The American bison (Bison bison; : bison), also called the American buffalo or simply buffalo (not to be confused with true buffalo), is a species of bison native to North America. It is one of two extant species of bison, alongside the European bison. Its historical range, by 9000 BCE, is described as the great bison belt, a tract of rich grassland that ran from Alaska to the Gulf of Mexico, east to the Atlantic Seaboard (nearly to the Atlantic tidewater in some areas), as far north as New York, south to Georgia, and according to some sources, further south to Florida, with sightings in North Carolina near Buffalo Ford on the Catawba River as late as 1750.

Once roaming in vast herds, the species nearly became extinct by a combination of commercial hunting and slaughter in the 19th century and introduction of bovine diseases from domestic cattle. With a population of 60 million in the late 18th century, the species was culled down to just 541 animals by 1889 as part of the subjugation of the Native Americans, because the American bison was a major resource for their traditional way of life (food source, hides for clothing and shelter, and horns and bones for tools). Recovery efforts expanded in the mid-20th century, with a resurgence to roughly 31,000 wild bison as of March 2019. For many years, the population was primarily found in a few national parks and reserves. Through multiple reintroductions, the species now freely roams wild in several regions in the United States, Canada, and Mexico, with it also being introduced to Yakutia in Russia.

Two subspecies or ecotypes have been described: the plains bison (B. b. bison), smaller in size and with a more rounded hump, and the wood bison (B. b. athabascae)—the larger of the two and having a taller, square hump. Furthermore, the plains bison has been suggested to consist of a northern plains (B. b. montanae) and a southern plains (B. b. bison) subspecies, bringing the total to three. However, this is generally not supported. The wood bison is one of the largest wild species of extant bovid in the world, surpassed only by the Asian gaur. Among extant land animals in North America, the bison is the heaviest and the longest, and the second tallest after the moose.

Spanning back millennia, Native American tribes have had cultural and spiritual connections to the American bison. It is the national mammal of the United States of America.

Etymology

In American English, both buffalo and bison are considered correct terms for the American bison. However, in British English, the word buffalo is reserved for the African buffalo and water buffalo and not used for the bison.

In English usage, the term buffalo was used to refer to the American mammal as early as 1625. The word bison was applied in the 1690s.

Buffalo was applied to the American bison by Samuel de Champlain as the French word buffles in 1616 (published 1619), after seeing skins and a drawing. These were shown to him by members of the Nipissing First Nation, who said they travelled forty days (from east of Lake Huron) to trade with another nation who hunted the animals. Buffel in turn comes from Portuguese bufalo (water buffalo), which comes from Latin bufalus (an antelope, gazelle, or wild ox), from Greek boubalos. From the same Greek word boubalos we also get the Bubal hartebeest.

Bison was borrowed from French bison in the early 1600s, from Latin bison (aurochs), from a Proto-Germanic word similar to wisent.

In Plains Indian languages in general, male and female bison are distinguished, with each having a different designation rather than there being a single generic word covering both sexes. Thus:
 in Arapaho:  (bison cow),  (bison bull)
 in Lakota:  (bison cow),  (bison bull)
Such a distinction is not a general feature of the language (for example, Arapaho possesses gender-neutral terms for other large mammals such as elk, mule deer, etc.), and so presumably is due to the special significance of the bison in Plains Indian life and culture.

Description

A bison has a shaggy, long, dark-brown winter coat, and a lighter-weight, lighter-brown summer coat. Male bison are significantly larger and heavier than females. Plains bison are often in the smaller range of sizes, and wood bison in the larger range. Head-rump lengths at maximum up to  for males and  for females long and the tail adding . Heights at withers in the species can reach up to  for B. b. bison and B. b. athabascae respectively. Typically weights can range from ,  with medians of  (B.b. bison) and  (B.b.athabascae) in males, and  with medians of  in females, although the lowest weights probably representing typical weight around the age of sexual maturity at 2 to 3 years of age.

The heaviest wild bull for B.b.bison ever recorded weighed  while there had been bulls estimated to be . B.b.athabascae is significantly larger and heavier on average than B.b.bison while the number of recorded samples for the former was limited after the rediscovery of a relatively pure herd. Elk Island National Park, which has wild populations of both wood and plains bison, has recorded maximum weights for bull bison of 1186 kg (plains) and 1099 kg (wood), but noted that 3/4 of all bison over 1000 kg were wood bison. When raised in captivity and farmed for meat, the bison can grow unnaturally heavy and the largest semidomestic bison weighed . The heads and forequarters are massive, and both sexes have short, curved horns that can grow up to  long with  to  width, which they use in fighting for status within the herd and for defense.

Bison are herbivores, grazing on the grasses and sedges of the North American prairies. Their daily schedule involves two-hour periods of grazing, resting, and cud chewing, then moving to a new location to graze again. Sexually mature young bulls may try to start mating with cows by the age of two or three years, but if more mature bulls are present, they may not be able to compete until they reach five years of age.

For the first two months of life, calves are lighter in color than mature bison. One extremely rare condition is the white buffalo, in which the calf turns entirely white.

Evolution
Bison are members of the tribe Bovini. Genetic evidence from nuclear DNA indicates that the closest living relatives of bison are yaks, with bison being nested within the genus Bos, rendering Bos without including bison paraphyletic. While nuclear DNA indicates that the two living bison species are each other's closest living relatives, the mitochondrial DNA of European bison is more closely related to that of domestic cattle and aurochs, which is either suggested to be the result of incomplete lineage sorting or ancient introgression. Bison first appeared in Asia during the Early Pleistocene, around 2.6 million years ago. Bison only arrived in North America 195,000 to 135,000 years ago, during the late Middle Pleistocene, descending from the widespread Siberian steppe bison (Bison priscus), which had migrated through Beringia. Following its first appearance in North America, the bison rapidly differentiated into new species such as the largest of all bison, the long-horned Bison latifrons as well as Bison antiquus. The first appearance of bison in North America is considered to define the regional Rancholabrean faunal stage, due to its major impact on the ecology of the continent. Modern American bison are thought to have evolved from B. antiquus during the Late Pleistocene-Holocene transition via the intermediate form Bison occidentalis.

Differences from European bison

Although they are superficially similar, the American and European bison exhibit a number of physical and behavioral differences. Adult American bison are slightly heavier on average because of their less rangy build and have shorter legs, which render them slightly shorter at the shoulder. American bison tend to graze more and browse less than their European relatives because their necks are set differently. Compared to the nose of the American bison, that of the European species is set farther forward than the forehead when the neck is in a neutral position. The body of the American bison is hairier, though its tail has less hair than that of the European bison. The horns of the European bison point forward through the plane of its face, making it more adept at fighting through the interlocking of horns in the same manner as domestic cattle, unlike the American bison, which favors charging. American bison are more easily tamed than the European and breed more readily with domestic cattle.

Crossbreeding with cattle
During the population bottleneck, after the great slaughter of American bison during the 1800s, the number of bison remaining alive in North America declined to as low as 541. During that period, a handful of ranchers gathered remnants of the existing herds to save the species from extinction. These ranchers bred some of the bison with cattle in an effort to produce "cattalo" or "beefalo". Accidental crossings were also known to occur. Generally, male domestic bulls were crossed with bison cows, producing offspring of which only the females were fertile. The crossbred animals did not demonstrate any form of hybrid vigor, so the practice was abandoned. The proportion of cattle DNA that has been measured in introgressed individuals and bison herds today is typically quite low, ranging from 0.56 to 1.8%. In the United States, many ranchers are now using DNA testing to cull the residual cattle genetics from their bison herds. The U.S. National Bison Association has adopted a code of ethics which prohibits its members from deliberately crossbreeding bison with any other species.

Range and population

Population estimates in 2010 ranged from 400,000 to 500,000, with approximately 20,500 animals in 62 conservation herds and the remainder in approximately 6,400 commercial herds. According to the IUCN, roughly 15,000 bison are considered wild, free-range bison not primarily confined by fencing.

The Nature Conservancy (TNC) has reintroduced bison to over a dozen nature preserves around the United States. In October 2016, TNC established its easternmost bison herd in the country, at Kankakee Sands nature preserve in Morocco, Newton County, Indiana. In 2014, U.S. Tribes and Canadian First Nations signed a treaty to help with the restoration of bison, the first to be signed in nearly 150 years.

Habitat and trails

American bison live in river valleys, and on prairies and plains. Typical habitat is open or semiopen grasslands, as well as sagebrush, semiarid lands, and scrublands. Some lightly wooded areas are also known historically to have supported bison. Bison also graze in hilly or mountainous areas where the slopes are not steep. Though not particularly known as high-altitude animals, bison in the Yellowstone Park bison herd are frequently found at elevations above  and the Henry Mountains bison herd is found on the plains around the Henry Mountains, Utah, as well as in mountain valleys of the Henry Mountains to an altitude of . Reintroduced plains bison in Banff National Park have been observed to roam mountainous areas including high ridges and steep drainages, and archaeological finds indicate some bison historically may have spent their lives within mountains while others may have migrated in and out of mountains.
Those in Yukon, Canada, typically summer in alpine plateaus above treeline. The first thoroughfares of North America, except for the time-obliterated paths of mastodon or muskox and the routes of the mound builders, were the traces made by bison and deer in seasonal migration and between feeding grounds and salt licks. Many of these routes, hammered by countless hoofs instinctively following watersheds and the crests of ridges in avoidance of lower places' summer muck and winter snowdrifts, were followed by the aboriginal North Americans as courses to hunting grounds and as warriors' paths. They were invaluable to explorers and were adopted by pioneers.

Bison traces were characteristically north and south, but several key east–west trails were used later as railways. Some of these include the Cumberland Gap through the Blue Ridge Mountains to upper Kentucky. A heavily used trace crossed the Ohio River at the Falls of the Ohio and ran west, crossing the Wabash River near Vincennes, Indiana. In Senator Thomas Hart Benton's phrase saluting these sagacious path-makers, the bison paved the way for the railroads to the Pacific.

