Sexual intercourse (or simply called sex) is the insertion and thrusting of a male's penis into a female's vagina. People and animals that sexually reproduce use sexual intercourse to have an offspring. Sometimes sexual intercourse is called coitus or copulation and is more casually known as having sex or sleeping together. The two animals may be of opposite sexes or they may be hermaphroditic, as is the case with snails. Sexual intercourse may also be between individuals of the same sex.

Humans sometimes engage in behaviors that do not include the penetration of sexual organs, such as oral intercourse or anal intercourse or by non-sexual organs (fingering, fisting). These behaviors are sometimes included in the definition of sexual intercourse. Sex is usually teleiophilic (between adults).

Two animals coming together for the purposes of sexual reproduction is called mating. Most mammals only mate when the female is at the point of estrus, which is the most fertile period of time in its reproductive cycle. In certain animals, sexual intercourse is not only used for reproduction, but has taken other functions as well. These animals include bonobos, dolphins, and chimpanzees  which also have sexual intercourse even when the female is not in estrus, and to engage in sex acts with same-sex partners. In most instances, humans have sex primarily for pleasure. This behavior in the above mentioned animals is also presumed to be for pleasure, which in turn strengthens social bonds.

Culture
Many governments have laws relating to sex. Forcing someone to have sex who does not want to, called rape, is a serious crime in many countries. There are other forms of sex that may also be against the law, such as incest, sex with minors, sex outside of a marriage, prostitution, homosexual sex, sex with animals, as well as others.

Reproduction

Sexual intercourse is the natural and most common way to make a baby. It involves a man and woman having sex without birth control until the man ejaculates, or releases, semen from his penis into the woman's vagina.  The semen, which has sperm in it (which is made in his testicles), moves to the Fallopian tubes, and if it finds an ovum on its way, it will try to fertilize it. If this works, the now fertilized ovum sticks to the side of the uterus and the woman becomes pregnant. The fertilized ovum then develops into a human. Medically, it is called a pregnancy until birth.

Behaviors unrelated to reproduction
Certain species of animals also have sex for other purposes than to bear offspring. These include Humans, bonobos, chimpanzees and dolphins. These species also are among those known to engage in homosexual behaviors.
In both humans and bonobos, the female has a relatively concealed ovulation.  Neither male or female partners commonly know whether she is fertile at any given moment. One reason for this may be that sex partners of these species form strong emotional bonds. The partners come together for more than just sexual intercourse. In the case of humans, long-term partnership is more important than immediate sexual reproduction.

Humans, bonobos and dolphins show cooperative behavior. In many cases, this behavior has shown better results than what an individual can achieve alone.  In these animals, the use of sex has evolved beyond reproduction and has taken additional social functions. Sex reinforces intimate social bonds between individuals. Overall, such cooperation also benefits each member of the group in that they are better able to survive.

In humans, sexual intercourse seems to serve three types of purposes, which do not exclude one another:
 Reproduction
 Forming and keeping relationships
 Recreational

How humans prevent pregnancy

In the late 20th century, very effective forms of contraception (birth control) were developed allowing a man and women to help prevent a baby from being made when they have sex. One type of contraception is a condom. This is a piece of rubber that covers the penis that a man can wear during intercourse, which stops the man's semen from going into the woman's vagina. This does not always work though because the condom may rip or tear. Another well-known type of contraception is called the Pill, which a woman takes every day. When a woman is "on the Pill," she and her partner may have sex any time they wish with very little chance of making a baby. It is recommended that a couple who have a sexual relationship use two forms of contraception. That way if one fails the other is a 'backup'.
Contraception allows people to keep "sex for fun" separate from "sex to make children". For example, a fertile couple may use contraception to experience sexual pleasure (recreational). At the same time, this experience may strengthen their relationship, and a stronger relationship may mean that they will better be able to raise children in the future.

Sexual orientation

Who people like to have sex with depends on their sexuality. Men who like to have sex with women, and women who like to have sex with men are heterosexual or straight. Men who only like to have sex with other men, and women who only like to have sex with other women are homosexual or "gay". A different word to describe a woman who only likes to have sex with other women is "lesbian". Some people like both men and women, which is called being bisexual. Others do not feel sexual attraction at all, and are referred to as asexual.

