Listrik (tina basa Latén anyar ēlectricus, "mirupa warna amber" atawa konéng ngabaranyay) mangrupa istilah umum anu ngandung rupa-rupa fénoména anu diakibatkeun ku ayana aliran muatan listrik.
Bisa disebutkeun ogé listrik mangrupa aliran éléktron ti atom ka atom dina hiji tempat/konduit.
Énergi listrik mibanda peran dina kahirupan manusa sapopoé, énergi listrik dipaké pikeun ngajalankeun rupa-rupa alat éléktronik saperti komputer, TV, Kipas angin, AC, jeung réa-réa deui.
Listrik diwangun ku élektron (muatan negatif) jeung  proton (muatan positif), kukitun muatan listrik nu aya di hiji tempat gumatung kana loba jeung saeutikna proton  sarta élektronna.

Dina pamakéan anu ilahar, kecap 'listrik' téh cukup pikeun nuduhkeun kana rupa-rupa éfęk fisik. Tapi, dina pamakéan ilmiah, istilah listrik ieu teu jelas, jeung konsép-konsép anu aya patalina ngan pangbéda ieu leuwih hadé dititenan kalawan istilah anu leuwih merenah:

 Electric charge atawa Muatan listrik : properti tina sababaraha partikel subatom, anu nangtukeun interaksi elektromagnetik maranéhna. Materi anu kibanda muatan listrik dipangaruhan ku, sarta ngahasilkeun, médan éléktromagnétik.
 Electric current atawa Arus listrik: pindahna atawa palidna partikel anu mibanda muatan listrik, biasana diukur dina hijian  ampérě.
 Electric field atawa  Médan listrik : pangaruh anu dihasilkeun ku muatan listrik kana muatan séjén di sabudeureunna.
 Electric potential – Poténsial listrik : hiji kapasitas anu dipibanda medan listrik pikeun ngalaksanakeun hiji pagawéan, biasana diukur dina hijian volt..
 Electrical energy atawa Énérgi listrik – énérgi anu disayagakeun ku aliran muatan listrik ngaliwatan konduktor listrik.
 Electric power atawa Tanaga listrik : tingkat di mana énérgi  listrik dirobah jadi atawa tina wujud énérgi sésén, kawas cahaya, énérgi panas, atawa énérgi mékanik.
 Electromagnetism atawa Éléktromagnétismé' : hiji interaksi dasar antawis médan listrik jeung ayana usikna muatan listrik.

Listrik geus ditalungtik ti mangsa jaman kuno kénéh, sanajan kamajuan ilmiah mimiti bijil dina abad ka-17 jeung ka-18. Dalah kitu nepika panungtung abad ka-19, sakumna insinyur bisa ngamangpaatkeun listrik pikeun kaperluan industri jeung imah, masarakat nyaksian ngaronjatna kamekaran téknologi ngeunaan listrik. Salaku sumber énérgi sarwagunana listrik kalintang lobana tur kacida pentingna, listrik bisa dimangpaatkeun pikeun rupa-rupa kagunaan anu ampir teuaya wates wangen: transportasi, pamanas, lampu, komunikasi, jeung  komputasi. Listrik jadi Tulang tonggong masarakat industri modérn, sarta disawang kahareupna tanaga listrik ieu baris jadi sumber énérginergi anu panggedena.

 Sajarah Listrik

Cenah barang-barang anu tangtu kawas kai tangkal ambar umpama di gosok kana bulu ucing bisa narik barang-barang anu hampang saperti buuk jeung bulu-bulu lianna, ieu geus dipikawanoh ku bangsa Yunani kuna, Fenisia, Parthia, jeung Mésopotamia. Thales of Miletos  ngalaksanakeun. Sababaraha uji coba dina taun 600 SM, hayang nyaho naha kunaon lamun ngagosok tangkal ambar jadi mibanda sipat magnetis, béda jeung mineral magnetit anu henteu perlu digosok heula. Thales salah dina mibanda rasa percaya yén ayana daya tarik ieu alatan ayana éfék magnetic, tapi élmu pangaweruh kadieunakeun baris ngabuktikeun ayana hubungan antara magnetisme jeung listrik.

A controversial claim is made that the Parthians and Mesopotamians had some knowledge of electroplating, based on the 1936 discovery of the Baghdad Battery, which resembles a galvanic cell, though this claims lacks evidence supporting the exact nature of the artefact, and whether it was electrical in nature.

Electricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for over two millennia until 1600, when the English physician William Gilbert made a careful study of magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect from the static electricity produced by rubbing amber. He coined the New Latin word electricus ("of amber" or "like amber", from ηλεκτρον [elektron], the Greek word for "amber") to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed. This association gave rise to the English words "electric" and "electricity", which made their first appéarance in print in Sir Thomas Browne's Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646.

Further work was conducted by Otto von Guericke, Robert Boyle, Stephen Gray and C. F. du Fay. In the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive reséarch in electricity to develop his théories on the relationship between lightning and static electricity. In an experiment of June 1752, he attached a metal key to the bottom of a dampened kite string and flew the kite in a storm-thréatened sky. He observed a succession of sparks jumping from the key to the back of his hand that showed him that lightning was indeed electrical in nature. This famous experiment lit the interest of later scientists whose work provided the basis for modérn electrical technology. In 1783 Luigi Galvani discovered bioelectricity, demonstrating that electricity was the medium by which nerve cells passed signals to the muscles. Alessandro Volta's battery, or voltaic pile, of 1800, made from alternating layers of zinc and copper, provided scientists with a reliable source of electrical energy. André-Marie Ampére discovered the relationship between electricity and magnetism in 1820; Michael Faraday invented the electric motor in 1821, and Georg Ohm mathematically analysed the electrical circuit in 1827.

While it had been the éarly nineteenth century that had seen rapid progress in electrical science, the late nineteenth century would see the gréatest progress in electrical engineering. Through such giants as Nikola Tesla, Thomas Edison, George Westinghouse, Werner von Siemens, Alexander Graham Bell and Lord Kelvin, electricity was turned from a scientific curiosity into an essential tool for modérn life, becoming a driving force for the Second Industrial Revolution.

 Concepts in electricity
 Electric charge

Electric charge is a property of certain subatomic particles, which gives rise to and interacts with, the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental forces of nature. Charge originates in the atom, in which its most familiar carriers are the electron and proton. It is a conserved quantity, that is, the net charge within an isolated system will always remain constant regardless of any changes taking place within that system. Within the system, charge may be transferred between bodies, either by direct contact, or by passing along a conducting material, such as a wire. The informal term static electricity refers to the net presence (or 'imbalance') of charge on a body, usually caused when dissimilar materials are rubbed together, transferring charge from one to the other.

The presence of charge gives rise to the electromagnetic force: charges exert a force on éach other, an effect that was known, though not understood, in antiquity. A lightweight ball suspended from a string can be charged by touching it with a glass rod that has itself been charged by rubbing with a cloth. If a similar ball is charged by the same glass rod, it is found to repel the first: the charge acts to force the two balls apart. Two balls that are charged with an rubbed amber rod also repel éach other. However, if one ball is charged by the glass rod, and the other by an amber rod, the two balls are found to attract éach other. These phenomena were investigated by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb in the late eighteenth century, who deduced that charge manifests itself in two opposing forms, léading to the well-known axiom: like-charged objects repel and opposite-charged objects attract.

The force acts on the charged particles themselves, hence charge has a tendency to spréad itself as evenly as possible over a conducting surface. The magnitude of the electromagnetic force, whether attractive or repulsive, is given by Coulomb's Law, which relates the force to the product of the charges and has an inverse square relation to the distance between them. The electromagnetic force is very strong, second only in strength to the strong interaction, but unlike that force it operates over all distances. In comparison with the much wéaker gravitational force, the electromagnetic force pushing two electrons apart is 1042 times that of the gravitational attraction pulling them together.

The charge on electrons and protons is opposite in sign, hence an amount of charge may be expressed as being either negative or positive. By convention, the charge carried by electrons is deemed negative, and that by protons positive, a custom that originated with the work of Benjamin Franklin. The amount of charge is usually given the symbol Q and expressed in coulombs; éach electron carries the same charge of approximately −1.6022×10−19 coulomb. The proton has a charge that is equal and opposite, and thus +1.6022×10−19  coulomb. Charge is possessed not just by matter, but also by antimatter, éach antiparticle béaring an equal and opposite charge to its corresponding particle.

Charge can be méasured by a number of méans, an éarly instrument being the gold-leaf electroscope, which although still in use for classroom demonstrations, has been superseded by the electronic electrometer.

 Electric current

The movement of electric charge is known as an electric current, the intensity of which is usually méasured in amperes. Current can consist of any moving charged particles; most commonly these are electrons, but any charge in motion constitutes a current.

By historical convention, a positive current is defined as having the same direction of flow as any positive charge it contains, or to flow from the most positive part of a circuit to the most negative part. Current defined in this manner is called conventional current. The motion of negatively-charged electrons around an electric circuit, one of the most familiar forms of current, is thus deemed positive in the opposite direction to that of the electrons. However, depending on the conditions, an electric current can consist of a flow of charged particles in either direction, or even in both directions at once. The positive-to-negative convention is widely used to simplify this situation. If another definition is used—for example, "electron current"—it needs to be explicitly stated.

The process by which electric current passes through a material is termed electrical conduction, and its nature varies with that of the charged particles and the material through which they are travelling. Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction, where electrons flow through a conductor such as metal, and electrolysis, where ions (charged atoms) flow through liquids. While the particles themselves can move quite slowly, sometimes with a drift velocity only fractions of a millimetre per second, the electric field that drives them itself propagates at close to the speed of light, enabling electrical signals to pass rapidly along wires.

Current causes several notable effects, which historically were the méans of recognising its presence. That water could be decomposed by the current from a voltaic pile was discovered by Nicholson and Carlisle in 1800, a process now known as electrolysis. Their work was gréatly expanded upon by Michael Faraday in 1833. Current flowing through a resistance causes localised héating, an effect James Joule studied mathematically in 1840.