Mexico

The southern extent of the historic range of the American bison includes northern Mexico and adjoining areas in the United States as documented by archeological records and historical accounts from Mexican archives from 700 CE to the 19th century. The Janos-Hidalgo bison herd has ranged between Chihuahua, Mexico, and New Mexico, United States, since at least the 1920s. The persistence of this herd suggests that habitat for bison is suitable in northern Mexico. In 2009, genetically pure bison were reintroduced to the Janos Biosphere Reserve in northern Chihuahua adding to the Mexican bison population. In 2020, the second herd was formed in Maderas del Carmen. A private reserve named Jagüey de Ferniza has kept bisons since before the above-mentioned reintroductions in Coahuila.

Introductions to Siberia

Since 2006, an outherd of wood bison sent from Alberta's Elk Island National Park was established in Yakutia, Russia as a practice of pleistocene rewilding; wood bison are the most closely related to the extinct bison species. The bison are adapting well to the cold climate, and Yakutia's Red List officially registered the species in 2019; a second herd was formed in 2020.

In Pleistocene Park, there are also 24 plains bison as wood bison could not be acquired.

Behavior and ecology

Bison are migratory and herd migrations can be directional as well as altitudinal in some areas. Bison have usual daily movements between foraging sites during the summer. In the Hayden Valley, Wyoming, bison have been recorded traveling, on average,  per day. The summer ranges of bison appear to be influenced by seasonal vegetation changes, interspersion and size of foraging sites, the rut, and the number of biting insects. The size of preserve and availability of water may also be a factor. Bison are largely grazers, eating primarily grasses and sedges. On shortgrass pasture, bison predominately consume warm-season grasses. On mixed prairie, cool-season grasses, including some sedges, apparently compose 79–96% of their diet. In montane and northern areas, sedges are selected throughout the year. Bison also drink water or consume snow on a daily basis.

Social behavior and reproduction

Female bison live in maternal herds which include other females and their offspring. Male offspring leave their maternal herd when around three years old and either live alone or join other males in bachelor herds. Male and female herds usually do not mingle until the breeding season, which can occur from July through September. However, female herds may also contain a few older males. During the breeding season, dominant bulls maintain a small harem of females for mating. Individual bulls "tend" cows until allowed to mate, by following them around and chasing away rival males. The tending bull shields the female's vision with his body so she will not see any other challenging males. A challenging bull may bellow or roar to get a female's attention and the tending bull has to bellow/roar back. The most dominant bulls mate in the first 2–3 weeks of the season. More subordinate bulls mate with any remaining estrous cow that has not mated yet. Male bison play no part in raising the young.

Bison herds have dominance hierarchies that exist for both males and females. A bison's dominance is related to its birth date. Bison born earlier in the breeding season are more likely to be larger and more dominant as adults. Thus, bison are able to pass on their dominance to their offspring as dominant bison breed earlier in the season. In addition to dominance, the older bison of a generation also have a higher fertility rate than the younger ones.

Bison mate in August and September; gestation is 285 days. A single reddish-brown calf nurses until the next calf is born. If the cow is not pregnant, a calf will nurse for 18 months. Cows nurse their calves for at least 7 or 8 months, but most calves seem to be weaned before the end of their first year. At three years of age, bison cows are mature enough to produce a calf. The birthing period for bison in boreal biomes is protracted compared to that of other northern ungulates, such as moose and caribou.

Bison have a life expectancy around 15 years in the wild and up to 25 years in captivity. However, males and females from a hunted population also subject to wolf predation in northern Canada have been reported to live to 22 and 25 years of age, respectively.

Bison have been observed to display homosexual behaviors, males much more so than females. In the case of males, it is unlikely to be related to dominance, but rather to social bonding or gaining sexual experience.

Horning
Bison mate in late spring and summer in more open plain areas. During fall and winter, bison tend to gather in more wooded areas. During this time, bison partake in horning behaviors. They rub their horns against trees, young saplings, and even utility poles. Aromatic trees like cedars and pine seem to be preferred. Horning appears to be associated with insect defense, as it occurs most often in the fall when the insect population is at its highest. Cedar and pines emit an aroma after bison horn them and this seems to be used as a deterrent for insects.

Wallowing behavior

A bison wallow is a shallow depression in the soil, which bison use either wet or dry. Bison roll in these depressions, covering themselves with dust or mud. Past and current hypotheses to explain the purpose of wallowing include grooming associated with shedding, male-male interaction (typically rutting), social behavior for group cohesion, play, relief from skin irritation due to biting insects, reduction of ectoparasite (tick and lice) load, and thermoregulation. Bison wallowing has important ecosystem engineering effects and enhances plant and animal diversity on prairies.

Predation

While often secure from predation because of their size and strength, in some areas, vulnerable individuals are regularly preyed upon by wolves. Wolf predation typically peaks in late winter, when elk migrates south and bison are distressed with heavy snows and shortages of food sources, with attacks usually being concentrated on weakened and injured cows and calves. Wolves more actively target herds with calves than those without. The length of a predation episode varies, ranging from a few minutes to over nine hours. Bison display five apparent defense strategies in protecting calves from wolves: running to a cow; running to a herd; running to the nearest bull; running in the front or center of a stampeding herd; entering water bodies, such as lakes or rivers. When fleeing wolves in open areas, cows with young calves take the lead, while bulls take to the rear of the herds to guard the cows' escape. Bison typically ignore wolves not displaying hunting behavior. Wolf packs specializing in bison tend to have more males because their larger size than females allows them to wrestle prey to the ground more effectively. Healthy, mature bulls in herds rarely fall prey.

Grizzly bears are known to feed on carcass and may steal wolves' kills. While grizzlies can also pose a threat to calves and sometimes old, injured, or sick adult bison, direct killing of non-calves is rare even when targeting lone and injured young individuals; attacking healthy bison is risky for bears, who can be killed instead.

Dangers to humans
Bison are among the most dangerous animals encountered by visitors to the various North American national parks and will attack humans if provoked. They appear slow because of their lethargic movements but can easily outrun humans; bison have been observed running as fast as .  Bison may approach people for curiosity. Close encounters, including to touch the animals, can be dangerous, and gunshots do not startle them.

Between 1980 and 1999, more than three times as many people in Yellowstone National Park were injured by bison than by bears. During this period, bison charged and injured 79 people, with injuries ranging from goring puncture wounds and broken bones to bruises and abrasions. Bears injured 24 people during the same time. Three people died from the injuries inflicted—one person by bison in 1983, and two people by bears in 1984 and 1986.

Genetics

A major problem that bison face today is a lack of genetic diversity due to the population bottleneck the species experienced during its near-extinction event. Another genetic issue is the entry of genes from domestic cattle into the bison population, through hybridization.

Officially, the "American buffalo" is classified by the United States government as a type of cattle, and the government allows private herds to be managed as such. This is a reflection of the characteristics that bison share with cattle. Though the American bison is a separate species and usually regarded as being in a separate genus from domestic cattle (Bos taurus), they have a lot of genetic compatibility with cattle. American bison can interbreed with cattle, although only the female offspring are fertile in the first generation. These female hybrids can be bred back to either bison or domestic bulls, resulting in either 1/4 or 3/4 bison young. Female offspring from this cross are also fertile, but males are not reliably fertile unless they are either  bison or  domestic. Moreover, when they do interbreed, crossbreed animals in the first generation tend to look very much like purebred bison, so appearance is completely unreliable as a means of determining what is a purebred bison and what is a crossbred cow. Many ranchers have deliberately crossbred their cattle with bison, and some natural hybridization could be expected in areas where cattle and bison occur in the same range. Since cattle and bison eat similar food and tolerate similar conditions, they have often been in the same range together in the past, and opportunity for crossbreeding may sometimes have been common.

In recent decades, tests were developed to determine the source of mitochondrial DNA in cattle and bison, and most private "buffalo" herds were actually crossbred with cattle, and even most state and federal buffalo herds had some cattle DNA. With the advent of nuclear microsatellite DNA testing, the number of herds known to contain cattle genes has increased. As of 2011, though about 500,000 bison existed on private ranches and in public herds, perhaps only 15,000 to 25,000 of these bison were pure and not actually bison-cattle hybrids. DNA from domestic cattle (Bos taurus) has been found in almost all examined bison herds.

Significant public bison herds that do not appear to have hybridized domestic cattle genes are the Yellowstone Park bison herd, the Henry Mountains bison herd, which was started with bison taken from Yellowstone Park, the Wind Cave bison herd, and the Wood Buffalo National Park bison herd and subsidiary herds started from it, in Canada.

A landmark study of bison genetics performed by James Derr of Texas A&M University corroborated this. The Derr study was undertaken in an attempt to determine what genetic problems bison might face as they repopulate former areas, and it noted that bison seem to be adapting successfully, despite their apparent genetic bottleneck. One possible explanation for this might be the small amount of domestic cattle genes that are now in most bison populations, though this is not the only possible explanation for bison success.

In the study, cattle genes were also found in small amounts throughout most national, state, and private herds. "The hybridization experiments conducted by some of the owners of the five foundation herds of the late 1800s, have left a legacy of a small amount of cattle genetics in many of our existing bison herds," said Derr. "All of the state owned bison herds tested (except for possibly one) contain animals with domestic cattle mtDNA."

It appears that the one state herd that had no cattle genes was the Henry Mountains bison herd; the Henry Mountain herd was started initially with transplanted animals from Yellowstone Park. However, the extension of this herd into the Book Cliffs of central Utah involved mixing the founders with additional bison from another source, so it is not known if the Book Cliffs extension of the herd is also free of cattle hybridization.

A separate study by Wilson and Strobeck, published in Genome, was done to define the relationships between different herds of bison in the United States and Canada, and to determine whether the bison at Wood Buffalo National Park in Canada and the Yellowstone Park bison herd were possibly separate subspecies. The Wood Buffalo Park bison were determined to actually be crossbreeds between plains and wood bison, but their predominant genetic makeup was that of the expected "wood buffalo". However, the Yellowstone Park bison herd was pure plains bison, and not any of the other previously suggested subspecies. Another finding was that the bison in the Antelope Island herd in Utah appeared to be more distantly related to other plains bison in general than any other plains bison group that was tested, though this might be due to genetic drift caused by the small size of only 12 individuals in the founder population. A side finding of this was that the Antelope Island bison herd appears to be most closely related to the Wood Buffalo National Park bison herd, though the Antelope Island bison are actually plains bison.