Sexually transmitted infections

Some diseases can be caught by having sex. These diseases are called sexually-transmitted infections (STIs).

Some examples of STIs include chlamydia infection, syphilis and gonorrhea. A virus called HIV causes AIDS, which cannot be cured and can lead to death.

Using Latex condoms or oral dams reduce the chance that a few types of diseases will be passed on, but it is not entirely effective for all STIs. Birth control (like "the Pill") can prevent pregnancy, but won't prevent sexual infections.

Some STIs can also be spread in ways other than having sex. For example, herpes simplex and hepatitis B could be caught by a virgin without having sex, but can also be caught through sex. Some types of STIs can spread from contact between the genitals, mouth, anus, skin, eyes, and (rarely) infected surfaces; this depends a lot on the type of STI and how it spreads. Some common diseases like HPV can cause warts and cancer in the genitals or anus or throat.

There exists an HPV vaccine that prevents some sexually-transmitted strains of HPV; however, the vaccine only works if you get vaccinated before becoming infected. The vaccine is approved of for both men and women, but is often not required in the U.S. due to politics.

Sexual reproduction vs asexual reproduction

Other kinds of sex
There are many other kinds of sex. Two of them are oral sex and anal sex.

Oral sex

Oral sex is when one partner uses the tongue, mouth, or throat to excite the other partner's sex organs.

Slangs for oral sex is common in Western cultures, for example: "going down on", "giving a blowjob", "giving head", or "eating out".  The technical term for oral sex is fellatio if performed on a male and cunnilingus if performed on a female. When a man performs fellatio on himself, it is called autofellatio, and autocunnilingus if a woman performs cunnilingus on herself. Few men and women are able to do this.

People can get sexually transmitted infections from oral sex, such as herpes (which can be passed between the mouth and groin), HIV and even oral cancer.

Anal sex

Anal sex is when an erect penis or other device made for sexual pleasure is inserted into a sexual partner's anus. Anal sex with a female does not lead to pregnancy by itself, however, semen can leak out of the anus and enter into the vagina, and pregnancy may rarely occur. Anal sex can still pass sexually transmitted diseases from one partner to another. Anal sex comes with some risks since the skin is delicate. For safety and pleasure, partners often use condoms, female condoms and/or lubrication.

Painful sexual act

A painful sexual act is a condition of repeated or persistent genital pain before, during, or after sexual intercourse due to physical and/or emotional causes. Doctors call the condition "dyspareunia". It occurs in women and men. The condition affects up to one-fifth of women at some point in their lives.

Related pages
 Asexual reproduction
 Gender
 Human sexual activity
 Nudity
 Sex
 Sexual reproduction
 Sexually transmitted disease

References

Other websites
 University of California, Santa Barbara's SexInfo
 The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality
 Advantages of Sexual Reproduction
 Medical Resources related to sexual intercourse
 Sexology - Bulgarian comprehensive portal (Sexual behavior of man, Sexology and family guide)

Biological reproduction
Sexual acts

Sexual intercourse


Askellia pygmaea, the dwarf alpine hawksbeard, is a species of Asian and North American plants in the tribe Cichorieae within the family Asteraceae.

Distribution
It is native to western, northern, and eastern Canada (Yukon, Northwest Territories, British Columbia, Alberta, Nunavut, Quebec, Labrador, Newfoundland), the western United States (Alaska, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, Washington, Oregon, California), Russia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and western China (Tibet + Xinjiang).

Description
Askellia pygmaea is a perennial up to 20 cm (8 inches) tall, with a deep taproot and spreading by means of underground rhizomes thus forming dense clumps. Stems are sometimes erect, but sometimes trailing along the ground. One plant can have more than 80 small flower heads, each with 9-12 yellow ray florets but no disc florets.

References

Cichorieae
Flora of Northern America
Flora of Asia
Plants described in 1812

Askellia pygmaea


Reynaldo Brown (born December 6, 1950 in Los Angeles, California) is an American track and field athlete, known for the high jump. He competed in the 1968 Summer Olympics at the beginning of his senior year in high school, finishing fifth. His participation in that transitional event had him witnessing teammate Dick Fosbury winning the gold medal using the Fosbury Flop, leaving Brown as one of the last successful jumpers to use the straddle technique.

