Ray Milland (born Alfred Reginald Jones; 3 January 1907 – 10 March 1986) was a Welsh-American actor and film director. He is often remembered for his portrayal of an alcoholic writer in Billy Wilder's The Lost Weekend (1945), which won him Best Actor at Cannes, a Golden Globe Award, and ultimately an Academy Award—the first such accolades for any Welsh actor.

Before becoming an actor, Milland served in the Household Cavalry of the British Army, becoming a proficient marksman, horseman and aeroplane pilot. He left the army to pursue a career in acting and appeared as an extra in several British productions before getting his first major role in The Flying Scotsman (1929). This led to a nine-month contract with MGM, and he moved to the United States, where he worked as a stock actor. After his MGM contract ended, Milland was picked up by Paramount, which used him in a range of lesser speaking parts, usually as an English character. He was loaned to Universal for the Deanna Durbin musical Three Smart Girls (1936), and its success led to Milland's playing the lead role in The Jungle Princess (also 1936) alongside new starlet Dorothy Lamour. The film was a big success and raised both to stardom. Milland remained with Paramount for almost 20 years.

Milland appeared in many other notable films, including Easy Living (1937), Beau Geste (1939), Billy Wilder's The Major and the Minor (1942), opposite a corrupt John Wayne in Reap the Wild Wind (1942), The Uninvited (1944), Fritz Lang's Ministry of Fear (1944), The Big Clock (1948), and The Thief (1952)—for which he was nominated for his second Golden Globe. Two standout films later in his career include Alfred Hitchcock's Dial M for Murder (1954) and Love Story (1970). After leaving Paramount, he began directing and moved into television acting. Once Paramount Pictures' highest-paid actor, Milland co-starred alongside many of the most popular actresses of the time, including Gene Tierney, Jean Arthur, Grace Kelly, Lana Turner, Marlene Dietrich, Maureen O'Hara, Ginger Rogers, Jane Wyman, Loretta Young, and Veronica Lake.

Early life
Milland was born Alfred Reginald Jones on 3 January 1907 in Neath, Wales, the son of Elizabeth Annie (née Truscott) and steel mill superintendent Alfred Jones. He was schooled independently before attending the private King's College School in Cardiff. He also worked at his uncle's horse-breeding farm before leaving home at age 21. Of his parents, he wrote in his 1974 autobiography:

Household Cavalry
Prior to becoming an actor, Milland served in the Household Cavalry. An expert shot, he became a member of his company's rifle team, winning many prestigious competitions, including the Bisley Match in England. He won the British Army Championship in both pistol and rifle marksmanship.

While stationed in London, Milland met dancer Margot St. Leger, and through her was introduced to American actress Estelle Brody. Brody queried Milland's commitment to an army career, which led him into buying himself out of the forces in 1928 with the hope of becoming an actor. (According to one account, he was able to support himself with a $17,000 inheritance from his aunt. Another said he was forced to drop out when his father refused to continue subsidising him.)

Acting career

Early appearances
His first appearance on film was as an uncredited extra on the E.A. Dupont film Piccadilly (1929). After some unproductive extra work, which never reached the screen, he signed with a talent agent named Frank Zeitlin on the recommendation of fellow actor Jack Raine.

His prowess as a marksman earned him work as an extra at the British International Pictures studio in Arthur Robison's production of The Informer (1929), the first screen version of the Liam O'Flaherty novel. While he was working on The Informer, he was asked to test for a production being shot on a neighbouring stage. Milland made a favourable impression on director Castleton Knight, and was hired for his first acting role as Jim Edwards in The Flying Scotsman (also 1929). In his autobiography, Milland recalls that on this film set, it was suggested that he adopt a stage name; he chose Milland from the "mill lands" area of his Welsh hometown of Neath.

His work on The Flying Scotsman resulted in him being granted a six-month contract over the course of which Milland starred in two more Knight-directed films, The Lady from the Sea and The Plaything (both 1929). Believing that his acting was poor, and that he had won his film roles through his looks alone, Milland decided to gain some stage experience to improve his ability. After hearing that club owner Bobby Page was financing a touring company, Milland approached him in hopes of work. He was given the role of second lead in a production of Sam Shipman and Max Marcin's The Woman in Room 13. Despite being released from the play after five weeks, Milland felt that he had gained valuable acting experience.

Move to the US, 1930–1932

In between plays, Milland was approached by MGM vice-president Robert Rubin, who had seen the film The Flying Scotsman. MGM offered Milland a nine-month contract at $175 a week, based in Hollywood. He accepted, leaving the United Kingdom in August 1930. MGM used Milland as a 'stock' player, selecting him for small speaking parts in mainstream productions.

Milland's first experience in making a Hollywood film resulted in a humiliating scene on the set of Son of India (1931), when the film's director Jacques Feyder berated Milland's acting in front of the entire crew. Despite this setback, the studio executives talked Milland into staying in Hollywood, and in 1930, he appeared in his first US film Passion Flower. Over the next two years, Milland appeared in minor parts for MGM and a few films for which he was lent to Warner Bros; he was often uncredited. His largest role during this period was as Charles Laughton's nephew in Payment Deferred (1932).

While in this first period working in the United States, Milland met Muriel Frances Weber, whom he always called "Mal", a student at the University of Southern California. Within eight months of first meeting, the two were married. The ceremony took place on 30 September 1932 at the Riverside Mission Inn. The couple had a son, Daniel, and adopted a daughter, Victoria.

Shortly after making Payment Deferred, Milland found himself out of work when MGM failed to renew his contract. He spent five months in the US attempting to find further acting work, but after little success and a strained relationship with his father-in-law, he decided to head back to Britain, hoping that two years spent in Hollywood would lead to roles in British films. Milland cashed in his contracted first-class return ticket to Britain and found an alternative, cheaper way back home. Muriel remained in the States to finish her studies, and Milland found temporary accommodation in Earl's Court in London.

Return to Britain
Milland found life in Britain difficult, receiving little regular work, although he finally found parts in two British films, This Is the Life and Orders Is Orders (both 1933). Neither was a breakthrough role.

Back in the US and Bolero
Then, in 1933, Roosevelt's reforms to the U.S. banking sector led to a temporary weakness in the dollar, allowing Milland to afford a return to the United States. He returned to California, and found a small flat on Sunset Boulevard, promising Muriel that he would buy a home once he was financially stable.

With little prospect of finding acting work, Milland took on menial jobs, including working for a bookie. He decided to find regular employment and through connections made during his time in the UK, he was offered the job of assistant manager of a Shell gas station on Sunset and Clark.

On his return from his successful Shell interview, he passed by the gates of Paramount Pictures, where he was approached by casting director Joe Egli. Paramount was filming the George Raft picture Bolero (released in February 1934), but an injury to another British actor had left the studio looking for an urgent replacement. Egli offered Milland a two-week contract, at ten times the salary the assistant job would pay. Milland took the acting role.

After completing Bolero, Milland was offered a five-week guarantee by Benjamin Glazer to work on an upcoming screwball comedy starring Bing Crosby and Carole Lombard entitled We're Not Dressing (also 1934). During filming, he appeared in a scene with George Burns and Gracie Allen, which Milland recalls as falling into an "ad-libbed shambles" that he felt was better than the original script. The film's director Norman Taurog was so impressed, he rang the chief production executive and suggested that Milland be placed on a long-term contract. After a short meeting, Milland was offered a seven-year deal with Paramount starting at $175 a week. The contract gave Milland a secure income, and Muriel and he moved into an apartment on Fountain Avenue.

Milland later said "It all happened by luck and I was just there at the right place at the right time."

Paramount and The Jungle Princess

During his first contract with Paramount, Milland was used as part of the speaking cast, but never as a top-of-the-bill actor. He had a supporting role, for instance, in the original The Glass Key (1935) with George Raft.

Milland was lent to Universal for Next Time We Love (1936), with Margaret Sullavan and James Stewart. Back at Paramount he was in The Return of Sophie Lang  (1936) and The Big Broadcast of 1937 (1936).

He was contacted by Joe Pasternak, who was looking for an 'English' actor for the lead in his new picture, Three Smart Girls (1936). Although Pasternak worked for Universal Studios, Paramount had agreed to lend Milland out for the film.

On returning to Paramount after Three Smart Girls was wrapped, Milland was used as a test actor to find a new starlet for The Jungle Princess (1936). When the studio chose Dorothy Lamour for the lead, Milland wrote in his autobiography that Lamour was confused to find that he was not to be her male lead and she requested Milland to be her co-star. Paramount was not keen, but when Three Smart Girls was pre-released to rave reviews, they gave Milland the role. By the end of 1936, Milland was being considered for leading roles, and Paramount rewrote his contract, resulting in the tripling of his salary.

Movie star

As leading man 1937–1939
After taking a break in Europe, Milland was cast as Captain Hugh "Bulldog" Drummond in Bulldog Drummond Escapes (1937).

Milland was then in Wings over Honolulu (1937) with Wendy Barrie, and then in Easy Living (1937), a classic comedy with Jean Arthur directed by Mitchell Leisen.

Milland did Ebb Tide (1937) with Frances Farmer and was then loaned to RKO for Wise Girl (1937) with Miriam Hopkins.

Back at Paramount, Milland was reunited with Lamour in Her Jungle Love (1938) and Tropic Holiday (1938). He then did a military drama for William Wellman, Men with Wings (1938), co-starring Fred MacMurray.

Milland did a comedy, Say It in French (1938), and then Hotel Imperial (1939) with Marlene Dietrich, during the production of which Milland suffered a near-fatal accident on the set. One scene called for him to lead a cavalry charge through a small village. An accomplished horseman, Milland insisted upon doing this scene himself. As he was making a scripted jump on the horse, his saddle came loose, sending him flying straight into a pile of broken masonry. Milland awoke in hospital, where he remained for a week with a badly damaged left hand, a three-inch gash to his head, and a concussion.

After recovering, he appeared as John Geste in Beau Geste (1939), alongside Gary Cooper and Robert Preston and directed by Wellman. The film was a huge hit. 20th Century Fox then borrowed him for Everything Happens at Night (1939) opposite Sonja Henie.

According to Milland, a second injury to his left hand occurred in 1939. As well as horse-riding, Milland enjoyed piloting aircraft and in his early career would lease single-seater planes. As a contracted starring actor, Paramount had insisted he give up this hobby. Instead, Milland took up woodworking and outfitted a machine shop at the back of his newly built house. While operating a circular saw, he slipped, catching one of his hands on the saw. The injury resulted in Milland losing a part of his thumb and severely damaging his tendons.

Milland believed that the injury left him with only 50% usage of his hand, but within weeks of the incident, he flew to Britain to star in French Without Tears. By the time he returned to America, war was declared in Europe. The year finished with the news that Muriel was pregnant with their son Daniel.