In order to bolster the genetic diversity of the American bison, the National Park Service alongside the Department of the Interior announced on May 7, 2020, the 2020 Bison Conservation Initiative. This initiative focuses on maintaining the genetic diversity of the metapopulation rather than individual herds. Small populations of bison are at considerably larger risk due to their decreased gene pool and are susceptible to catastrophic events more so than larger herds. The 2020 Bison Conservation Initiative aims to translocate up to three bison every five to ten years between the Department of the Interior's herds. Specific smaller herds will require a more intense management plan. Translocated bison will also be screened for any health defects such as infection of brucellosis bacteria as to not put the larger herd at risk.

Population bottlenecking & near extinction
Because of the mass slaughtering of bison during the 1870s, the plains bison population went through a population bottleneck from an estimated 60 million individuals–an estimation based on an observation made by Colonel R.I. Dodge along the Arkansas River in Kansas in 1871–to a founding population of around 100 individuals, split into six herds, five of which were managed by private ranchers and one managed by the New York Zoological Park (now the Bronx Zoo). Additionally, a wild herd consisting of 25 individuals in Yellowstone National Park survived the bottleneck.

Each of the privately ranched herds had an initial effective population size (Ne) of an estimated 5 to 7 individuals, for a total combined effective population size of between 30 and 50 individuals, from which all of the modern plains bison descend. While these herds have remained mostly isolated, some more than others, there has been some interbreeding between the herds over the past 150 years.

The conservation efforts and copious amounts of data taken on American bison populations allow for American bison to serve as a useful study case of population bottlenecking and its effects. This is especially true of the Texas State Bison Herd, which underwent very extreme genetic bottlenecking, with a founding population of only 5 individuals.

Texas State Bison Herd
The Texas State Bison Herd (TSBH), also known as the Goodnight herd, was established by Charles Goodnight in the mid-1880s with five wild-caught calves. In 1887, the herd consisted of 13 individuals; in 1910, the population consisted of 125 individuals; and in the 1920s, the population ranged from 200 to 250 individuals. In 1929, Goodnight died and the herd switched hands multiple times, leaving the population of the herd unknown from 1930 until the herd was donated to the State of Texas in 1997, with a population of 36 individuals, solely descended from the original five calves. By 2002, the population of the TSBH consisted of 40 individuals and had concerningly low birth rates and high rates of calf mortality. This led to extra attention being given to this herd by conservationists who then performed significant amounts of genetic testing.

Goodnight was an advocate for the hybridization of bison with cattle, in the hopes of creating a stronger and healthier breed. When the herd was donated to the State of Texas, genetic testing revealed that 6 out of 36 individuals still carried cattle mitochondrial DNA.

Researchers found that the average number of alleles per locus and the heterozygosity levels (a measure of genetic diversity, where high heterozygosity is representative of high genetic diversity) for the TSBH were significantly lower than that of the Yellowstone National Park bison population and the Theodore Roosevelt National Park bison population. Additionally, of the 54 nuclear microsatellites that were examined, the TSBH had 8 monomorphic loci (i.e., each loci had only one allele), whereas in both the Yellowstone and Theodore Roosevelt herds there was only one monomorphic locus, indicating a much lower level of genetic diversity in the TSBH. The Yellowstone herd had an average number of alleles per locus of 4.75, the Theodore Roosevelt National Park herd had an average of 4.15 alleles per locus, but the TSBH only had an average of 2.54 alleles per locus, statistically significantly lower than the others. The heterozygosity level of the Yellowstone, Theodore Roosevelt, and TSBH populations were 0.63, 0.57, and 0.38 respectively, with the TSBH again having a statistically significantly lower value. This low genetic diversity found in TSBH is likely due to the critically low starting population, several additional bottlenecks throughout the herd's history–leading to inbreeding depression–, and a continuously low population allowing for genetic drift to have a large effect. Before any addition of new individuals, the rate of loss of genetic diversity was estimated to be between 30 and 40% over the proceeding 50 years.

The inbreeding depression resulting from the multiple extreme population bottlenecks in the TSBH led to a coefficient of inbreeding of 0.367, equal to the level of inbreeding that results from two generations of full-siblings mating.

The Texas State Bison Herd is also a useful example of the deleterious effects of extreme population bottlenecking, with an average natality rate of 0.376 offspring per female and a 1st-year mortality rate of 52.6% from 1997 to 2002, compared to an average natality rate of 0.560 offspring per female and a 1st-year mortality rate of 4.2% for the other bison herds.

Additionally, if it were not for the intervention of conservationists, the Texas State Bison Herd would have most likely gone extinct, as the population bottleneck would have proven to be too severe. Multiple population models based on the genetics of the TSBH in the early 2000s predicted a 99% chance of extinction of the TSBH in less than 50 years, with an estimation in 2004 giving the TSBH a 99% chance of extinction in 41 years without the introduction of any outside individuals (Halbert et al. 2004). Importantly for conservation, another simulation predicted that the addition of multiple (3-9) outside male bison into the herd would increase genetic diversity enough to give the herd a 100% chance of surviving for another 100 years.

Conservation efforts have led the current TSBH population to be at the carrying capacity of their habitat, at around 300 individuals.

Yellowstone National Park Bison Herd
The Yellowstone National Park Bison herd started with only 25 individuals, and there was evidence of two population bottlenecking events from 1896 to 1912, with a population ranging between 25 and 50 individuals during this time. In 1902, 18 female and 3 male bison from outside herds–the Pablo-Allard herd and Goodnight (TSBH) herds respectively–were introduced to the Yellowstone herd. After the addition of those individuals, the effective population size is estimated to have been Ne=7.2 individuals. The Yellowstone herd was kept completely isolated from 1902 to around 1920, and these previously mentioned founders contributed between 60 and 70% of the genetics of the current bison population at Yellowstone.

Similar to the Texas State Bison Herd, the introduction of new individuals into the population in 1902 likely was the savior of this herd, which now numbers around 5,900 individuals as of summer 2022.

Population recovery
From the late 19th century onwards, the bison population gradually rose from 325 in 1884 to 500,000 in 2017, as a result of careful preservation and a general population boom. Although they are no longer classified as endangered, there are still conservation efforts in order to prevent population crashes down the line.

Hunting

Buffalo hunting, i.e. hunting of the American bison, was an activity fundamental to the Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains, providing more than 150 uses for all parts of the animal, including being a major food source, hides for clothing and shelter, bones and horns as tools as well as ceremonial and adornment uses. Bison hunting was later adopted by American professional hunters, as well as by the U.S. government, in an effort to sabotage the central resource of some American Indian Nations during the later portions of the American Indian Wars, leading to the near-extinction of the species around 1890. For many tribes the buffalo was an integral part of life—something guaranteed to them by the Creator. In fact, for some Plains indigenous peoples, bison are known as the first people. The concept of species extinction was foreign to many tribes.

Thus, when the U.S. government began to massacre the buffalo, it was particularly harrowing to the Indigenous people. As Crow chief Plenty Coups described it: "When the buffalo went away the hearts of my people fell to the ground, and they could not lift them up again. After this nothing happened. There was little singing anywhere." Spiritual loss was rampant; bison were an integral part of traditional tribal societies, and they would frequently take part in ceremonies for each bison they killed to honor its sacrifice. In order to boost morale during this time, Sioux and other tribes took part in the Ghost Dance, which consisted of hundreds of people dancing until 100 persons were lying unconscious.

Today, many conservation measures have been taken by Native Americans, with the Inter Tribal Bison Council being one of the most significant. It was formed in 1990, composed of 56 tribes in 19 states. These tribes represent a collective herd of more than 15,000 bison and focus on reestablishing herds on tribal lands in order to promote culture, revitalize spiritual solidarity, and restore the ecosystem. Some Inter Tribal Bison Council members argue that the bison's economic value is one of the main factors driving its resurgence. Bison serve as a low cost substitute for cattle, and can withstand the winters in the Plains region far easier than cattle.

As livestock
Bison are increasingly raised for meat, hide, wool, and dairy products. The majority of American bison in the world are raised for human consumption or fur clothing. Bison meat is generally considered to taste very similar to beef, but is lower in fat and cholesterol, yet higher in protein than beef, which has led to the development of beefalo, a fertile hybrid of bison and domestic cattle. In 2005, about 35,000 bison were processed for meat in the U.S., with the National Bison Association and USDA providing a "Certified American Buffalo" program with birth-to-consumer tracking of bison via RFID ear tags. A market even exists for kosher bison meat; these bison are slaughtered at one of the few kosher mammal slaughterhouses in the U.S., and the meat is then distributed nationwide.

Bison are found in publicly and privately held herds. Custer State Park in South Dakota is home to 1,500 bison, one of the largest publicly held herds in the world, but some question the genetic purity of the animals. Wildlife officials believe that free roaming herds with minimal cattle introgression on public lands in North America can be found only in: the Yellowstone Park bison herd; the Henry Mountains bison herd at the Book Cliffs and Henry Mountains in Utah; at Wind Cave National Park in South Dakota; Fort Peck Indian Reservation in Montana; Mackenzie Bison Sanctuary in the Northwest Territories; Elk Island National Park and Wood Buffalo National Park in Alberta; Grasslands National Park and Prince Albert National Park in Saskatchewan. Another population, the Antelope Island bison herd on Antelope Island in Utah, consisting of 550 to 700 bison, is also one of the largest and oldest public herds in the United States, but the bison in that herd are considered to be only semifree roaming, since they are confined to the Antelope Island. In addition, recent genetic studies indicate that, like most bison herds, the Antelope Island bison herd has a small number of genes from domestic cattle. In 2002, the United States government donated some bison calves from South Dakota and Colorado to the Mexican government. Their descendants live in the Mexican nature reserves El Uno Ranch at Janos and Santa Elena Canyon, Chihuahua, and Boquillas del Carmen, Coahuila, located near the southern banks of the Rio Grande, and around the grassland state line with Texas and New Mexico.

Recent genetic studies of privately owned herds of bison show that many of them include animals with genes from domestic cattle. For example, the herd on Santa Catalina Island, California, isolated since 1924 after being brought there for a movie shoot, were found to have cattle introgression. As few as 12,000 to 15,000 pure bison are estimated to remain in the world. The numbers are uncertain because the tests used to date—mitochondrial DNA analysis—indicate only if the maternal line (back from mother to mother) ever included domesticated bovines, thus say nothing about possible male input in the process. Most hybrids were found to look exactly like purebred bison; therefore, appearance is not a good indicator of genetics.