Early life and Olympics
While at Compton High School, Brown won the CIF California State Meet three straight times, after being overshadowed by teammate Bill Morris as a freshman. He was the first high school athlete to jump seven feet. He was invited to that year's Semifinal Olympic Trials, an elimination event. Finishing fourth, he qualified to the Olympic Trials at Echo Summit. Brown had to defeat another high school phenom, John Hartfield, to make the team, ultimately finishing second behind another Californian Ed Caruthers, the future silver medalist, and ahead of Fosbury. Brown returned to school late in the term after his Olympic adventure. Two months behind, he had to study hard to catch up. By February, he led his Compton team to the CIF State basketball championship. He was Track & Field News' "High School Athlete of the Year" in 1968.

College and international success
Brown continued his education at Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo. While at Cal Poly, he won two NCAA College Division/Division II national titles, which qualified him to compete and also win at the NCAA Division I National Championship each of those years: 1971 at Washington and 1973 at LSU. In the process, he set the NCAA Small School, Cal Poly school and National Collegiate outdoor records with a clearance of 7-foot-4 (or 2.23m) as a Mustang senior in 1973.

For 1973, Brown not only won the high jump at 15 meets during the year, but also ranked second in the world for the high jump, behind only Dwight Stones. In 1971, Brown was awarded the all-sports CCAA Athlete of the Year honor, and in 1993 he was inducted into the Cal Poly Athletics Hall of Fame.

Brown was one of the most consistent 7-foot jumpers of the 1970s. On January 14, 1972, Brown jumped 2.24m, or 7 feet, 4 inches (setting a new American indoor record), in College Park, Maryland at the National Invitational meet, where he was just five-eighths of an inch away from the then-world record held by Valeriy Brumel.

He also won the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships in 1970 and 1971. In-between those, he won the 1971 USA Indoor Track and Field Championships.

Brown also played basketball at Cal Poly in the 1971-72 season, as he made 14 of 24 field-goal attempts and averaged 4.4 points while helping the Mustangs earn a 16-10 record for the season.

Senior career
In 2009, at age 58, Brown competed in the Senior Games.

In November 2015, Brown received the Athletes in Excellence Award from The Foundation for Global Sports Development, in recognition of his community service efforts and work with youth.

Brown had a kidney transplant and credits his athletic conditioning to his recovery and survival.

In February 2017, Brown, who is also a photographer, got his works displayed through the Art of the Olympians.

References

Living people
1950 births
American male high jumpers
Athletes (track and field) at the 1968 Summer Olympics
Olympic track and field athletes for the United States
Athletes (track and field) at the 1971 Pan American Games
Sportspeople from Compton, California
Cal Poly Mustangs track and field
California Polytechnic State University alumni
Track and field athletes from California
Pan American Games track and field athletes for the United States
American masters athletes
Cal Poly Mustangs athletes
College men's track and field athletes in the United States
Cal Poly Mustangs men's basketball players
 American Masters Athlete that competed in Olympics

Reynaldo Brown


The South African Railways Class 20 2-10-2 of 1935 was a steam locomotive.

In 1935, the South African Railways placed one Class 20 steam locomotive with a  Santa Fe type wheel arrangement in service, designed and built at its Pretoria Mechanical Shops. In 1950, it was modified to an experimental condensing locomotive.

The Class 20 was the third locomotive type to be designed and built in South Africa, after the Natal Government Railways 4-6-2TT Havelock of 1888 and the Class 2C of 1910.

Construction
The Class 20 2-10-2 Santa Fe type steam locomotive was designed in 1934 by A.G. Watson, Chief Mechanical Engineer of the South African Railways (SAR) from 1929 to 1936, and was built by the SAR at its Pretoria Mechanical Shops at Salvokop. The locomotive was intended for use on the South West Africa system, where the tracks consisted of  section rail laid in desert conditions and practically without ballast. This restricted Watson to a maximum axle load of  and he decided upon a Santa Fe type wheel arrangement with  diameter coupled wheels and flangeless driving and intermediate coupled wheels.

The sole Class 20 locomotive was numbered 2485. It was a hybrid, with a boiler which had been inherited from a Class 19A locomotive which had been equipped with a Watson Standard no. 1A boiler. The driving wheels were from scrapped Class 8 locomotives. The trailing pony truck was similar to that of the Class 19C, but the leading Bissel truck was specially designed. The bar frames and cylinders were imported.

