German Reformed was still limited. Because of cultural and language barriers, the Dutch and German churches were not a major part of this era's evangelical revivals.

19th century
In the 19th century, evangelicalism expanded as a result of the Second Great Awakening (1790s–1840s). The revivals of the Second Great Awakening influenced all the major Protestant denominations, and turned most American Protestants into evangelicals. From the 1790s until the 1860s, evangelicals were the most influential religious leaders in the United States. For context, the U.S. population was 2.6 million in 1776. By 1860 it had grown to 31.5 million. Between 1790 and 1840, over four million people (more than the entire population in 1776) had moved west of the Appalachian Mountains.

There were three major centers of revival in the Second Great Awakening. Revival in the Cumberland River Valley of western frontier states Tennessee and Kentucky started as early as 1800. In New England, a major revival began among Congregationalists by the 1820s, led by Edwardsian preachers such as Timothy Dwight, Lyman Beecher, Nathaniel Taylor, and Asahel Nettleton. In western New York—the so-called "burned-over district" along the Erie Canal—the revival was mainly led by Congregationalists and Presbyterians, but Baptists and Methodists were also involved.

Unlike the East Coast, where revivals tended to be quieter and more solemn, western revivals tended to be more emotional and dramatic. Presbyterian minister James McGready led the Revival of 1800, also known as the Red River Revival, in southwestern Kentucky's Logan County. It was here that the traditional Scottish communion season began to evolve into the American camp meeting. In northeastern Kentucky's Bourbon County a year later, the Cane Ridge Revival led by Barton Stone lasted a week and drew crowds of 20,000 people from the thinly populated frontier. At Cane Ridge, many converts experienced religious ecstasy and "bodily agitations". Some worshipers caught holy laughter, barked like dogs, experienced convulsions, fell into trances, danced, shouted or were slain in the Spirit. Similar responses had occurred in other revivals, but they were more intense at Cane Ridge. This revival was the origin of the Stone-Campbell Movement, from which the Churches of Christ and Disciples of Christ denominations originate.

During the Second Great Awakening, the Methodist Episcopal Church was most successful at gaining converts. It enthusiastically adopted camp meetings as a regular part of church life, and devoted resources to evangelizing the western frontier. Itinerant ministers known as circuit riders traveled hundreds of miles each year to preach and serve scattered congregations. The Methodists took a democratic and egalitarian approach to ministry, allowing poor and uneducated young men to become circuit riders. The Baptists also expanded rapidly. Like the Methodists, Baptists also sent out itinerant ministers, often with little education.

The theology behind the First Great Awakening had been largely Calvinist. Calvinists taught predestination and that God only gives salvation to a small group of the elect and condemns everyone else to hell. The Calvinist doctrine of irresistible grace denied to humans free will or any role in their own salvation. The Second Great Awakening was heavily influenced by Arminianism, a theology that allows for free will and gives humans a greater role in their own conversion. The Methodists were Arminians and taught that all people could choose salvation. They also taught that Christians could lose their salvation by backsliding or returning to sin.

The most influential evangelical of the Second Great Awakening was Charles Grandison Finney. He is best known for preaching from 1825 to 1835 in Upstate New York, which experienced a population boom after the Erie Canal opened in 1825. Though ordained by the Presbyterian Church, Finney deviated from traditional Calvinism. Finney taught that neither revivals nor conversion occurred without human effort. While divine grace is necessary to persuade people of the truth of Christianity, God does not force salvation upon people. Unlike Edwards, who described revival as a "surprising work of God", Finney taught that "revival is not a miracle" but "the result of the right use of the appropriate means." Finney emphasized several methods to promote revival that became known as the "new measures" (even though they were not new but had already been in use among the Methodists): mass advertising, protracted revival meetings, allowing women to speak and testify in revival meetings, and the mourner's bench where potential converts sat to pray for conversion. Finney was also active in social reforms, particularly the abolitionist movement. He frequently denounced slavery from the pulpit, called it a "great national sin," and refused Holy Communion to slaveholders.

Evangelical views on eschatology (the doctrine of the end times) have also changed over time. The Puritans were premillennialists, which means they believed Christ would return before the Millennium (a thousand years of godly rule on earth). But the First Great Awakening convinced many evangelicals that the millennial kingdom was already being established before Christ returned, a belief known as postmillennialism. During the Second Great Awakening, postmillennialism (with its expectation that society would become progressively more Christianized) became the dominant view, since it complemented the Arminian emphasis on self-determination and the Enlightenment's positive view of human potential.

This postmillennial optimism inspired a number of social reform movements among northern evangelicals, including temperance (as teetotalism became "a badge of honor" for evangelicals), abolitionism, prison reform, and educational reform. They launched a campaign to end dueling. They built asylums for the physically disabled and mentally ill, schools for the deaf, and hospitals for treating tuberculosis. They formed organizations to provide food, clothing, money, and job placement to immigrants and the poor. In order to "impress the new nation with an indelibly Protestant character," evangelicals founded Sunday schools, colleges, and seminaries. They published millions of books, tracts, and Christian periodicals through organizations such as the American Tract Society and the American Bible Society. This network of social reform organizations is referred to as the Benevolent Empire.

Postmillennialism also led to an increase in missionary work. Many of the major missionary societies in the U.S. were founded around this time. Missionary efforts by northern evangelicals included the influential American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM), founded in 1810, which sent missionaries overseas, placed missionaries with American Indian tribes in the Southeastern United States, and had established missions among the Cherokee, for example, by 1820. The ABCFM fought against U.S. Indian removal policies in general and against the Indian Removal Act of 1830 in particular. In 1836 the ABCFM sent Marcus and Narcissa Whitman west from Upstate New York to preach to the Cayuse people in Oregon Country.

The Third Great Awakening that began in 1857-1858 also gathered much of its strength from the postmillennial belief that the Second Coming of Christ would occur after mankind had reformed the entire Earth. It was affiliated with the Social Gospel movement, which applied Christianity to social issues.

Dispensationalism

The spread of dispensationalism in late 19th-century America led many Evangelicals to return to the more pessimistic premillennialist point of view. According to scholar Mark Sweetnam, dispensationalists are evangelical, premillennialist and apocalyptic, insist on a literal interpretation of Scripture, identify distinct stages ("dispensations") in God's dealings with humanity, and expect Christ's imminent return to rapture His saints. As B. M. Pietsch notes, their leaders have built intricate new methods of text analysis to "unlock" the Bible's meaning.

John Nelson Darby was an austere 19th-century Anglo-Irish Bible teacher and former Anglican clergyman who devised and promoted dispensationalism. This new and controversial method of interpreting the Bible, which does not reconcile easily with findings from recent mainstream archaeological and textual research, was incorporated into the development of modern Evangelicalism. First taught in the 1830s by Darby and the Plymouth Brethren in England, dispensationalism was introduced to American evangelical leaders during Darby's missionary journeys to the U.S. and Canada in the 1860s and 1870s. The Niagara Bible Conference was organized in 1876 to teach dispensationalist ideas; these ideas came to dominate the fundamentalist movement within a few decades.

Dwight L. Moody played a key role in this transformation. In the latter half of the 19th century, Moody became the most important evangelical figure of the era, weaving ideas from business and religion into a compelling new form of evangelical Protestantism and reaching very large audiences with his powerful preaching. Focused on the city of Chicago and active in the Sunday School movement and Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) from 1858 in his early ministry, Moody had relentlessly sought financial contributions from rich evangelical businessmen such as John Farwell and Cyrus McCormick. Moody's approach was rough, blunt and unconventional, but wealthy philanthropists could see he truly cared for the urban poor and he found effective ways to improve their lot. During an 1867 visit to England, Moody became acquainted with a group of pragmatic Brethren dispensationalists who shared many of his own concerns and approaches to charitable work. After the Great Chicago Fire in 1871 destroyed his church, his home and the Chicago YMCA, Moody left local church work for a new career as a traveling revivalist. Convinced now that the world would be changed not by social work but by Christ's return and the establishment of His millennial kingdom on Earth, Moody abandoned his own previous postmillennialist views. His revivals accelerated the spread of dispensationalist beliefs, and he was influential in preaching the imminence of the Kingdom of God that is so important to dispensationalism.