World War II

In 1940, Milland appeared in a selection of romantic comedies and dramas alongside some of the leading ladies of the time. These included Irene opposite Anna Neagle, The Doctor Takes a Wife opposite Loretta Young at Columbia, Arise, My Love opposite Claudette Colbert, and Untamed opposite Patricia Morison. He was a last minute replacement for Joel McCrea on Arise which meant he had to drop out of another film, Virginia.

When the United States entered World War II, Milland tried to enlist in the U.S. Army Air Forces, but was rejected because of his impaired left hand. He worked as a civilian flight instructor for the Army, and toured with a United Service Organisation South Pacific troupe in 1944.

As the Second World War continued, Milland found himself now appearing in more action pictures. He starred as a wannabe pilot in I Wanted Wings (1941) with Brian Donlevy, Veronica Lake, and William Holden. This was followed by Skylark (1942) with Claudette Colbert, and two films with Paulette Goddard: The Lady Has Plans (1942) and Cecil B. DeMille's Reap the Wild Wind (1942) alongside John Wayne, in which he was top billed above Wayne.

Milland starred in Are Husbands Necessary? (1942) and subsequently Billy Wilder's directorial debut, The Major and the Minor (1942) opposite Ginger Rogers.

Milland appeared in the all-star musical Star Spangled Rhythm (1943), in which he appeared as himself, singing "If Men Played Cards as Women Do," alongside Fred MacMurray, Franchot Tone, and Lynne Overman. He also made an appearance in the collaborative drama, Forever and a Day (1943).

He and Goddard then made The Crystal Ball (1943); thereafter, he was Ginger Rogers' leading man in Lady in the Dark (1944).

In 1944, Milland starred in the supernatural horror film, The Uninvited, which was notable for its serious treatment of ghosts and haunting main theme, and for making a star of Gail Russell. He then starred in Fritz Lang's film noir production of Graham Greene's Ministry of Fear (also 1944).

He also toured war theatres with USO Shows. At one performance a soldier heckled him, asking why he was not in the army. Milland replied, "With a war on? Are you crazy?"

The Lost Weekend, 1945
The pinnacle of Milland's career and acknowledgment of his serious dramatic abilities came when he starred in The Lost Weekend (1945). Milland recalled how after returning from an emcee engagement in Peru, he found a book delivered to his home, with a note from Paramount's head of production Buddy DeSylva that read, "Read it. Study it. You're going to play it." Milland found the book unsettling and felt its subject matter, that of an alcoholic writer, to be challenging and alien to him. He was also concerned that it would require 'serious acting', something that he believed he had not undertaken up to that point in his career. The film was to be produced by Charles Brackett and directed by Billy Wilder; the pair were also collaborating to write the screenplay. Milland had already worked with both men, having starred in the comedy The Major and the Minor (1942), and he was excited by their involvement.

Milland's main concern with taking on the role of Don Birnam in The Lost Weekend was that he might overact and look amateurish. After a shambolic attempt to act parts of the script while actually drunk, Milland quickly realized that he needed to understand alcoholism. After the cast and crew had arrived on location in New York, Milland was allowed to spend a night in a psychiatric ward of Bellevue Hospital, where the patients were suffering from alcoholism and delirium tremens. He found the experience extremely disturbing and left at three in the morning. Milland lost eight pounds for the role and spoke with the book's author, Charles R. Jackson, to gain insight into the illness. After the external shots in New York were complete, in which hidden cameras were used to capture Milland walking the streets, the crew returned to Hollywood. Milland found the set work far more challenging, knowing that the close-ups would give his acting no place to hide. Between the strain of acting and the morbidity of the subject, Milland's home life deteriorated and he left for a period of two weeks. When the shoot was over, Muriel and he left for a vacation in Canada. He later said that his role in The Lost Weekend "was the only part [he was] really proud of."

Returning to filming, Milland was assigned to a Mitchell Leisen-directed historical drama called Kitty (1945), opposite Paulette Goddard. He was meant to follow it with Olympia.

Instead, he did a romantic comedy, The Well-Groomed Bride opposite Olivia de Havilland. Many of the crew members on The Well-Groomed Bride had also worked on The Lost Weekend, and Milland recalled an encounter with a sound mixer, who told him that he had seen a rough cut of Weekend and thought Milland was not only sure to be nominated for an Academy Award, but that he would probably win. Milland had not considered himself worthy of an award, but over the next few months, he thought of little else, and was desperate to be nominated. After the first preview, reaction was mixed, but Brackett stated that they had produced "something really worthwhile". Milland found the initial feedback to his role congratulatory but hushed, leading him to feel that the film would bomb as a piece of cinema and would be seen as a social document. When the film was released in New York, the favourable reviews took both Milland and the studio by surprise. Milland was lauded, and he not only won that year's Academy Award for Best Actor, but also the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor–Drama, the Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor, the National Board of Review Award for Best Actor, and the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor. He was the first Welsh actor to win an Oscar, and when he collected the award from Ingrid Bergman, he gave one of the shortest acceptance speeches of any Oscar winner. His performance was so convincing, Milland was beleaguered for years by rumours that he actually was an alcoholic. He steadfastly asserted that he was not.

Milland's success in The Lost Weekend resulted in his contract being rewritten, and he became Paramount's highest-salaried actor. When the film was premiered across Europe, Milland was sent to attend each opening. When he appeared in Cardiff, the capital city of Wales, he was given the keys to the city.

1945–1950
Milland continued working as a leading man after his Oscar win, and stayed contracted to Paramount until the early 1950s. He was teamed with Teresa Wright in The Imperfect Lady (1946), directed by Lewis Allen. He replaced Alan Ladd in a Western with Barbara Stanwyck, California (1947), directed by John Farrow, which was a big hit.

Milland was reunited with Wright in The Trouble with Women (1947) and then starred opposite Marlene Dietrich in Golden Earrings (1947). He was one of many Paramount stars who made a cameo in Variety Girl (1947) then went to England to make So Evil My Love (1948), produced by Hal Wallis for director Lewis Allen.

Milland made a second film for Farrow, The Big Clock (1948), which has become one of his most highly regarded films. He then did his third film with Allen, Sealed Verdict (1948), and a third with Farrow, Alias Nick Beal (1949), which Milland later said was his favourite film.

In July 1948, Paramount suspended him for refusing a part in The Mark of Lucretia (which became The Bride of Vengeance). Milland commented, "it is a part that is out of my normal natural range as an actor."

Milland then went to Fox for the comedy, It Happens Every Spring (1949), and then made a fourth film with Farrow, Copper Canyon (1950). After this, Milland increasingly freelanced.

Other studios

At Columbia, Milland starred opposite Rosalind Russell in A Woman of Distinction (1950). Then, at MGM, he was directed by George Cukor in A Life of Her Own (1950) alongside Lana Turner, replacing Wendell Corey, who had quit the film just three days into filming.

Milland was directed by Jacques Tourneur in RKO's Circle of Danger (1951); set in the United Kingdom, it was the only time he filmed in his home country of Wales. At MGM he was in Night Into Morning (1951) and then a comedy, Rhubarb (1951).

Milland gave a strong performance in Close to My Heart (1951) at Warner Bros, in which he and Gene Tierney starred as a couple trying to adopt a child. His next film, Bugles in the Afternoon (1952), also at Warners, was a Western. He played in Something to Live For (1952), another study of alcoholism at Paramount, with Joan Fontaine.

Milland had a contract to make one film a year with Paramount (who released Pine-Thomas films). He was wanted by producer Harold Popkin to make The Thief but Paramount insisted he make Jamaica Run under their contract instead. The impasse was resolved by the intervention of Milland's agents at MCA and filming for Jamaica Run was pushed back. For The Thief (1952), his role was without dialogue, and he was nominated for a second Golden Globe. He later remarked that he was proud of the film.

After Jamaica Run (1953), Milland went to Columbia for Let's Do It Again (1953) with Jane Wyman.

He then starred opposite Grace Kelly and Robert Cummings in Alfred Hitchcock's Dial M for Murder (1954), originally shot in three dimensions. Although never admitted by either, rumours were rife at the time that Kelly and Milland were engaged in an affair, fuelled by notorious gossip columnist Hedda Hopper.

He starred with Phyllis Avery and Lloyd Corrigan in the CBS sitcom, Meet Mr. McNutley, from 1953 to 1955. He appeared in the role of an English and Drama professor at the fictitious Lynnhaven College. The sitcom was renamed The Ray Milland Show in its second season. Milland directed some episodes, and he soon had ambitions to direct features.

At Fox, Milland starred in The Girl in the Red Velvet Swing (1955).

Director

After leaving Paramount, Milland concentrated on directing. In his first directorial effort, a Western entitled A Man Alone (1955), Milland cast himself in the leading role. His co-stars included Mary Murphy and Ward Bond. The story depicts the aftermath of a stagecoach robbery. He did the film for a lesser fee in exchange for a chance to direct and a percentage of the profits

Milland starred in a TV adaptation of Markheim (1956) directed by Fred Zinnemann then starred in and directed Lisbon (1956), alongside Maureen O'Hara and Claude Rains. Like A Man Alone, it was distributed by Republic Pictures.

He directed episodes of The Ford Television Theatre and Schlitz Playhouse and starred in the features Three Brave Men (1956), The River's Edge (1957), a Western directed by Allan Dwan for Benedict Bogeaus, and High Flight (1957), an air force melodrama for Warwick Pictures in England.

He appeared in episodes of Suspicion and General Electric Theater, directing episodes of both. His third feature as director was The Safecracker (1958), which was shot in England.

Later career

Retirement and Markham
Milland then retired for six months before deciding to go back to work, commenting, "my wife told me I'd better get a job of some kind because I was making her a nervous wreck ... hanging around the house."

From 1958 to 1960, Milland starred in the CBS detective series, Markham, originally called Crisis.

During the making of the show Milland remarked, "it's becoming more and more of an effort to go on acting. I know it's a wonderful way to make a living but any job you don't like becomes difficult and I just don't like acting. I never have. I do it because I can't make a living any other way. Standing in front of a crew playing love scenes embarasses me. I'm as self conscious as hell and I want to get it over with. You get up too early and you finish too late and you feel like a lackey."

The show failed to capture the expected significant audience, even though it followed the western Gunsmoke.

He retired again, this time to the French Riviera in 1960. However, he soon became bored and started acting again.

AIP
Milland appeared in two Roger Corman AIP pictures. The first was The Premature Burial (1962) – the third of Corman's 'Poe Cycle'. He then portrayed Dr. Xavier in the well-received X: The Man with the X-ray Eyes (1963).