One of the most important discoveries relating to current was made accidentally by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820, when, while preparing a lecture, he witnessed the current flowing in a wire disturbing the needle of a magnetic compass. He had discovered electromagnetism, a fundamental interaction between electricity and magnetics.

In engineering or household applications, current is often described as being either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). These terms refer to how the current varies in time. Direct current, as produced by example from a battery and required by most electronic devices, is a unidirectional flow from the positive part of a circuit to the negative. If, as is most common, this flow is carried by electrons, they will be travelling in the opposite direction. Alternating current is any current that reverses direction repéatedly; almost always this takes the form of a sinusoidal wave. Alternating current thus pulses back and forth within a conductor without the charge moving any net distance over time. The time-averaged value of an alternating current is zero, but it delivers energy in first one direction, and then the reverse. Alternating current is affected by electrical properties that are not observed under steady-state direct current, such as inductance and capacitance. These properties however can become important when direct current circuitry is first switched on.

 Electric field

The concept of the electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday. An electric field is créated by a charged body in the space that surrounds it, and results in a force exerted on any other charges placed within the field. The electric field acts between two charges in a similar manner to the way that the gravitational field acts between two masses, and like it, is infinite in extent and shows an inverse square relationship with distance. However, there is an important difference. Gravity always acts in attraction, drawing two masses together, while the electric field can result in either attraction or repulsion. Since large bodies such as planets generally carry no net charge, the electric field at a distance is usually zero. Thus gravity is the dominant force at distance in the universe, despite being much the wéaker.

An electric field generally varies in space, and its strength at any one point is defined as the force (per unit charge) that would be felt by a stationary, negligible charge if placed at that point. The conceptual charge, termed a test charge, must be vanishingly small to prevent its own electric field disturbing the main field and must also be stationary to prevent the effect of magnetic fields. As the electric field is defined in terms of force, and force is a vector, so it follows that an electric field is also a vector, having both magnitude and direction. Specifically, it is a vector field.

The study of electric fields créated by stationary charges is called electrostatics. The field may be visualised by a set of lines whose direction at any point is the same as that of the field. This concept was introduced by Faraday, whose term 'lines of force' still sometimes sees use. The field lines are the paths that a point positive charge would seek to maké as it was forced to move within the field. Field lines emanating from stationary charges have several key properties: first, that they originate at positive charges and terminate at negative charges; second, that they must enter any good conductor at right angles, and third, that they may never cross nor close in on themselves.

The principals of electrostatics are important when designing items of high-voltage equipment. There is a finite limit to the electric field strength that may withstood by any medium. Beyond this point, electrical breakdown occurs and an electrical arc causes flashover between the charged parts. Air, for example, tends to arc at electric field strengths which exceed 30 kV per centimetre across small gaps. Over larger gaps, its bréakdown strength is wéaker, perhaps 1 kV per centimetre. The most visible natural occurrence of this is lightning, caused when charge becomes separated in the clouds by rising columns of air, and raises the electric field in the air to gréater than it can withstand. The voltage of a large lightning cloud may be as high as 100 MV and have discharge énérgies as gréat as 250 kWh.

The field strength is gréatly affected by néarby conducting objects, and it is particularly intense when it is forced to curve around sharply pointed objects. This principal is exploited in the lightning conductor, the sharp spike of which acts to encourage the lightning stroke to develop there, rather than to the building it serves to protect.

 Electric potential

The concept of electric potential is closely linked to that of the electric field. A small charge placed within an electric field experiences a force, and to have brought that charge to that point against the force requires work. The electric potential at any point is defined as the energy required to bring a unit charge from an infinite distance slowly to that point. It is usually méasured in volts, and one volt is the potential for which one joule of work must be expended to bring a charge of one coulomb from infinity. This definition of potential, while formal, has little practical application, and a more useful concept is that of electric potential difference, and is the energy required to move a unit charge between two specified points. An electric field has the special property that it is conservative, which méans that the path taken by the test charge is irrelevant: all paths between two specified points expend the same energy, and thus a unique value for potential difference may be stated. The volt is so strongly identified as the unit of choice for méasurement and description of electric potential difference that the term voltage sees gréater everyday usage.

For practical purposes, it is useful to define a common reference point to which potentials may be expressed and compared. While this could be at infinity, a much more useful reference is the Earth itself, which is assumed to be at the same potential everywhere. This reference point naturally takes the name earth or ground. éarth is assumed to be an infinite source of equal amounts of positive and negative charge, and is therefore electrically uncharged – and unchargéable.

Electric potential is a scalar quantity, that is, it has only magnitude and not direction. It may be viewed as analogous to temperature: as there is a certain temperature at every point in space, and the temperature gradient indicates the direction and magnitude of the driving force behind heat flow, similarly, there is an electric potential at every point in space, and its gradient, or field strength, indicates the direction and magnitude of the driving force behind charge movement. Equally, electric potential may be seen as analogous to height: just as a reléased object will fall through a difference in heights caused by a gravitational field, so a charge will 'fall' across the voltage caused by an electric field.

The electric field was formally defined as the force exerted per unit charge, but the concept of potential allows for a more useful and equivalent definition: the electric field is the local gradient of the electric potential. Usually expressed in volts per metre, the vector direction of the field is the line of gréatest gradient of potential.

 Electromagnetism

Ørsted's discovery in 1821 that a magnetic field existed around all sides of a wire carrying an electric current indicated that there was a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism. Moréover, the interaction seemed different to gravitational and electrostatic forces, the two forces of nature then known. The force on the compass needle did not direct it to or away from the current-carrying wire, but acted at right angles to it. Ørsted's slightly obscure words were that "the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner." The force also depended on the direction of the current, for if the flow was reversed, then the force did too.

Ørsted did not fully understand his discovery, but he observed the effect was reciprocal: a current exerts a force on a magnet, and a magnetic field exerts a force on a current. The phenomenon was further investigated by Ampére, who discovered that two parallel current carrying wires exerted a force upon éach other: two wires conducting currents in the same direction are attracted to éach other, while wires containing current flowing in opposite directions are forced apart. The interaction is mediated by the magnetic field éach current produces.

This relationship between magnetic fields and currents is extremely important, for it led to Michael Faraday's invention of the electric motor in 1821. Faraday's homopolar motor consisted of a permanent magnet sitting in a pool of mercury. A current was allowed to flow through a wire suspended from a pivot above the magnet and dipped into  the mercury. The magnet exerted a tangential force on the wire, making it circle around the magnet for as long as current was maintained.

Experimentation by Faraday in 1831 revéaled that a wire moving perpendicular to a magnetic field developed a potential difference between its ends. Further analysis of this process, known as electromagnetic induction, enabled him to state the principal, now known as Faraday's law of induction, that the potential difference induced in a closed circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop. Exploitation of this discovery enabled him to invent the first electrical generator in 1831, in which he converted the mechanical energy of a rotating copper disc to electrical energy. Faraday's disc was inefficient and of no use as a practical generator, but it showed the possibility of generating electric power using magnetism, a possibility that would be taken up by those that followed on from his work.

Faraday's and Ampére's work showed that a time-varying magnetic field acted as a source of an electric field, and a time-varying electric field was a source of a magnetic field. Thus, when either field is changing in time, then a field of the other is necessarily induced. Such a phenomenon has the properties of a wave, and is naturally referred to as an electromagnetic wave. Electromagnetic waves were analysed théoretically by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864. Maxwell discovered a set of equations that could unambiguously describe the interrelationship between electric field, magnetic field, electric charge, and electric current. He could moréover prove that such a wave would necessarily travel at the speed of light, and thus light itself was a form of electromagnetic radiation. Maxwell's Laws, which unify light, fields, and charge are one of the gréat milestones of théoretical physics.

 Electric circuits

An electric circuit is an interconnection of electric components, usually to perform some useful task, with a return path to enable the charge to return to its source.

The components in an electric circuit can take many forms, which can include elements such as resistors, capacitors, switches, transformers and electronics. Electronic circuits contain active components, typically semiconductors, and typically exhibit non-linear behaviour, requiring complex analysis. The simplest electric components are those that are termed passive and linear: while they may temporarily store energy, they contain no sources of it, and exhibit linéar responses to stimuli.

The resistor is perhaps the simplest of passive circuit elements: as its name suggests, it resists the flow of current through it, dissipating its energy as héat. Ohm's law is a basic law of circuit theory, stating that the current passing through a resistance is directly proportional to the potential difference across it. The ohm, the unit of resistance, was named in honour of Géorg Ohm, and is symbolised by the Greek letter Ω. 1 Ω is the resistance that will produce a potential difference of one volt in response to a current of one amp.

The capacitor is a device capable of storing charge, and thereby storing electrical energy in the resulting field. Conceptually, it consists of two conducting plates separated by a thin insulating layer; in practice, thin metal foils are coiled together, incréasing the surface aréa per unit volume and therefore the capacitance. The unit of capacitance is the farad, named after Faraday, and given the symbol F: one farad is the capacitance that develops a potential difference of one volt when it stores a charge of one coulomb. A capacitor connected to a voltage supply initially causes a current to flow as it accumulates charge; this current will however decay in time as the capacitor fills, eventually falling to zero. A capacitor will therefore not permit a steady-state current to flow, but instéad blocks it.

The inductor is a conductor, usually a coil of wire, that stores energy in a magnetic field in response to the current flowing through it. When the current changes, the magnetic field does too, inducing a voltage between the ends of the conductor. The induced voltage is proportional to the time rate of change of the current. The constant of proportionality is termed the inductance. The unit of inductance is the henry, named after Joseph Henry, a contemporary of Faraday. One henry is the inductance that will induce a potential difference of one volt if the current through it changes at a rate of one ampere per second. The inductor's behaviour is in some regards opposite to that of the capacitor: it will freely allow an unchanging current to flow, but opposes the flow of a rapidly changing one.