Enlisting philanthropic support from the business community was one of several enduring innovations Moody had introduced into the conduct of revival campaigns. Like many clergymen in the Gilded Age that followed soon after the Civil War, Moody supported the business community's values. He helped forge the union between the evangelical mind and the business mind that came to be a hallmark of later popular revivalists. Moody's religious individualism fit neatly with the rugged individualism of Gilded Age businessmen. Moody radiated optimism when he spoke about how Christian conversion would impact a poor man's life. He believed Christian conversion would make lazy, poor men into energetic men who would then work hard and prosper. At his revival meetings Moody would look around at the wealthy men who sat on the platform with him, such as McCormick, William E. Dodge, and John Wanamaker, comment that they were all devout church members, all born again Christians, and say that few of the poor in the slums of Chicago, London, or New York attended church services. Moody also viewed industrialism and its ills through the same lens of Christian conversion. As he saw it, the fix was simple and obvious: believe in God, and the problems will vanish soon.American evangelical minister and Moody associate Cyrus Scofield also promoted the spread of dispensationalism, starting with a pamphlet published in 1888, then by weaving extensive interpretive commentary into prominent notes on the pages of his ambitious Scofield Reference Bible. First published in 1909, the Scofield Bible became a popular one-volume reference used widely by independent Evangelicals in the United States. It did much to popularize dispensationalism early in the 20th century, as Evangelicals sought to make sense of calamities like World War I, the 1918 influenza pandemic, the 1929 stock market crash, the Great Depression and Dust Bowl in the 1930s, and World War II. By 1945, more than 2 million copies had been published in the United States.

Evangelicals also launched a network of independent Bible institutes which soon became the nucleus for the spread of American dispensationalism. Notable examples include the Moody Bible Institute and the Bible Institute of Los Angeles. By the early 1930s there were as many as fifty such Bible institutes serving fundamentalist constituencies.

Holiness Movement
In the late 19th century, the revivalist Holiness movement promoted the doctrine of entire sanctification, and while many adherents remained within mainline Methodism, those associated with it also formed new denominations, such as the Free Methodist Church and Wesleyan Methodist Church. In urban Britain the holiness message was less censorious, and did not face as much opposition.

The Princeton Theologians
From the 1850s to the 1920s, a more advanced theological perspective came from the Princeton Theologians, such as Charles Hodge, Archibald Alexander, and B. B. Warfield, who strove to defend traditional doctrines they found in the Bible against rival claims from other learned scholars, including claims based on higher criticism.

20th century

By the 1890s, most American Protestants belonged to evangelical denominations, except for high church Episcopalians and German Lutherans. In the early 20th century, a divide opened up between fundamentalists and the mainline Protestant denominations, chiefly over inerrancy of the Bible. After 1910, evangelicalism was dominated by fundamentalists who rejected liberal theology, emphasized inerrancy of Scripture, and taught a dispensationalist interpretation of the Bible to support their views of human history and mankind's future.

Pastors, theologians, and laity shaped the course of early fundamentalism, but wealthy businessmen also played a crucial role. For example, Union Oil co-founder Lyman Stewart was instrumental in establishing the Bible Institute of Los Angeles. He also anonymously funded publication and distribution of The Fundamentals (groups of essays by multiple authors published quarterly in twelve volumes from 1910 through 1915), which became the foundation document of Christian fundamentalism, published as a set in 1917, and he ensured that its many individual authors promoted premillennialist dispensationalism. The essays were written by 64 different authors, representing most of the major Protestant Christian denominations. It was mailed free of charge to ministers, missionaries, professors of theology, Sunday school superintendents, YMCA and YWCA secretaries, and other Protestant religious workers in the United States and other English-speaking countries. Over three million volumes (250,000 sets) were sent out.

Dispensationalism led fundamentalist evangelicals to see the world as a battleground in a deadly conflict between God and the Devil that would sweep all unbelievers to perdition very soon, so that they must focus on saving souls, with reform of society as a strictly secondary concern. Adoption of this "lifeboat" theology also made the fundamentalists' message more welcome among American groups and communities who opposed reform of their own cherished institutions (such as violent enforcement of racial segregation by local authorities and by self-appointed vigilante groups) and business practices (ruthless exploitation of industrial workers, redlining, and the Jim Crow economy).

Dispensationalism also led fundamentalists to fear that new trends in modern science were pulling people away from what they saw as essential truth, and to believe that modernist parties in Protestant churches had surrendered their Evangelical heritage by accommodating secular views and values. Among these fundamentalist evangelicals, a favored way of resisting modernism was to prohibit teaching evolution as fact in public schools, a movement that reached a peak in the Scopes trial of 1925. The sting of this public embarrassment led fundamentalists to retreat further into separatism. Protestant modernists criticized fundamentalists for their separatist self-isolation and for their rejection of the Social Gospel that had been developed by Protestant activists in the previous century. By this time, modernists had largely abandoned the term "evangelical," and tolerated evolutionary theories in modern science and even in Biblical studies. In the 1930s, fundamentalist pastors and parishioners who rejected modernist viewpoints put forward by their own denominations turned more and more to the dispensationalist Bible institutes for guidance and community. As the largest of these schools, the Moody Bible Institute set the pace, providing a wide variety of fundamentalist outreach services, from guest speakers and extension courses to Bible conferences, magazines and radio programs.

During and after World War II, white evangelicals formed new organizations and expanded their vision to include the entire world. There was a great expansion of Evangelical activity within the United States, "a revival of revivalism." The doctrine of dispensationalism, with its intense focus on end times and the rapture, continued to be a major theme. Many earlier evangelists had preached in tents to small-town audiences on the "sawdust trail," but the new evangelicals sought ways to save souls in the big cities that had come to dominate American life. Youth for Christ was formed in 1940 to help make the evangelical message attractive to soldiers, sailors, and urban teenagers; it later became the base for Billy Graham's post-war revival crusades. The National Association of Evangelicals was formed in 1942 as a response to the mainline Federal Council of Churches, which had been organized in 1908. Charles Fuller had started broadcasting the Old-Fashioned Revival Hour in 1937; by 1943 it had a record-setting national radio audience, with twenty million weekly listeners.

But a split also developed among evangelicals in this era, as they disagreed among themselves about how a Christian ought to respond to an unbelieving world. Many evangelicals urged that Christians must engage contemporary culture directly and constructively, and they began to express reservations about being known to the world as fundamentalists. As Kenneth Kantzer put it at the time, the name fundamentalist had become "an embarrassment instead of a badge of honor". Fuller Theological Seminary founding president Harold Ockenga coined the term neo-evangelicalism in 1947 to identify a distinct movement he saw within fundamentalist Christianity. This new generation of evangelicals sought to pursue a more open, non-judgmental dialogue with other traditions. They also called for greater application of the gospel to sociology, politics, and economics. Many fundamentalists responded by separating their opponents from the "fundamentalist" name and by seeking to distinguish themselves from the more open group, which they often characterized derogatorily by Ockenga's term "neo-Evangelical", or simply "evangelicals".

Growth during the Cold War

The end of World War II in 1945 and the onset of the Cold War by 1948 provided new opportunities for evangelical expansion. The Second World War ended in August 1945 after the U.S. used two nuclear bombs to destroy the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Even nonreligious people groped for religious language to express those bombs' nearly unimaginable destructive power. And the end of the war affected almost everyone in America: millions of men returned from the armed forces, while millions of women left their temporary wartime industrial jobs. The marriage rate and the birth rate soared, accelerating a baby boom that had begun while the war was still being fought. As young American families crowded into new churches, their ministers, priests, and rabbis led them in fervent prayers for a world in upheaval. No one in the U.S. voiced fears for the world's future with more fervor than evangelical and fundamentalist preachers. A key element in their preaching had always been that the Second Coming of Christ could happen at any moment and that everyone must be ready for the end of the world.

In September 1949, 30-year-old evangelist Billy Graham set up circus tents in a Los Angeles parking lot for a series of revival meetings. A tall, handsome, spellbinding preacher from North Carolina with a piercing gaze, Graham aimed to fill his listeners first with dread that they were lost sinners in a world rushing headlong into disaster, then with a deep longing to turn their lives around, trust Jesus, and be saved. The crusade started on September 25, 1949, and it was scheduled to last three weeks, from September 25 to October 17. Two days before the start of the revival, in a statement released on September 23, 1949, President Truman revealed to the public that the communist Soviet Union had built and successfully detonated its own nuclear bomb on August 29. Six days after the revival started, mainland China fell to Mao Zedong's communist Red Army. Newspaper headlines that reported these shocking Cold War events put much of the nation into an anxious, apocalyptic mood. Then in October, media tycoon William Randolph Hearst sent a telegram to all editors in his conservative Hearst chain of newspapers: "Puff Graham." As a result, within five days Graham gained national coverage. Planned to last three weeks, the event ran for eight weeks. Graham became a national figure with heavy coverage from the wire services and national magazines, and he went on to become the most influential American evangelist of the 20th century.