Also for AIP, he starred in the self-directed, apocalyptic science-fiction drama, Panic in Year Zero! (1962).

He continued to guest star on shows like The Alfred Hitchcock Hour, and he appeared in Quick, Let's Get Married (1964).

Broadway
Milland decided to return to the stage and appeared in a touring version of My Fair Lady. He enjoyed the experience, and in 1966, he took the lead role as Simon Crawford QC in the Broadway play, Hostile Witness, directed by Reginald Denham.

The play ran in New York from February until July of that year, after which Milland took the play on the road. In 1968, he reprised the role in a film of the same title, which he also directed. It was the last feature film he directed.

Character actor
He returned as a character actor in the late 1960s and the 1970s, appearing in such films as Daughter of the Mind (1969), a television film which reunited him with Gene Tierney.

In the late 1960s, Milland hosted rebroadcasts of certain episodes of the syndicated Western anthology series, Death Valley Days, under the title Trails West; the series' original host had been Ronald Reagan. He also guest-starred on Bracken's World and The Name of the Game as well as in TV movies like Company of Killers (1970), River of Gold (1971) and Black Noon (1971).

Milland had his biggest box office success in many years when he played Oliver Barrett III in Love Story (1970). In 1978 Milland reprised his role as Oliver Barrett lll in Oliver's Story, also written by Erich Segal

He was then in Embassy (1972), a British spy thriller.

In 1970, he said he worked only two to three months a year acting and spent the rest of the year relaxing, although he admitted that he had suffered some financial troubles since the sale of his yacht in 1964.

Horror and action movies; focus on television
In 1972, Milland starred in two horror films. One was Frogs, co-starring Sam Elliott and Joan Van Ark, in which Milland played a wealthy, cantankerous plantation owner who dumps waste materials in a swamp, causing an enormous disruption of nature. The second, The Thing with Two Heads, a blaxploitation film directed by Lee Frost, is considered a cult classic; Milland plays a brain surgeon with a terminal illness who transplants his head onto the healthy body of an American prisoner. The following year he was in The House in Nightmare Park (1973), a comedy chiller, and had the lead in the TV movie, Terror in the Wax Museum (1973).

He also turned in an appearance as a hand surgeon in the Night Gallery episode, "The Hand of Borgus Weems". He guest-starred in two episodes of Columbo, as a grieving widower in "Death Lends a Hand" (1971) and as a suspect in "The Greenhouse Jungle" (1972).

Milland was in such action films as: The Big Game (1974), The Student Connection (1974), and Gold opposite Roger Moore (1974). Then he did another TV horror film, The Dead Don't Die (1975). He appeared in Escape to Witch Mountain (1975) for Disney and guest starred on shows like Cool Million and Ellery Queen.

Around this time, Milland said that he planned on moving to Europe and that he accepted "the parts I figure I can get some enjoyment out of."

In 1975, Milland was the subject of an episode of the British biographical TV series, This Is Your Life.

Milland had a significant success with the TV miniseries, Rich Man, Poor Man (1976), receiving an Emmy nomination for Best Supporting Actor.

He also had roles in The Swiss Conspiracy (1976), Aces High (1976), Look What's Happened to Rosemary's Baby (1976), Mayday at 40,000 Feet! (1976), The Last Tycoon (1976), Seventh Avenue (1976), Oil (1977), Testimony of Two Men (1977), The Uncanny (1977), Slavers (1977), and The Pyjama Girl Case (1978), an Italian giallo set in Australia.

He starred in Cruise Into Terror (1978), The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries, Blackout (1978), and The Darker Side of Terror (1979).

He guest-starred as Sire Uri in Saga of a Star World (1978), the pilot episode of the original Battlestar Galactica television series. He reprised his role as Ryan O'Neal's father in Oliver's Story (1978) and appeared in some action films, including Spree (1979) and Game for Vultures (1979).

Milland guest-starred on several Aaron Spelling-produced shows such as Fantasy Island, The Love Boat, Charlie's Angels and Hart to Hart. In the latter, he appeared twice as Jennifer Hart's father.

He was top billed in The Attic (1980), but usually had supporting roles in TV movies like The Dream Merchants (1980), Our Family Business (1981), The Royal Romance of Charles and Diana (1982), Starflight: The Plane That Couldn't Land (1983), Cave In! (1983), and The Masks of Death (1984), a Sherlock Holmes adventure starring Peter Cushing and John Mills.

His last appearances were in The Sea Serpent (1985) and The Gold Key (1985). The latter was a mystery made specifically for video.

Personal life
Milland was married to Muriel Frances Weber from 30 September 1932 until his death on 10 March 1986. They had one biological son and one adopted daughter. Their son, Daniel, appeared in several minor acting roles in the 1960s and died of an apparent suicide in March 1981, at the age of 41.

Milland became a naturalised American citizen in the 1940s. He supported the Republican Party and publicly backed Thomas E. Dewey in the 1944 United States presidential election
as well as Richard Nixon in the 1968 presidential election.

Death
Milland died of lung cancer at the Torrance Memorial Medical Center in Torrance, California, on 10 March 1986. He was 79 years old. In line with his instructions, no funeral was held. His body was cremated, and his ashes were scattered into the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Redondo Beach, California.

Filmography

Radio appearances

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

 Ray Milland at Virtual History

1907 births
1986 deaths
20th-century American male actors
20th-century British Army personnel
20th-century Welsh male actors
Best Actor Academy Award winners
Best Drama Actor Golden Globe (film) winners
California Republicans
Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor winners
Deaths from lung cancer in California
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Paramount Pictures contract players
People from Neath
Welsh military personnel
Royal Horse Guards soldiers
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II
United States Army civilians
Welsh emigrants to the United States
Welsh male film actors
Welsh film directors
Welsh male television actors

Ray Milland


KARR (1460 kHz) is an AM radio station licensed to Kirkland, Washington, United States. It airs a Christian radio format and broadcasts to the Seattle metropolitan area. It is owned by James A Dalke and is an affiliate of the Family Radio Network, based in Oakland, California. KARR airs several Christian ministry broadcasts from noted teachers such as RC Sproul, Alistair Begg, Ken Ham, John F. MacArthur, Adriel Sanchez, Dennis Rainey, John Piper, & others as well as traditional and modern hymns & songs by Keith & Kristyn Getty, The Master's Chorale, Fernando Ortega, Chris Rice, Shane & Shane, Sovereign Grace Music, Sara Groves, & multiple other Christian and Gospel music artists.

KARR uses a directional antenna at all times, broadcasting at 5,000 watts by day and 2,500 watts at night. Its transmitter is off 127th Place NE in Kirkland.

History
The 1460 frequency in the Seattle area first was used by KYAC, which signed on in 1964. It was owned by Carl-Dek, Inc. and aired a country music format, and would later flip to an R&B format.  The station was a daytimer, broadcasting at 5,000 watts but required to go off the air at sunset to avoid interfering with other stations on AM 1460. In 1975, KYAC moved to 1250 AM.

Also in 1975, a new station signed on at AM 1460.  KILO aired an album rock format. In 1977, it became KGAA, a country music station owned by Monroe Broadcasting, a Spokane-based company that also owned that city's country station, KGA.

In 1979, KGAA flipped to an MOR format. The station was sold that year to Community Communications of Gresham, Oregon. In 1983, the station was granted the right to broadcast full-time by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).

The station changed its call sign to KARR in 1984, and flipped to an adult standards format, utilizing the "Music of Your Life" network feed.

In 1985, KARR went dark due to financial problems.  The following September, KARR returned to the air as an affiliate of Family Radio, and would be owned Family Radio itself.

On February 12, 2014, Family Radio announced that KARR would suspend operations on 28 February due to the expiration of the lease at its transmitter location. KARR returned to the air with reduced power from a temporary transmitter site on 23 February 2015.

Effective August 6, 2015, the station was sold to James A. Dalke, for a price of $3,000. Dalke has continued to operate KAAR with oldies programming, restoring it to 250 watts, and adding an FM translator in Redmond. An application has been filed to move the translator to Seattle.

References

External links

ARR
ARR
Kirkland, Washington
Family Radio stations
Radio stations established in 1965

KARR (AM)


West Head is the name of three separate headlands on New Zealand's South Island.

 , at the entrance to Okains Bay on Banks Peninsula.
 , at the end of a peninsula on the northern shore of Queen Charlotte Sound. See Ruakākā Bay.
 , a rocky headland at the entrance to Tory Channel.

The third of these is the easternmost point of the South Island, and should not be confused with West Cape, the westernmost point of the South Island. West Head marks the western side of the entrance to Tory Channel, and the corresponding East Head is located on Arapaoa Island.

Easternmost point of South Island
West Head, at the entrance to Tory Channel, is the easternmost point of the South Island. However, two other distinct headlands have very similar longitudes, sometimes leading to confusion and erroneous claims.

West Head, at the entrance to Tory Channel, is recorded by Land Information New Zealand as longitude 174.3154°E, and the easternmost tip is measured at 174.3157°E (174°18'57"E).

Cape Jackson, LINZ longitude 174.3134°E, easternmost tip measured at 174.3150°E (174°18'54"E), is about 100 metres further west.

Both West Head and Cape Jackson are at the end of long, narrow and difficult-to-reach peninsulas in the Marlborough Sounds. For this reason third-place Cape Campbell, LINZ longitude 174.2760°E, easternmost tip 174.2773°E (174°16'34") is sometimes mistakenly considered the easternmost point, but is about three kilometres further west.

Note that LINZ coordinates may refer to a prominent feature such as a hill top, while easternmost tips are measured on Wikimapia. There may also be discrepancies between coordinate systems used by different sources.

External references
West Head, from Land Information New Zealand.

Headlands of the Marlborough Region
Marlborough Sounds
Headlands of Canterbury, New Zealand

West Head


The Tobin's Beach Site is a prehistoric archaeological site in Brookfield, Massachusetts.  Discovered in 1963, it is one of a small number of sites in New England known for preserving elements of the Adena culture.  The site was declared eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986, and was formally listed in an enlarged state in 2018.

The site was discovered on a local campground in 1963.  Preliminary investigation of the site yielded fourteen burials.  Artifacts connecting the site to the Adena culture include a drilled clay tube, and a projectile point made of stone from Ohio.  Of less certain age were a series of postholes, arranged in a semi-circle that is consistent with an interpretation as a wigwam site.

The site has been claimed as an ancestral graveyard by the local Nipmuc people.

See also

National Register of Historic Places listings in Worcester County, Massachusetts

References

Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Worcester County, Massachusetts
Adena culture

Tobin's Beach Site


The Daruma pond frog (Pelophylax porosus) is a species of frog in the family Ranidae. It has two subspecies, P. porosus porosus (the Tokyo Daruma pond frog) and P. porosus brevipodus (the Nagoya Daruma pond frog). It is endemic to Japan. The average size of males is 3.5 to 6.2 cm, while females are from 3.7 to 7.3 cm.