 Production and uses of electricity
 Electricity generation

Thales' experiments with amber rods were the first studies into the production of electrical energy. While this method, now known as the triboelectric effect, is capable of lifting light objects and even generating sparks, it is extremely inefficient. It was not until the invention of the voltaic pile in the eighteenth century that a viable source of electricity became available. The voltaic pile, and its modérn descendant, the electrical battery, store energy chemically and maké it available on demand in the form of electrical energy. The battery is a versatile and very common power source which is well-suited to many consumer applications, but it is incapable of supplying large quantities of energy. For this purpose electrical energy must be generated and transmitted in bulk.

Electrical energy is usually generated by electro-mechanical generators powered by combustion of fossil fuels, or the héat reléased from nuclear reactions, but also from other sources such as kinetic energy extracted from wind or flowing water. Such generators béar no resemblance to Faraday's homopolar disc generator of 1831, but they still rely on his electromagnetic principle that a conductor linking a changing magnetic field induces a potential difference across its ends. The invention in the late nineteenth century of the transformer méant that electricity could be generated at centralised power stations, benefiting from economies of scale, and be transmitted across countries with incréasing efficiency. Since electrical energy cannot éasily be stored in quantities large enough to meet demands on a national scale, at all times exactly as much must be produced as is required. This requires electricity utilities to maké careful predictions of their electrical loads, and maintain constant co-ordination with their power stations. A certain amount of generation must always be held in reserve to cushion an electrical grid against inevitable disturbances and losses.

Demand for electricity grows with gréat rapidity as a nation modérnises and its economy develops. The United States showed a 12% incréase in demand during éach yéar of the first three decades of the twentieth century, a rate of growth that is now being experienced by emerging economies such as those of India or China. Concerns about the environmental impact made by the generation of electricity has led to an incréased focus on generation from renewable sources, in particular from wind power and hydropower.

 Uses of electricity

Electricity is an extremely flexible form of energy, and it may be adapted to a huge, and growing, number of uses.  Historically, the growth rate for electricity demand has outstripped that for other forms of energy, such as coal. While debate can be expected to continue over the environmental impact of different méans of electricity production, its final form is relatively cléan.

The invention of a practical incandescent light bulb in the 1870s led to lighting becoming one of the first publicly available applications of electrical power. Although electrification brought with it its own dangers, replacing the naked flames of gas lighting gréatly reduced fire hazards within homes and factories. Public utilities were set up in many cities targeting the burgéoning market for electrical lighting.

The Joule heating effect employed in the light bulb also sees more direct use in electric heating. While this is versatile and controllable, it can be seen as wasteful, since most electrical generation has alréady required the production of héat at a power station. A number of countries, such as Denmark, have issued legislature restricting or banning the use of electric héating in new buildings. Electricity is however the only practical energy source for refrigeration, with air conditioning representing a growing sector for electricity demand, the effects of which electricity utilities are incréasingly obliged to accommodate.

Electricity is used within telecommunications, and indeed the electrical telegraph, demonstrated commercially in 1837 by Cooke and Wheatstone, was one of its éarliest applications. With the construction of first intercontinental, and then transatlantic, telegraph systems in the 1860s, electricity had enabled communications in minutes across the globe. Optical fibre and satellite communication technology have taken a share of the market for communications systems, but electricity can be expected to remain an essential part of the process.

The effects of electromagnetism are most visibly employed in the electric motor, which provides a cléan and efficient méans of motive power. A stationary motor such as a winch is éasily provided with a supply of power, but a motor that moves with its application, such as an electric vehicle, is obliged to either carry along a power source such as a battery, or by to collect current from a sliding contact such as the pantograph.

Electronic devices maké use of the transistor, perhaps one of the most important inventions of the twentieth century, and a fundamental building block of all modérn circuitry. A modérn integrated circuit may contain several billion miniaturised transistors in a region only a few centimetres square.

 Electricity and the natural world
 Physiological effects of electricity

A voltage applied to a human body causes an electric current to flow through the tissues, and the gréater the voltage, the gréater the current. The threshold for perception varies with the supply frequency and with the path of the current, but is about 1 mA for mains-frequency electricity. If the current is sufficiently high, it will cause muscle contraction, fibrillation of the héart, and tissue burns. The lack of any visible sign that a conductor is electrified makes electricity a particular hazard. The pain caused by an electric shock can be intense, léading electricity at times to be used as a method of torture. Déath caused by an electric shock is referred to as electrocution. Electrocution is still the méans of judicial execution in some jurisdictions, though its use has become rarer in recent times.

 Electrical phenomena in nature
Electricity is by no méans a purely human invention, and may be observed in several forms in nature, the most prominent manifestation of which is lightning. The Earth's magnetic field is thought to arise from a natural dynamo of circulating currents in the planet's core. Certain crystals, such as quartz, or even cane sugar, generate a potential difference across their faces when subjected to external pressure. This phenomenon is known as piezoelectricity, from the Greek piezein'', méaning to press.

Some organisms, such as sharks, are able to detect and respond to changes in electric fields, an ability known as electroreception, while others, termed electrogenic, are able to generate voltages themselves. The order Gymnotiformes, of which the best known example is the electric eel, deliberately generate high voltages to detect or stun their prey. All animals, and some plants, transmit information between tissues by electrical impulses known as action potentials.

References

External links

 Illustrated view of how an American home's electrical system works
 Electricity around the world
 Electricity Misconceptions
 Electricity and Magnetism

Listrik


Maharashtra Day, commonly known as Maharashtra Din (Marathi: महाराष्ट्र दिन) is a state holiday in the Indian state of Maharashtra, commemorating the formation of the state of Maharashtra in India. from the division of the Bombay State on 1 May 1960. Maharashtra Day is commonly associated with parades and political speeches and ceremonies, in addition to various other public and private events celebrating the history and traditions of Maharashtra. It is celebrated to commemorate the creation of a Marathi speaking state of Maharashtra.

Background
The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 defined boundaries for the states within India on the basis of languages. The Bombay State that was formed as a consequence of this act, however, was composed of different areas where different languages were spoken; Marathi, Gujarati, Kutchi and Konkani. The Sanyukta Maharashtra Samiti was at the forefront of the movement to divide the Bombay State into two states; one composed of areas where people primarily spoke Gujarati and Kutchi and the other where people primarily spoke Marathi and Konkani.

The state of Maharashtra and Gujarat were formed as a result of this movement according to the Bombay Reorganisation Act, 1960 enacted by the Parliament of India on 25 April 1960. The act came into effect on 1 May 1960, hence the reason of annual celebration.

Observance
Every year the Government of Maharashtra issues a notification declaring 1 May to be a public holiday to be celebrated as Maharashtra Day. This holiday applies to all the schools, offices and companies under the jurisdiction of the State and Central Government celebrate this day by organising various programmes.

Customs
Every year a parade is held at Shivaji Park where the Governor of Maharashtra makes a speech.

Liquor sales to Indians are prohibited on this day across Maharashtra, excluding foreigners.

Unique or historical celebrations
The Golden Jubilee celebrations for Maharashtra Day were conducted on 1 May 2011 across Maharashtra.

Inaugurations and launching of new projects and schemes
In Maharashtra state government and private sector inaugurates and launches various new projects and schemes on 1 May. Annual celebrations of such institutions and projects are also held on Maharashtra Day.

The Marathi language Wikipedia was started on 1 May 2003.

References

Culture of Maharashtra
May observances
Indian state foundation days

Maharashtra Day


PMSA is a not-for-profit professional association that is governed by a Board of Directors, and managed and administered by a National Office. Certain strategic activities are executed by a volunteer National Executive Committee.
PMSA aims to advance professional project management in South Africa. It is distinct from the South African chapter of the Project Management Institute(PMI). It was formed as an independent National Association to represent project management professionals across all sectors in South Africa.

History
Project Management South Africa (currently known as PMSA) was formed in 1997. PMSA was created to fulfill the need for a cross sector forum for practitioners to meet and work together and for a national body to work with local organisations and the South African government in developing effective project management within South Africa.

Due to imperatives for the formation of an autonomous local body, the PMI South Africa Chapter (chartered in 1981 PMI Chapters) encouraged the formation of PMSA in 1997 and committed to an ongoing working relationship between the two organisations.

PMSA has existed autonomously for more than fifteen years and has also maintained a co-operative agreement directly with PMI's USA-based global office, which encourages reciprocity in a number of areas consistent with the relationships PMI has with other autonomous bodies around the world.

Membership
PMSA membership currently stands at more than 1500 members, who are drawn from a diverse cross section of industries and ethnic groups.

References:

Professional associations based in South Africa
Project management professional associations

Project Management South Africa


Oddibe McDowell (born August 25, 1962) is an American former center fielder in Major League Baseball (MLB) who played from 1985 to 1994 for the Texas Rangers, Cleveland Indians, and Atlanta Braves.

Amateur baseball
McDowell was a noted multi-sport athlete at McArthur High School in Hollywood, Florida, and won the Florida High School Activities Association Class 4A wrestling championship at 155 pounds in 1979.

McDowell won the Golden Spikes Award, which is given annually to the best amateur baseball player, in 1984 while playing college baseball at Arizona State University (ASU). He wore uniform number 0 at ASU; ASU inducted McDowell to the university's athletic hall of fame in 1991 and has retired his number.

In 1981, McDowell won a gold medal as a member of the United States national team in World Games I. He was also a member of the 1984 United States Olympic Team.

McDowell was selected by the Texas Rangers in the first round of the 1984 Major League Baseball draft.

Professional baseball
McDowell stood out during his first stint with the Texas Rangers by wearing the very unusual uniform number 0. He wore the number 20 with the Indians, the number 1 with the Braves, and during his second time with the Rangers, he wore number 8.

McDowell was the first player to hit for the cycle for the Rangers, doing so on July 23, 1985, in a Rangers' 8–4 victory over the Indians at Arlington Stadium. Through the end of the 2017 season, Mark Teixeira, Gary Matthews, Jr., Ian Kinsler, Bengie Molina, Adrián Beltré, Alex Ríos, Shin-Soo Choo, and Carlos Gomez are the other Rangers players to hit for the cycle. McDowell finished 4th in the American League Rookie of the Year voting for 1985.