The size of the Canadian domesticated herd (genetic questions aside) grew dramatically through the 1990s and 2000s. The 2006 Census of Agriculture reported the Canadian herd at 195,728 head, a 34.9% increase since 2001. Of this total, over 95% were located in Western Canada, and less than 5% in Eastern Canada. Alberta was the province with the largest herd, accounting for 49.7% of the herd and 45.8% of the farms. The next-largest herds were in Saskatchewan (23.9%), Manitoba (10%), and British Columbia (6%). The main producing regions were in the northern parts of the Canadian prairies, specifically in the parkland belt, with the Peace River region (shared between Alberta and British Columbia) being the most important cluster, accounting for 14.4% of the national herd. Canada also exports bison meat, totaling  in 2006.

A proposal known as Buffalo Commons has been suggested by a handful of academics and policymakers to restore large parts of the drier portion of the Great Plains to native prairie grazed by bison. Proponents argue that current agricultural use of the shortgrass prairie is not sustainable, pointing to periodic disasters, including the Dust Bowl, and continuing significant human population loss over the last 60 years. However, this plan is opposed by some who live in the areas in question.

Domestication
Despite being the closest relatives of domestic cattle native to North America, bison were never domesticated by Native Americans. Later attempts of domestication by Europeans prior to the 20th century met with limited success. Bison were described as having a "wild and ungovernable temper"; they can jump close to  vertically, and run  when agitated. This agility and speed, combined with their great size and weight, makes bison herds difficult to confine, as they can easily escape or destroy most fencing systems, including most razor wire. The most successful systems involve large,  fences made from welded steel I beams sunk at least  into concrete. These fencing systems, while expensive, require very little maintenance. Furthermore, making the fence sections overlap so the grassy areas beyond are not visible prevents the bison from trying to get to new range.

As a symbol

Native Americans

Among many Native American tribes, especially the Plains Indians, the bison is considered a sacred animal and religious symbol. According to University of Montana anthropology and Native American studies professor S. Neyooxet Greymorning, "The creation stories of where buffalo came from put them in a very spiritual place among many tribes. The buffalo crossed many different areas and functions, and it was utilized in many ways. It was used in ceremonies, as well as to make tipi covers that provided homes for people, utensils, shields, weapons and parts were used for sewing with the sinew." The Sioux consider the birth of a white buffalo to be the return of White Buffalo Calf Woman, their primary cultural prophet and the bringer of their "Seven Sacred Rites". Among the Mandan and Hidatsa, the White Buffalo Cow Society was the most sacred of societies for women.

North America
The American bison is often used in North America in official seals, flags, and logos. In 2016, the American bison became the national mammal of the United States. The bison is a popular symbol in the Great Plains states: Kansas, Oklahoma, and Wyoming have adopted the animal as their official state mammal, and many sports teams have chosen the bison as their mascot. In Canada, the bison is the official animal of the province of Manitoba and appears on the Manitoba flag. It is also used in the official coat of arms of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.

Several American coins feature the bison, most famously on the reverse side of the "buffalo nickel" from 1913 to 1938. In 2005, the United States Mint coined a nickel with a new depiction of the bison as part of its "Westward Journey" series. The Kansas and North Dakota state quarters, part of the "50 State Quarter" series, each feature bison. The Kansas state quarter has only the bison and does not feature any writing, while the North Dakota state quarter has two bison. The Montana state quarter prominently features a bison skull over a landscape. The Yellowstone National Park quarter also features a bison standing next to a geyser.

Other institutions which have adopted the bison as a symbol or mascot include:

See also

References

Further reading

 Branch, E. Douglas. (1997) The Hunting of the Buffalo (1929, new ed. University of Nebraska Press,), classic history
 Dary David A. The Buffalo Book. (Chicago: Swallow Press, 1974)

 Gard, Wayne. The Great Buffalo Hunt (University of Nebraska Press, 1954)
 Isenberg, Andrew C. The Destruction of the Bison: An Environmental History, 1750–1920 (Cambridge University press, 2000)

 McHugh, Tom. The Time of the Buffalo (University of Nebraska Press, 1972).
 Meagher, Margaret Mary. The Bison of Yellowstone National Park. (Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1973)

 Roe, Frank Gilbert. The North American Buffalo: A Critical Study of the Species in Its Wild State (University of Toronto Press, 1951).
 Shaw, James H. "How Many Bison Originally Populated Western Rangelands?" Rangelands, Vol. 17, No. 5 (Oct. 1995), pp. 148–150
 Smits, David D. "The Frontier Army and the Destruction of the Buffalo, 1865–1883 ," Western Historical Quarterly 25 (1994): 313–38 and 26 (1995) 203–8.

External links

 Buffalo Field Campaign
 Watch the NFB documentary The Great Buffalo Saga
 Traditional use of Tatanka (buffalo)
 Bison skeletal structure and bones

American Bison
American Bison
Mammals of Canada
Mammals of the United States
Fauna of the Plains-Midwest (United States)
Fauna of the Rocky Mountains
Fauna of the Western United States
American Bison
Livestock
Beef
Native American cuisine
Pre-Columbian Great Plains cuisine
American Bison
American Bison
American Bison
Cuisine of the Western United States
American frontier
Symbols of Wyoming
Provincial symbols of Manitoba
Conservation-reliant species
Articles containing video clips

American bison


Charles Anderson Scales (January 11, 1938 – June 18, 2023) was an American professional football player who was a running back for seven seasons in the National Football League (NFL) for the Pittsburgh Steelers, Cleveland Browns, and Atlanta Falcons. His final season was played in the Canadian Football League (CFL) with the Montreal Alouettes, for whom he played 13 games, gaining 370 yards on 101 carries, with 2 touchdowns.

Professional career

Pittsburgh Steelers
A Pittsburgh native, Scales played his first two NFL seasons with the Steelers, signing with the team as a free agent. As a backup to fullback John Henry Johnson, Scales carried the ball 26 times for 81 yards in 1960 and 50 times for 184 yards in 1961. He did not score a touchdown as a member of the Steelers.

Cleveland Browns
Scales was traded to Cleveland prior to the 1962 exhibition season for one of Cleveland's two 1963 fifth round draft picks (the Browns had acquired a second fifth round pick in a trade with Detroit). Scales was acquired, according to Browns head coach Paul Brown, to compete with Preston Powell as a backup fullback to Jim Brown. Coach Brown said that Scales had "bothered" the Browns in exhibition games. That, plus the fact that the Steelers had selected fullback Bob Ferguson in the first round of the 1962 NFL Draft, thus making Scales expendable, prompted the trade.

In four seasons with the Browns, Scales rushed for 338 yards, scoring four touchdowns. He caught 10 passes for 97 yards.

Scales was traded to the expansion Atlanta Falcons on August 23, 1966 for a draft choice. He scored two touchdowns against Atlanta in an exhibition game just a few days prior to the trade.

Death
Scales died in Pittsburgh on June 18, 2023, at the age of 85.

References

1938 births
2023 deaths
Montreal Alouettes players
American football running backs
Pittsburgh Steelers players
Atlanta Falcons players
Cleveland Browns players
Indiana Hoosiers football players
Players of American football from Pittsburgh

Charley Scales


An ell (from Proto-Germanic *alinō, cognate with Latin ulna) is a northwestern European unit of measurement, originally understood as a cubit (the combined length of the forearm and extended hand). The word literally means "arm", and survives in the form of the modern English word "elbow" (arm-bend). Later usage through the 19th century refers to several longer units, some of which are thought to derive from a "double ell".

An ell-wand or ellwand was a rod of length one ell used for official measurement.   Edward I of England required that every town have one.  In Scotland, the Belt of Orion was called "the King's Ellwand". An iron ellwand is preserved in the entrance to Stånga Church on the Swedish island of Gotland, indicating the role that rural churches had in disseminating uniform measures.

Several national forms existed, with different lengths, including the Scottish ell , the Flemish ell [el] , the French ell [aune] , the Polish ell , the Danish alen , the Swedish aln  and the German ell [] of different lengths in Frankfurt (54.7 cm), Cologne, Leipzig (Saxony) or Hamburg.

Select customs were observed by English importers of Dutch textiles; although all cloths were bought by the Flemish ell, linen was sold by the English ell, but tapestry was sold by the Flemish ell.

The Viking ell was the measure from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger, about . The Viking or primitive ell was used in Iceland up to the 13th century. By the 13th century, a law set the "stika" as equal to 2 ells which was the English ell of the time.

Historic use

England
In England, the ell was usually exactly , or a yard and a quarter. It was mainly used in the tailoring business but is now obsolete. Although the exact length was never defined in English law, standards were kept; the brass ell examined at the Exchequer by Graham in the 1740s had been in use "since the time of Queen Elizabeth".

Other English measures called an ell include the "yard and handful", or 40 in. ell, abolished in 1439; the yard and inch, or 37 in. ell (a cloth measure), abolished after 1553 and known later as the Scotch ell=37·06; and the cloth ell of 45 in., used until 1600. See yard for details.

Scots
The Scottish ell () is approximately . The Scottish ell was standardised in 1661, with the exemplar to be kept in the custody of Edinburgh. It comes from Middle English .

It was used in the popular expression "Gie 'im an inch, an he'll tak an ell" (equivalent to "Give him an inch and he'll take a mile" or "... he'll take a yard", and closely similar to the English proverb "Give him an inch and he'll take an ell", first published as "For when I gave you an inch, you tooke an ell" by John Heywood in 1546.

The Ell Shop (1757) in Dunkeld, Perth and Kinross (National Trust for Scotland), is so called from the 18th-century iron ell-stick attached to one corner, once used to measure cloth and other commodities in the adjacent market-place. The shaft of the 17th-century Kincardine mercat cross stands in the square of Fettercairn, and is notched to show the measurements of an ell.

Scottish measures were made obsolete, and English measurements made standard in Scotland, by an Act of Parliament, the Weights and Measures Act 1824.

Other
Similar measures include:
Netherlands: el, 1 metre (Old ell=27.08 inches)
Jersey: ell, 4 feet
N. Borneo: ella, 1 yard
Switzerland: elle, 0.6561 yard
Ottoman Turkey: Arşın, ~69 cm

In literature
Ells are used for measuring the length of rope in J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings.