Its natural habitats are temperate grassland, rivers, freshwater marshes, ponds, irrigated land, and canals and ditches. It is not considered threatened by the IUCN.

References

Endemic amphibians of Japan
Pelophylax
Amphibians described in 1868
Taxa named by Edward Drinker Cope
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot

Daruma pond frog


Leydig's organ (named after the German histologist Franz Leydig who first described it in 1857) is a unique structure found only in some, but not all, elasmobranchs (sharks and rays). Nestled along the top and bottom of the esophagus, it produces red blood cells, as do the spleen and special tissue around the gonads. Heterophilic and eosinophilic granulocytes are produced, closely resembling structures of mammalian plasma cells. Leydig's organ is part of the immune system.

Notes

References

Fish anatomy

Leydig's organ


René Huyghe (3 May 1906 – 5 February 1997) was a French writer on the history, psychology and philosophy of art. He was also a curator at the Louvre's department of paintings (from 1930), a professor at the Collège de France and from 1960 a member of the Académie Française. He was the father of the writer François-Bernard Huyghe.

Biography
René Huyghe studied philosophy and aesthetics at the Sorbonne and the École du Louvre. Made a curator of the Louvre's department of paintings in 1930, he rose to chief curator and professor of the école du Louvre in 1936, aged only 30. He founded and edited the reviews L'Amour de l'Art and Quadrige. He was one of the first figures in France to make films on art, such as his Rubens (winner of a prize at the Venice Biennale), and founded the International Federation of Films on Art.

During the Second World War Huyghe helped the director of the French Musées Nationaux Jacques Jaujard to organise the evacuation of the Louvre's paintings into the unoccupied zone and took charge of their protection until the Liberation of France. In 1950, he was elected to the Collège de France, occupying the chair of psychology of the plastic arts. In 1966, he won the Erasmus Prize at The Hague.

In 1974, Huyghe was made director of the Musée Jacquemart-André. It was at this time that he first met the Japanese philosopher Daisaku Ikeda with whom he published a dialogue titled Dawn After Dark. The book was re-released in 2007 by the London-based publishing house I.B. Tauris.

As he was the creator of many TV shows about art abroad, he failed to realize his TV projects, always refused by French TV officials. With the victory of the socialist candidate at the presidential election in May 1981, he was « persona non grata » on French TV.

Huyghe was president of UNESCO's international committee of experts for saving Venice and served on the Conseil artistique des Musées de France.

Honours
Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour
Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit
Commander of the Order of Leopold

Main works
Histoire de l'art contemporain (Alcan, 1935)
Cézanne (Plon, 1936)
 L'univers de Watteau, dans Hélène Adhémar, Watteau : sa vie, son œuvre. Catalogue des peintures et illustration (P. Tisné, 1950)
La Peinture d'Occident Cent chefs-d'œuvre du musée du Louvre (Nouvelles éditions françaises, 1952)
Dialogue avec le visible (Flammarion, 1955)
L'Art et l'Homme, Vol I (editor) (Larousse, 1957) Vol II (1958) Vol III (1961)
Van Gogh (Flammarion, 1958)
L'Art et l'Homme (Flammarion, 1960)
Delacroix ou le Combat solitaire (Hachette, 1964)
Les Puissances de l'image (Flammarion, 1965)
Sens et destin de l'art (Flammarion, 1967)
L'Art et le Monde moderne (ed. with Jean Rudel) 2 volumes (Larousse, 1970)
Formes et Forces (Flammarion, 1971)
La Relève du Réel, la peinture française au XIXe siècle, impressionnisme, symbolisme (Flammarion, 1974)
Ce que je crois (Grasset, 1974)
La nuit appelle l'aurore, dialogue orient-occident sur la crise contemporaine (with Daisaku Ikeda) (Flammarion, 1976)
La Relève de l'Imaginaire, la peinture française au XIXe siècle, réalisme et romantisme (Flammarion, 1981)
Les Signes du temps et l'Art moderne (Flammarion, 1985)
Se perdre dans Venise (with Marcel Brion) (Arthaud, 1987)
Psychologie de l'art, résumé des cours du Collège de France (Le Rocher, 1991)
Dawn After Dark: A Dialogue with Daisaku Ikeda (I.B. Tauris, 2007)

References

1906 births
1997 deaths
20th-century essayists
20th-century French historians
20th-century French male writers
20th-century French non-fiction writers
20th-century philosophers
Academic staff of the Collège de France
Curators from Paris
École du Louvre alumni
French art critics
French art historians
French essayists
French male non-fiction writers
French philosophers
Grand Cross of the Ordre national du Mérite
Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour
Members of the Académie Française
People associated with the Louvre
People from Arras
Philosophers of art
Philosophy writers
Social philosophers
University of Paris alumni

René Huyghe


Ricardo Joaquín Alfaro Jované (August 20, 1882 – February 23, 1971) served as 16th President of Panama from January 16, 1931 to June 5, 1932. He belonged to the Liberal Party.

Early career
Alfaro was born in Panama City in 1882.
He began a career in the diplomatic service in 1905 as under-secretary for foreign affairs. He was first assigned to the U.S. in 1912 as legal counselor of the Panamanian legation for the Panama-Costa Rica border dispute. Alfaro was also involved in settling numerous disputes arising from the construction of the Panama Canal. From 1915 to 1918, he was judge of a joint commission between Panama and the United States for settling claims relating to expropriations for the construction of the Canal. Later, in 1934 to 1936 and again, in 1953, Alfaro was involved in critical negotiations relating to Panama–United States relations concerning the Canal.

From 1922 to 1930, and from 1933 to 1936, Alfaro was Panamanian envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to the U.S. In 1946, he was appointed Panama's minister of foreign relations; however, he resigned in 1947 to protest a proposed agreement with the U.S. relating to the Panama Canal.

He was elected as the first presidential designate by the National Assembly for the term 1928-1930. In 1931, after a revolution in Panama, Alfaro was invited to become his country's president, a position he accepted and held from January 16, 1931 through June 5, 1932. In 1940, he was defeated in the presidential election; however continued to serve his country by helping to draft a new constitution for Panama in 1944.

Working for the United Nations
A significant portion of Alfaro's service to his country related to his work in the United Nations. In 1945, he headed the U.N. Relief and Recovery Administration mission to ten Latin American republics. He was also Panama's delegate to the United Nations Conference on International Organization in San Francisco and chairman of the special committee that drafted the Spanish text of the United Nations Charter of 1945.

In 1949, Alfaro was chairman of the legal committee of the Third session of the United Nations General Assembly that drew up the text of the Convention on Genocide. From 1949 to 1953 served as member of the International Law Commission. In that capacity, he promoted the Declaration on the Rights and Duties of States, and his draft became the basis of the version eventually approved by the commission. On June 3, 1949, he was appointed by that commission as rapporteur on the desirability of establishing a permanent court to try persons guilty of genocide.

Academic career
In addition to his governmental and diplomatic experience, Alfaro's professional acumen derived from a background in law. He was formerly a professor of civil and international law in Panamanian universities. He was also a member of the subcommittee that drafted treaties and arbitrated for the Inter-American Conference on Conciliation and Arbitration held in the U.S. in 1929. From 1959 to 1964, Dr. Alfaro was a judge at the International Court of Justice, serving his last three years as vice-president. In 1964, Dr. Alfaro retired from his official duties.

Alfaro was the author of many articles and books on Panama, and was the recipient of numerous awards and citations for a career dedicated to improving conditions both in his country and globally.

Alfaro died in his eighty-ninth year in Panama City on February 23, 1971. He was survived by his wife, Amelia Lyons de Alfaro; three sons, Victor Ricardo of Washington, Ivan Jose of Lima, Peru, and Rogelio Edwin of Panama City; two daughters, Mrs. Frank H. Weller (née Amelia or Amelita Victoria) of Potomac, Maryland, and Mr. H. Cabell Maddux (née Yolanda Maria) of McLean, Virginia; and many grandchildren and greatgrandchildren, among them the singer Nancy Ames, and attorney and TV personality Elbert Alfaro in Miami Lakes, Florida.

Alfaro's legal philosophy
Throughout his activities as professor of law and member of various judicial bodies, Alfaro promoted the notion of universal criminal jurisdiction and government accountability at all levels. An example to that effect can be seen in that during the deliberations on the law of treaties at the ILC, he opposed the notion that an international agreement reached by exchange of notes did not require ratification by the state legislature of the contracting states.

He held the Nuremberg Principles in high esteem and viewed them as an integral part of the principles of world order and world peace.

References

1882 births
1971 deaths
People from Panama City
National Liberal Party (Panama) politicians
Presidents of Panama
Vice presidents of Panama
Panamanian judges
International Court of Justice judges
20th-century Panamanian lawyers
Panamanian academics
Panamanian diplomats
Panamanian judges of United Nations courts and tribunals
Panamanian expatriates in the United States

Ricardo J. Alfaro


Pinterest is an American image sharing and social media service designed to enable saving and discovery of information (specifically "ideas") like recipes, home, style, motivation, and inspiration on the internet using images and, on a smaller scale, animated GIFs and videos, in the form of pinboards. The site was created by Ben Silbermann, Paul Sciarra, and Evan Sharp and it is operated by now Pinterest, Inc., and headquartered in San Francisco.

History
Pinterest emerged from an earlier app created by Ben Silberman and Paul Sciarra called Tote which served as a virtual replacement for paper catalogs. Tote struggled as a business, significantly due to difficulties with mobile payments. At the time, mobile payment technology was not sophisticated enough to enable easy on-the-go transactions, inhibiting users from making many purchases via the app. Tote users however were amassing large collections of favorite items and sharing them with other users. The behavior struck a chord with Silberman, and he shifted the company to building Pinterest, which allowed users to create collections of a variety of items and share them with each other.

The development of Pinterest began in December 2009, and the site launched the prototype as a closed beta in March 2010. Nine months after the launch, the website had 10,000 users. Silbermann said he wrote to the first 5,000 users, offering his phone number and even meeting with some of them. The launch of an iPhone app in early March 2011 brought in more downloads than expected. This was followed by an iPad app and Pinterest Mobile, a version of the website for non-iPhone users. Silbermann and a few programmers operated the site out of a small apartment until the summer of 2011.

Pinterest grew rapidly during this period. On August 10, 2011, Time magazine listed Pinterest in its "50 Best Websites of 2011" article. In December 2011, the site became one of the top 10 largest social network services, according to Hitwise data, with 11 million total visits per week. Pinterest won the Best New Startup of 2011 at the TechCrunch Crunchies Awards. For January 2012, comScore reported the site had 11.7 million unique U.S. visitors, making it the fastest site ever to break through the 10 million unique visitor mark. At the 2012 Webby Awards, Pinterest won Best Social Media App and People's Voice Award for best functioning visual design.