Through June 16, 2009, McDowell was tied for second of all Rangers players ever in career leadoff home runs, one behind the nine leadoff homers by Ian Kinsler.

His first name is pronounced "owed a bee" or "oh-ta-bee."

Post-playing career
McDowell was inducted to the National College Baseball Hall of Fame in 2011.

Between February 2011 and March 2012, Deadspin ran a series of 14 articles, which published McDowell's monthly water bill and the amount owed; until that time, water bills were publicly accessible on the Broward County Waste and Wastewater Services department's website. Writing for New Times Broward-Palm Beach, Michael J. Mooney described the series as Dadaist and evidence of "the power of mass appeal and of interactive media."

As of 2022, McDowell is in his eighth year as the head coach for the McArthur High School varsity baseball team in Hollywood, Florida.

See also
 List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders
 List of Major League Baseball players to hit for the cycle

References

External links
 , or Retrosheet

1962 births
Living people
African-American baseball coaches
African-American baseball players
All-American college baseball players
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
Arizona State Sun Devils baseball players
Atlanta Braves players
Baseball coaches from Florida
Baseball players at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Cleveland Indians players
Columbus Clippers players
Competitors at the 1981 World Games
Edmonton Trappers players
Golden Spikes Award winners
Major League Baseball center fielders
Medalists at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Texas Rangers players
Oklahoma City 89ers players
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in baseball
Rochester Red Wings players
Sportspeople from Hollywood, Florida
Baseball players from Broward County, Florida
Tulsa Drillers players
World Games gold medalists
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople
National College Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
Alaska Goldpanners of Fairbanks players

Oddibe McDowell


Druim Moir, also known as the Houston Estate Historic District, is a historic district in the Chestnut Hill neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Druim Moir was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. It is a contributing property of the Chestnut Hill National Historic District.

"Druim Moir" means Great Ridge in Scottish Gaelic.

Contributing properties
The centerpiece of the historic district is Druim Moir Castle (1885–86), whose main gate is at the corner of Willow Grove Avenue and Cherokee Street. Designed by architects G. W. & W. D. Hewitt, and built at a cost of over $115,000 for Henry H. Houston, the thirty-room home was the largest in its neighborhood.

Local Wissahickon schist was used for the walls, Eastern granite for the trim, and slate for the roof. The interior is notable for its variety of woods: oak for the hall and stairway, butternut walnut for the parlor, mahogany for the reception room, quartered oak in the dining room and library, sycamore for the office, and cypress for the servant's section. Oak, cherry, and sycamore were used on the second floor, and white pine for the third-floor servants' quarters.

Houston was the largest landowner in Philadelphia in the 1880s. He earned his wealth as the freight manager of the Pennsylvania Railroad, as well as from gold mining, shipping, and petroleum products. Houston also developed the neighborhood of over 80 homes known as Wissahickon Heights that surrounds Druim Moir.

Nearby Brinkwood, a Shingle-style residence, was a wedding present from Houston to his son, Samuel F. Houston, in 1887.

The gardens were altered in 1920-1921 by Robert Rodes McGoodwin for Samuel F. Houston. In 1952, the house was modified by the removal of the top story and towers.

In addition to the eponymous castle and Brinkwood, the historic district comprises five other contributing properties and eight non-contributing properties.

References

External links

Listing and photographs at Philadelphia Architects and Buildings
Photograph of the castle in its original state at Bryn Mawr College

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania
Shingle Style architecture in Pennsylvania
Neighborhoods in Philadelphia
History of Philadelphia
Historic districts in Philadelphia
Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia
Historic district contributing properties in Pennsylvania
Houses in Philadelphia
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania
National Register of Historic Places in Philadelphia

Druim Moir Historic District


Bernardus Cornelis Johannes Lievegoed (2 September 1905, Medan – 12 December 1992, Zeist) was a Dutch medical doctor, psychiatrist and author. He is most famous for establishing a theory of organizational development. He founded the N.P.I., or Netherlands Pedagogical Institute, which works with organizations and individuals to help these realize their economic, social and cultural goals. He also founded the Vrije Hogeschool in Driebergen.

Life
Bernard Lievegoed was born in Medan, Sumatra (then the Dutch East Indies) in 1905. At nine, his family moved for three years to Rotterdam in the Netherlands. From 1917 to 1922, Lievegoed attended high school in Java. In 1924, he began a study of medicine in Groningen, taking a doctorate in 1928. In this same year he first became aware of anthroposophical remedial education; this encounter was to play a large role in his further development. In 1930 he completed the medical degree in Amsterdam and became a general practitioner in Bosch en Duin (near Zeist).

In 1931 Lievegoed founded the Zonnehuis, a home for children with disabilities, in Bosch in Duin. The Zonnehuis was later relocated to Zeist and, in the course of its expansion its name was changed to the Zonnehuizen Veldheim Steinia te Zeist. Lievegoed was the director of this institution from its founding until 1954.

In 1932 Lievegoed helped to found the Vrije School (free Waldorf school) of Zeist. In 1939 he did a higher doctorate (promotion) with a thesis about the therapeutic use of music. In 1946 he published the first of a number of books, Ontwikkelingsfasen van het kind; this was translated into eight languages and appeared in English as Phases of Childhood.

From 1948 to 1953 Lievegoed was a consultant for assistance to uneducated working-class children. During this time he published Planetenwirken und Lebensprozesse in Mensch und Erde (Planetary Influences and Life Processes in the Human Being and the Earth). In 1952 he cofounded the Vrij Geestesleven publishing house, oriented towards publishing works related to spiritual science. He became a member of the national commission on technical high schools; he served in this capacity until 1962.

In 1954 he founded the institution that became his life-work, the NPI. The original name, the Dutch Pedagogic Institute for Economics, was later changed to NPI: Institute for Organizational Development. He led this institute (in Zeist) for the next 17 years publishing The Developing Organisation in 1969 (published in English by Tavistock in 1973) with colleagues in the firm, notably Hans von Sasson, arguably the first influential European book on organisation development (. In 1955 he became extraordinary professor for social pedagogy at the Dutch Economic College (now Erasmus University in Rotterdam. In 1961 he helped to found a new technical college in Twente (now Twente University), which opened in 1964. Here he served as professor of social economics and Dean of the Economics Department until 1973. During this time he supported the work of the Kind en Instrument Foundation, out of which the international Choroi instrument-making workshops arose, and founded an association for therapeutic educators. With his colleagues in NPI he developed Theory U, which later developed as an influential management concept popularized by Otto Scharmer.

Between 1968 and 1976 Lievegoed was chair of a governmental commission on education that was given the task of transforming the educational system in the Netherlands. During this time he published a number of works (titles are given in approximate English translation): Organizational Development, Social Structures in Therapeutic Education, The Spiritual Impulse behind the Movement for Therapeutic Education, Towards the 21st Century and, together with his wife Nel Lievegoed-Schatborn, Aspects of Therapeutic Education. In 1971 he founded an independent university, the Vrije Hogeschool, in Driebergen. He was Dean of the University for the next eleven years.

In 1973 he left Erasmus University to cofound and become the managing director of the Vrije Pedagogisch Akademie, now Hogeschool Helicon (Helicon College). Over the next years, he published several more books: Phases (De levensloop van de mens, translated into eleven languages), Mystery Streams in Europe and the New Mysteries, and Organic Architecture. He joined the governmental commission on alternative medicine (1977–1981).

In 1983 Lievegoed published a play (De wadlopers, The Marsh-Flats) and another book, Man on the Threshold: Possibilities and Problems of Inner Development. He received the Gouden Ganzenveer honoring his cultural contributions; the report cited his complete works as the basis for the prize. Further publications: Contemplations on the Foundation Stone (1987), About Cultural Institutions (1988), Through the Eye of the Needle (1991) and About the Salvation of the Soul (published posthumously in 1993).

Lievegoed died on 12 December 1992 in Zeist.

Books by Bernard Lievegoed
 Man on the Threshold - The Challenge of Inner Development
 The Developing Organization
 Managing the Developing Organization
 Phases - The Spiritual Rhythms in Adult Life
 Phases of Childhood
 The Eye of the Needle - Life and Working Encounter with Anthroposophy
 The Battle for the Soul - The working together of three great leaders of humanity
 Mystery Streams in Europe and the New Mysteries
 Towards the 21st Century: Doing the Good

References

External links
 Biographien Kulturimpuls Bernard Lievegoed

Dutch business theorists
Dutch systems scientists
Anthroposophists
1905 births
1992 deaths
Dutch educators
Academic staff of Erasmus University Rotterdam
Academic staff of the University of Twente
People from Medan
People from Zeist
University of Groningen alumni
20th-century  Dutch economists
Dutch psychiatrists

Bernard Lievegoed


James Allodi (born February 26, 1967) is a Canadian actor, writer and director.

Career
James Allodi earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts, with a Major in Film, from New York University. Since then, the writer, director, and actor has amassed an impressive resume of stage, television and film credits. His first feature film was the critically acclaimed, off-beat comedy The Uncles. Television directing credits include Naked Josh (which won him a Gemini Award for best direction), Rent-A-Goalie, Paradise Falls, Degrassi, and The Associates.

As an actor, he starred in Daniel MacIvor's Wilby Wonderful, Paul Gross' Men With Brooms and Peter Lynch's Genie Award nominated feature-length documentary The Herd.

Allodi had a recurring role in the television series Once A Thief, and has appeared in numerous other series including The Associates, The Newsroom, and Due South.