Evangelicals' international missionary activity also expanded in the postwar era. White evangelicals found new enthusiasm and self-confidence after the nation's victory in the world war. Many came from poor rural districts that had struggled during the Great Depression of the 1930s, but wartime and postwar prosperity had dramatically increased the funding resources available for missionary work. Overseas missionaries began to prepare for their postwar role, in organizations such as the Far Eastern Gospel Crusade. After Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan had been defeated, the newly mobilized evangelicals prepared to combat perceived threats from atheistic communism, secularism, Darwinism, liberalism, Catholicism, and (in overseas missions) paganism.

While mainline Protestant denominations cut back on their missionary activities from 7,000 overseas workers in 1935 to only 3,000 in 1980, evangelicals tripled their career foreign missionary force in the same period: from 12,000 in 1935 to 35,000 in 1980. At Youth for Christ's 70,000-person rally on Memorial Day 1945 in Chicago's Soldier Field football stadium (seating capacity 74,000), soldiers and nurses marched along with missionary representatives who paraded in costumes representing all the nations still awaiting the dispensationalist gospel. North Americans had sent out only 41% of all the world's Protestant missionaries in 1936, but their contribution rose to 52% in 1952 and 72% in 1969. Denominations expanding their overseas missionary efforts after the war included the United Pentecostal Church International, formed in 1945, and the Assemblies of God, which nearly tripled from 230 missionaries in 1935 to 626 in 1952. Southern Baptist missionaries more than doubled from 405 to 855, as did those sent by the Church of the Nazarene, from 88 to 200.

The post-war period also saw growth of the ecumenical movement and the founding of the World Council of Churches (1948), which was generally regarded with suspicion by the evangelical community. During the 1950s, the number of church members in America grew from 64.5 million to 114.5 million. By 1960, more than 60% of the nation belonged to a church. Following the Welsh Methodist revival, the Azusa Street Revival in 1906 had begun the spread of Pentecostalism in North America. The Charismatic movement began in the 1960s and led to Pentecostal theology and practices being introduced into many mainline denominations. Charismatic groups such as Newfrontiers and the Association of Vineyard Churches trace their roots to this period.

21st century
A 2018 report of polls conducted from 2003 to 2017 of 174,485 random-sample telephone interviews by ABC News and The Washington Post show significant shifts in U.S. religious identification in those 15 years, including a decline in the share of Americans who identify as Protestants (both evangelical and non-evangelical) and a rise in the share of Americans who say they have no religion. According to reports in the New York Times, some evangelicals have sought to expand their movement's social agenda to include reducing poverty, combating AIDS in the Third World, and protecting the environment: "a push to better this world as well as save eternal souls." This has been highly contentious within the evangelical community, because evangelicals of a more conservative stance believe this trend compromises important issues, and values popularity and consensus too highly: "a 'capitulation' to the broader culture." Personifying this division in the early 21st century were the evangelical leaders James Dobson and Rick Warren. Dobson warned of dangers, from his point of view, of a victory by Democratic Party presidential candidate Barack Obama in 2008. Warren declined to endorse either major candidate, on the grounds that he wanted the church to be less politically divisive and that he agreed substantially with both Obama and Republican Party candidate John McCain.

Demographics

Anywhere from 6 to 35% of the United States population is evangelical, depending on how "evangelical" is defined. A 2008 study reported that in 2000, about 9% of Americans attended an evangelical service on any given Sunday. A 2014 Pew Research Center survey of religious life in the United States reported that 25.4% of the population were evangelical, while Roman Catholics were 20.8% and mainline Protestants were 14.7%. In 2020, mainline Protestants were reported to outnumber predominantly-white Evangelical churches. In 2021, Pew Research Center reported that "24% of U.S. adults describe themselves as born-again or evangelical Protestants."

In 2007 Barna Group reported that 8% of adult Americans were born-again evangelicals, defined as those surveyed in 2006 who answered yes to these nine questions:
"Have you made a personal commitment to Jesus Christ that is still important in your life today?"
"Do you believe that when you die you will go to Heaven because you have confessed your sins and have accepted Jesus Christ as your savior?"
"Is your faith very important in your life today?"
"Do you have a personal responsibility to share your religious beliefs about Christ with non-Christians?"
"Does Satan exist?"
"Is eternal salvation possible only through grace, not works?"
"Did Jesus Christ live a sinless life on earth?"
"Is the Bible accurate in all that it teaches?"
"Is God the all-knowing, all-powerful, perfect deity who created the universe and still rules it today?"

In 2012, The Economist estimated that "over one-third of Americans, more than 100 million, can be considered evangelical," arguing that the percentage is often undercounted because many African Americans espouse evangelical theology but refer to themselves as "born again Christians" rather than "evangelical." As of 2017, according to The Economist, white evangelicals overall account for about 17% of Americans, while white evangelicals under the age of 30 represent about 8% of Americans in that age group.

In 2016, Wheaton College's Institute for the Study of American Evangelicals estimated that about 30 to 35% (90 to 100 million people) of the U.S. population is evangelical. These figures include white and black "cultural evangelicals" (Americans who do not regularly attend church but identify as evangelicals). Similarly, a 2019 Gallup survey asking respondents whether they identified either as "born-again" or as "evangelical" found that 37% of respondents answered in the affirmative.

Sometimes members of historically black churches are counted as evangelicals, and at other times they are not. When analyzing political trends, pollsters often distinguish between white evangelicals (who tend to vote for the Republican Party) and African American Protestants (who share religious beliefs in common with white evangelicals but have tended to vote for the Democratic Party).

Politics and social issues

Evangelical political influence in America was first evident in the 1830s with movements such as the prohibition movement, which closed saloons and taverns in state after state until it succeeded nationally in 1919. The Christian Right is a coalition of numerous groups of traditionalist and observant church-goers of many kinds: especially Catholics on issues such as birth control and abortion, plus Southern Baptists, Missouri Synod Lutherans, and others. Since the early 1980s the Christian Right has been associated with several political and issue-oriented organizations, including the Moral Majority, the Christian Coalition, Focus on the Family, and the Family Research Council.

In the 2016 presidential election, exit polls reported that 81% of white evangelicals voted for Donald Trump, despite criticism from some conservative evangelicals.

Most African Americans who identify as Christians belong to Baptist, Methodist or other denominations that share evangelical beliefs, but they are firmly in the Democratic coalition, and (with the possible exception of issues involving abortion and homosexuality) are generally liberal in politics.

Evangelical political activists are not all on the right. There is also a small group of liberal white Evangelicals. Some Evangelical leaders, such as Tony Perkins of the Family Research Council, object to equating the term Christian Right with theological conservatism and Evangelicalism. Although white evangelicals constitute the core constituency of the Christian Right within the United States, not all evangelicals fit that political description. Secular media do frequently conflate the Christian Right with theological conservatism, but this becomes complicated when the label religious conservative or conservative Christian is also applied to other religious groups who are theologically, socially, and culturally conservative but do not have overtly political organizations associated with them. Some of these Christian denominations may best be described as indifferent toward politics. Tim Keller, an Evangelical theologian and Presbyterian Church in America pastor, has argued that Conservative Christianity (theology) predates the Christian Right (politics), that being a theological conservative doesn't necessitate being a political conservative, and that some politically progressive views around economics, racial diversity, helping the poor, and the redistribution of wealth are compatible with theologically conservative Christianity. Rod Dreher, a senior editor for The American Conservative, a secular conservative magazine, argues for the same distinctions, even claiming that a "traditional Christian," a theological conservative, can be an economic progressive or even a socialist while maintaining traditional Christian beliefs.

On the other hand, a Pew Research report published in September 2022 reported that "70% of adults who were raised Christian but are now unaffiliated are Democrats or Democratic-leaning independents, compared with 43% of those who remained Christian and 51% of U.S. adults overall. Some scholars argue that disaffiliation from Christianity is driven by an association between Christianity and political conservatism that has intensified in recent decades."

Evolution

Evangelicals are often stereotyped as Christians who reject mainstream scientific views out of concern that those views contradict traditional "young earth" chronologies and certain verses in the Bible. This is true for many Scofield-inspired dispensationalists and for other fundamentalists who also reject evolution in favor of creation science and flood geology (both of which contradict the scientific consensus and the well-established geologic time scale). Their influence has led to high-profile court cases over whether public schools can be forced to teach either creationism or intelligent design (which is the claim that the complexity and diversity of life can only be explained by the direct intervention of God or some other active intelligence).