On March 23, 2012, Pinterest unveiled updated terms of service that eliminated the policy that gave it the right to sell its users' content. On August 10, 2012, Pinterest altered their policy so that a request or an invitation was no longer required to join the site. In October 2012, Pinterest launched business accounts allowing businesses to either convert their existing personal accounts into business accounts or start from scratch.

In April 2017, Pinterest removed their  post "liking" feature as it seemed redundant to "boards", which are user collections of posts. Users' existing indexes of liked posts were converted into a collection ("board") named as such.

Although starting out as a "social network" with boards, in later years the company has put increasing emphasis in visual search and e-commerce, such as shopping catalogs.

In February 2019, The Wall Street Journal stated that Pinterest secretly filed for an initial public offering (IPO) of stock. The total valuation of the company at the time reached $12 billion. They went public on April 18, 2019, at $19 per share, closing the day at $24.40 per share.

For 2020, Pinterest reported advertising revenue of $1.7 billion, an increase of 48% from 2019. On March 3, 2021, Pinterest announced "Pinterest Premiere", a video ads product "which will appear in people's feeds, targeted to their interests and other characteristics." Later in April, chief financial officer Todd Morgenfeld announced plans to spend more money on marketing in order to offset a potential slowdown in activity as the United States economy reopened with more people getting vaccinated for COVID-19.

On October 20, 2021, Bloomberg reported that PayPal is interested in acquiring Pinterest, with a potential price of around $70 a share. PayPal's board and management decided later that same week to back away from a potential deal.

In December 2021, Pinterest acquired the editing and video creation app Vochi. Following this, In May 2022, it was announced that Pinterest released a new video streaming app "Pinterest TV studio". The app is aimed at allowing users to live-stream on its platform and use different devices for different angles while live-streaming on the Pinterest platform.

On June 28, 2022, Pinterest announced that co-founder, CEO and President, Ben Silberman would transition to the newly created role of Executive Chairman, and online commerce expert Bill Ready will become Chief Executive Officer and a member of the Board of Directors.

In January 2023 at CES, Pinterest announced its partnership with LiveRamp, a data enablement platform to create data 'clean rooms' for selected advertisers on the platform. These 'clean rooms' will allow Pinterest's ad partners to utilize first-party data for personalized ads without having to share the data with Pinterest. With data privacy a large concern for online platforms and its users, this partnership is an effort to stimulate ad business on the platform while keeping its user's data safe and in compliance with new data collection regulations. The first advertiser to pilot this feature will be grocery retailer, Albertsons with a winter healthy eating campaign.

Features and content

The creators behind Pinterest summarized the service as a "catalogue of ideas" that inspires users to "go out and do that thing", although that it is not an image-based "social network". It also has a very large fashion profile. In later years, Pinterest has also been described as a "visual search engine".

Pinterest consists mainly of "pins" and "boards". A pin is an image that has been linked from a website or uploaded. Pins saved from one user's board can be saved to someone else's board, a process known as "repinning". Boards are collections of pins dedicated to a theme such as quotations, travel, or weddings. Boards with multiple ideas can have different sections that further contain multiple pins. Users can follow and unfollow other users as well as boards, which would fill the "home feed".

Content can also be found outside Pinterest and similarly uploaded to a board via the "Save" button, which can be downloaded to the bookmark bar on a web browser, or be implemented by a webmaster directly on the website. It was originally called the "Pin it" button but was renamed in 2016 to "Save" due to international expansion, making the site more intuitive to new users.

In August 2016, Pinterest launched a video player that lets users and brands upload and store clips of any length straight to the site.

Exploring

The home feed is a collection of Pins from the users, boards, and topics followed, as well as a few promoted pins and pins Pinterest has picked. On the main Pinterest page, a "pin feed" appears, displaying the chronological activity from the Pinterest boards that a user follows.

In October 2013, Pinterest began displaying advertisements in the form of "Promoted Pins". Promoted Pins are based on an individual user's interests, things done on Pinterest, or a result of visiting an advertiser's site or app.

In 2015, Pinterest implemented a feature that allows users to search with images instead of words.

In March 2020, Pinterest introduced the "Today" tab on the home feed which shows trending pins.

In October 2022, Pinterest announced its video-focused "Idea Pins" feature will now include the ability to add popular tracks from top artists, thanks to new licensing deals with Warner Music Group, Warner Chappell Music, Merlin and BMG.

Visual search
In 2017, Pinterest introduced a "visual search" function that allows users to search for elements in images (existing pins, existing parts of a photo, or new photos) and guide users to suggested similar content within Pinterest's database. The tools powered by artificial intelligence are called Pinterest Lens, Shop the Look, and Instant Ideas.

Shopping and catalogs
The platform has drawn businesses, especially retailers, to create pages aimed at promoting their companies online as a "virtual storefront".

In 2013, Pinterest introduced a new tool called "Rich Pins", to enhance the customer experience when browsing through pins made by companies. Business pages can include various data, topics, and information such as prices of products, ratings of movies or ingredients for recipes.

In June 2015, Pinterest unveiled "buyable pins" that allows users to purchase things directly from Pinterest. In October 2018, the buyable pins feature was replaced by "Product Pins"

In March 2019, Pinterest added product catalogs and personalized shopping recommendations with the "more from [brand]" option, showcasing a range of product Pins from the same business.

Pinterest Analytics
Pinterest Analytics is much like Google Analytics. It is a created service that generates comprehensive statistics on a specific website's traffic, commonly used by marketers. Impressions, Engagements, Pin clicks, Outbound clicks, Saves are some aspects of user data that Pinterest Analytics provides. It also collects data that depicts the percentage of change within a specific time, to determine if a product is more popular on a specific day during the week, or slowly becoming unpopular. This data helps marketing agencies alter their strategies to gain more popularity, often changing the visual content to appeal to the Pinterest community. The "Most Clicked" tab in Pinterest Analytics demonstrates products that are more likely to sell. Through the access of Pinterest Analytics, companies receive insight to data via API.

Creator Fund
In the "creator economy" era, social media platforms need to understand how to appease content creators to grow and sustain the platform's success. Thus, many sites now seek to support influencers and micro-celebrities to maintain engagement on the platform. However, Pinterest has typically differed from the standard of social media sites, with its conception creating a digital and visual bookmarking platform for displaying personal identities and tastes. The Pinterest interface emphasizes the content of pins and links while the users are the media through which the content is communicated, spreading among users through pinning and repinning. Therefore, Pinterest reduces the competitive and comparative nature of typical social media behavior by not centering its experience on whom people follow and their followers. The individualized formulation of the app makes it not very social; instead, it serves its pursuit to discover, develop, and refine personal interests. Pinterest faces a decline in a period with the creator economy where platforms like Tik-Tok allow content creators to directly engage with users, maintaining consistent engagement and presence on the app. Pinterest is not known for being a helpful app for content creators. However, the company is hoping to change that element. In 2021, the site announced its new Creator Fund, which aims to support creators and their ability to monetize their efforts to preserve engagement and interactions on the platform. The program's initial launch increased creators' overall monthly views by 72%. Pinterest will invest $1.2 million in underrepresented creators via cash grants, ad credits, and equipment. Ultimately, Pinterest recognizes the importance of the creator economy of social media. Without fostering the success of creators, the platform will lose engagement against other platforms that support the creator experience.

Teen Safety Features
In order to protect young users, Pinterest has endeavoured to protect profiles of all users aged 16 and under by defaulting these profiles to private. Furthermore, users under the age of 16 by removing all followers for the under age 16 users, who can then review their followers. Moreover, new affordances have been created surrounding group board invites and messaging within the application, restricting these functions to mutual followers. This rollout is following the review by NBC news by Stephen Sauer of the nonprofit Canadian centre for Child Protection found that 'his homepage "almost immediately" filled with images of children often dressed in similarly revealing attire, several of which had received sexually suggestive comments'. In order to further the agenda of protecting young users, Pinterest has added more affordances for reporting 'spam', 'inappropriate cover images' and options to 'call-out when content may involve a minor'.

Usage
Pinterest is a free website that requires registration to use. The service is currently accessible through a web browser, and apps for iOS, Android, and Windows 10 PCs.

In February 2013, Reuters and ComScore stated that Pinterest had 48.7 million users globally, and a study released in July 2013 by French social media agency Semiocast revealed the website had 70 million users worldwide. In October 2016, the company had 150 million monthly active users (70 million in the U.S. and 80 million outside it), rising to 175 million monthly active users by April 2017 and 250 million in September 2018. As of July 2020, there were over 400 million monthly active users.

Around 2020, Pinterest was thought to flood search results in Google Images. In 2022 Google claimed to have performed changes to increase "diversity" in the search results. Pinterest claimed that, as a consequence of Google's changes of November 2021, "U.S. monthly active users coming to Pinterest from the web, desktop and mobile web declined around 30% year over year".

Demographics
Pinterest has largely appealed to women, especially with its early user base. A 2020 report found that over 60% of the global users are women. Although men have not been a primary audience on Pinterest, it's been found that their usage has increased 48%. In terms of age distribution, users between the ages of 18 and 25 have grown twice as fast as those over the age of 25. However, both users between the ages of 18 and 25 and users between the ages of 25 and 40 have been driving the growth of Pinterest.

In science
Data from Pinterest has been used for research in different areas. For example, it is possible to find patterns of activity that attract the attention of audience and content reposting, including the extent to which users specialize in particular topics, and homophily among users. Another work focused on studying the characteristics, manifestations and overall effects of user behaviors from various aspects, as well as correlations between neighboring users and the topology of the network structure. There is also study, that based on Pinterest proposed a novel pinboard recommendation system for Twitter users.

Corporate affairs

Pinterest, Inc. is headquartered in San Francisco, California. Originally it was based in Palo Alto before moving in 2012.

In early 2011, the company secured a US$10 million Series A financing led by Jeremy Levine and Sarah Tavel of Bessemer Venture Partners. In October 2011, the company secured US$27 million in funding from Andreessen Horowitz, which valued the company at US$200 million.

Co-founder Paul Sciarra left his position at Pinterest in April 2012 for a consulting job as entrepreneur in residence at Andreessen Horowitz.

On 17 May 2012, Japanese electronic commerce company Rakuten announced it was leading a $100 million investment in Pinterest, alongside investors including Andreessen Horowitz, Bessemer Venture Partners, and FirstMark Capital, based on a valuation of $1.5 billion.