Filmography

 Kung Fu: The Legend Continues (1995)
 Due South (1994, 1996)
 Once a Thief (1998)
 PSI Factor: Chronicles of the Paranormal (1997, 1999)
 The Herd (1998)
 Elimination Dance (1998)
 American Whiskey Bar (1998)
 When Ponds Freeze Over (1998)
 The Five Senses (1999)
 Top of the Food Chain (1999)
 Thrill Seekers (1999) - FBI Agent Stanton
 The Uncles (2000)
 The Associates (2001)
 Men with Brooms (2002)
 Wilby Wonderful (2004)
 Snow Cake (2006)
 Naked Josh (2006)
 ReGenesis (2007)

References

External links

1967 births
Living people
Canadian male television actors
Male actors from Toronto
Canadian male film actors
Canadian Film Centre alumni

James Allodi


The United States Air Force's 281st Combat Communications Group was a Rhode Island Air National Guard combat communications unit located in North Smithfield, Rhode Island, United States.

Mission

Federal: To install, operate, and maintain combat-ready equipment and personnel packages, to provide deployable communications and information (C&I) capability in support of the United States Air Force Joint Forces Air Component Commander (JFACC) and the Air Force Forces (AFFOR) Commander.

State: To be organized, equipped, and trained to function effectively in the protection of life, property and the preservation of peace, order, and public safety under competent orders of Rhode Island state authorities.

History

The 281st Combat Communications Group (281 CCG) was established as the 281st Tactical Air Control Group on 1 April 1976. The Group Headquarters, the 282 Combat Communications Squadron (CBCS), and the 283 CBCS were formerly Tactical Air Control units. The 263 CBCS was assigned to the Group in 1988. In 1993, the 118 CBCS was assigned to the Group Hqs. The 118th was a NATO Air Base Support (NABS) organization and recently converted to an Initial Beddown mission in NATO. Prior to the new Tactical Contingency Communications Equipment – Central Area (TCCE-CA) mission, the 282CBCS and 283 CBCS provided the entire USAF inventory of MRC-113 wideband radios and TSC-38B  high frequency radios. The MRC-113 was the largest and had the longest range and channel capacity of any USAF Tactical Wideband radio system. The TSC-38B provided secure record traffic and a telephone switch in addition to its HF radio capabilities. The 263 CBCS was part of the 251CCG from Springfield, Ohio and had the contingency squadron mission. They possessed a variety of analog communications equipment, including high frequency and line-of-sight radios, technical control, record communications center, tactical switchboards, and a Digital Subscriber Terminal. In 1985, the 281 CCG was selected as the USAF Component of the Tactical Contingency Communications Equipment – Central Area (TCCE-CA) in support of the United States Central Command (USCENTCOM).

Assignments

Major Command/Gaining Command

Air National Guard/Air Force Space Command (2008 – 30 Sep 2013)
Air National Guard/Air Combat Command (1 June 1992 – 2008)
Air National Guard/Tactical Air Command (1976 – 1 June 1992)

Previous designations

 281st Combat Communications Group (???–30 Sep 2013)

Squadrons previously assigned
 202nd Engineering and Installation Squadron
 213th Engineering and Installation Squadron
 263d Combat Communications Squadron—New London, North Carolina
 265th Combat Communications Squadron—South Portland, Maine
 267th Combat Communications Squadron—Otis ANGB, Massachusetts
 269th Combat Communications Squadron—Springfield, Ohio
 271st Combat Communications Squadron—Annville, Pennsylvania
 282d Combat Communications Squadron—North Smithfield, Rhode Island
 283d Combat Communications Squadron—Marietta, Georgia

Bases stationed

 Coventry, Rhode Island (2006?–30 Sep 2013)
 North Smithfield, Rhode Island (1976–2013)

References

External links
 Globalsecurity.org: 281st CCG

Combat Communications 281
Military units and formations in Rhode Island
Combat Communications 281

281st Combat Communications Group


Tom, Dick and Harriet is a British sitcom that was broadcast for two series from 1982 to 1983. It was created by the sitcom writing team of Johnnie Mortimer and Brian Cooke, and it starred veteran actor Lionel Jeffries in one of his few television roles, only seven months after his previous TV sitcom role in Father Charlie, Ian Ogilvy (who had a few years before been cast as Simon Templar a.k.a. The Saint in Return of the Saint), and Brigit Forsyth (best known for her role as Thelma Ferris in The Likely Lads/Whatever Happened to the Likely Lads?).

It was made by Thames Television for the ITV network.

Plot
Thomas Maddison (played by Jeffries) had spent 40 years living in the deepest Cornwall countryside, and hen-pecked at that; his late wife banned him from smoking, drinking, and even casually looking at other women. Upon becoming a widower, Maddison, unable to wait to break free from the shackles that had bound him for so long, heads off to the bright lights of London, where his son Richard (Dick) (played by Ogilvy) lives with his wife Harriet (played by Forsyth). Suffice to say, his rather primitive manners, his disgusting habits, and his womanising creates havoc for his son and his daughter-in-law, both of them being well-manicured executives; him in advertising, her in magazine publishing. However, in the second series, Harriet conceives and (in a rather speedy nine months) delivers Richard a son and Thomas a grandson.

Episodes

Series one (1982)

1.1. On The Town (13 September 1982)
1.2. Where There's A Will (20 September 1982)
1.3. Currying Favour (27 September 1982)
1.4. The Last Time I Saw Paris (4 October 1982)
1.5. Dog in the Manger (11 October 1982)
1.6. Paternal Triangle (18 October 1982)

Series two (1983)
2.1. A Room with a View (13 January 1983)
2.2. Baby Blues (20 January 1983)
2.3. Country Life (27 January 1983)
2.4. From Here To Maternity (3 February 1983)
2.5. None Shall Sleep (10 February 1983)
2.6. Get Out And Get Under (17 February 1983)

Ratings
Ratings for the first series were very strong, with each episode being watched by between 11.3 and 13.75 million, with all but one of the episodes in the top five of the TV charts. Ratings for the second series were lower, with the first five episodes failing to make the ITV-only top ten, at a time when 13 million was needed to enter it. However, the final episode ranked fourth in the overall TV charts, with 14.6 million watching.

Other versions
Like other Thames sitcoms of the 1980s, the format of Tom, Dick and Harriet was sold to the US, through the US TV producer and executive Don L. Taffner, who distributed Thames material to US TV in both format and syndication. It was sold to CBS in the same year that the original series finished in the UK, and the US version was named Foot at the Door. D.L. Taffner's production company managed to make 6 episodes of it after which it was cancelled. In the US version, the widower was named Jonah Foot, and he was played by Harold Gould. Foot had lived in New Hampshire, and following his wife's death he moved to New York City, living in the Manhattan apartment of his son Jim, played by Kenneth Gilman, and his wife Harriet, played by Diana Canova, best known for her roles in Soap (TV series) and later in Throb.

However, in 1993, 10 years after the second and last series of Tom, Dick and Harriet aired on ITV, its format was sold to the Netherlands. The Dutch version was called Het Zonnetje in Huis. The Dutch version ran for 9 series over 10 years, from 1993 to 2003. It originally began on the Netherlands Public Broadcasting, and it was made by one of its main constituent members VARA. VARA made the first 2 series in 1993 and 1994, after which It moved to the commercial station RTL 4, who made it until the end. In the Dutch version, the widower was named Piet Bovenkerk, played by John Kraaijkamp, Sr., who moved to the Amsterdam apartment of his son Erik, played by Kraaijkamp, Sr.'s son Johnny Kraaijkamp, Jr., and his wife Catharina, played by Martine Bijl.

Stunt Incident

During location filming with Ogilvy for one of the episodes, a stunt involving a car and a lake went very badly wrong, ending up with Jeffries only just managing to get out of the car's front window before the vehicle sank in 45 feet of water.

References

 Mark Lewisohn, BBC Online Comedy Guide/Radio Times Guide to TV Comedy
 British TV Online Resources

External links

1982 British television series debuts
1983 British television series endings
1980s British sitcoms
English-language television shows
ITV sitcoms
Television series by Fremantle (company)
Television shows produced by Thames Television
Television shows shot at Teddington Studios

Tom, Dick and Harriet


Bayou Chene (translated to Oak Bayou) was previously a small unincorporated community in St. Martin Parish, Louisiana, United States. The community was located in the Atchafalaya Basin.

History

Bayou Chene was a community settled in the 1830s, located approximately 40 miles north of Morgan City. The U.S. post office was established there in 1858. The settlers there ran a church, a school, a merchandise store and the post office, which were all located on the bayou. In the 1920s it had approximately 500 residents, most of whom had lived there for generations after settling there from other communities both within and outside of Louisiana. They were swampers, lumberjacks, trappers, farmers, fishermen and moss pickers.

Despite occasional flooding, Bayou Chene thrived until the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 destroyed much of the community. The community rebuilt but declined after construction of the Atchafalaya Spillway levees and dredging of river channels caused repeated flooding of the community. The school was relocated to higher ground in 1945, and closed in 1953, shortly after the post office closed in 1952 — most of the residents left at that time. Today the historical community of Bayou Chene lies under approximately 12 feet of silt.

Culture

U.S. Army Medic Eugene Roe, portrayed in the 2001 Tom Hanks/Steven Spielberg 10-part World War II miniseries Band of Brothers, was born in Bayou Chene.

References

Geography of St. Martin Parish, Louisiana
Ghost towns in Louisiana
Acadiana

Bayou Chene, Louisiana


Marszałek (, , , ) was the title of one of the highest officials in the Polish royal court since the 13th century, and in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania since the 15th century. It was the highest-ranking of all court officials and was considered the most important advisor to the King of Poland.

History

The term marszałek, derived from Old German marh-skalk or horse-servant came to Polish language in the 13th century from Bohemia. Initially it retained its original meaning, but then evolved to denote the primary military leader in various courts of princes, most notably in Silesia. Later the title evolved further to denote one of the functions at the court. In the 14th century the royal court in Kraków introduced an office of the Marshal of the Polish Kingdom (marszałek Królestwa Polskiego), which was reserved for kings' advisors.

Historical usage, 1240–1772
The first recorded mention of a Marszałek is at the Battle of Legnica in Silesia on April 9, 1241, where the forces of Henry II the Pious were soundly defeated by the Mongols.