However, many other evangelicals have found evolution to be compatible with Christianity. For example, prominent evangelicals such as Billy Graham, B. B. Warfield, and John Stott believed the theory could be reconciled with Christian teaching. Careful study by the American Scientific Affiliation, an organization for evangelicals who are professional scientists, led it to reject "strict" creationism in favor of theistic evolution, encouraging acceptance of evolution among evangelicals. The BioLogos Foundation is an evangelical organization that advocates for evolutionary creation, a belief that God brings about his plan through processes of evolution. BioLogos expresses the belief that God is the source of all life and that life expresses the will of God. BioLogos represents the view that science and faith co-exist in harmony.

Abortion

Since 1980, a central issue motivating conservative evangelicals' political activism has been abortion. The 1973 decision in Roe v. Wade by the Supreme Court, which legalized abortion at a federal level, proved to be decisive in bringing Catholics and evangelicals together in a political coalition, which became known as the Christian Right when it successfully mobilized its voters behind presidential candidate Ronald Reagan in 1980.

Separation of church and state

Supreme Court decisions that outlawed organized prayer in public schools and restricted church-related schools (e.g., preventing them from engaging in racial discrimination while also receiving a tax exemption) also played a role in mobilizing the Christian Right. Survey data published in 2002 indicate that "between 31 and 39% do not favor a 'Christian Nation' amendment," but that 60 to 75% of Evangelicals consider Christianity and political liberalism to be incompatible.

A study conducted in May of 2022 showed that the strongest support for declaring the United States a Christian Nation comes from Republicans who identify as Evangelical or born-again Christians. Of this demographic group, 78% are in favor of formally declaring the United States a Christian nation, versus 48% of Republicans overall.

Climate change

The Evangelical Climate Initiative is a campaign by U.S. church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming. The Evangelical Climate Initiative was launched in February 2006 by the National Association of Evangelicals, who worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together for the project. Young Evangelicals for Climate Action "educates and mobilizes young evangelical Christians across the country to take action to address the climate crisis."

Influence on U.S. foreign policy
Evangelicals have had a significant impact on U.S. foreign policy. They have worked in coalitions with other religious and secular groups to press for action on matters like ending Sudan's civil war, addressing the AIDS crisis in Africa, and combating human trafficking. Evangelicals played a key role in passing the International Religions Freedom Act, which made freedom of religion and conscience a top objective of U.S. foreign policy. The act established an agency to monitor countries' performance on religious freedom and allowed for potential sanctions against those with poor grades. Evangelicals were also involved in the passing of the North Korean Human Rights Act of 2004, which required the appointment of a special envoy for human rights in North Korea and emphasized the importance of human rights in future negotiations with the country. Evangelicals also supported the Trafficking Victims Protection Act, which aimed to deter human trafficking, punish traffickers, and protect and rehabilitate victims.

Evangelicals generally view the Middle East through a biblical lens and strongly support Israel. They believe that God gave the land of Israel to the Jews and that the U.S. will be blessed if it blesses Israel. However, there are variations in views among Evangelicals, with some holding more rigid stances than others. Some have supported Israeli settlements in the occupied territories, while others disagree with certain peace initiatives involving territorial compromises.

See also
 Biblical literalism
 Broad church
 Child evangelism movement
 List of evangelical Christians
 List of evangelical seminaries and theological colleges

Notes

References

 .

 .

 Sutton, Matthew Avery. American Apocalypse: A History of Modern Evangelicalism (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2014). 480 pp. online review

Further reading

 .
 .
 .
 .
 Carter, Heath W. and Laura Rominger Porter, eds. Turning Points in the History of American Evangelicalism (Eerdmans, 2017). xviii, 297 pp
 Chapman, Mark B., "American Evangelical Attitudes Toward Catholicism: Post-World War II to Vatican II," U.S. Catholic Historian, 33#1 (Winter 2015), 25–54.
 Compton, John W. 2020. The End of Empathy: Why White Protestants Stopped Loving Their Neighbors. Oxford University Press.
 Grainger, Brett. Church in the Wild: Evangelicals in Antebellum America (Harvard UP, 2019) online review
Griffith, R. M. (2017). Moral combat: how sex divided American Christians and fractured American politics. New York: Basic Books, . History of sexual politics in the United States, 1920–2017, and how it has influenced the formation of political identities in American Christian denominations.
 , 622 pp.
 Luhrmann, Tanya (2012) When God Talks Back-Understanding the American Evangelical Relationship with God, Knopf
 .
 .

 Naselli, A. D., and Collin Hansen, eds (2011), Four Views on the Spectrum of Evangelicalism, Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 , 225 pp; covers evangelical politics from the 1940s to the 1990s that examines how a diverse, politically pluralistic movement became, largely, the Christian Right.

 .
 Sutton, Matthew Avery. American Apocalypse: A history of modern evangelicalism (2014)

 .
 .
 .
 Williams, Daniel K. The Election of the Evangelical: Jimmy Carter, Gerald Ford, and the Presidential Contest of 1976 (University Press of Kansas, 2020) online review

External links

  A list of 146 evangelical Protestant denominations in the US.
 .
  – Statistics from around the world including numbers of Evangelicals by country.

Evangelicalism in the United States


Emil Mollenhauer (1855–1927) was an American musician, an orchestra violinist and conductor.

Biography
Emil Mollenhauer was born in Brooklyn, New York, on August 4, 1855, to Frederick Mollenhauer of Erfurt, Germany, who was himself a violinist. He attended public school in Brooklyn. He was a musical prodigy and was playing in the orchestra of Niblo's Garden in February 1864 before he was nine years old. From the age of sixteen he played in the orchestras of the Booth Theatre, where his uncle led the orchestra, that of Theodore Thomas at Central Park Garden, and the Damrosch Orchestra, where he also played piano. He left New York City for Boston where he played at the Bijou Opera House. He played first violin in the Boston Symphony Orchestra from 1884 to 1888. He turned to conducting and led the Germania Orchestra for several years and then led several annual tours as head of the Boston Festival Orchestra, leading concerts with such notable soloists as Emma Calvé, Nellie Melba, and Eugène Ysaÿe. Mollenhauer was conductor of the Apollo Club of Boston, an acclaimed men's chorus, from November 1901 through April 1927.  He became conductor of Boston's Handel and Haydn Society in 1899 and held that post until his death.

Mollenhauer married Mary Laverty, a professional singer. He died at his home in Boston, Massachusetts, on December 10, 1927. He was scheduled to conduct a concert the day following his death.

References

External links

Biographical history of Massachusetts

1855 births
1927 deaths
Musicians from Brooklyn
American conductors (music)
American male conductors (music)
American violinists
American male violinists
Classical musicians from New York (state)

Emil Mollenhauer


George Frederick Anderson (14 December 1793– 14 December 1876) was a British violinist and Master of the Queen's Music.

Anderson was born in London in 1793.  He was engaged as violinist in a variety of orchestras.  In July 1820 he married the pianist Lucy Philpot, who, as Mrs Anderson, taught the piano to Queen Victoria and her children.

In 1837, in return for his providing the publisher Alfred Novello with an interest-free loan of £30 in order to publish Felix Mendelssohn's Piano Concerto No. 2, Novello gave his wife Lucy Anderson exclusive rights for six months to play the concerto in England.

In 1840 he became the Treasurer of the Royal Philharmonic Society, a position he held until his death.  By 1841 he was a professor of music.

In 1848 he was appointed Master of the Queen's Music by Queen Victoria, succeeding Franz Cramer.  He is not recorded as having composed any music, an activity normally associated with this appointment.  He remained in the post until 1870; the circumstances of his departure are not known. Until the ten-year fixed-term appointment of Sir Peter Maxwell Davies in 2004, Anderson was the last Master of the Queen's Music to leave the post before his death, and the first since Nicholas Staggins in 1700.

He died on 14 December 1876 and was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery.  A collection of his correspondence with musicians and composers is in the British Library.

References

Sources
 Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th ed. 1954 (Master of the Queen's Music article)

External links

1793 births
1876 deaths
British classical violinists
British male violinists
Masters of the Queen's Music
Male classical violinists
19th-century British male musicians

George Frederick Anderson


Giovanni Paolo Foscarini (fl. 1600 – 1647) was an Italian guitarist, lutenist, theorist and composer.