In the epic poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, the Green Knight's axe-head was an ell (45 inches) wide.

Ells were also used in the medieval French play The Farce of Master Pathelin to measure the size of the clothing Pierre Pathelin bought.

Halldór Laxness described Örvar-Oddr as twelve Danish ells tall in Independent People, Part II, "Of the World".

References

 Attribution
  See p. 861.

Further reading
 Collins Encyclopedia of Scotland
 Scottish National Dictionary and Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue
 Weights and Measures, by D. Richard Torrance, SAFHS, Edinburgh, 1996,  (N.B.: The book focusses exclusively on Scottish weights and measures.)

External links

Human-based units of measurement
Obsolete units of measurement
Obsolete Scottish units of measurement
Units of length

Ell


Raymond Janot (March 9, 1917, Paris – November 25, 2000, Paris) was a French politician who played a significant role in the writing of the 1958 Constitution of France.

World War II
Janot was with the French forces in World War II in 1939 and was taken prisoner by the German forces in 1940.<ref>Drogland, Joël. "Catherine Janot." Association pour la Recherche sur l'Occupation et la  Résistance dans l'Yonne. http://mail.orange01.com/index.php?id=38</ref> He succeeded in escaping from the German prison camps in August 1943.  Following his escape, Janot became active in the French Resistance, which his wife Catherine was already part of. Catherine assisted downed allied airmen to evade German capture, working with the Comet and Burgundy escape lines and with the BCRA, an intelligence agency associated with Charles de Gaulle. The Janots fled France in April 1944 through the Burgundy network, crossing the Pyrenees into Spain and reaching Algeria. Raymond Janot returned to France as part of the French forces helping to liberate France in the summer of 1944. Catherine became an ambulance driver.

Politician
Following World War II, Janot was appointed as an economic adviser to General de Lattre de Tassigny in French Indochina in 1946.  In 1947, Janot became a legal advisor to the President, where he would remain until 1951. Also in 1947, Janot was elected mayor of Serbonnes, where he would remain until 1971, holding this position concurrent with others at a national level, as is not uncommon in France in a practice known as the cumul des mandats.

Janot was heavily involved in the writing of the French Constitution of 1958.  He served as the government's representative in debates, his title being ''commissaire du gouvernement''. This work was done in conjunction with his role as the secretary general of the Conseil d'État. In addition to his other roles, his position as commissaire du gouvernement also resulted in his being named as the secretary-general of the Constitutional Consultative Committee, further increasing his role in the constitutional process, and making him one of the more influential players after Michel Debré. Janot's influence largely dealt with provisions pertaining to executive power.  He largely toed the line of Charles de Gaulle, presenting de Gaulle's then view relating to the balance of power between president and prime minister. Janot also had strong views against reducing the power of the executive branch, fearing that too strong a parliament would repeat the governmental gridlocks of the Fourth Republic. Some scholars have compared Janot's opinions on power, especially in the executive branch, to those of Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, the authors of The Federalist Papers'', a dialogue on the American constitution. Janot's defenses of de Gaulle's position helped to create the stable and powerful French Presidency of the Fifth Republic.

Following the writing of the Constitution, Janot stayed active in French political life.  In 1959, he was named as secretary general of the French Community, a forerunner of the modern Francophonie. In March 1960, he was appointed as the Assistant Director-General of Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française, the French public broadcasting company that lasted until 1964. Janot lasted at that post until February 1962 before concentrating on his mayoral duties in Serbonnes.

Late in his career, Janot once again returned to public life  He participated in an important conference at Aix-en-Provence in 1988 for the thirtieth anniversary of the French constitution, as the developments of the document were analyzed. He joined the UDF and served as the president of the regional council of Bourgogne from 1989 to 1992. Janot died in 2000. The Catherine and Raymond Janot State Secondary School is named in memory of Janot and his wife.

References

1917 births
2000 deaths
Union for French Democracy politicians
Mayors of places in Bourgogne-Franche-Comté
French military personnel of World War II
French Resistance members
World War II prisoners of war held by Germany
French prisoners of war in World War II

Raymond Janot


The Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology is a unit of Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India, engaged in R&D in non-nuclear front-line research areas of lasers, particle accelerators and related technologies.

History

On 19 February 1984 the then president of India, Gyani Zail Singh, laid the foundation stone of the centre. Construction of laboratories and houses began in May 1984. In June 1986, the first batch of scientists from Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai, moved to RRCAT and scientific activities were started. Since then, the centre has rapidly grown into a premier institute for research and development in lasers, accelerators and their applications. Originally called the Centre for Advanced Technology, it was renamed by the Indian Prime Minister in December 2005 as Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology, after noted Indian physicist Raja Ramanna.

Location

The centre is situated at the south-western end of the Indore, Madhya Pradesh.  It is about 11 km from the Indore Railway station as well as the Indore airport.  The nearest residential locality is Rajendra Nagar.

Research activities

RRCAT has developed two synchrotron radiation sources called "Indus": Indus-1 is a 450 MeV electron storage ring, whereas Indus-2 is a booster cum storage ring that can accelerate electrons from an injection energy of 550 MeV to 2.5 GeV. RRCAT also provides training to young scientists at BARC Training School located in its campus who later joined several DAE units like BARC Mumbai, IGCAR Kalpakkam, VECC Kolkata and RRCAT as Scientific Officers. It also provides a strong basis of front line research for external Ph.D. scholar in the related fields.

RRCAT has also been actively involved in providing scientific and material assistance to the CERN sponsored
Large Hadron Collider.
In addition to this, the centre conducts Trainings, Doctoral Programs to take up research and development work in the frontline areas of particle accelerators, lasers, cryogenics, superconductivity, plasma physics and related high technology fields.

References

External links
 Official Website

Atomic Energy Commission of India
Research institutes in Madhya Pradesh
Homi Bhabha National Institute
Education in Indore
Science and technology in Indore
Research institutes established in 1986
1986 establishments in Madhya Pradesh


The A3110 is a circular A road in the Isles of Scilly. Its route forms a circle within the centre of the island of St Mary's, the largest and most populous island in the archipelago.

Like all the roads in Scilly, there are very few road signs or markings, and the route number is not marked at all.

Settlements on the route, which resembles a quiet country lane for most of its length, include Parting Carn, High Lanes, Maypole and Normandy — all of which are very small.

The A3111 and A3112 roads join the A3110 at Parting Carn. Both run via different routes to the main settlement of the island, Hugh Town; the A3112 however also runs by St Mary's Airport and through Old Town.

References

Roads in Cornwall
Transport in the Isles of Scilly
St Mary's, Isles of Scilly

A3110 road


Martha Denise Munizzi (born February 26, 1968) is an American Christian music singer, songwriter, author, and pastor.

Early years
A native of central Florida, Martha Munizzi was born into a Christian musical family. The daughter of evangelists, Martha and her twin sister Mary Alessi were born in Lakeland, Florida, and grew up traveling and ministering through music with her family. She began performing at age 8, touring the country with her family in concerts and crusades around the United States and Canada.

Martha, Mary, and their older sister Marvelyne were born with their parents' talent for music and became a part of the traveling family group as kids. The family settled in Orlando, Florida, when Mary and Martha were 12, so that the children could attend formal, public school.

At age 16, Mary, Martha and Marveline (age 18) helped form a praise and worship band at the urging of a church friend. That group evolved into Testament and became popular enough to travel around the state of Florida performing in churches and at conferences and other events.

One year after completing high school (1986), Martha married Dan Munizzi, who was a keyboard and bass player in the band Testament. In 1993 she and Dan became the music directors and founding members of a new, fledgling church in Orlando, Florida, initially leading a congregation of 250 and a choir of about 30 people that eventually grew in 8 years into a 5000-member congregation and a 200-member music team.  They remained there until 2001.

She led worship at Lakewood Church while Cindy Cruse-Ratcliff was on maternity leave.

Musical career
Along with figures like Ron Kenoly, CeCe Winans, and Israel Houghton,  Munizzi is pioneering cross-cultural worship music that not only connects with both black and white Christian congregations but also reaches the masses.

Munizzi's songs are self-published under the name Say The Name Publishing/Martha Munizzi Music. She released her first Praise & Worship/Gospel album, Say the Name (2002), followed by The Best Is Yet to Come (2003) and When He Came (2004), both of which debuted high on Billboard's Gospel chart. The Best Is Yet to Come peaked at No. 2 on the Billboard Music Top Gospel Album charts in 2004 and remained on the charts for more than a year.

In 2004, Munizzi had two music albums in the top five on Billboard'''s Gospel charts at the same time (The Best Is Yet to Come at No. 2 and When He Came at No. 5) and Billboard Magazine named her as one of the top five Gospel Artists for 2004. Additionally, her project The Best Is Yet to Come was named one of the top ten selling Gospel projects for 2004.

In 2005, she signed a distribution deal with Integrity Media, Inc. Under this agreement, her previously released albums The Best Is Yet To Come and Say The Name and all future releases were to be distributed to Christian retail outlets through Provident-Integrity Distribution and to general market outlets on the Epic Records (a division of Sony-BMG Distribution).

In 2006, Munizzi released her next CD entitled No Limits Live. This CD debuted on Billboard's Top Gospel Charts at No. 1 and remained at the top of the charts for 6 weeks.

Munizzi has ministered with several popular Christian ministries including; Joel Osteen, Creflo Dollar, Joyce Meyer, Benny Hinn, CeCe Winans, and Bishop T.D. Jakes.  She has also appeared on Trinity Broadcasting Network's (TBN's) Praise The Lord, on the Daystar Television Network, on Life Today with James Robison, and on Black Entertainment Television's BET Celebration Of Gospel. Additionally she performed as a part of the 3rd annual "Sisters In The Spirit" tour with Yolanda Adams, Kelly Price, Juanita Bynum, Rizen and Sheila E in 2005. She was also a featured performer with Kirk Franklin at the "Imagine Me" all-star celebrity benefit concert on January 11, 2007, at the Opryland Hotel in Nashville, Tennessee. The concert was a benefit for the Children's Defense Fund.