On September 20, 2012, Pinterest announced the hiring of its new head of engineering, Jon Jenkins. Jenkins came from Amazon, where he spent eight years as an engineering lead and was also a director of developer tools, platform analysis and website platform.

In late October 2013, Pinterest secured a $225 million round of equity funding that valued the website at $3.8 billion.

In 2014, Pinterest generated its first revenue, when it began charging advertisers to promote their wares to the site's millions of hobbyists, vacation planners, and do-it-yourselfers. Ads on the site could generate as much as $500 million in 2016, estimates Michael Pachter, an analyst at Wedbush Securities.

In 2015, investors valued Pinterest, Inc. at $11 billion, making it a "unicorn" (a start-up with a valuation exceeding $1 billion).  the company was valued at $12 billion.

In June 2017, Pinterest raised $150 million from a group of existing investors.

In August 2020, Pinterest paid $89.5 million to cancel a large office space lease on a to-be-completed complex in San Francisco's SoMa area, near their current headquarters.

In April 2023, Pinterest announced a partnership with Amazon to show third-party advertisements on the website, which will allow users to be redirect to Amazon to make purchases.

Acquisitions
In March 2013, Pinterest acquired Livestar. Terms were not disclosed. In early October 2013, Pinterest acquired Hackermeter. The company's co-founders, Lucas Baker and Frost Li, joined Pinterest as engineers.

In April 2015, Pinterest acquired the team from Hike Labs, which had been developing a mobile publishing application called Drafty.

In May 2016, Pinterest acquired mobile deep linking startup URX to help accelerate its content understanding efforts. The URX team's expertise in mobile content discovery and recommendation would prove critical to helping Pinterest understand its corpus of over 100 billion pins, to better recommend them to its users.

On August 23, 2016, Pinterest announced that it would be acquiring the team behind Instapaper, which will continue operating as a separate app. The Instapaper team will both work on the core Pinterest experience and updating Instapaper.

On March 8, 2017, Pinterest said it had acquired Jelly Industries, a small search-engine company founded by Biz Stone.

In December 2021, Pinterest announced the acquisition of the Vochi app.

In June 2022, Pinterest announced their definitive agreement to acquire San Francisco based AI-driven fashion shopping platform, The Yes. Pinterest announced that it had closed the acquisition on June 10, 2022.

Criticism

Copyrighted content
Pinterest has a notification system that copyright holders can use to request that content be removed from the site. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) safe harbor status of Pinterest has been questioned given that it actively promotes its users to copy to Pinterest, for their perpetual use, any image on the Internet. Pinterest users cannot claim safe harbor status and as such are exposed to possible legal action for pinning copyright material. Pinterest allows users to transfer information; intellectual property rights come to play.

A "nopin" HTML meta tag was released by Pinterest on 20 February 2012 to allow websites to opt out of their images being pinned. On 24 February 2012, Flickr implemented the code to allow users to opt out.

Pinterest released a statement in March 2012 saying it believed it was protected by the DMCA's safe harbor provisions.

In early May 2012, the site added automatic attribution of authors on images originating from Flickr, Behance, YouTube and Vimeo. Automatic attribution was also added for Pins from sites mirroring content on Flickr. At the same time, Flickr added a Pin shortcut to its share option menu to users who have not opted out of sharing their images.

Content creators on sites such as iStock have expressed concern over their work being reused on Pinterest without permission. Getty Images said that it was aware of Pinterest's copyright issues and was in discussion with them.

Legal status
In February 2012, photographer and lawyer Kirsten Kowalski wrote a blog post explaining how her interpretation of copyright law led her to delete all her infringing pins. The post contributed to scrutiny over Pinterest's legal status. The post went viral and reached founder Ben Silbermann who contacted Kowalski to discuss making the website more compliant with the law.

Terms of service
Pinterest's earlier terms of service ambiguously asserted ownership of user content. A March 2012 article in Scientific American criticized Pinterest's self-imposed ownership of user content stating that "Pinterest's terms of service have been garnering a lot of criticism for stating in no uncertain terms that anything you 'pin' to their site belongs to them. Completely. Wholly. Forever and for always."

At the time, Pinterest's terms of service stated that "By making available any Member Content through the Site, Application or Services, you hereby grant to Cold Brew Labs a worldwide, irrevocable, perpetual, non-exclusive, transferable, royalty-free license, with the right to sublicense, to use, copy, adapt, modify, distribute, license, sell, transfer, publicly display, publicly perform, transmit, stream, broadcast, access, view, and otherwise exploit such Member Content only on, through or by means of the Site, Application or Services." Under these terms all personal, creative and intellectual property posted to the site belonged to the website and could be sold. A Scientific American blogger pointed out that this contradicted another line in the terms of service, that "Cold Brew Labs does not claim any ownership rights in any such Member Content".

Several days later, Pinterest unveiled updated terms of service that, once implemented in April, ended the site's previous claims of ownership of posted images. "Selling content was never our intention", said the company in a blog post.

Use by scammers
Social engineering of Pinterest users by scammers to propagate surveys promising free products was noted by the computer security firm Symantec in March 2012. Scam images, often branded with a well-known company name like Starbucks, offer incentives such as gift cards for completing a survey. Once the link in the description is clicked, users are taken to an external site and asked to re-pin the scam image. Victims are phished for their personal information and the promised free product is never delivered.

Censorship
In its 2019 "Who Has Your Back?" report, the Electronic Frontier Foundation gave Pinterest a three (out of six) star rating, highlighting improvements in the company's transparency reports about government takedown notices, but criticizing the lack of a clear commitment to notify users about content removals and account suspensions.

In March 2017, Chinese authorities blocked Pinterest without explanation. The block was imposed during the annual National People's Congress, a politically sensitive period in the country. While Pinterest is not known for its political content, experts identified the ban as consistent with Chinese government efforts to use website blocks and the "Great Firewall" as an industrial policy tool to promote Chinese tech companies (e.g., Baidu, Youku, Weibo, and Renren) by censoring foreign tech companies. Huaban, Duitang and many other websites bear similarities to Pinterest.

Internet service providers in India had blocked Pinterest following a Madras High Court order in July 2016 to block a list of around 225 "rogue websites indulging in online piracy and infringement of copyright". The block was temporary.

Content policies and user bans
In October 2012, Pinterest added a new feature allowing users to report others for negative and offensive activity or block other users if they do not want to view their content, a bid that the company said aimed to keep the site "positive and respectful."

In December 2018, Pinterest began to take steps to block health misinformation from its recommendations engine, and blocked various searches, content, and user accounts that related to, or promoted, unproved and disproven cancer treatments. The company said it also blocked multiple accounts that linked to external websites that sold supplements and other products that were not scientifically validated. In January 2019, Pinterest stopped returning search results relating to vaccines, in an effort to somehow slow the increase of anti-vaccination content on the platform. Prior to the measure, the company said that the majority of vaccination-related images shared on the platform were anti-vaccination, contradicting the scientific research establishing the safety of vaccines.

In June 2019, anti-abortion group Live Action was banned from Pinterest; the company said the permanent suspension was imposed for spreading "harmful misinformation, [which] includes medical misinformation and conspiracies that turn individuals and facilities into targets for harassment or violence."

In December 2019, following a campaign from the activist group Color of Change, Pinterest announced that it would restrict content that advertises wedding events on former slave plantations.

Culture of discrimination
In 2020, two former Pinterest employees, Ifeoma Ozoma and Aerica Shimizu Banks went public about their experience at Pinterest. Both women recounted experiences of discrimination at work, including racist comments, unequal pay, and punishment for speaking out. Additionally, Ozoma claims that the company failed to protect her when personal information was shared with hate sites by a colleague of hers. In response, Pinterest released an apology statement and CEO Ben Silbermann sent an email to all employees pushing the company to do better.

In August 2020, dozens of Pinterest staff participated in a virtual walkout in support of two former colleagues who publicly accused the company of racism and gender discrimination.

In December 2020, Pinterest agreed to pay its former Chief Operating Officer $20M+ to settle a lawsuit alleging discrimination.

In November 2021, Pinterest settled a lawsuit that alleged racial and gender discrimination. The company agreed to spend $50 million on improving its diversity and to release former employees from non-disclosure agreements. The settlement was in regard to allegations made by Ifeoma Ozoma and Aerica Shimizu Banks, who went public in June 2020 with accusations of racism and discrimination at the company.

Logo
The logo consists of a letter P on a red circle. This logo represents the pin.

See also
 clipix
 List of image-sharing websites
 Timeline of social media
 Visual marketing

References

External links

Android (operating system) software
IOS software
2010 establishments in California
Companies based in San Francisco
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Image-sharing websites
Internet properties established in 2010
Online companies of the United States
American social networking websites
Webby Award winners
American companies established in 2010
2019 initial public offerings

Pinterest


Guillermo Lora (31 October 1922 – 17 May 2009) was a Trotskyist leader in Bolivia who was active in the Revolutionary Workers' Party (POR) from the early 1940s and was its best known leader.

Lora became active in the POR when it was in the process of building links with the Bolivian labor movement, most notably the Federation of Bolivian Mine Workers (FSTMB). Following the POR's participation in the 1952 "Bolivian National Revolution", its power was quickly circumscribed by the ruling Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR). In the 1960s, when a faction of the POR sought to follow the example of Che Guevara and engage in guerrilla warfare, Lora led a second group, generally referred to as 'POR(Masas)', that maintained its focus on the labor movement. Though Lora sympathized with the International Committee of the Fourth International, his faction of the POR did not affiliate with any international socialist grouping during the time. In 1988, POR(Masas) founded the Liaison Committee for the Reconstruction of the Fourth International (CERCI).

During the years of military dictatorship in Bolivia in the 1970s, Lora and his faction of the POR were an important ally of Juan Lechín Oquendo (the president of the miners' union). Though it is far smaller than at its height in 1952, Lora's POR still remains as one of the largest Trotskyist groups in Bolivia.

External links
Writings by Lora (Marxist Internet Archive)
Death Notice
Guillermo Lora (1921-2009),la conscience ouvrière bolivienne, by Vincent Présumey

1922 births
2009 deaths
Revolutionary Workers' Party (Bolivia) politicians
Bolivian people of Spanish descent
Candidates for President of Bolivia

Guillermo Lora


Babbitt, Nevada, was a populated place established as a 1941 government housing facility for workers of the neighboring Hawthorne Naval Ammunition Depot.  Subsequently, used as a Cold War radar station (Hawthorne Bomb Plot), remaining town structures include the school building at the intersection of 21st Street and Yorktown Avenue and numerous concrete building foundations.  An RV park is located at the east side of the former community.