A note at the end of the list of contents in his earliest surviving guitar book Intavolatura di chitarra spagnola. Libro secondo (1629) refers to him a Musico, e Sonatore, di Liuto e Tiorba, della Venerabile Compagnia del Saatissimo [sic] Sacramento d'Ancona. He was also a member of the Accademia dei Caliginosi in Ancona, identifying himself in his earlier books only by the name of the society together with his own academic name Il Furioso. In the introduction to his third book printed in about 1630 he claims to be well known as a lutenist both in Italy and abroad, especially at the court of Archduke Alberto in the Spanish Netherlands. Archduke Albert, a nephew of Philip II of Spain, was governor of the Spanish Netherlands from 1595 until his death in 1621. Foscarini must have been in the Netherlands sometime before that date. He was active in Rome, Venice, Brussels, and Paris Letters which he wrote to the Dutch scholar, Constantijn Huygens from Paris at the beginning of 1649 to give some information about his later years. He was planning to travel to Italy, but was ill in bed and without funds for the journey. He may have died soon after.

His Il primo, secondo e terzo libro della chitarra spagnola printed in about 1630 is the earliest known engraved Italian guitar tablature. This includes pieces from his two earlier books, (no copies of his Libro primo are extant) all in the strummed style notated in alfabeto together with a third book which includes pieces in mixed battute-pizzicato style notated in italian lute tablature combined with alfabeto.  A fourth book was added to the edition printed in about 1632 - I quatro libri della chitarra spagnola. The final version, with a dedication to the French nobleman, Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Guise is signed by Foscarini and dated Rome 15 September 1640. It includes a fifth book and has the title Li cinque libri della chitarra alla spagnola. His notation is idiosyncratic and  sometimes difficult to decipher, but the music is very attractive and encompasses the entire Italian guitar repertory of the period. It was highly regarded during his lifetime. In the preface, Foscarini gives detailed instructions about his notation and  discusses three playing styles: battute (strummed), pizzicato (plucked) which he deemed more appropriate to the lute, and a mixture of the two, which he employs predominantly in the three later books. Although it is unlikely that he alone invented this mixed style playing (there are earlier manuscript sources), Foscarini was obviously an important influence on later composers such as Angelo Michele Bartolotti and Francesco Corbetta.

List of works

Music
 Libro primo (lost; contents reprinted in (3))
 Intavolatura di chitarra spagnola, libro secondo (Macerata, 1629)
 Il primo, secondo e terzo libro della chitarra spagnola (includes (1) and (2))
 I 4 libri della chitarra spagnola (includes (3))
 Li 5 libri della chitarra alla spagnola (Rome, 1640; includes (3))
 Inventione di toccate sopra la chitarra spagnuola (Rome, 1640; contents identical to (5))

Writings
Dell'armonia del mondo, lettione due (Paris, 1647)

References

External links
 Foscarini page at MonicaHall site

Composers for the classical guitar
Italian Baroque composers
17th-century Italian composers
Italian male classical composers
17th-century male musicians

Giovanni Paolo Foscarini


Andreas Staub (17 October 1806 – 5 April 1839) was an Austrian watercolour painter and lithographer.

Staub was born in Markirch in Alsace and committed suicide in Vienna at the age of 32. Of his life little is known. He entered the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts at the age of 19 and shortly thereafter was exhibiting his watercolours. Around 1835 he produced a series of lithographs of famous personalities, such as the pianist Sigismund Thalberg, the actress Johanna Franul von Weißenthurn, the diplomat Bartholomäus von Stürmer, the poet Nikolaus Lenau, and the hydrotherapist Vincenz Prießnitz. His most famous such portrait was that of composer Clara Schumann (née Wieck), which appeared on the 100 Deutschmark note between 1990 and 2001.

Sources

1806 births
1839 deaths
Austrian watercolourists
Austrian lithographers
19th-century Austrian painters
Painters from Alsace
People from Haut-Rhin

Andreas Staub


Ernst Bogislaw von Croÿ (26 August 1620, in Finstingen (Fénétrange) – 7 February 1684, in Königsberg) was a Lutheran Administrator of the Prince-Bishopric of Cammin and official in the service of Brandenburg-Prussia.

Family
Ernst Bogislaw was born in Finstingen as the son of Ernst von Croÿ (1588–1620), prince and duke of Croÿ, and Anna of Pomerania (1590–1660), daughter of Bogislaw XIII, Duke of Pomerania. Ernst was the son of Charles Philippe de Cröy, Marquis d'Havré (1549–1613), who was the only son of Philippe II of Croÿ by his second wife, Anna of Lorraine.

Although the House of Croÿ was Roman Catholic, his parents marriage contract called for a Protestant education for their children. A few weeks after Ernst Bogislaw was born, his father fell ill and died on 7 October 1620 near Oppenheim while campaigning during the Thirty Years' War for Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor. Hostile to her husband's family, Anna fled with Ernst Bogislaw to Stettin (Szczecin), the capital of the Duchy of Pomerania.

Ernst Bogislaw began studying at the University of Greifswald in 1634. His uncle, Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania, granted him lordship over Naugard (Nowogard) and Massow (Maszewo). When Bogislaw XIV, the last duke of the House of Pomerania, died in 1637, Ernst Bogislaw inherited the late ruler's personal possessions.

From 1637 to 1650 Ernst Bogislaw was the administrator of the Prince-Bishopric of Cammin; the prince-bishopric was promised to Brandenburg-Prussia in the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia. In 1650 he renounced his rights to the prince-bishopric in return for a large payment and the expectancy to his mother's Pomeranian pension. Ernst Bogislaw entered the service of Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, and served as Statthalter of Farther Pomerania from 1665 to 1670 and then as Statthalter of Prussia from 1670 to 1684.

Ernst Bogislaw completed his will shortly before his death. With permission from the authorities of Swedish Pomerania, he bequeathed to the University of Greifswald his assets, including books, the  signet ring of Bogislaw XIV, the golden chain of Ernst Ludwig, Duke of Pomerania, and the Croy Tapestry. After his death in Königsberg in Prussia, Ernst Bogislaw was buried next to his mother in the palace church of Stolp (Słupsk).

References

1620 births
1684 deaths
17th-century Prussian people
17th-century Lutheran bishops
Lutheran administrators of Cammin Prince-Bishopric
Prussian politicians
Prussian nobility
Pomeranian nobility
Lorraine nobility
Ernst Bogislaw
University of Greifswald alumni
Clergy from Moselle (department)
People from the Duchy of Pomerania

Ernst Bogislaw von Croÿ


The Washington State Growth Management Act (GMA) is a Washington state law that requires state and local governments to manage Washington's growth by identifying and protecting critical areas and natural resource lands, designating urban growth areas, preparing comprehensive plans and implementing them through capital investments and development regulations. This approach to growth management is unique among states. The act (Chapter 36.70A RCW) was adopted by the Legislature in 1990.

The GMA was adopted because the Washington State Legislature found that uncoordinated and unplanned growth posed a threat to the environment, sustainable economic development and the quality of life in Washington.

Rather than centralize planning and decision-making at the state level, the GMA focuses on local control.  The GMA establishes state goals, sets deadlines for compliance, offers direction on how to prepare local comprehensive plans and regulations and sets forth requirements for early and continuous public participation. Within the framework provided by the mandates of the Act, local governments have many choices regarding the specific content of comprehensive plans and implementing development regulations.

GMA planning requirements apply on a county-by-county basis.  While all counties must adopt development regulations that designate and protect critical areas and designate natural resource lands, only some are subject to the rest of the planning requirements.  Some counties, based on population and growth trends, had or have a choice whether to plan under the GMA process or the pre-GMA process; others do not.

A central feature of GMA planning is that counties designate urban growth areas (UGA) and must plan for all urban growth to happen in those areas alone.  Cities are not allowed to annex and generally not even to extend urban services to places not within the urban growth area.  The state forecasts population growth for each county and the county is required to designate where development to support the future population will happen.

The Growth Management Hearings Board hears and determines allegations that a government agency has not complied with the GMA or the related Shoreline Management Act (SMA, Chapter 90.58 RCW).  A 1991 law amended the GMA to create three regional boards, but a 2010 law consolidated them into one. SMA jurisdiction was added in 1996.  The board's administrative rules of practice and procedure are found in the Washington Administrative Code (Title 242-02 WAC). Hearings Board members are appointed by the governor to staggered three year terms.