In 1486, Albin Szlachcic Marszałek, Kapitan Rycerstwa (German: Ritter und Edler von Marszałek, Hauptmann der Ritterschaft), was further ennobled by Prince Jan II (Jan II the Mad), one of the last Silesian Piasts, as the result of successful campaigns against Brandenburg that reached as far as Berlin. Albin Szlachcic Marszałek was a member of the Szlachta (Polish noble estate) Thomas Paul Michael Marshall, Ritter und Edler von Marszalek and his sons Knox William Marshall, Ritter und Edler von Marszalek and Andrew Thomas Marshall, Ritter und Edler von Marszalek are Albin's nearest living relatives.

It is believed Albin Szlachcic Marszałek (Eng: Lord Marshal) assumed the coat of arms of Prince Jan II based on heraldic adoption. Heraldic adoption (Polish: adopcja herbowa), was, in the Kingdom of Poland, a common form of adoption into an existing heraldic clan along with assuming the coat of arms of that clan. The adoption of heraldic arms was a procedure used solely in Polish heraldry and was one of the earlier "old way" forms of ennoblement in Poland. It became particularly popular in the 15th century but was abolished by the first half of the 17th century.

In the 15th century a similar office of Grand Marshal of the Crown (marszałek wielki koronny) was created for the closest of all kings' men. The Grand Marshal was often referred to as the first of the servants or first of the advisors (pierwszy minister in 16th century Polish) as he was superior to all other officials at the court, including the cup-bearers, sword-bearers, flag-bearers, writers, mathematicians and secretaries. Among his responsibilities were command over the court during kings' travels, obedience of court etiquette and starting and closing the Senate meetings. In addition, when away from the Royal Castle, King entitled the marszałek to enforce the so-called marshal articles, or a set of rules limiting the freedom of the szlachta in the presence of the monarch and regulating the order of meetings in order to ensure kings' safety. Initially traditional law, the set of rules was finally accepted by the Sejm in 1678.

The Grand marshal's deputy was named marszałek nadworny (marshal of the court), who was taking care for the court and the safety of the dames. After the Union of Lublin similar offices were created for Lithuania and were entitled to conduct the same set of duties when the king was on the Lithuanian soil. In addition, a separate office of land marshal of Lithuania (marszałek ziemski litewski) was created. Finally, in the 17th century an office of marszałek dworski (court marshal, not to be confused with marshal of the court) was created. The latter official was the manager of kings' private property.

In addition to the court officials, the term marszałek was also used to denote a number of lower-ranking or temporary officials. Out of those the most prominent were marshals of the Sejm (Polish parliament) (marszałek sejmu) and Sejmiks (regional parliaments).

Usage since 1772
Before the partition of Poland, the highest military rank equivalent to modern marszałek (Field marshal) was hetman.

In 1772, after the First Partition of Poland, in the Russian-occupied part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth an office of the marszałek szlachty (Marshal of Nobility) was created. Not related to the earlier court officials, the szlachta marshal was a deputy of Russian-nominated governor and was entitled with taking care of the sejmiks and other self-government bodies of the gentry, as well as with collecting taxes and controlling the genealogical records. The Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire of 1842 introduced two sets of such officials: one for gubernyal level of administration and the other for powiat-level. Initially elected by the gentry, after the January Uprising of 1863 the marshals were usually nominated by the governor. Their influence soon diminished and the office was abolished, together with the traditional Polish system of administrative division onto voivodships, lands and powiats.

In the 20th century, when Poland regained independence, a new rank was created: marszałek polski (Marshal of Poland). It was first given to Józef Piłsudski, and although it is the highest military rank it is more of an honor-rank. This title is granted only to military commanders who achieved victory during a war. Marszałek sejmu was recreated as well.

Types
Following is a list of titles of marszałek. In many cases, they are completely unrelated to each other.

In the Polish Kingdom:
 Marszałek Krolestwa Polskiego – Marshal of the Kingdom of Poland

In the semi-confederal Polish-Lithnuanian Commonwealth, offices were split:
 In the Polish Crown:
 Marszałek wielki koronny – Grand Marshal of the Crown
 Marszałek nadworny koronny – Marshal of the Court of the Crown
In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania:
 Marszałek wielki litewski – Grand Marshal of Lithuania
 Marszałek nadworny litewski – Marshal of the Court of Lithuania
Common:
 Marszałek dworski – Court Marshal
 Marszałek ziemski – District Marshal or Land Marshal
 Marszałek sejmu – Marshal of the Sejm
 Marszałek sejmiku – Marshal of the Sejmik

In partitioned Poland:
 Marszałek szlachty – Marshal of the Szlachta

In the Second Polish Republic, the People's Republic of Poland, and present-day Poland:
 Marszałek Polski – Marshal of Poland (military rank)
 Marszałek sejmu – Speaker of the Sejm
 Marszałek senatu – Speaker of the Senate of Poland

Since 1999:
 Marszałek województwa (voivodeship marshal)leader of the indirectly elected executive of a voivodeship (one of Poland's 16 provinces) by sejmik (voivodeship's legislature), co-existing with the government-appointed voivode (governor)

See also
 Hetman
 Marshal of the Sejm
 Offices in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

References

Polish titles
Lithuanian titles
Silesian nobility
Nobility
Polish nobility
Prussian nobility
German nobility by region
Austrian nobility
Polish courtiers

Marszałek


Linsey Michelle Godfrey (born July 25, 1988) is an American actress. She played Caroline Spencer on the CBS soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful from March 2012 to October 2016, before returning in a recurring capacity from December 2016 to March 2018. She played Sarah Horton on the NBC soap opera Days of Our Lives from July 2018 to March 2021 before returning in January 2022.

Early life
Godfrey was raised in Stuart, Florida where she lived with her mother, Char Griggs. Godfrey attended South Fork High School before she moved to Los Angeles to further her acting career. She is an accomplished angler. In 2006, Godfrey was visiting her family in Tallahassee when she was diagnosed with Hodgkin's lymphoma. She completed treatment in seven months and returned to Los Angeles to continue her acting career. She designed the survivor ribbon tattooed on the back of her neck.

Career
Godfrey's acting career began as a freshman at South Fork High School, when she unexpectedly replaced an ill student; she was then discovered by a talent manager at a state thespian competition. Godfrey commuted to the Los Angeles-based agency's satellite office in Titusville for a year before being allowed to visit California with her mother and audition there. Her family took out a loan, and her mother worked three jobs to finance these visits. Eventually, her mother left her in the care of friends and her management team so she could return to work. Godfrey booked roles on One Tree Hill and Surface before being diagnosed with Hodgkin's lymphoma; she estimates cancer set her career back by two years. Upon returning to Hollywood, Godfrey booked several guest-starring roles and landed a role on The Bold and the Beautiful as series regular Caroline Spencer. In July 2018, it was announced she joined the cast of Days of Our Lives as Sarah Horton. In March 2021, Godfrey announced her departure from the soap, exiting on March 29. On January 7, 2022, it was announced that Godfrey would be reprising her role, during the week of January 17.

Personal life
On December 5, 2013, it was announced that Godfrey was expecting her first child with boyfriend, The Young and the Restless actor Robert Adamson. She gave birth to a daughter Aleda Seren Adamson, on June 12, 2014. In August 2014, Godfrey helped to raise awareness of the disease ALS by participating in the Ice Bucket Challenge. On August 3, 2015, after months of speculation, a representative for The Bold and the Beautiful confirmed that Adamson and Godfrey had ended their engagement; however, they would continue to raise their daughter "in a loving and amicable environment and her needs will always be their common priority." In late-2017, Godfrey began a relationship with actor Breckin Meyer. She was injured in an automobile accident on February 2, 2015 after being struck by a moving car while walking on the sidewalk in Los Angeles. While it was initially reported that both of her legs were broken, a rep for the actress said it was only her ankles that were injured and she is expected to make a full recovery. In May 2019, Godfrey publicly stated that she had an abortion and that she did not regret her decision to get one. On March 9, 2021, Godfrey revealed on Instagram that she has been diagnosed with bipolar 2 and borderline personality disorder. Godfrey is a celebrity ambassador for the NGO INARA. Founded by Arwa Damon in 2015, the organization provides medical treatment to children injured as a result of war. She came out as bisexual in 2021.

Filmography

Film

Television

Awards and nominations

References

External links

1988 births
Actresses from Florida
American child actresses
American soap opera actresses
American television actresses
Living people
People from Stuart, Florida
People with bipolar disorder
People with borderline personality disorder
LGBT people from Florida
Bisexual actresses
21st-century American women
American bisexual actors

Linsey Godfrey


CITV was a British programming block and former television channel. It is broadcast by Sky Digital, Virgin Media, and Freesat. It was released on 17 December 1981. It became available on Freeview in May 2006. It was also released on Sky in May and NTL on 6 June. Both the analogue and the Sky versions were released on Virgin Media's Virtual Menu on 19 May 2007. The analogue version was removed from the platform in 2011 and only the Sky version remained available on the platform's Virtual Menu. Its TV channel closed on 1st September 2023, moving its programmes to ITVX.

Programming

 Horrid Henry
 Grizzly Tales for Gruesome Kids
 Sooty (2011)
 Supernormal
 Oddbods (Shorts TV series)
 Pip Ahoy
 Jungle Run
 Dr Panda
 Lily's Driftwood Bay
 Hope Works
 Postman Pat
 CKN Toys
 Grace's World (Barbie series)

British television channels
2006 establishments in the United Kingdom

CITV


The Ochota Massacre (in Polish: Rzeź Ochoty – "Ochota slaughter") was a wave of German-orchestrated mass murder, looting, arson, torture and rape, which swept through the Warsaw district of Ochota from  1944, during the Warsaw Uprising. The principal perpetrators of these war crimes were the Nazi collaborationist S.S. Sturmbrigade R.O.N.A., the so-called "Russian National Liberation Army" (, RONA), commanded by Bronislav Kaminski.