Munizzi also performed with the Gospel trio Virtue on their 2006 album Testimony on the song Praises to You. She also performs her song Glorious live on Donna Richardson-Joyner's 2006 exercise video entitled Sweating in the Spirit 2. Her twin sister, Mary Alessi, performs with her on her 2006 album No Limits Live.

The CD/DVD project, Change the World was released on April 1, 2008. The project was recorded on December 7, 2007, and features Israel Houghton, Mary Alessi, Micah Stampley, Bishop Joseph Garlington, and Ricardo Sanchez.

On April 24, 2011, Munizzi released Make it Loud her first self-produced CD. The new project features William McDowell, Michael Gungor, Jonathan Stockstill, Lori Morrison, Daniel Eric Groves, and the debut of Danielle Munizzi, her daughter.

On August 27, 2021, Munizzi released Best Days, with a new single "Fight for Me".

Personal life
Munizzi married Dan Munizzi in 1987 and have three children: Danielle, Nicole, and Nathan. Martha and Dan currently pastor Epic Life Church in Orlando, Florida.

Discography

Awards and nominations
Munizzi has been nominated for Grammy, Dove, Stellar and Soul Train Awards as both a performer and songwriter. In 2006, Munizzi was nominated for a Grammy for Best Traditional Soul Gospel Album. She has also been nominated for the 2007 Stellar Awards' Artist of the Year and Contemporary Female Vocalist of the Year''.

External links
Martha Munizzi - Official Website
Cross Rhythms Artist Profile - Martha Munizzi
Christianity Today Artist Profile and Interview - Martha Munizzi
Martha Munizzi - Interview (September 2008) on BlackGospel.com

References

1968 births
Living people
20th-century American singer-songwriters
20th-century American women singers
21st-century American singer-songwriters
21st-century American women singers
Actresses from Orlando, Florida
American gospel singers
American women singer-songwriters
Musicians from Lakeland, Florida
Musicians from Orlando, Florida
Religious leaders from Florida
Singer-songwriters from Florida
Urban contemporary gospel musicians
Writers from Orlando, Florida

Martha Munizzi


Rosenthal GmbH is a German manufacturer of porcelain products and other household goods. The original firm was founded in 1879 in Selb, Bavaria. Since 2009, Rosenthal has been owned by the Italian company Sambonet Paderno Industrie (Arcturus Group).

History
Rosenthal was founded in 1879 as a family business. The founder, Philipp Rosenthal, moved his porcelain painting business from Werl in North Rhine-Westphalia to Selb in Bavaria, where he was based in the castle Erkersreuth. In 1897, Philipp Rosenthal founded the company Bauer, Rosenthal & Co. in Kronach, as well as Philipp Rosenthal & Co. AG. In 1908, Rosenthal bought the porcelain manufacturer Thomas in Marktredwitz, and the porcelain company Zeidler & Co. in 1917.

In 1921, the company took over the Krister Porzellanmanufaktur in Wałbrzych, Silesia. The factory was closed in 1945, but the brand was revived in 1951 and used until 1971.

In the period of national socialism, Philipp Rosenthal, while Catholic, had to withdraw from the enterprise in 1934 because of his Jewish origin. The Board of Management and the supervisory board turned against Rosenthal and implemented various measures to prevent Philipp Rosenthal from using his voting shares in order to change the composition of the management board and the supervisory board. The government was asked for support and sold the voting shares to persons who were not well-disposed towards Rosenthal. However, the Nazi regime did not go directly against Philipp Rosenthal in order not to jeopardise the foreign business of the company. The reasonably covertly concealed Aryans took advantage of the family, and urged Rosenthal's successor to step out of the company. Philipp Rosenthal's death in 1937 finally paved the way for his grandchildren.
In 1936, Rosenthal bought the porcelain manufacturers Waldershof and Thomas in Weidenberg-Sophienthal. Rosenthal Isolatoren GmbH (RIG) was established in 1939 with branches in Erkersreuth (Selb) and Hennigsdorf near Berlin. In 1939 the company changed to Rosenthal Porzellan AG. When the Decree on Companies of Deprived Commercial Enterprises (RGBI 1941, p. 177), adopted on 27 March 1941, forced the discontinuation of the Jewish company and brand name Rosenthal, the "Aryan" management intervened through Joseph Goebbels to continue the use of the Rosenthal brand name.

With the return of Philipp Rosenthal's son Philip Rosenthal from exile and his entry into the enterprise in 1950, he won a pioneering role in the modern product design. In 1960, the Rosenthal Studiohaus was opened in Nuremberg, from which the world's first design chain was built.  In 1965 the uniform name Rosenthal Glas & Porzellan AG was elected and shortened to Rosenthal AG in 1969. In 1972, Philip Rosenthal founded the furniture factory Rosenthal Einrichtung in Espelkamp. The furniture factory was renamed in 2009 Philip Möbelmanufaktur GmbH and in  2013 rebranded the Fröscher GmbH & CO. KG.  Rosenthal, In collaboration with industrial designers such as Raymond Loewy, Tapio Wirkkala, Elsa Fischer-Treyden, Timo Sarpaneva, Verner Panton and Luigi Colani, created an impressive series of products. Walter Gropius design for Rosenthal the tea service TAC.  In 1967, Rosenthal built the so-called "Glassmaker's Cathedral," a factory for the Thomas-Glassworks in Amberg.  The Thomas-Glassworks was renamed the Amberg crystal glass factory.

In 1997, Rosenthal AG was 90% owned by the British-Irish Waterford Wedgwood Group. Rosenthal was the market leader for high-quality porcelain and glassware in Germany. In the year 2000, the company took over the Hutschenreuther brand and Hutschenreuther-Werk B in Selb.

In June 2008, the Waterford Wedgwood Group wanted to divest the Rosenthal share package due to liquidity difficulties. At this time, around 1,100 employees were employed worldwide. The company, faced with insolvency by the subsequent collapse of Waterford Wedgwood, filed for insolvency on 9 January 2009. The subsequent insolvency proceedings of Rosenthal AG were opened on 1 April 2009 by the District Court. On 20 July 2009, a sale was announced to an Italian company, Sambonet Paderno Industrie (Arcturus Group). Founded on 1 August 2009, Rosenthal GmbH is an independent part of Sambonet Paderno Industrie (Arcturus Group). The Rosenthal company headquarters remain in Selb under the managing director Pierluigi Coppo.

The Rosenthal Archive, a collection of around 15,000 exhibits from 130 years of company history, were purchased by the Oberfranken Foundation on 12 August 2009 and is provided as a permanent loan to the Porzellanikon, the State Museum of Porcelain in Hohenberg an der Eger, Selb. These include nearly all product designs, from the company's foundation to today, as well as originals designed by artists such as Salvador Dalí, Andy Warhol, Wilhelm Wagenfeld and Walter Gropius.

Designers

Brands
 Rosenthal studio-line, design-oriented crockery and art objects made of porcelain and glass
 Rosenthal classic, classic-design porcelain
 Rosenthal meets Versace, luxury porcelain in collaboration with Versace (since 1992)
 Thomas (owned by Rosenthal since 1908), design-oriented mass use porcelain
 Hutschenreuther (owned by Rosenthal since 2000), general porcelain for homes and hotels
 Arzberg (owned by Rosenthal since 2013)
 Arthur Krupp, an inexpensive line for the hospitality industry

Gallery

Literature
 Dieter Struß: Rosenthal. Service, figures, ornamental and art objects. Battenberg, Augsburg 1995,  (English translation 1997).

References

External links

 Rosenthal – consumer website
 Rosenthal – corporate webpage

1879 establishments
Ceramics manufacturers of Germany
German brands
Companies based in Bavaria
Companies established in 1879
German porcelain
Companies acquired from Jews under Nazi rule

Rosenthal (company)


Joe Hill, vlastním jménem Joseph Hillstrom King (* 4. června 1972, Bangor, Maine, USA) je americký spisovatel. Je synem Stephena a Tabithy Kingových. Publikoval tři romány, Heart-Shaped Box (česky Černá krabice), Horns (česky Rohy) a NOS4A2 (česky Vánoční říše). Také vydal sbírku povídek 20th Century Ghosts. Zároveň je autorem kresleného románu Locke & Key (česky vyšlo všech 6 dílu u nakladatelství Comics centrum) a dalších.

Ceny
 Better Than Home (A.E. Coppard Long Fiction Prize)
 Voluntary Committal (World Fantasy Award for Best Novella)[8]
 20th Century Ghost (Bradbury Fellowship)
 20th Century Ghosts (Bram Stoker Award for Best Fiction Collection)
 20th Century Ghosts (British Fantasy Award for Best Collection)
 20th Century Ghosts (International Horror Guild Award for Best Collection)
 Best New Horror (British Fantasy Award for Best Short Story)
 Best New Horror (Bram Stoker Award for Best Short Story)
 Sydney J. Bounds Best Newcomer Award - 2007
 Heart-Shaped Box (Bram Stoker Award for Best First Novel)
 Heart-Shaped Box (International Thriller Writers Inc award for Best First Novel)

Dílo
 20th Century Ghosts (2005, collection)
 Heart-Shaped Box (2007)
 Pop Art (2007) [chapbook]
 Locke & Key (2008)—comic book series with artwork by Gabriel Rodriguez
 Horns (February 9, 2010)[9][10][11]
 Kodiak - One Shot Comic book 2010 with Jason Ciaramella and Nat Jones
 The Cape - One Shot Comic book 2010 with Jason Ciaramella and Zach Howard
 The Cape Mini Series Comic book 2011 with Jason Ciaramella and Zach Howard
 Novel (Work in Progress) - TBA