References

External links
 MRSC: Growth Management and Comprehensive Planning in Washington
 Growth Management Act Laws and Rules
 Washington State Legislature Planning
RIDGE Records. 1923–2015. 9.31 cubic feet (9 boxes). At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
http://www.futurewise.org/growth-management-act#:~:text=%20Key%20Growth%20Management%20Act%20Provisions%20%201,and%20cities%20fully%20planning%20under%20the...%20More%20

Washington (state) law
1990 in American law
1990 in Washington (state)

Washington State Growth Management Act


Scott E. Fraser is an American biophysicist and Provost Professor of Biological Sciences and Biomedical Engineering at the University of Southern California (USC). He is also the Elizabeth Garrett Chair in Convergent Bioscience and Director of Science Initiatives, where he is helping to launch USC's Initiative in Convergent Bioscience. In addition, he holds joint appointments in the Departments of Physiology and Biophysics, Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Pediatrics, Radiology, and Ophthalmology.

Fraser and his colleagues are known for their development of light and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) microscopy techniques for imaging the dynamics of embryonic development. More recently his research team has taken these imaging techniques into disease models and clinical medicine, in areas ranging from eye disease to cancer.

Fraser began his scientific career studying Physics (B.S. with honors, Harvey Mudd College, 1976) and Biophysics (Ph.D. with distinction, Johns Hopkins University, 1979) before joining the faculty at the University of California, Irvine in 1980, where he eventually become Chairman of the Department of Physiology and Biophysics. In 1990, Fraser moved to the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) to serve as the Anna L. Rosen Professor of Biology, Professor of Engineering and Applied Science, and the Director of the Biological Imaging Center at the Beckman Institute. He was also the Founding Director of the Caltech Brain Imaging Center from 2002 to 2008, a founding member of the Kavli Nanoscience Institute, and served as the Director of the Rosen Center for Biological Engineering from 2008 to 2012.

In the fall of 2012, Fraser moved to USC to take a Provost Professorship in the USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, the Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Keck School of Medicine, and the Viterbi School of Engineering.

Fraser has published more than 200 peer-reviewed scientific papers. He has received 63 U.S. patents for inventions in biological imaging, chemistry, and nanotechnology. He is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the European Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering. He was recently nominated to the National Academy of Inventors, the highest professional distinction accorded to academic inventors. Throughout his career, he has served as an advisor to several different corporations, organizations, and foundations, and has launched several startup companies, such as Clinical Micro Sensors and Varocto Inc.

References

External links

Official web page at USC
Official Translational Imaging Center web page at USC
Scott Fraser on Translational Imaging at the 2014 USC Global Conversation event

Living people
American biophysicists
Developmental biologists
Experimental physicists
University of Southern California faculty
California Institute of Technology faculty
University of California, Irvine faculty
Harvey Mudd College alumni
Johns Hopkins University alumni
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fellows of the American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering
Year of birth missing (living people)
Members of the National Academy of Medicine

Scott E. Fraser


The Nanjing Union Theological Seminary () is the flagship theological seminary of Protestant Christianity in China today. It is managed by the China Christian Council.

Prior to the founding of the People's Republic of China, the institution had its beginnings as Nanjing Theological Seminary, established in 1911. In November 1952, ten other theological seminaries in East China would join it to form Nanjing Union Theological Seminary. In 1961, Yanjing Union Theological Seminary of Beijing would likewise join, making a total of twelve seminaries which formed the new seminary.

Seminary during the Japanese occupation
During the massacre in Nanjing during December 1937, the pre-consolidated Nanjing Theological Seminary housed thousands of Chinese civilians in an effort to offer protection from the Japanese soldiers. However, Christian affiliated schools and seminaries suffered during the Japanese Invasion, and many were unofficially moved into unoccupied areas of Free China.

During the People's Republic of China
In early 1952, the Three-Self Patriotic Movement worked to reform theological education. The new government saw Christianity as a potentially subversive power and seminaries lost funds from overseas denominations. Y. T. Wu was at the head of a committee to work towards the union of seminaries in East China. By November 1952, eleven theological seminaries from East China were incorporated as Nanjing Union Theological Seminary:

 Trinity Theological Seminary, Ningbo (宁波三一圣经学院)
 Central Theological Seminary, Shanghai (上海圣公会中央神学院)
 China Theological Seminary, Hangzhou (杭州中国神学院)
 China Baptist Theological Seminary, Shanghai (上海中华浸会神学院)
 Jiangsu Baptist Bible College, Zhenjiang (镇江浸会圣经学院)
 Ming Dao Bible Seminary, Jinan (济南明道圣经学院)
 Nanjing Theological Seminary (南京金陵神学院)
 North China Theological Seminary, Wuxi (无锡华北神学院)
 Minan Theological Seminary, Changzhou (漳州闽南神学院)
 Fujian Union Seminary, Fuzhou (福州福建协和神学院)
 Cheloo Theological Seminary, Jinan (济南齐鲁神学院)

In 1961, a twelfth institution joined the union, Yanjing Union Theological Seminary, Beijing (燕京协和神学院).

In December 1952, K. H. Ting was elected by the board of directors as the new principal. The union brought together a wide theological spectrum of instructors and students.

The seminary has long been the main center for training religious leaders, and was reopened as one of China's primary institutions for religious study in 1981.

Protestantism regained popularity in China during the 1980s, and the Nanjing Union Theological Seminary, which was the only graduate-level seminary at the time, began publishing the journals Nanjing Theological Review and  Religion (or Zongjiao), the latter in collaboration with the Nanjing University.

Historical figures and people associated with the Seminary
 Jin Mingri, pastor of Zion Church of Beijing, an independent Christian church in Beijing.
 Francis Wilson Price, American professor at the Seminary who remained at the Seminary throughout Japanese occupation
 John Leighton Stuart, professor of New Testament Literature and Exegesis and an American Missionary who remained in China during Japanese occupation
 Hubert Lafayette Sone, professor of Old Testament and American missionary during the occupation
 K. H. Ting, long-time president of the Seminary and Chinese Christian leader
 Wang Weifan, alumnus and professor of the seminary
 Y. T. Wu, founder of the Three-Self Patriotic Movement

References

External links
 Official site (in Chinese)
Frank Williston Papers 1924-1966 Collection includes correspondence concerning the Nanking Theological Seminary during the Nanking Massacre, December, 1937.

Protestant seminaries and theological colleges
Protestantism in China
Three-Self Patriotic Movement

Nanjing Union Theological Seminary


Raimona National Park is located in extreme western part of Assam, India. It is spread across Gossaigaon and Kokrajhar subdivisions of Kokrajhar district of BTR.

History

It was declared a National Park on 5 June 2021 by the announcement of Assam's Chief Minister Himanta Biswa Sarma on the occasion of World Environment Day at Gandhi Mandap, Guwahati. On 9 June 2021; it became as National Park through an Assam Gazette Notification no.FRW.02/2021/27 dtd. 8 June 2021. It is a part of a contiguous forest patch with an area of  covering the northern part of the notified Ripu Reserve Forest (), which forms the westernmost buffer to Manas Tiger Reserve in the foothills of Eastern Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot. The present Raimona National Park was originally recommended as Ripu-Chirang Wildlife Sanctuary being part of Ripu reserved forest and Chirang reserved forest being adjacent a part of it was also mooted to be within. Those were made owing to its significance for conservation of Asian elephants, gaur or Indian "bison" and golden langur, all of which have large populations in the area. It is also part of Chirang-Ripu Elephant Reserve.

Description
The boundary of Raimona National Park is marked by the Sankosh River on the west, along the inter-state boundary of West Bengal and Assam from Indo-Bhutan border up to fire line Ride-6 southwards (BP30) and Saralbhanga River on the east, runs northwards till it touches the Indo-Bhutan international boundary on the north and remaining part of Ripu Reserve Forest on the south. The southern boundary runs eastwards along the fire line Ride-6 up to Pekua River where it runs at 90 degrees southwards till it meets the fire line Ride-3.

The area is located along the Himalayan foothills and together with Phibsoo Wildlife Sanctuary of Bhutan and Buxa Tiger Reserve of West Bengal forms a fairly large trans-boundary conservation landscape of more than .

Biodiversity

Raimona National Park is famous for golden langur, an endemic species (with Bhutan) which has been named as the mascot of Bodoland region. It also has Asian elephant, Bengal tiger, clouded leopard, gaur, chital, four to five species of hornbills, more than 150 species of butterflies, 190 species of birds, 380 varieties of plants and orchids. It is already on the global map for being an important bird and biodiversity area.