Even though it was not wholly a South African product with its imported frames and cylinders and its inherited boiler from a Swiss-built locomotive, this was the third recorded instance of steam locomotives designed and constructed in South African workshops after the Natal Government Railways' engine Havelock of 1888 and the Class 2C of 1910.

Characteristics
The cylinders, with rotary cam poppet valve gear, were identical to those of the Class 19C but with the stroke reduced from  to . The modified cylinder covers had deep spigots to suit the reduction in stroke. The main drive and valve gear drive was from the third pair of coupled wheels. Grease lubrication was provided for all coupled wheel axle boxes. The ten-coupled wheel arrangement, in conjunction with the sharp curvature of the lines in South West, necessitated special side play for the leading coupled wheel axle boxes and spherical bearings for the leading crank pins.

The design of the leading Bissel truck necessitated certain proportions to suit the ten-coupled wheel arrangement, but the trailing Bissel truck was similar to that of the Class 19C. Its axle boxes were provided with end thrust pad bearings attached to the axle box covers, which relieved the ends of the bearing from the effects of end thrust. This device proved successful in reducing the number of hot boxes on trailing Bissels.

The locomotive was tended by a Type MP1 tender with a  coal capacity, a  water capacity and a  axle load. The total weight of the engine and tender in full working order was .

Watson disliked articulated locomotives and his aim with the Class 20 was to build an as powerful as possible non-articulated locomotive with a maximum  axle load. The resulting Class 20 could be considered as Watson's answer to the Class GCA Garratt locomotive which had very similar weight and tractive effort capacities. The Class 20 carried more water and coal than the Garratt and was about  heavier with  tractive effort compared to the  of the Class GCA. Even so, only one Class 20 was produced and the design was not repeated.

The construction of this sole Class 20 locomotive marked the beginning of a research process which was continued two years later with the construction of the sole Class 21 2-10-4 and which eventually culminated in the procurement of the Class 23 4-8-2 fleet in 1939.

Service
The locomotive was intended for goods traffic on light rail in South West Africa, even though freight traffic volumes in that territory were hardly enough to justify such a powerful engine. It was sent to various branches in the Eastern Transvaal to undergo tests before it entered service in South West Africa, but after some evidence that the engine was rather severe on the light track, it was returned to South Africa after comparatively short service. It was then allocated to Pretoria for working on the Eastern Transvaal System where its power capacity could be used more productively.

Photographs show that, after being returned to Pretoria, the engine's Type MP1 tender was replaced by a larger Type MT2 tender with a  coal capacity, a  water capacity and a  axle load. The total weight of the engine and Type MT2 tender in full working order was . The Pretoria enginemen considered the Class 20 to be one of their best locomotives since it was free-steaming, more than usually trouble-free and able to handle any load they gave it.

Condensing trials
The arid nature of a large part of South Africa and the consequent difficulty to ensure adequate and suitable water supplies for steam locomotives led to a decision to experiment with condensing locomotives. Such locomotives had by then already been built by Henschel and Son for use in Argentina, 240 Kriegsloks for the Eastern Front in Germany in the 1930s and more than 4,000 units of the Russian SOK class, mainly for use in Turkestan and other arid regions of the Soviet Union. In the pre-war years, the SAR considered modifying a Class 12A into a condensing locomotive, but this never happened.

In 1950, the Class 20 was modified to an experimental condensing locomotive in the Pretoria workshops, fitted with German Witte-style smoke deflectors, an extension to the chimney and a Type CL condensing tender which had been ordered from Henschel in 1948. This condensing tender, with Henschel works no. T28388, was designed for a Deutsche Reichsbahn Class 52 condensing locomotive. It was modified slightly and was equipped with a pair of Buckeye three-axle bogies instead of the German arrangement of one six-wheeled and one four-wheeled bogie. It had an  coal capacity, a  water capacity and a  axle load. The total weight of the modified engine and Type CL tender in full working order was .

The Type CL tender was designed in such a way that it could also be used on a modified Class 19D or Class 24, but this was never done. The tender was capable of condensing  of exhaust steam per hour in maximum operating temperatures of between . As on the later Class 25 condensing locomotives, the pipe to feed spent steam back to the condensing tender was mounted on the left side of the engine. It was run back from the smokebox above the running board to a box that contained a centrifuge and filters to remove cylinder lubricant from the exhaust steam, then below the running board and underneath the cab to the tender. The tender had six large radiators on each side, cooled by three exhaust steam-driven roof-mounted fans which drew air from outside through the radiators.