World War II
The Babbitt housing development for civilian civil service workers was the largest World War II housing project for the depot, cf. a Naval Battalion facility for 2000 sailors, Camp Jumbo for single men at a former CCC camp, a Construction Camp adjacent to Jumbo, and a trailer park near Hawthorne.  The first phase of Babbitt was 25 duplex units on a single block built in 1941 which was followed by 400 duplexes in 1942 and 487 by 1943. By the final stage of duplex construction, Babbitt encompassed approximately 40 blocks and 584 duplexes by the end of World War II.  All duplexes were on the same 10 room plan, with 4 bedrooms, 2 bathrooms, 2 kitchens, and two living rooms. Varying arrangements allowed for one, two, and three bedroom single units. A small number of duplexes were converted into four bedroom single units in postwar years.

West to East avenues were named for aircraft carriers, including Essex, Lexington, Wasp, Ranger, Saratoga, Yorktown, Hornet, Enterprise, and Langley Avenues. North to South streets were numbered from 10th to 30th. The first street with housing on it was 11th (Hawthorne, Nevada, had 1st through 10th streets).

Korean War
Additional structures (Title III) built during the Korean War were 65 two bedroom and 35 three bedroom single family units in the western corner along the Z shaped Dahlgren Drive to which three other drives connected, Jones, Dewey, and Perry; all named for U.S. Navy figures.  Babbitt housing peaked at ~2590 bedrooms .

By 1954, 3 duplexes had been removed, and one duplex was moved to another location to serve as a community center for the segregated African American part of the community.

Segregation
Until the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Babbitt housing was segregated by a three block long gap of approximately 150 feet between 26th and 27th Streets separating the area housing African-American workers and their families ("Colored Town" colloq.).

The movie theater, the bowling alley, and the soda fountain at Johnson's Pharmacy were also segregated.   The Navy constructed a small building used as the "BBQ Pit" business at the edge of the Colored Town, and adjacent was a relocated duplex operated as a segregated community center.  Businesses not allowing African-American customers included The El Capitan casino, the Three Rs restaurant and the Home Cafe. Only one bar, owned and operated by African Americans, served them during the 1950s.  The NAACP organized sit-ins and demonstrations, and efforts by Governor Sawyer failed to open the casino to African-American customers.  As late as 1970, minorities in Babbitt were integrated into the community.

In the post-Korean War drawdown, sections of Babbitt were closed off and after some buildings were sold and moved away, 171 duplexes and 51 single units were gone by the early 1960s.  Strategic Air Command opened a radar station within Babbitt -1985 and after transfer to the Navy, the "Navy Fallon RBS" operated through .

By 1970 an additional 114 duplexes had been moved out, and in the 1970s and 1980s, additional sections were closed and dismantled.  The last residents left in 1987, and only a school and a bowling alley remained in operation for some years afterwards.  In 2004 the Whiskey Flats RV park was established roughly in the former location of the radar station.

References

Former populated places in Mineral County, Nevada
Company towns in Nevada
African-American segregation in the United States
Hawthorne, Nevada
History of Mineral County, Nevada
History of racial segregation in the United States
Military installations in Nevada
United States home front during World War II
1940s in Nevada
1941 establishments in Nevada
1988 disestablishments in Nevada
Populated places established in 1941

Babbitt, Nevada


The Grand Park of Tirana (), or the Park on the Artificial Lake, is a 289 hectare public park situated on the southern part of Tirana, Albania, and administered by the Agency of Parks and Recreation of the Municipality of Tirana.

The Park includes an artificial lake and many other landmarks such as the Saint Procopius Church, the Presidential Palace, and memorials to several Albanian personalities. It remains one of the most relaxing places in the city, despite increasing buildings being developed near the park, an early-morning run or promenade is a daily routines for many citizens. To the southern end of the Park, there is the Zoo and the Botanical Garden. The latter includes many flowers and plants that are common to the Albanian environment.

There are almost 120 species of trees, bushes and flowers. The Botanical Garden area is of 14.5 hectares and the lake's size is of 55 hectares, whereas the area of the Park itself is of 230 hectares.

The Park was built between 1955 and 1956 based on a Bulgarian plan and used to be called the Gogo stable, in a green area. The Park starts at the southern end of the Dëshmorët e Kombit Boulevard, after the University of Tirana, south of the main Skanderbeg Square. It was formerly called 'Park of Saint Procopius' () from the Saint Procopius Church, which is  located in the area. In the internal parts, there can be found the memorials of 45 British and Australian soldiers fallen during World War II, as well as a memorial of hundreds of German soldiers from the same war.

Setting and contents

The Park  includes the Royal Palace located on the side and close to the Elbasan Street. The Palace, whose building was started by Zog of Albania, served as a Royal Palace only once, for the Italian King Victor Emmanuel III during his only visit to Albania in May 1941 as King of Albania. The Palace had also served vicegerent Francesco Jacomoni and later the Fascist general Alberto Pariani. Now it is the official residence of the President of Albania.

The Park was also home of the memorial to the mother of King Zog of Albania, Sadijé Toptani. The monument was destroyed by the communist regime in the 1950s and can now be enjoyed only in pictures. A wall has been built demarcating the park's boundary.

The Park is otherwise called the "Lung of the City" due to the diversity of plants. It also includes Botanical Garden and the Zoo and also a complex of swimming pools. In addition the Park has an amphitheatre, where various cultural activities occur especially in summer months.
The artificial lake is a well known fishing and also swimming area. The lake was built from local waters in 1955 on volunteer work to build a 400 metres long dam that holds the waters from overflowing onto Tirana.

It also notably includes the Tombs of the Frashëri brothers, Abdyl Frashëri, Naim Frashëri and Sami Frashëri. Also, in 1998 the remains of Faik Konitza, former Minister of Albania to Washington, and publisher of the Albania magazine were brought from the United States and put in a tomb located at the park.

In 2020, Albania unveiled a Holocaust memorial at an entrance to the park, close to Mother Teresa Square, to honor the dead and the Albanians who protected Jews from the Nazis, with an inscription written in English, Hebrew, and Albanian that says "Albanians, Christians and Muslims endangered their lives to protect and save the Jews."

Rehabilitation and controversy

The Park has suffered extensively from problems of litter and pollutants and crime has also been reported in the area. In 2005, the Municipality organized the 'Green Fair', where major ideas were collected as how to fully rehabilitate the Park.

In 2008, a lakeside competition was held to come up with the best urban and ecologic masterplan for the future of the district,
to create a  new dense urban neighborhood with a park and public facilities at the shore of Lake. The masterplan consists of 225,000 square metres of housing, 60,000 square metres offices, 20,000 square metres public buildings, 60,000 square metres retail, 15,000 square metres of hotels and 20,000 square metres sport and recreational facilities and a car park. The redesign was scheduled to take place in 2010 with a total estimated investment of 600 million euros.

The major constructions will reduce the size of the green area of the park, which has led to much controversy in the Albanian media as to the actual benefits to the citizens of Tirana.

The Botanical Gardens are set to be destroyed to build the new Tirana ring motorway.

In 2015, a competition was held to design the Park's entrance. It sparked great controversy because the original competition brief threatened the integrity of the park, a cherished public space in Tirana, with important construction requirements. A team of architects composed of three offices (BuildingBuilding, Elias Guenoun Architect and UHO) won the competition with a proposal consisting of less built elements and a strict limit between the park and city. This is currently in its study phase.

References

External links
 Agency of Parks and Recreation Tirana

Bodies of water of Tirana

Tourist attractions in Tirana
Urban public parks

Grand Park of Tirana


A city gate is a gate which is, or was, set within a city wall. It is a type of fortified gateway.

Uses

City gates were traditionally built to provide a point of controlled access to and departure from a walled city for people, vehicles, goods and animals. Depending on their historical context they filled functions relating to defense, security, health, trade, taxation, and representation, and were correspondingly staffed by military or municipal authorities. The city gate was also commonly used to display diverse kinds of public information such as announcements, tax and toll schedules, standards of local measures, and legal texts. It could be heavily fortified, ornamented with heraldic shields, sculpture or inscriptions, or used as a location for warning or intimidation, for example by displaying the heads of beheaded criminals or public enemies.

Notably in Denmark, many market towns used to have at least one city gate mostly as part of the city's fortifications, but during the Age of Absolutism their functions become closely linked to the collection of customs, the so-called octroi, which from 1660 onwards was charged to the market town's coffers. When absolutism in Denmark came to an end after the revolutions of 1848, gate consumption was abolished in 1852, and since then the city gates also began to disappear.

Medieval Danish city gates are found today only in Vesterport, Faaborg, and Mølleporten, Stege, as well as in Flensburg, today in Germany. Further city gates, in one form or another, can be found across the world in cities dating back to ancient times to around the 19th century. Many cities would close their gates after a certain curfew each night, for example, a bigger one like Prague or a smaller one like the one in Flensburg, in the north of Germany.

With increased stability and freedom, many walled cities removed such fortifications as city gates, although many still survive; albeit for historic interest rather than security. Many surviving gates have been heavily restored, rebuilt or new ones created to add to the appearance of a city, such as Bab Bou Jalous in Fes. With increased levels of traffic, city gates have come under threat in the past for impeding the flow of traffic, such as Temple Bar in London which was removed in the 19th century.

Examples

Africa

 Egypt: Gates of Cairo
 Morocco:
Bab Agnaou in Marrakech
Gates of Fez

Asia

 Bangladesh
 Dhaka Gate in Dhaka
 City Gate, Chittagong
 China
 Zhengyangmen and Deshengmen in Beijing
 Gate of China in Nanjing
 city gate of Jianshui
 Cyprus: Famagusta Gate in Nicosia
 India
 Gateway of India in Mumbai (Maharashtra)
 Walled city of Jaipur in Jaipur (Rajasthan)
 Walled city and gates of Aurangabad in Aurangabad (Maharashtra)
 Walled city of Kota in Kota (Rajasthan)
 Teen Darwaza in Bhadra Fort, Ahmedabad
 Iraq: Ishtar Gate, Hillah
 Iran
 Qur'an gate (Shiraz)
 Nowbar gate (Tabriz).
 Israel: Gates in Jerusalem's Old City Walls
 Japan: Rashomon Gate, Kyoto
 Macau: Portas do Cerco - border gate for Macau with neighbouring Zhuhai
 Pakistan: Walled City of Lahore
 Philippines: Gates of Intramuros
 South Korea: Seoul's city gates, including: Namdaemun and Dongdaemun
 Taiwan: North gate of Taipei
 Yemen: Bab al Yemen of Sana'a