Wildlife

Fauna
Being a moist deciduous and semi-evergreen forest, this National Park is rich in biodiversity. It has four non-human primates, slow loris, Assamese macaque, Rhesus monkey and capped langur. Other noteworthy mammals found in this national park includes Chinese pangolin, dhole or Asian wild dog, Himalayan black bear, crab-eating mongoose, jungle cat, leopard cat, Asian golden cat, Bengal tiger, leopard, clouded leopard, Asian elephant, gaur, Himalayan serow, sambar, chital, hog deer, barking deer, crestless Himalayan porcupine and hispid hare.

Avifauna

Raimona forest harbours more than 260 bird species and confirmed presence of minimum 227 avian species that includes 7 globally threatened avian fauna out of which two species were critically endangered such as White-rumped vulture and Slender-billed vulture ; five vulnerable viz., Greater spotted eagle, Great hornbill, Wreathed hornbill, Rufous-necked hornbill , Lesser adjutant as well as seven near threatened species. Amongst these, there were a total 43 migratory bird species and 184 were residential bird species as per Choudhury (2000). These includes a total 45 species of aquatic birds and 182 species of terrestrial birds as observed in the field and described by Grimmett et al. (2016). Among all the recorded avian fauna, Black-crested bulbul,  Black drongo and Golden- fronted leafbird were respectively three highly dominant species found in all the habitat types of Raimona National Park. Passeriformes holds around 116 species (51%) making it the dominant in terms of species richness. Avifauna includes critically endangered white-bellied heron, swamp francolin, kaleej pheasant, grey peacock pheasant, Indian peafowl, Oriental darter, lesser adjutant, collared falconet, slender-billed vulture, white-backed vulture, besra, black baza, Jerdon's baza, osprey, Bengal florican, now perhaps extirpated, ibisbill, green imperial pigeon, mountain imperial pigeon, red-breasted parakeet, great pied hornbill, occasional rufous-necked and grey hornbills, wreathed hornbill, hill myna and scaly thrush.

References

National parks in Assam
Kokrajhar district

Raimona National Park


Irene Jai Narayan (23 February 1932 – 29 July 2011) was an Indian-born teacher and politician, who had a significant influence on politics in Fiji. She came to Fiji in 1959 after marrying Jai Narayan, a well known school Principal in Suva, and began her career as a teacher. She taught in DAV Girls School and MGM High School in Suva before entering politics.

Member of Legislative Council

In 1966, she was handpicked by the then leader of the Federation Party, A. D. Patel to contest the Suva Indian Communal seat in the Legislative Council against Andrew Deoki. Deoki was an experienced political campaigner, having represented Suva in the Legislative Council since 1959 and had wide social contacts. He was the only non-Federation Indian member elected in the 1963 elections. A.D. Patel was of the opinion that a female candidate would be able to counteract some of Deoki's influence in the constituency. In the end Irene Narayan won easily by 5,676 votes to 2,779 votes. She increased her majority in the 1968 by-election. For a long time, she remained the sole Indian female member of the Legislative Council.

Member of House of Representatives

Irene Narayan was elected to the Dominion of Fiji's House of Representatives in the 1972, 1977 (March), 1977 (September) and 1982 elections, from the Suva Indian Communal Constituency. In 1977 when the National Federation Party split into two factions, she joined the "Flower" faction, with Jai Ram Reddy, opposed to Sidiq Koya's "Dove" faction. In the September, 1977 election, the "Flower" faction won most of the seats reserved for Indians, Jai Ram Reddy became the Leader of the Opposition and Irene Narayan played an influential role within the "Flower" faction. In January 1977, The Fiji Times honoured her as its Woman of the Year.

Resignation from NFP

She served as president of the party from 1976 to 1979.  She was also the Opposition Whip from 1977 to 1979, and Deputy Leader of the Opposition from 1979 to 1985.  In 1985, following the resignation of Jai Ram Reddy, she narrowly lost a bid to lead the opposition, to Sidiq Koya. Relations between her and the new leader remained strained and she resigned from the National Federation Party (NFP) after electoral setback in a by-election, accusing Koya of favouring his own supporters over party unity and stating that "the NFP has no future and is no longer virile as an opposition party."

Member of Alliance Party

Between 1985 and 1987, the NFP again went through internal turmoil and many of its Parliamentarians resigned from the Party, but while most joined the fledgling Fiji Labour Party, Irene Narayan surprised everyone by joining the Alliance Party, which she had bitterly opposed throughout her political career.  The Alliance Party was aware that she would not be able to hold the Suva City Indian Communal seat on its ticket and so rewarded her with the marginal seat of Suva Indian National Constituency. The Alliance had never lost this seat but in the general election of 1987, the loss of this seat led to the narrow defeat of the Alliance Party.

Post coup politics

Following two military coups in 1987, she was one of the few Indo-Fijians who agreed to serve (as Minister of Indian Affairs) in the transitional government of 1987–92, a government that was widely condemned by many of her fellow Indo-Fijians for promulgating a constitution which many saw as racist as it ensured ethnic Fijian political supremacy. She served as a Senator from 1994 to 99, and in 1985 co-founded the Fiji Indian Congress. Although a Hindu, she played a leading role in the founding of the Christian Democratic Alliance in 1999.

Early in 2005, Narayen joined the National Alliance Party, a new party founded by Ratu Epeli Ganilau as an attempt to revive the defunct Alliance Party. She participated in the official launch of the party on 8 April 2005.

See also

 National Federation Party

References

1932 births
2011 deaths
National Federation Party politicians
Alliance Party (Fiji) politicians
Indian members of the House of Representatives (Fiji)
Indian members of the Senate (Fiji)
Indian members of the Legislative Council of Fiji
Indian emigrants to Fiji
Fijian Hindus
Politicians from Lucknow
Politicians from Suva
20th-century Fijian women politicians
20th-century Fijian educators
20th-century Fijian politicians
21st-century Fijian politicians
21st-century Fijian women politicians

Irene Jai Narayan


NC may refer to:

Places
 New Caledonia, special collectivity of France
 North Carolina, a U.S. state
 Northren Cyprus, a self-declared state on the island of Cyprus

Fowk
 Naga Chaitanya, an Indien Telugu film actor; sometimes nicknamed by the initials of his first and middle name, NC

Computin an internet
 NC a complexity class named efter Nick Pippenger
 NCsoft, a producer o MMORPGs such as Lineage
 nc command for Netcat, a computer network utility
 Network computer, a diskless desktop computer in the late 1990s
 Norton Commander, an orthodox file manager program
 The Nostalgia Critic, a critic o movies an shaws, maistly o the 80's an 90's
 PernMUSH, an online gemme based on Anne McCaffrey's Pern novels
 Microsoft Active Directory's Namin Context

Transport
 Northren Air Cargo, an American cargo airline IATA designator
 Naitional Jet Seestems, an Australian charter airline IATA designator
 Curtiss NC, an American flyin boat nicknamed the "Nancy boat"
 NC-4, the first aircraft tae cross the atlantic (wi multiple stops)
 NC, the beginnin o registries for American ceevil aircraft
 NC, an internaitional maritime distress signal

Science an technology
 Effective nummer o codons, a measur tae study the state o codon uisage biases in genes
 Nanocoulomb, an SI unit o electric charge
 Nasal cannula, a device uised tae deliver supplemental oxygen
 Neural crest, a transient component o the ectoderm
 Not Connected, an unconnectit pin in electronic equipment (or no connection)
 Normally closed, an electrical switch where the default poseetion is closed
 Numerical control, a method o automatic operation o machine tools
 NC (complexity) Nick's Class, the set o decision problems decidable in polylogarithmic time on a parallel computer wi a polynomial nummer o processors
 Naitional coarse, a Unified Thread Standard for screw, nut, an bolts
 Nanocapsule
 Noise Curve, a graphic representation o soond pressur levels relative tae human hearin perception

Ether uises
 NC, no comment
 NC-17, Motion Pictur Association o America film ratin seestem code indicatin that childer unner 17 are nae admitted
 National Certificate, name o an eddicational awaird in various kintras includin Ireland an Scotland
 New Centre, a poleetical pairty in Fraunce
 Nathan Connolly, lead guitarist for Snaw Patrol
 Newcomer
 Non Cognizable Offense (LAW)
NC Paint - Nitrocellulose paint

NC


Adelbert Theodor Edward Wangemann (February 13, 1855 – June 1906), known as Theo, was a German who emigrated to the United States. In 1888, he began working for Thomas Edison as an assistant at his laboratory in West Orange, New Jersey. In 1889, Edison sent Wangemann to keep the phonograph at the 1889 Paris Expo in good working condition. The trip was extended and Wangemann made numerous early sound recordings on wax cylinders, some of which were lost for more than 100 years. Found in 1957, but not revealed until 2012, they include the only known recording of Otto von Bismarck.