The worst atrocities were committed in the local hospitals, in the Curie Institute, the Kolonia Staszica housing estate, and the Zieleniak concentration camp. In all, about 10,000 residents of Ochota were killed and had their property stolen, after which the district was systematically burnt down by German forces, as were the bodies of many of the victims.

The arrival of RONA in Warsaw's Ochota district

After the outbreak of the Warsaw Uprising on 1 August 1944, SS-Reichsführer Heinrich Himmler ordered the destruction of the city and the extermination of its civilian population.

On 4 August 1944 at approximately 10:00, units of SS RONA commanded by Bronislav Kaminski entered Warsaw's Ochota district. The staff of RONA, having under its command 1,700 soldiers, set up their headquarters in a building of the Wolna Wszechnica Polska (Polish Free University) at 2A Opaczewska Street (today 2 Banacha Street), while the soldiers took over the building of the XXI Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Hugona Kołłątaja (21st Hugo Kołłątaj Secondary School) at 93 Grójecka Street.

The start of the massacre
RONA's first priority was to attack resistance positions at the so-called "Reduta Kaliska" (Kalisz Stronghold) further along Grójecka Street, but almost immediately, RONA units began the first of a series of robberies, rapes, and murders, initially targeting the civilian population of nearby Opaczewska Street. Groups of RONA soldiers stormed into people's homes and expelled the residents, some of whom were shot - especially if they were reluctant to leave their properties. Most of the buildings in Opaczewska Street were set on fire that day after being systematically looted. On 4–5 August 1944, people were also murdered in nearby allotments, and the residents of 104 Grójecka Street were killed with grenades while hiding in the cellar.

In the first hours of the massacre, RONA troops also entered the Radium Institute where they killed some of the patients. Many of the victims were gang raped, before they were killed – a pattern which was repeated elsewhere.

Zieleniak camp

On 5 August, due to the ever-growing number of people being expelled from their homes, the Germans decided to create a transitional camp in Ochota where people could be gathered prior to being transported to the transit camp (Durchgangslager) in Pruszków, outside Warsaw. The transitional camp was located in the area of a former vegetable market called Zieleniak (today the area of Hale Banacha). Between 10 and 20,000 inhabitants of the Ochota district and its neighbouring areas were rounded up by the evening of 5 August.

RONA troops took over the former administration building of the marketplace, and used caretaker boxes as guard posts. The marketplace was enclosed by a brick wall which prevented the prisoners from being able to escape. Crimes against the local population continued during the round ups carried out by RONA troops, who often beat and shot their prisoners while herding them towards the camp, pulling women out of the crowd to rape them, frequently killing them afterwards. At the gate of the camp, the victims were searched for valuables, jewels and money, and then forced into the cobbled area of the marketplace. Once inside the camp, the prisoners were given no sanitary facilities and no medicine or medical aid was available. A small amount of mouldy bread was sometimes given out, but there was no drinking water. In addition, RONA soldiers sometimes shot at the imprisoned people for fun. Erich von dem Bach, commander of all German armed forces in Warsaw during the uprising, inspected the camp on the day of its inception and concluded that "there was nothing wrong there, everything was in order."

By 7 August 1944, the camp was overflowing with civilians. Those who had been killed were laid in piles along the camp wall or buried in a makeshift manner. On the same day, several hundred people of non-Polish descent were escorted away to a similar camp in Okęcie. On 9 August, the first batch of prisoners was marched out of the Zieleniak camp and transported to the Pruszków transit camp.

As German forces gradually pushed the insurrectionists out of Ochota in subsequent days, the camp was once again filled with people from other parts of the district, such as the Kolonia Lubeckiego (Lubecki Housing Estate) and blocks of the Social Insurance Office (ZUS) in Filtrowa Street. The capture of resistance positions along Wawelska Street (the so-called "Reduta Wawelska" - Wawelska Stronghold) on 11 August, was followed by the next wave of people expelled from their homes. As the number of murdered and deceased prisoners increased, their corpses were burned in the gymnasium of the neighbouring Hugo Kołłątaj Secondary School. They were transported to the gymnasium by conscripted civilians who were ordered to lay them in piles, after which RONA soldiers doused the bodies with alcohol and set them on fire. On 12 August, a German officer killed three captured boy scouts of the Gustaw Battalion of the Home Army, shooting them in the backs of their heads as they lowered corpses into an excavated pit. On 13 August, the final evacuation of civilians to the Pruszków transit camp began. Meanwhile, selected men were conscripted into the Verbrennungskommando and continued burning the bodies of the victims of the massacre.

The Zieleniak camp operated until 19 August. During its two weeks of existence, some 1,000 of its prisoners died of hunger, thirst, and extreme exhaustion, or were shot to death by RONA soldiers.

Radium Institute

On 5 August, German RONA units broke into the Radium Institute (founded by Marie Curie) at 15 Wawelska Street. After looting the hospital and robbing the staff and patients, they set the library on fire and destroyed the food stock, pharmacy and much of the hospital equipment. After initially deciding to execute the patients and staff inside the institute, the RONA troops then changed their minds and decided that the patients and eight staff members would remain while the rest of the staff were marched off to the Zieleniak camp.

In the evening, nurses who had stayed behind were gang-raped. The next day the building was set on fire and some of the patients were burned alive. Approximately 60 people avoided death by seeking shelter in the building's cellar and chimneys.

On 9–10 August, some survivors were discovered, and RONA set the building on fire again. On 19 August, RONA troops pulled all the remaining survivors who could be found out of the building and killed the 50 critically ill patients on the spot. The remainder were sent to the Zieleniak camp, where they were also executed (according to eyewitness evidence, with a shot to the back of the head) and then burned at a pyre in the gymnasium. Prior to the execution, one female patient (of Ukrainian descent) was released. In total, about 170 people (patients and staff) were murdered.

Other atrocities
Rapes, robberies, arson, executions by firing squad and murders of civilians hidden in cellars (usually by throwing hand-grenades into them) were committed by RONA throughout the Ochota district. They also killed the wounded in the resistance field hospital at 11/13 Langiewicza Street with grenades. Most of the atrocities in Ochota ended with the fall of the last resistance stronghold in the building of the Wojskowy Instytut Geograficzny (Military Geographic Institute) on 13 August 1944. However, on 25 August, patients and personnel of the Szpital Dzieciątka Jezus (Infant Jesus Hospital) in 4 Lindleya Street were beaten and murdered.

Victims

Approximately 10,000 people were killed in the Ochota massacre, including 1,000 people who died in the Zieleniak camp. Many different sites were used for mass executions, some of which are now marked with memorial plaques to commemorate the victims. Among those killed were the 82-year-old painter Wiktor Mazurowski and his wife, who were murdered at 83 Filtrowa Street, the well-known dramatic actor Mariusz Maszyński and his family, as well as the architect Stefan Tomorowicz and his wife, who were killed in Pole Mokotowskie.

Systematic looting and destruction of the Ochota district

RONA units withdrew from Ochota between 22 and 25 August 1944, but the looting of property in the district continued until the beginning of October. The German occupational administration organised a systematic campaign of pillaging; booty was loaded into goods trains in the Warszawa Zachodnia railway station and sent to Germany. Additionally, convoys of trucks loaded with stolen property were sent to Piotrków Trybunalski. In the end, units of the Vernichtungskommando systematically set street after street on fire, thus effecting the final destruction of the district.

See also
 Warsaw Uprising
 29th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS RONA (1st Russian)
 Verbrennungskommando Warschau
 Tchorek plaques#Ochota
 Wola Massacre
 Monument to Victims of the Wola Massacre
 Wola Massacre Memorial on Górczewska Street
 Warsaw Uprising Museum
 Military history of the Warsaw Uprising
 Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles

Notes

Citations

Sources

External links
Crimes at the Radium Institute Hospital Warsaw Uprising Museum
 Wawelska 66/74, Gazeta Wyborcza, 2004-03-25
Ochota Massacre – the suffering of the district - collection of civilian testimonies from "Chronicles of Terror"

Massacres in 1944
Nazi war crimes during the Warsaw Uprising
Ochota
Ordnungspolizei
War crimes of the Waffen-SS
Wartime sexual violence in World War II

Ochota massacre


August Belmont, Sr. (8 December 1813–24 November 1890) was born in Alzey, Hesse, to a Jewish family. He emigrated to New York City in 1837 when he became the American representative of the Rothschild family's banking house in Frankfurt.   Later he became an American citizen, and married Caroline Slidell Perry, daughter of Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry.

Early life
August Belmont was born on December 8, 1813—some sources say 1816—to Simon and Frederika Elsass Schönberg. His mother died when he was seven, and he went live with his uncle and grandmother in Frankfurt. He attended the Jewish Junior and Senior High School until he began his first job as an apprentice to the Rothschilds. He would sweep floors, polish furniture, and run errands while studying English, arithmetic, and writing. He was then given a confidential clerkship in 1832 and promoted to private secretary before travelling to Naples, Paris, and Rome. In 1837, Belmont travelled to Havana to manage the Rothschild's Cuban interests. On his way to Havana, however, Belmont stopped in New York. He arrived there during the Panic of 1837 and stayed to look afte Rothschild's interests there instead of continuing on to Havana. After he emigrated to the United States, he changed his surname, Schönberg (German for "beautiful mountain"), to Belmont (French for "beautiful mountain").

August Belmont and Company
In the Panic of 1837, hundreds of American businesses, including the Rothschild's American agents, went bankrupt. As a result, Belmont postponed his departure to Havana  and began August Belmont & Company, believing that he could supplant the recently bankrupt firm, the American Agency. August Belmont and Company was an instant success, and Belmont restored health to the Rothschild's US interests over the next five years. In 1844, Belmont was named the Consul-General of Austria at New York City. He resigned in 1850 because he thought Austria was cruel in the way it treated Hungary.