Beginning in 1951, tests with the condensing Class 20, named Pretoria, were conducted in the Eastern Transvaal and the Karoo. It proved the viability of condensing locomotives in South Africa by attaining a saving of between 88% and 93% on water as well as a lower coal consumption, the latter brought about by the higher temperature of the condensed feedwater. Depending on the operating conditions, a water range of between  was achieved.

At the end of 1951, the locomotive was relocated to Touws River where it was used for further condensing tests and occasionally put to work in regular service. The positive results of the condensing trials led to the introduction of the Class 25 condensing locomotive fleet in 1953.

At that time, no. 2485 was again relocated, this time to De Aar for service on the section via Prieska to Upington on the line to Windhoek in South West Africa. It remained in service there until 1958. Even though its service record and uniqueness justified preservation, it was scrapped in 1961.

Illustration
The pictures illustrate the Class 20 locomotive as built with a Type MP1 tender, then fitted with a larger capacity Type MT2 tender, and finally after modification to an experimental condensing locomotive with a Type CL tender.

References

2030
2030
2030
2-10-2 locomotives
SAR locomotives
Cape gauge railway locomotives
Railway locomotives introduced in 1935
1935 in South Africa
Scrapped locomotives

South African Class 20 2-10-2


Llyn Bodgynydd is a lake in the Gwydir Forest in North Wales. It covers an area of some , and lies at a height of  a.s.l.

It is locally known as "Llyn Bod", or "Bod Mawr" (big), distinguishing it from a nearby, but much smaller lake ("Bod Bach" or "Cors Bodgynydd reservoir") to the north-east.  Water from the larger lake flows to the smaller.

Both these lakes were dammed to create reservoirs to produce water to turn the large water wheel at the nearby Pandora mine, though they now hold less water than they once did due to the demolition of Bod Bach dam, and the altering of the sluice control at Bod Mawr in 1970.

An area beside the smaller lake has been designated the Cors Bodgynydd Nature Reserve due to the rich variety of plant and animal life there.

The lakeside affords good views of the adjacent hills, and fishing rights are held by Llanrwst Fishing Club.

References
The Lakes of Eryri, by Geraint Roberts, Gwasg Carreg Gwalch, 1985

Capel Curig
Trefriw
Bodgynydd
Bodgynydd
Nature reserves in Conwy County Borough

Llyn Bodgynydd


The Woodstock Opera House is a historical venue for performing arts and receptions located in Woodstock, Illinois. It was built in 1889 and designed as a multi-use facility with space for city administration offices as well as police and fire departments. The building was planned by architect Smith Hoag and built by contractor Simon Brink for a cost of $25,000. Today, the City of Woodstock still owns the building, but the building is used exclusively as a performance space.

In 2013, the stage was dedicated to Orson Welles, who grew up in Woodstock and performed at the venue during his formative years.

History
The Opera House was built in 1889 to house the library, council room, justice court, fire department and second floor auditorium for the City of Woodstock.  The Patti Rosa Company provided the inaugural performance of Margery Daw on Thursday, September 4, 1890.

The Opera House became McHenry County's center for entertainment hosting touring vaudeville, minstrel and dramatic companies.

When the traveling circuits disappeared in the early 20th century, the Opera House became the site for the Chicago-area's first, however short-lived, summer stock theatre. Presented by the Todd School for Boys, The Todd Theatre Festival of 1934 was a six-week summer festival organized by Orson Welles, a 1931 graduate of the school. Three plays were presented — Trilby, Hamlet and Tsar Paul — featuring Welles, Hilton Edwards and Micheál MacLiammóir of Dublin's Gate Theatre, Louise Prussing, Charles O'Neal and Constance Heron. The stage of the Woodstock Opera House was dedicated to Welles in 2013, and the Woodstock Opera House hosted an 80th anniversary celebration of the Todd Theatre Festival.