Europe
 Austria: Wienertor (1225/65): in Hainburg an der Donau
  Belgium:
 Brusselpoort: in Mechelen
 Waterpoort in Antwerp
 Halle Gate in Brussels
 Bosnia and Herzegovina: Jajce gates, Višegrad gate (Višegradska kapija) as part of the old town of Vratnik in Sarajevo
 Croatia: Walls of Dubrovnik
  Czech Republic:
 Powder Gate, Prague
 Písek Gate, Prague
 Zelená brána (Green Gate), Pardubice
 Brána Matky Boží, Jihlava
 Svatá brána, Kadaň
 Vysoká brána, Rakovník
 Pražská brána, Rakovník
 Denmark: Vesterport, Faaborg
 Mølleporten, Stege
 Estonia: Tallinn Gate in Pärnu
  France:
 Porte de Joigny and Porte de Sens in Villeneuve-sur-Yonne
 Porte de la Craffe in Nancy
 Porte des Allemands in Metz
 Porte Saint-Denis and Porte Saint-Martin in Paris
 Porte Mars in Reims
 Porte Cailhau in Bordeaux
 Porte de la Grosse-Horloge in La Rochelle
 Porte Mordelaise in Rennes
  Germany:
 Fünfgratturm in Augsburg
 Rotes Tor in Augsburg
 Vogeltor in Augsburg
 Wertachbrucker Tor in Augsburg
 Brandenburg Gate, in Berlin
 Eigelsteintor, Hahnentor, Ulrepforte, Severinstor in Cologne
 Nordertor, Kompagnietor and Rotes Tor in Flensburg
 Martinstor (Saint Martin's Gate) and Schwabentor in Freiburg im Breisgau
 Bayertor in Landsberg am Lech
 Holstentor, in Lübeck
 Isartor, Sendlinger Tor, Karlstor and Propylaea in Munich
 East Gate, in Regensburg
 Steintor, in Rostock
 Old Gate, in Speyer
 Porta Nigra, in Trier
 Greece: Lion Gate in Mycenae, 13th century B.C.
 Ireland:
Saint Laurence Gate, Drogheda
Sheep Gate, Trim
St. James's Gate, Dublin
gates of Dublin
   Italy:
 Porta Galliera, Bologna
 Porta Saragozza, Bologna
 Porta Paola, Ferrara
 Pusterla di Sant'Ambrogio, in Milan
 Porta Nuova (Medieval), in Milan
 Porta Nuova, in Milan
 Porta Ticinese (Medieval), in Milan
 Porta Ticinese, in Milan
 Porta Capuana, Naples
 Porta San Gennaro, Naples
 Port'Alba, Naples
 Porta Nolana, Naples
 Porta Felice, in Palermo
 Porta Nuova, in Palermo
 Porta San Giovanni, in Rome
 Porta del Popolo, in Rome
 Porta Maggiore, in Rome
 Porta Pinciana, in Rome
 Porta Tiburtina, in Rome
 Porta San Sebastiano, in Rome
 Porta San Paolo, in Rome
 Porta Camollia, Siena
 Porta Palatina, in Turin
 Lithuania: Gate of Dawn, in Vilnius
  Malta:
 City Gate and Victoria Gate, Valletta
 Mdina Gate and Greeks Gate, Mdina
 Notre Dame Gate, Birgu
 St. Helen's Gate, Cospicua
  Netherlands:
 Amsterdamse Poort, a city gate of Haarlem
 Waterpoort (water gate), Sneek
 Vischpoort (fish gate), Elburg
 Vischpoort (fish gate), Harderwijk
 Koppelpoort (combination gate), Amersfoort
 Zijlpoort (Eastern gate), Leiden
 Koepoort (Enkhuizen), Enkhuizen
 Drommedaris, Enkhuizen
 Sassenpoort, Zwolle
 Munttoren, Amsterdam
 Eastern Gate (Delft), Delft
 Groothoofdspoort, Dordrecht
 Koornmarktspoort, Kampen
   Poland:
 Brama Floriańska (St. Florian's Gate), Kraków
 Żuraw (Crane Gate), Gdańsk
 Brama Zielona (Green Gate), Gdańsk
 Brama Wyżynna (Highland Gate), Gdańsk
 Brama Mariacka, Gdańsk
 Brama Krakowska (Kraków Gate), Lublin
 Brama Mostowa (Bridge Gate), Toruń
 Brama Klasztorna, Toruń
 Brama Opatowska, Sandomierz
 Brama Młyńska (Mill Gate), Stargard
 Brama Pyrzycka, Stargard
 Brama Garncarska, Malbork
 Brama Lidzbarska (Lidzbark Gate), Bartoszyce
 Nowa Brama (New Gate), Słupsk

 Brama Świecka, Chojna
 Brama Wolińska, Goleniów
 Brama Odrzańska, Brzeg
 Brama Portowa (Port Gate), Szczecin
 Brama Górna, Olsztyn
 Brama Szczebrzeska, Zamość
 Portugal:
 Arco da Porta Nova (Arch of the New Gate), Braga
 Portas da Cidade (City Gate), Ponta Delgada (Azores)
 Portão dos Varadouros (Beaching Gate) a.k.a. City Gate, Funchal (Madeira)

 Romania: Catherine's Gate, Brașov
 Russia
 Voskresensky Gate, Moscow
 Golden Gate, Vladimir
 Slovakia:
 Michalská brána (Michael's Gate), Bratislava
 Košická brána, Levoča
 Spain: See :Category:City gates in Spain
 Switzerland: The gates of the Basel City Walls, Basel
  Turkey
 Hadrian's Gate in Antalya
 The many gates in the walls of Constantinople, present day Istanbul
 Ukraine: Golden Gate, Kyiv
 United Kingdom:
 Bargate Southampton
 London's Roman and Medieval gates of the London Wall: Ludgate, Newgate, Aldersgate, Bishopsgate, Cripplegate, Moorgate, Aldgate
 Westgate, Canterbury
 Eastgate, Northgate, Watergate and Bridgegate. Chester
 The gates (known as Bars) of the York city walls
 Chepstow Town Gate, Wales

Americas

 Canada: Kent Gate, Prescott Gate, Saint-Jean Gate, and Saint-Louis Gate at the ramparts of Quebec City
 Mexico: San Francisco de Campeche, a World Heritage Site, it is a colonial walled city. Are preserved today two city gates: Puerta del Mar completed in 1710, and Puerta de Tierra built in 1732.
 Trinidad and Tobago: City Gate (Port of Spain), Port of Spain
Puerto Rico:
In San Juan, a World Heritage Site, the Walls of the city had five gates. The main was the Puerta de San Juan, today preserved, built in 1635. It also had the Puerta de San José, the Puerta de Santa Rosa, the Puerta de San Justo and the Puerta de Santiago the latter built between 1635 and 1641 by Captain General Íñigo de la Mota Sarmiento.
In San Juan, the main gate of the Castle San Felipe del Morro, built between 1589 and 1650.
Cuba:
In Havana, a World Heritage Site, has the Arco de Belén city gate, built in 1775.
In Havana, has the main gate of the Fortress of la Cabaña, built between 1763 and 1774.
In Havana, the Castle of Príncipe, built between 1767 and 1771, has preserved its great main gate.
Dominican Republic:
In Santo Domingo, a World Heritage Site, its City Walls had seven gates, today are preserved four of them, the Puerta del Conde built between 1543 and 1655, the Puerta Carlos III completed in 1797, the Puerta de las Atarazanas Reales built between 1509 and 1541, and the Puerta de la Misericordia built in 1543, the Walls of Santo domingo is the oldest military construction of European origin in the Americas.
Guatemala: In Antigua Guatemala, a World Heritage Site, its main city gate the Arco de Santa Catalina is preserved, built in 1693.
 Peru:
Machu Picchu's gate, Pre-Columbian, built between 1438 and 1472, a World Heritage Site.
The Colonial Walls of Lima had ten gates. The main gate and now defunct was the Arco del Puente, built between 1684 and 1687.
 Uruguay:
In Colonia del Sacramento, a World Heritage Site, its main city gate, the Portón de Campo, was built in 1745, under Portuguese government.
Gateway of the Citadel in Montevideo.
 Colombia: Puerta del Reloj, built between 1704 and 1738, was the main city gate of Cartagena, Colombia, a World Heritage Site.
Bolivia: In Tiwanaku, a World Heritage Site, The Gateway of the Sun, was built between 500 and 950 CE, Pre-Columbian.

See also
Defensive wall
Gate house
Gate tower
Triumphal arch
Wicket gate

References

External links

Types of gates

City gate


During World War II, Operation Dunhill was a Special Air Service operation which began on 3 August 1944. Five teams, totalling 59 men, were to disrupt German activity in advance of Operation Cobra the American breakout from Normandy.

In the event, four of the teams were relieved by the advancing Americans within twenty-four hours.

The fifth team reported on German movements and secured about 200 Allied airmen before they linked up with the ground forces on 24 August.

Operation Overlord
Special Air Service
World War II British Commando raids

Operation Dunhill


The  is a part of Katsura River in Kyoto Prefecture, Japan. The river begins in the mountains near Kameoka, a town northwest of Kyoto City. It snakes into the Arashiyama section of western Kyoto before changing its name to Katsura River.

The Hozu River is considered scenic, and is known primarily for its association with Hozugawa Kudari, literally "down the Hozu river", a sightseeing whitewater boat that goes downstream from Kameoka to Arashiyama. Hozugawa Kudari is especially popular in the fall, when the Japanese Maple leaves change colors, and in the Spring, when the sakura, or Japanese cherry tree, blooms. The trip usually takes about two hours.

In August, 2006, a rock fell from the mountains that line the river and hit a woman on the head, seriously injuring her.  Overall, however, Hozugawa Kudari is considered safe.

Gallery

References

External links
 Hozugawa River Boat Ride (Hozugawa Yusen Sightseeing Boat Association)
 (Hozu gorge)

Rivers of Kyoto Prefecture
Rivers of Japan

Hozu River


Ius naturale is Latin for natural right, the laws common to all beings. Roman jurists wondered why the ius gentium (the laws which applied to foreigners and citizens alike) was in general accepted by all people living in the Empire. Their conclusion was that these laws made sense to a reasonable person and thus were followed. All laws which would make sense to a normal person were called ius naturale.

Slavery, for example, was part of the empire-wide ius gentium because slavery was known and accepted as a normal social institution in all parts of the known world. Nevertheless, as forcing people to work for others was a human-produced condition, it was not considered natural and, hence, was part of the ius gentium but not the ius naturale. The ius naturale of the Roman jurists is not the same as implied by the modern sense of natural law as something derived from pure reason. As Sir Henry James Sumner Maine puts it, "it was never thought of as founded on quite untested principles. The notion was that it underlay existing law and must be looked for through it".
Romans gave to Natural law a great importance in their daily lives. They mentioned once "ius naturale est quod natura omnia animalia docuit", which means the right that nature gave to all living things.

See also
Roman law
Ius civile

Notes

Roman law
Latin legal terminology

Ius naturale