Entrance into politics
Belmont married Caroline Slidell Perry, the daughter of Matthew Calbraith Perry, on 7 November 1849. Soon, John Slidell, his wife's uncle, starting helping Belmont. Belmont's first task was to campaign for James Buchanan in New York. In June, 1851, Belmont wrote letters to the New York Herald and the New York National-Democrat, insisting that they do justice to Buchanan's presidential run. But Franklin Pierce won the nomination instead, and Belmont made large contributions to the Democratic Party. After his victory, Pierce in 1853 appointed Belmont chargé d'affaires and minister to The Hague. While in Holland, Belmont urged American annexation of Cuba as a new slave state in what became known as the Ostend Manifesto.

Though Belmont lobbied hard for it, Buchanan denied him the ambassadorship to Spain after his election in 1856, thanks to the Ostend Manifesto. As a delegate to the 1860 Democratic National Convention, Belmont supported Stephen A. Douglas, who subsequently named Belmont chairman of the Democratic National Committee. Belmont energetically supported the Union cause during the Civil War as a War Democrat, helping Missouri congressman Francis P. Blair raise and equip the Union army's first mainly German-American regiment. Belmont also used his influence with European business and political leaders to support the Union cause in the American civil war, stopping the Rothschilds and other bankers from lending to the Confederacy and meeting personally with the British prime minister, Lord Palmerston, and members of Napoleon III's government.

Postwar political career
Belmont stayed as chairman of the Democratic National Committee after the war, but he thought it was the worst ever time for the party. As early as 1862, Belmont and Samuel Tilden bought stock in the New York World in order to make it publish stories supporting the Democrats, with the help of Manton M. Marble, its editor-in-chief.

The Republican party was divided at the war's end, so Belmont organized new party gatherings and tried to get Salmon Chase elected president in 1868.  He thought Chase was least vulnerable to charges of disloyalty to the party during the Republican Lincoln-Johnson administrations.

Horatio Seymour's became the democratic candidate instead, and lost to Ulysses S. Grant by a lot of Electoral College votes, although the popular vote was much closer.  In 1872 the Democrats supported liberal Republican Horace Greeley's disastrous presidential campaign. The election of 1872 prompted Belmont to resign as chairman of the Democratic National Committee, but he stayed interested in politics as a champion of US Senator Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware for the presidency, and as a fierce critic of the process granting Rutherford B. Hayes the presidency in 1877, and as an advocate of "hard money."

Death
Belmont died in New York in 1890. The Letters, Speeches and Addresses of August Belmont was published at New York in 1890. Belmont left an estate valued at more than ten million dollars. He is buried in Newport, Rhode Island.

Belmont's sons were Oliver Hazard Perry Belmont, Perry Belmont, and August Belmont, Jr..

August Belmont in culture
August Belmont threw lavish balls and dinner parties, receiving from New York's high society mixed reviews.
He was an avid sportsman, and the famed Belmont Stakes thoroughbred horse race is named in his honour. It debuted at Jerome Park Racetrack, owned by Belmont's friend, Leonard Jerome. Today The Belmont Stakes is part of thoroughbred racing's Triple Crown and takes place at Belmont Racetrack in New York.

Also named in Belmont's honor is the town of Belmont, New Hampshire, an honor Mr. Belmont never acknowledged. Edith Wharton reputedly modeled the character of Julius Beaufort in The Age of Innocence on Belmont.

Ham mousseline à la Belmont was created in his honour by Charles Ranhofer at Delmonico's.

References

Other websites
  Photograph of August Belmont's birth record, Zivilstandsregister Alzey, Germany, 1813
 Mr. Lincoln and New York: August Belmont
 Our Crowd by Stephen Birmingham (c) 1967 Harper and Row NY  Pages 57–62

1813 births
1890 deaths
Ambassadors of the United States
American bankers
German Jews
Jewish American politicians
Jewish businesspeople
Naturalized citizens of the United States
People from Hesse
Politicians from New York City
Businesspeople from New York City
Democratic Party (United States) politicians

August Belmont


Walter Griffen Winne (February 18, 1889 – October 15, 1972) was an American lawyer and politician who served as a member of the New Jersey General Assembly and U.S. Attorney for the District of New Jersey. As Prosecutor for Bergen County, New Jersey, he was indicted on misconduct charges in 1951 but was subsequently acquitted.

He was born in Brooklyn, New York to George T. and Agnes T. (Goff) Winne. He grew up in Hackensack, New Jersey and graduated from Hackensack High School in 1906. He attended Rutgers College, graduating in 1910 with a Bachelor of Literature degree. He attended New York Law School and received a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1912.

Winne was first elected to the New Jersey General Assembly in 1916 and served for four terms. In 1922 President Warren G. Harding appointed him U.S. Attorney for the District of New Jersey. His tenure was marked by many controversies over the enforcement of Prohibition in the state. He held the post until 1928, when he returned to private practice.

He was appointed Bergen County Counsel in 1934 and Prosecutor in 1944. In 1950, he was removed from office as Bergen County Prosecutor by Deputy Attorney General of New Jersey Nelson Stamler, who was conducting an investigation into gambling in the county. He was indicted on 19 counts of misconduct in 1951, with the charges alleging that he had failed to crack down on illegal gambling in Bergen County. U.S. Senator Estes Kefauver, who was holding Senate hearings on organized crime, called law enforcement in Bergen County under Winne "a sorry spectacle."

One of Winne's attorneys in the trial was Joseph Weintraub, who would later serve as Chief Justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court. Richard J. Hughes, later Governor of New Jersey, presided as New Jersey Superior Court judge, and ruled in the pretrial phase that there was insufficient evidence to bring Winne to trial. The decision was reversed by the State Supreme Court and Winne was ultimately tried.

In 1954, Winne was found not guilty on 16 counts of the indictment, and the state dropped the remaining counts. He attempted to recoup $34,000 in lost salary for the three years that he was removed from office, but he lost his case in a 5-2 decision by the State Supreme Court.

Winne continued in private legal practice until his retirement in 1963. He died at the age of 83 at the Van Dyke Nursing Home in Montclair, New Jersey and was to be interred at Hackensack Cemetery.

References

1889 births
1972 deaths
Hackensack High School alumni
Politicians from Brooklyn
Politicians from Hackensack, New Jersey
Rutgers University alumni
New York Law School alumni
Republican Party members of the New Jersey General Assembly
United States Attorneys for the District of New Jersey
20th-century American politicians

Walter G. Winne


1634: The Baltic War is a sequel to both the first-of-type sequels, Ring of Fire and 1633, co-written by American authors Eric Flint and David Weber published in 2007. It had to await schedule co-ordination by the two authors, which proved difficult and delayed the work by nearly two years. It continues the Main or Central European thread centered on the newly organized United States of Europe birthed in Central Germany under the protection-by-arms of Emperor Gustavus Adolphus (in the previous novel 1633) and in particular, the role of the citizens of Grantville, now of Thuringia, and the capital city of Magdeburg have to play on the world stage. With the stability imposed by the protection of Gustavus's armies, up-timers began migrating to other locales in the "neohistories" world as the year 1633 closed.

This "second half novel" wraps up two plot threads left hanging in Flint and Weber's 1633 (2002): the resolution of the captive Grantville diplomatic mission that Charles I is holding in the Tower of London, and how Admiral Simpson's awkward looking fleet of ironclad warships managed to get out of the Elbe past the Imperial Free City of Hamburg to effect the lifting of Siege of Luebeck. The book also details ground battles as the Americans have been busy upgrading Gustavus's army into a highly trained professional army at the expense of the mercenaries so prevalent in the era.

Literary significance and reception
Publishers Weekly called the book "exciting" and that the authors "emphasize the effect that the ideas of liberty, equality and the rule of law have" in the shaping the transition from absolutism to democracy. Although the reviewer for SFRevu gave a mostly positive review, he wrote that the book "does have a feel of being unfocused" since there "are a large and growing number of characters to follow."  The reviewer for the Midwest Book Review wrote that the "fast-paced storyline contains several fronts in which the advanced twenty-first technology plays key roles in the war, but it is a psychological and philosophical battle for the minds and hearts of the people that is perhaps more critical to the cause of freedom and democracy."

1634: The Baltic War is the second book in the 1632 series to be listed on the New York Times Best Seller list for hardcover fiction. During May 2007, this book was able to stay on the NY Times list for a period of 2 weeks while peaking at number 19.

Besides being listed on the NY Times Best Seller list, 1634: The Baltic War was also listed on the Locus (magazine) Hardcovers Bestsellers List for two months in a row during 2007, topping at number 2, and also later on the Paperbacks Bestsellers List for a single month in 2009 at number 8.

Main (Central Europe) thread
 Novel: 1632, 2000.
 Novel: 1633, 2003.
 Anthology: Ring of Fire, 2004.

References

External links
 An excerpt of 1634: The Baltic War'' is available for download or reading online at the Baen Free Library here . The whole novel can be found here.

1632 series books
2007 American novels
2007 science fiction novels
American alternate history novels
American science fiction novels
Baen Books available as e-books
Collaborative novels
Novels by David Weber
Novels by Eric Flint
Fiction set in 1634
Novels set in the 1630s

1634: The Baltic War


Label Rouge (Red Label) is a sign of quality assurance in France as defined by Law No. 2006-11 (5 January 2006).

Products eligible for the Label Rouge are food items, and non-food and unprocessed agricultural products such as flowers. According to the French Ministry of Agriculture: "The Red Label certifies that a product has a specific set of characteristics establishing a superior level to that of a similar current product".

Certification

To obtain the Label Rouge, a very stringent set of standards prepared by a group of producers must be approved. These standards establish the criteria which the product must meet throughout the production chain, including farming techniques, feed, processing and distribution.

Approval is officially announced through a joint decree from the Minister for Agriculture and Fisheries and the Minister for Consumer Affairs, on the recommendations of the National Institute for Origin and Quality (INAO). INAO is the French public body responsible for quality and origin marks relating to food products.

References

External links
 Label Rouge on the French Ministry of Agriculture and Food website

French business law
Consumer symbols

Label Rouge