In 1947, a group of citizens formed and supported the Woodstock Players. For several years the Players, provided acting experience for students graduation from the Goodman School. Now-famous personalities Paul Newman, Tom Bosley, Betsy Palmer, Geraldine Page, Shelley Berman and Lois Nettleton were among the more notable personalities.

In 1968, the Town Square Players was established. They were incorporated as a non-profit organization in 1973. In 1974, the Woodstock Musical Theatre Company was founded and made the Opera House their home. In 2019, the companies merged to create Theatre 121 and still perform regular seasons at the Opera House every year.

Architecture
Erected in 1889, the Opera House was designed and constructed by Elgin-based architect Smith Hoag at a cost of $25,000. The construction materials are mostly of local origin including limestone, terra cotta, fieldstone, white brick, and sandstone. Its architectural style is a mixture of late Victorian-era tastes combined with Early American, Midwestern, Gothic, and even Moorish elements. The interior is modeled after the showboats of the time, with dimensions and decorations that imitate many of those grand floating theatres.

In 1960, the Junior Civic Arts League invested time and effort to battle the increasing deterioration of the auditorium and stage. The Woodstock Fine Arts Association was formed in 1961 with the purpose of restoring the Opera House through the next decade.

In 1972, the Opera House was declared a "landmark" by the city and the Woodstock Opera House Community Center, Inc. was formed to raise funds for a restoration effort. The Opera House was later closed for two years of restoration work. It reopened in February 1977 and was renamed the Woodstock Opera House Community Center. Additional restoration projects were finished over the next two decades and the Opera House was considered fully restored with the final addition of the front Portico in 1999.

The building continues to be owned and maintained by the City of Woodstock and local residents. It features historic furnishings, stained glass windows, tin ceilings, original woodwork and hand drawn stencil ornamentations.

In 2003, a new annex was completed and added to the Opera House on its adjacent lot. It provides disability access to the stage, a freight elevator, additional back stage areas, offices and the Stage Left Café.

The Orson Welles Stage was dedicated February 10, 2013, honoring the site of Welles's American debut as a professional theatre director.

Current operations

The Woodstock Opera House hosts a variety of programming and events each year including concerts, theatrical plays, dance, visual arts, educational programming, lectures, meetings, receptions, and more. Situated on the historic square in downtown Woodstock, the Opera House is one of the oldest continuously operating theatres in the country.

The Opera House is a fully modernized theatre while retaining its historical character. It features contemporary sound, lighting, stage rigging, heating, air-conditioning and other amenities and is owned and operated by the City of Woodstock.

Cinema

The venue is featured prominently in the film Groundhog Day (which was filmed primarily in Woodstock) as The Pennsylvanian Hotel.

See also
Woodstock Mozart Festival

References

External links
 Theatre 121 — Resident Theater Company
 Official Website
 Photographs of Woodstock, Illinois

Houses completed in 1889
Buildings and structures in McHenry County, Illinois
Theatres in Illinois
National Register of Historic Places in McHenry County, Illinois
Event venues established in 1889
Woodstock, Illinois
Tourist attractions in McHenry County, Illinois
1889 establishments in Illinois
Orson Welles
Opera houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois

Woodstock Opera House


The zapateado is a group of dance styles of Mexico,
characterized by a lively rhythm punctuated by the striking of the dancer's shoes, akin to tap dance. The name derives from the Spanish word zapato for "shoe": zapatear means to strike with a shoe. It is widely used in sones, huapangos and chilenas.

The term is also used to refer to percussive footwork in some Spanish/Latin dances that involve elaborate shoe clicking and tapping and to the percussion music produced by shoe striking.

See also
 Zapateado (Spain)

References

David Ewen, Encyclopedia of Concert Music. New York: Hill and Wang, 1959.

Dance in Mexico
Uses of shoes

Zapateado (Mexico)


(11 January 1910 – 20 November 1984) was a Norwegian newspaper editor, a politician with the Norwegian Labour Party, and Nazi concentration camp survivor. He served as the 26th prime minister of Norway from 1971 to 1972 and again from 1973 to 1976. He was president of the Nordic Council in 1978.