Povídky
 The Lady Rests (1997), Palace Corbie
 The Collaborators (1998), Implosion
 Better Than Home (1999), A. E. Coppard Long Fiction Prize Series, stand-alone chapbook
 The Saved (2001), The Clackamas Literary Review spring/summer issue
 Pop Art (2001), With Signs & Wonders, anthology; 2007 Subterranean Press chapbook
 20th Century Ghost (2002), The High Plains Literary Review, journal's final issue
 The Widow's Breakfast (2002), The Clackamas Literary Review spring/summer issue
 You Will Hear the Locust Sing (2004), The Third Alternative 37
 Abraham's Boys (2004), The Many Faces of Van Helsing, anthology
 The Black Phone (2004), The Third Alternative 39
 Dead-Wood (2005), Subterranean Press February online newsletter
 Last Breath (2005), Subterranean Magazine 2
 Best New Horror (2005), Postscripts
 Voluntary Committal (2005), Subterranean Press stand-alone chapbook
 In the Rundown (2005), Crimewave
 Scheherazade's Typewriter (2005), 20th Century Ghosts, within the book's acknowledgments section
 The Cape (2005), 20th Century Ghosts, original to collection
 My Father's Mask (2005), 20th Century Ghosts, original to collection
 Bobby Conroy Comes Back from the Dead (2005), Postscripts
 Thumbprint (2007), Postscripts
 Jude Confronts Global Warming (2007), Subterranean Press online magazine, spring issue
 Gunpowder (2008), PS Publishing stand-alone novella
 Throttle (2009) written in collaboration with Stephen King, He Is Legend: An Anthology Celebrating Richard Matheson (also included in the audiobook Road Rage)
 Twittering from the Circus of the Dead (2010), The New Dead edited by Christopher Golden
 The Devil on the Staircase (2010), Stories: All-New Tales edited by Al Sarrantonio and Neil Gaiman
 Wolverton Station (2011), Subterranean: Tales of Dark Fantasy 2 edited by William Schafer

Antologie
 20th Century Ghost: The Mammoth Book of Best New Horror, Volume Fourteen (2003), ed. Stephen Jones
 My Father's Mask: The Year's Best Fantasy and Horror, 19th Annual Collection (2006), ed. Ellen Datlow, Kelly Link and Gavin Grant
 Best New Horror: The Mammoth Book of Best New Horror, Volume Seventeen (2006), ed. Stephen Jones
 The Cape: Horror: The Best of the Year, 2006 Edition (2006), ed. John Gregory Betancourt and Sean Wallace
 Thumbprint: The Mammoth Book of Best New Horror, Volume Nineteen (2008), ed. Stephen Jones
 Bobby Conroy Comes Back from the Dead: The Living Dead (2008), ed. John Joseph Adams
 20th Century Ghost: Poe's Children: The New Horror (2008), ed. Peter Straub
 Pop Art: American Fantastic Tales: Terror and the Uncanny from the 1940s to Now (2009), ed. Peter Straub
 Abraham's Boys: By Blood We Live (2009), ed. John Joseph Adams
 20th Century Ghost: The Mammoth Book of the Best of Best New Horror (2010), ed. Stephen Jones
 My Father's Mask: Darkness: Two Decades of Modern Horror (2010), ed. Ellen Datlow
 Throttle (with Stephen King): The Mammoth Book of Best New Horror, Volume Twenty-One (2010), ed. Stephen Jones

Reference

Externí odkazy

Američtí spisovatelé 21. století
Američtí spisovatelé hororu
Američtí spisovatelé fantasy
Narození v roce 1972
Narození 4. června
Muži
Žijící lidé

Joe Hill (spisovatel)


A lamp is a component that can be replaced such as an incandescent light bulb. It is designed to make light from electricity. These components are usually made of ceramic, metal, glass or plastic, which makes an electrical connection.

Lamp (electrical component)


Nils Valentin Bergkvist or Nils Bergqvist (born 13 August 1900 in Södertälje– died ?) was a Swedish chess master.

He shared first in the national tournament at Lund 1933, took 5th at Stockholm 1937 (Reuben Fine won), played a match with Salo Landau at Stockholm 1937, twice tied for 3rd-4th, with Ernst Larsson at Kalmar 1938 (Erik Lundin won), and with Allan Bergkvist at Stockholm 1938 (Gösta Stoltz won), tied for 2nd with Rudolf Spielmann, behind Gideon Ståhlberg, at Stockholm 1939 (Swedish Chess Championship), and won at Stockholm 1940.

He thrice represented Sweden in Chess Olympiads (3rd unofficial Chess Olympiad at Munich 1936, the 8th Chess Olympiad at Buenos Aires 1939, and the 9th Chess Olympiad at Dubrovnik 1950). Playing on the fourth board, he won individual bronze medal in 1950.

References

1900 births
Swedish chess players
Chess Olympiad competitors
Year of death missing

Nils Bergkvist


Lilian Parr (26 April 1905 – 24 May 1978) was an English professional women's association football player who played as a winger. She is best known for playing for the Dick, Kerr's Ladies team, which was founded in 1917 and based in Preston, Lancashire.

In 2002, she was the only woman to be made an inaugural inductee into the English Football Hall of Fame at the National Football Museum.

Biography

Early life
Parr was born in a rented house in Union Street, Gerrard's Bridge, St. Helens; the fourth of seven children born to George and Sarah Parr. Her father was a labourer at the local glass factory and the family rented out space in the yard and rooms at their house for extra income.

As a girl, Parr displayed little enthusiasm for traditional pursuits such as sewing and cookery. Instead, her fearless streak and robust frame allowed her to compete alongside boys in both football and rugby. Under the tutelage of her elder brothers, she became proficient in both sports.

She played for local team St. Helens Ladies, where it is rumoured she appeared more than 100 times for the club.

Dick, Kerr's Ladies

During the First World War in England there was a growing interest in women's football and Dick, Kerr & Co. was the name of the Preston munitions factory where most of the women on the team worked. The Dick, Kerr's Ladies team regularly drew large crowds including a famous event on 26 December 1920 at Goodison Park that drew more than 53,000 spectators.

During her time working for Dick, Kerr & Co she lodged in Preston with one of her teammates, Alice Norris. She had a romantic relationship with her teammate Alice Woods, who was also from St Helens. While playing for the Dick, Kerr's Ladies she was noted for her large appetite and almost constant smoking of Woodbine cigarettes.

Unlike women's teams today, Parr played against both male and female teams and she reputedly had a harder shot than any male player. She had started life playing football with her brothers on waste ground in St Helens, before playing for the St Helens' Ladies team. There she was spotted and recruited into the Dick, Kerr's Ladies and a job in the Dick, Kerr & Co. factory in Preston, with 10 shillings in expenses per game.

When Parr first came to the team she was fourteen years old and she played at left-back. She was moved to the left-wing on New Years Day 1921 and scored a hat-trick against a "Rest of Lancashire" team. In her first year with the club she scored 108 goals, second only to Florrie Redford who scored 170. During her career with the Dick, Kerr Ladies she scored 986 goals. According to a BBC article she scored 43 goals for the team in her first season, when she was 14 years old. She totalled more than 900 goals in her career between 1919 and 1951.

Later life
The number of women's teams had continued to grow during this time until 1921 when the Football Association banned women from playing on their member grounds. Support for women's teams declined, but many women such as Parr continued to play on village greens and another non-associated land. The Dick, Kerr Ladies toured North America in 1922 following the English ban. Banned again on their arrival in Canada, they toured the US and played nine games. They won three, drew three, and lost three against the top division men's teams. Parr continued with the Dick, Kerr's Ladies even when they lost the support of their factory and were renamed the Preston Ladies.

After working in the Dick, Kerr & Co. factory Parr trained as a nurse. She worked in Whittingham Mental Hospital until she retired. While working at the hospital she continued to play women's football for the Preston Ladies until 1951. This included taking part in a further tour of France.

Parr lived out most of the rest of her life in Goosnargh, near Preston. She lived with her partner Mary, and since her death has become an LGBT rights icon. She lived to see The FA lift the ban on women from playing on their member grounds in 1971. She died of breast cancer in 1978, aged 73, and is buried in the town of her birth, St Helens, Merseyside. Her heir was a nephew, Roy Parr.

Style of play

At almost 5 foot 10 inches tall, Parr's strength was said to be one of her greatest assets. She was particularly noted for the power of her kicking, both in delivering from the left flank and shooting at goal. Teammate Joan Whalley said in an interview with Gail Newsham: "She had a kick like a mule. She was the only person I knew who could lift a dead ball, the old heavy leather ball, from the left-wing over to me on the right and nearly knock me out with the force of the shot..."

The programme from a September 1923 fixture between Dick, Kerr's Ladies, and Stoke described Parr as "Big, fast and powerful, is tricky and can take corner kicks better than most men." It also noted that Parr "scores goals from extraordinary angles with a left-foot cross drive, which nearly breaks the net."

Aggression was another feature of Parr's play. During Dick, Kerr's Ladies' 1922 tour to the USA, the Washington Post reported that "Miss Lily Parr, at outside left, put up an aggressive game registering two goals in seven tries she had at the net" following a 4–4 draw with Washington's top male club. In April 1921 Parr and Hilda Durbar of Stoke United were sent off for fighting in Dick, Kerr Ladies' fractious 2–0 win before 13,000 fans at The Old Recreation Ground. Parr was also praised for her overall technique and vision. Contemporary Scotland international footballer Bobby Walker described her as the "best natural timer of a football I have ever seen."

Legacy

Lily Parr Exhibition Trophy

On 11 February 2007, Lou Hart from Camden LGBT Forum approached the London Lesbian Kickabouts team with a view to setting up a lesbian football event for Camden LGBT History month. The Lily Parr Exhibition Trophy was born and the Kickabouts played the Paris team Arc en Ciel (Rainbow), re-enacting the first match between the Dick, Kerr Ladies and the Paris ladies' team. The London Lesbian Kickabouts won 7–3.

Statue
In May 2019 it was announced that a statue of Parr would be unveiled at the National Football Museum in Manchester in June. This was done in June; making Parr the first female footballer commemorated with a statue.

Permanent Display at the National Football Museum, Manchester
In July 2021 a new permanent display celebrating Parr's life and impact on the game was opened at The National Football Museum.

In July 2023, Parr was featured in the New York Times Overlooked series obituaries on remarkable people whose deaths initially went unreported in newspaper.

See also

References

Notes

External links
 An interview with Parr's nephew on BBC Woman's Hour
 Lily Parr on Spartacus Educational
 Gay Great From Fyne Times Magazine
 dickkerrladies.com

1905 births
1978 deaths
Women's association football outside forwards
Deaths from breast cancer
Deaths from cancer in England
Dick, Kerr's Ladies F.C. players
English Football Hall of Fame inductees
English women's footballers
Footballers from St Helens, Merseyside
Lesbian sportswomen
LGBT association football players
English LGBT sportspeople
People from Goosnargh
20th-century English LGBT people

Lily Parr


Roberto "Bobby" Rodríguez Chabet (March 29, 1937 - April 30, 2013) was an artist from the Philippines and widely acknowledged as the father of Philippine conceptual art.