Early years
Wangemann was born in Berlin, Germany to Adalbert Theodor Wangemann (1815–1878) and Theodosia Sophie Ottilie Wangemann (née Rhenius) (died 1878). He and his older brother, born September 23, 1852, were named after their father. To distinguish them, he was called "Theo"; his first name also had a slight spelling change. He and his brothers later added third names, he added the name Edward; and his brother, Emil. By 1900, his brother had also changed his first name to Albert. The family was musical; his grandfather, Johannes Theodosius Wangemann, performed, directed, composed and taught music; and his cousin, Otto Wangemann, was an organist, composer and musicologist. His uncle, Otto's father, was also an organist.

Wangemann composed music, played and occasionally performed at the piano. Wangemann's father had a business selling paper goods and a factory where he manufactured envelopes and embossed monograms on writing paper. Both Wangemann and his brother worked there. His brother took over the business around 1876, but after their parents died in 1878 the brothers emigrated to the United States the following year, his brother in February and he in August. He first settled in Chelsea, Massachusetts and later moved to Boston. In 1884, he moved to New York City, where he became a naturalized citizen on October 11, 1884.

Early sound recordings
Wangemann began working as an assistant to Thomas Edison at his laboratory in 1888, experimenting to find the best ways of recording music and voice. He has been called the world's first professional recording engineer. Recordings were made individually on wax cylinders, with no means of duplicating them. By December 1888, Wangemann had tried recording several originals at once, but this was insufficient to meet the request for the recordings, which were not yet being sold. Wangemann accompanied some performers on piano, ending with a brief seven-note "trademark" improvisation that annoyed some who heard these recordings. In March and April 1889, he recorded a number of musicians, including Hans von Bülow and John Knowles Paine.

The following year, after Edison learned that his phonograph exhibit sent to the 1889 Paris Expo was not operating properly, he sent Wangemann and a few assistants to Europe to ensure the phonographs worked properly, but later extended the trip; Wangemann used the opportunity to make additional recordings for use in exhibitions. While he was in Europe, more than 2,000 blank cylinders were sent to Wangemann for this purpose and he recorded a number of prominent individuals, musicians, comedians, singers and statesmen, and the trip turned into a public relations sensation. Beginning with artists who were at the Paris Expo, Wangemann recorded pianist Édouard Risler, the popular French café-concert singer Paulus, and Charles-Marie Widor, an organist, among others. On August 29, 1889, he recorded four Hungarian singers, the Tacianu Sisters. This cylinder became a particular favorite of Wangemann's, and he lauded the "international value" of the new American invention, which enabled a German audience to hear a Russian melody once sung by a Hungarian quartet on a French stage.

Edison, also traveling to Europe, sent Wangemann to Berlin, where he was to show the phonograph to Werner von Siemens. Von Siemens, a friend and business partner of Edison's, provided a special room for Wangemann, as well as a German mechanic to assist him while he toured Germany and Austria-Hungary. Wangemann made a number of experimental recordings of prominent musicians and individuals. He also demonstrated the phonograph and recordings to different groups. On September 18, he gave a demonstration to scientists and professors in Heidelberg and two days later, to a group of electrotechnicians in Frankfurt. Wangemann's behavior at both of these events provoked some criticism from the audience. In Heidelberg, where Edison was the guest of honor, he took over the address, during which some of his comments were viewed as out of turn. In Frankfurt, where he spoke to a wider audience in a packed hall, he condescendingly made them look unsophisticated and feel unworthy of his time.

During this period, Wangemann received invitations for demonstrations from Bismarck, Helmuth von Moltke, Wilhelm II and Czar Alexander III of Russia, then in Berlin. Wilhelm II did not make a recording, but his young sons, Wilhelm, Eitel Friedrich and Adalbert did record a cylinder. Wangemann's tour drew much attention, attracting additional invitations that made his schedule and budget difficult to maintain; those extending the invitations were equally hard pressed for time, and visits often had to be scheduled more than once. Some also wanted repeat visits from Wangemann.

Edison and those traveling with him returned to the United States on September 28; Wangemann and his wife, who accompanied him, stayed in Europe. The first attempt to meet with Bismarck having failed, a second opportunity arose a week later for Wangemann and his wife to go to Friedrichsruh, to Bismarck's castle. While there, he recorded a wax cylinder, as reported in the press at the time, but which was then lost for more than 120 years. Bismarck, like everyone, was fascinated with the new invention and Wangemann spent several hours with him, even missing his train to Berlin. Wangemann met with Czar Alexander III on October 12. After weeks of postponements, this invitation that had meant so much to Wangemann found the Czar little interested in the phonograph and not interested in making a recording. A second visit took place, but shortly beforehand, the Czar was prevented from seeing Wangemann. While in Berlin, waiting to see the czar, Wangemann gave daytime demonstrations to artists, scientists and civil servants; in the evening, he gave demonstrations in private clubs to their invited members, often drawing crowds. Shortly before leaving Berlin, he organized a charity concert, where he charged admission, possibly his only European appearance with an entrance fee. Despite the 20-mark entrance fee, then equivalent to an average working man's weekly wage, the hall was full, showing how eager people were to hear the voices of Bismarck and the German crown princes.

Wangemann, his wife and his assistants left Berlin on October 20 and, having been unable to see von Moltke on their first attempt, spent two days with him on the way to Vienna. Of the four cylinders recorded by von Moltke, only two are known to exist today. Wangemann's recordings of von Moltke are the only known recordings still audible of someone born in the 18th century. Wangemann and his party arrived in Vienna on October 25, where Wangemann held more demonstrations and made more recordings, including that of Alfred Grünfeld and Johannes Brahms. His primary motivation for the trip, however, was the invitation from Franz Joseph I to show him the phonograph. Again, though, Wangemann had to wait days for the meeting, during which time, he gave interviews to journalists, one a day, very likely recording them in demonstrating their utility. The journalist granted the interview was to transcribe it and share it with other newspapers. Wangemann met with Franz Joseph I on two occasions, but did not record his voice. On December 2, 1889, the night before leaving Vienna, Wangemann recorded Brahms playing an abbreviated version of one of his compositions.

Wangemann returned to Berlin at one point, borrowing money from Siemens & Halske. Edison ordered him to return to the States not long after, having learned about the sums Wangemann had borrowed. Before leaving, Wangemann made some further recordings in Cologne, including one of Otto Neitzel, his only recording. Before Wangemann returned from Europe, Edison stopped the recording and experimentation at his laboratory. Wangemann worked at the laboratory until June 1890, then left for another exposition, after which he began working at the New York Phonograph Company, staying until 1893. He then stopped recording professionally, although he continued his own experiments at home, occasionally sharing them with Edison. Information about his work for the next several years is sketchy until he returned to Edison Laboratory in 1902, eventually resuming his experiments in the room where he had previously worked, as photographs show.

Wangemann was killed in a train accident in Brooklyn in early June 1906. Many of his recordings, in particular, the one of Bismarck, were considered lost for over 100 years. The wax cylinders were found in 1957, when Edison's home and laboratory were donated to the United States' National Park Service but they were unlabeled and remained unidentified until 2011, when two sound historians were able to deduce their identity. On January 30, 2012, the Thomas Edison National Historical Park announced that it had the original wax cylinder recordings of Bismarck, von Moltke, and others.

Personal
Wangemann married Anna L. Blake in Boston on February 21, 1884. His uncle was Hermann Theodor Wangemann, who became director of the Berlin Missionary Society in 1865. While visiting a relative in Altenkirchen, Ottilie Klaube (née Wangemann and called "Odo"), Wangemann recorded a message, presumed to be to his brother. Julius and Ottilie Klaube also spoke on the recording, made on January 14, 1890.

He was a member of New York's Pleiades Club, where he played piano on certain occasions.

According to the FamilySearch International Genealogical Index, which in 1950 made a microfilm of parish documents held at the Lutheran church in Luisenstadt, a section of Berlin, an Adelbert Theodor Wangemann was born on February 13, 1855, and christened on April 13, 1855.

See also
 Thomas Edison National Historical Park

Notes

References

External links
 "Otto von Bismarck hat wieder eine Stimme" Hamburger Abendblatt (February 1, 2012). Retrieved February 5, 201

Emigrants from the German Empire to the United States
Engineers from Berlin
German record producers
1855 births
1906 deaths
Railway accident deaths in the United States

Adelbert Theodor Wangemann