Background
Bratteli was born on the island of Nøtterøy at Færder in Vestfold, Norway. His parents were Terje Hansen Bratteli (1878–1966) and Martha Barmen (1880–1938). He attended school locally, having many jobs including: work in fishing, as a coal miner and on a building site. Over a 9- to 10-month period, Bratteli travelled with whalers to Antarctica, where he worked in a guano factory at South Georgia Island. He was a student at the socialist school at Malmøya in 1933. Oscar Torp, chairman of the Norwegian Labour Party, asked him to become editor of Folkets Frihet  in Kirkenes and later editor of  Arbeiderungdommen which was published by the Socialist Youth League of Norway. For a period during 1940, he also served as Secretary of the Norwegian Labour Party.

Following the Nazi invasion of Norway, the daily newspaper Arbeiderbladet was closed down during 1940 by Nazi officials.   Bratteli subsequently participated in the Norwegian resistance movement. He was arrested by agents of Nazi Germany in 1942, and was a Nacht und Nebel prisoner of various German concentration camps; including Natzweiler-Struthof, from 1943 to 1945. He was also imprisoned in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp, north of Berlin. He was liberated from Vaihingen an der Enz concentration camp on 5 April 1945, by the Swedish Red Cross  White Buses along with fifteen other Norwegians who had survived.

Political career
After the liberation of Norway in 1945, Bratteli was appointed as Secretary of the Labour Party. He became chairman of the Workers' Youth League, vice chairman of the party, served on the newly formed defence commission, and in 1965; was made Chairman of the Labour Party. Bratteli was elected to the Norwegian Parliament from Oslo in 1950, and was re-elected on seven occasions.

He was appointed as Minister of Finance in Oscar Torp's cabinet, and from 1956 to 1960 in the third cabinet of Einar Gerhardsen. From 1960 to 1963, during Gerhardsen's third period as Prime Minister, he was Minister of Transport and Communications. He was also acting Minister of Finance from January–February 1962. In September 1963, when Gerhardsen's fourth cabinet was formed, Bratteli was again made Minister of Transport and Communications, a post he held until 1964.

The centre-right cabinet of Borten held office from 1965 to 1971, but when it collapsed, Bratteli became Prime Minister. In social policy, Bratteli's premiership saw the passage of a law in June 1972 that lowered the pension age to 67. Central to his political career was the question of Norway's membership of the European Community. Following the close rejection of membership in the 1972 referendum, his cabinet resigned. However, the successor cabinet Korvald only lasted one year, and the second cabinet Bratteli was formed following the 1973 Norwegian parliamentary election. Bratteli resigned as prime minister in January 1976 on the grounds of ill health. He was succeeded by fellow Labour member Odvar Nordli.

Personal life
Trygve Bratteli was married to Randi Helene Larssen (1924–2002). They had three children: two daughters, Tone and Marianne, and one son, professor Ola Bratteli (1946–2015).
Bratteli's memoirs  of his experiences in Nazi concentration camps was published in 1980.
He died in 1984 and was buried at Vestre gravlund in Oslo.
Trygve Bratteli was a member of Friends of Israel within the Norwegian Labour Movement (Venner av Israel i Norsk Arbeiderbevegelse) which planted a forest to his memory in Israel.

References

See also
Einar Gerhardsen
Reiulf Steen

Other sources
Anderson, Gidske (1984) Trygve Bratteli (Oslo: Gyldendal)

Related reading
Bratteli Trygve  (1980) Fange I Natt Og Take  (Oslo: Tiden Norsk Forlag)

Notes
Thirteen  Norwegians  died at Vaihingen and were buried in a mass grave, according to:

External links

1910 births
1984 deaths
People from Vestfold
Norwegian newspaper editors
Members of the Storting
Ministers of Finance of Norway
Prime Ministers of Norway
Night and Fog program
Norwegian people of World War II
Politicians from Oslo
Norwegian autobiographers
Norwegian World War II memoirists
Vaihingen an der Enz concentration camp survivors
Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp survivors
Ministers of Transport and Communications of Norway
Leaders of the Labour Party (Norway)
20th-century Norwegian politicians
20th-century Norwegian writers
Norwegian Zionists

Trygve Bratteli


Treasure Island is an adventure novel by Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson.