Career
Chabet studied architecture at the University of Santo Tomas where he graduated in 1961. He had his first solo exhibition at the Luz Gallery in the same year. He was the founding museum director of the Cultural Center of the Philippines and served there as curator from 1967–1970. He  initiated the first 13 Artists Awards, giving recognition to young artists whose works 'show a recentness, a turning away from the past and familiar modes of art-making'.

He led the 1970s conceptual art group called Shop 6 and taught for over 30 years at the UP College of Fine Arts, where he espoused an art practice that gave precedence to idea over form. Since the 1970s, he has been organizing landmark exhibitions featuring works by young artists.

Chabet described his pieces as "creatures of memory" and himself as their "custodian." His works are the result of a process of unraveling of fixed notions about art and meaning. Highly allegorical, his drawings, collages, sculptures and installations question modernity. His works are meditations on space, the transitory nature of commonplace objects and the collisions that occur with their displacement.

Prolific and multifaceted, Chabet ventured into architecture, painting, printmaking, sculpture, stage designing, teaching, photography and writing.

Shows
Chabet has had six individual exhibitions at The Luz Gallery since 1961 and has been an active participant in local group shows.  Represented in the collections of the National Museum, Ateneo Art Gallery, Cultural Center, and several private collections.

Galleria Duemila showed drawings from Chabet's early period in an exhibition entitled "Selected Chabet Drawings 60s-70s" at its gallery in May 2004.

Awards
He was the recipient of the 1972 Republic Cultural Heritage Award, the 1972 Araw ng Maynila Award for the Visual Arts, and the 1998 Centennial Honor for the Arts.

Death

Chabet died due to cardiac arrest at the UERM Hospital in Santa Mesa, Manila. He was 76.

According to relatives, Chabet was brought to the hospital on Monday because of chills and a high fever.  He suffered a first heart attack at 5 p.m. on Tuesday, was revived, and died of a second attack at 7:30 p.m. the same day.

Chabet was single and had no children. He is survived by an elder sister, Carmen Mesina, and a younger sister Milagros Garcia.  His remains will be brought to the Arlington Memorial Chapels in Araneta Avenue, Quezon City on May 1.

References

External links
 Drawings
 West Gallery
 Roberto Chabet, father of PH conceptual art, passes away

1937 births
2013 deaths
Filipino artists
Filipino architects
University of Santo Tomas alumni
People from Manila
Artists from Metro Manila
Filipino contemporary artists

Roberto Chabet


Robert Wyse Jackson  (12 July 1908 – 21 October 1976) was an Irish Bishop and author.

Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, he qualified as a  barrister but was then ordained in 1934. He began his career as Curate of St James' Church, Broughton, Salford  after which he was Curate-in-charge of Corbally and then Rector of St Michael's, Limerick from 1940 to 1943. He was Dean of the Cathedral Church of St John the Baptist and St Patrick's Rock, Cashel from 1946 to 1960 and then Bishop of Limerick, Ardfert and Aghadoe from  1961  until his retirement in 1970.

Wyse Jackson was born in Kilcullen, County Kildare, Ireland, the son of Richard William Jackson and Belinda Hester Sherlock. He married twice; first to Margaretta Nolan McDonald, and second to Lois Margery Phair. He had seven children including Peter Wyse Jackson.

References

1908 births
1976 deaths
Christian clergy from County Kildare
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
Deans of Cashel
Bishops of Limerick, Ardfert and Aghadoe
20th-century Anglican bishops in Ireland
People from Kilcullen

Robert Wyse Jackson


Kahlan () was one of the main tribal confederations of Saba' in Ancient Yemen. They are descended from Kahlan bin Saba bin Yishjab bin Yarub bin Qahtan.

Conflict with Himyar
By the 2nd century BC Saba' was declining gradually and its southern neighbor Himyar was able to settle many nomadic tribes that were allied to Himyar and create a stronger Himyarite nation in the lowlands. Eventually Saba' was incorporated into Himyar and resistance was reduced to the Kahlan tribes who were overpowered by Himyar and forced out of Highlands in Yemen. Most Of Kahlan remained in the Yemeni desert region around Marib until the destruction of the Dam in the 3rd century AD. this forced the Kahlani tribes to emigrate northwards through Arabia. They reaching as far as Mesopotamia and Syria prior to the 7th century Arab conquests under Islam. After the Arab conquests, the Kahlani Arabs, among other Qahtani and Adnani tribes, reached all the way to the far edges of the Umayyad Empire.

The Kahlan Septs
The Kahlan branched into 5 main branches; Azd, Hamdan, Lakhm, Tayy, Kinda.
Madhhij

Azd branches
In the 3rd century AD. The Azd branched into four branches each led by one of the sons of Amr bin Muzaqiba

Imran bin Amr
Imran bin Amr and the bulk of the tribe went to Oman where they established the Azdi presence in Eastern Arabia and later invaded Karman and Shiraz in Southern Persia. Another branch headed west back to Yemen and a group went further West all the way to Tihama on the Red Sea. This branch will become known as Azd Uman after Islam.

Jafna bin Amr
Jafna bin Amr and his family, headed for Syria where he settled and initiated the kingdom of the Ghassanids who was so named after a spring of water where they stopped on their way to Syria.

Thalabah bin Amr
Thalabah bin Amr left his tribe Al-Azd for Hijaz and lived between Thalabiyah and Dhi Qar. When he gained strength, he headed for Yathrib where he stayed. Of his seed are the great Aws and Khazraj, sons of Haritha bin Thalabah. Those will be the Muslim Ansar and will produce the last Arab Dynasty in Spain (the Nasrids).

Haritha bin Amr
Haritha bin Amr. Lead a branch of the Azd Qahtani tribes wandered with his tribe in Hijaz until they came to Tihama. He has two sons Uday and Lahi, Uday father of Bariq and lahi father of Khuza'a.

Hamdan branches

Hashid and Bakil
Today still in the same ancient tribal form in Yemen Hashid and Bakil of Hamdan remained in the highlands North of Sana'a between Marib and Hajja'a.

Banu Yam
Banu Yam settled to the North of Bakil in Najran (today in Saudi Arabia) it also branched into the tribes: the Al Murrah and the 'Ujman of eastern Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf coast.

Banu Kathir
Banu Kathir moved to Hadramut in the East of Yemen where they established their own sultanate.

Banu Al-Mashruki
Banu Al-Mashrouki settled in Lebanon producing well known Maronite influential families such as the Awwad, Massa'ad, Al-Sema'ani, Hasroun.

Banu Al Harith remained in Jabal Amil and were mainly Shia. A smaller group joined the Yemeni Druze and were eventually pushed by Kaysi Druze to Jabal Al Druze in Syria.

Banu Lakhm
Under the leadership of Malik bin Uday bin Al-Harith bin Murr bin Add bin Zayed bin Yashjub bin Uraieb bin Zayed. They spread to the North mainly in Southern and Western Mesopotamia, Rafah, Golan, Hauran and they were the first Southern Arabs to settle Northern Egypt where they were later joined with the Sicasik, Banu Judham and the Ghassanids. The Lakhmids produced The Abadi, Ubadi and Banu Bahr dynasties in Spain.
Other notable Lakhmid is the late Arab leader Gamal Abdul Nasser from the Bani Mur of Banu Lakhm.

Banu Tayy
Led by Usma bin Luai in their massive exodus out of Yemen (115 BC), the Tayy invaded the mountains of Ajaa and Salma from Banu Assad and Banu Tamim in northern Arabia. The Tayy became camel herders and horse breeders and lived a nomadic lifestyle in northern Nejd for centuries. Because of their strength and blood relations with the Yemenite dynasties that came to rule Syria (Ghassan) and Iraq (the Lakhmids), they expanded north into Iraq all the way to the capital at the time al-Hirah. Tayy later changed their name to Shammar, renaming the mountains of Ajaa and Salma to Jabal Shammar (Shammar's Mountain).

Kinda branches
The Kindah dwelt in the Bahrain but were expelled to East Yemen a group of them moved to Nejd where they instituted a powerful government that was a vassal kingdom for Himyar. They gradually declined After the fall of Himyar in 525 AD. The Kindites towns fell under constant bedouins raids from Nejd that eventually destroyed the Kindites and they were absorbed into the Najdi tribal federations.

Banu Muayiya
Ruled much of northern Arabia and Bahrain. They were mostly affiliated with Himyar and declined after its fall.

Banu Al-Sukun
Largely settled in Wadi Do'an east of Hadramout and did not play a major rule in the Kendite kingdom. they had long lasting battles with the native tribes of hadramout.

Banu Al-Sakasek
Alongside Banu Al-Sukun, they fairly ruled Hadramout.

Banu Al-Harith
Banu Al-Harith converted to Judaism and ruled the city of Najran.

Ancient Arabian and Qahtani tribes that lived in Kahlan

Banu Amela
The Banu Amela were the first South Arabian tribe to settle The Southern part of Mt Lebanon later known as Jabal Amil, possibly as early as the 1st millennium BC.

Banu Judham
The Banu Judham dwelt with Lakhmids, Azdis in Syria and later settled Northern Egypt with Lakhmids. They were a Qahtani Yemeni tribe in alliance with the Kahlan tribes.

Sakasic
The Sakasic were a Himyarite tribe that settled Northern Egypt around 3rd century AD. They settled the ancient town of Bubastis in Egypt giving it its modern name Zaqaziq after the name of their Yemeni Tribe Sakasic. Also its one of Egypt provinces.

Banu Quda'a
The Banu Quda'a were a Himyarite tribe that was exiled from Yemen following the trials of the Lakhmids and they settled The Southern part of the Lakhmid Kingdom in the Samawa region.

Sources

 Almaqhafi, Awwad: Qabayl Wa Biton Al-Arab
 Almsaodi, Abdulaziz; Tarikh Qabayl Al-Arab
 TheArabHistory.Com, Website
History Ibn Khaldoun
History Ibn al-Athir
History Ibn Hisham
History Al-Hamdani

Qahtanites
Tribes of Arabia
Yemeni tribes

Kahlan