Treasure Island may also mean:

Literature, movie, and television
Treasure Island (1934 movie), 1934 movie starring Jackie Cooper and Wallace Beery
Treasure Island (1950 movie), 1950 Disney movie starring Bobby Driscoll and Robert Newton
Animal Treasure Island (1971 Japanese animated movie) (Dobutsu Takarajima), a collaboration between Hiroshi Ikeda and Hayao Miyazaki at Toei Doga
Treasure Island (1972 movie), 1972 movie starring Orson Welles
Treasure Island (1972 animated movie), a 1972 movie released by Filmation
Return to Treasure Island, 1986 Disney mini-series starring Brian Blessed
Treasure Island (1988 animated movie), 1988 Soviet animated movie released by Kievnauchfilm
Treasure Island (1990 movie), 1990 movie starring Christian Bale and Charlton Heston
Treasure Island (1993 movie) (只要為你活一天), 1993 Taiwanese film
Muppet Treasure Island, 1996 movie rendition of Stevenson's novel starring The Muppets and Tim Curry
Treasure Island (1999 movie), 1999 movie starring Kevin Zeger and Jack Palance
Treasure Island (show), 1997-present, a New Zealand, Irish, and Australian reality television programme

Places
Canada
Treasure Island (Ontario), a small island on South Tea Lake, Algonquin Park, Ontario
China
Treasure Island (Zhenbao Island)
Cuba
Isla de la Juventud ("Isle of Youth"), the second-largest Cuban island, at various times named La Evangelista, Isla de Cotorras ("Isle of Parrots") and Isla de Tesoros ("Treasure Island")
Fiji
Treasure Island, Fiji, a coral island and resort that is part of the Mamanuca Islands
Singapore
Treasure Island, Singapore
Solomon Islands
Treasury Islands, a small group of islands a few kilometers to the south of Bougainville and 24 kilometers from the Shortland Islands
Tonga
Treasure Island, Tonga, also known as Eua'iki, a motu and resort in the Tongan Vava'u archipelago
United Kingdom
"Treasure Island", corporate slang for the United Kingdom, as many multinational companies have a higher profit margin on the products they ship there
United States
Treasure Island (California), an island in San Francisco Bay
Treasure Island, Florida, a city
Treasure Island (Tennessee), an island in Lake McKellar south of Memphis, Tennessee
Reach Island, or Treasure Island, an island in the state of Washington
Mt. Olympus Water & Theme Park, in Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin, formerly Treasure Island Resort
Treasure Island Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada
Treasure Island Resort and Casino outside Red Wing, Minnesota
Treasure Island Scout Reservation, a Boy Scout camp in the Delaware River between Pennsylvania and New Jersey

Other uses
Treasure Island (record), a 1974 record by jazz pianist Keith Jarrett
Treasure Island (store), a defunct discount store owned by J. C. Penney
Treasure Island (video game), a game made for computers such as the Commodore Plus/4 and the Commodore 64 around 1984/1985
Treasure Island Media, a San Francisco-based gay pornography studio
Destination Treasure Island, an adventure game

Treasure Island (disambiguation)


The Dutch Open Telescope (DOT) is an optical solar telescope located on Roque de los Muchachos Observatory, La Palma (near the Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope). With a main mirror of 45 centimeters, it can reach an 0.2 arcsec resolution for sustained periods. For further optimization of the images, the DOT uses the image despeckle mechanism. It was used to record the 2004 Venus transit.

The open design was a departure from vacuum-style solar telescopes, and helped pave the way for bigger solar telescopes.

Cameras

The DOT has 6 cameras, each with a different filter, described at the DOT website. These filters can be used at the same time, and allows images to be taken at different wavelengths to be compared. Furthermore, some filters are tunable, allowing observers to take images at several points in the spectral lines.

Open structure

The DOT is an open telescope, which means that the structure is physically open, and the wind can blow through. Because the wind blows along the mirror the air has a more or less constant temperature, and this prevents seeing. Conventional telescope designs have the problem that hot air from the ground (which is hotter due to solar heating) is blown up along the tower, and this causes air with different temperatures to blow along the telescope, which degrades the image.
A drawback of this open structure is that the skeleton has to be very rigid (do not confuse with strong), to prevent the structure from moving in the wind. Normally a solid tower takes care of this (as is done with the Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope (SST), for example), or the telescope is placed inside a dome. The DOT does not have this and thus has to be very rigid. The optical part of the telescope is mounted 2 meters in front of the main mirror, and to prevent blurred images, the cameras are mounted very rigidly and can move with a precision of micrometres.

The telescope mirror can be upgraded in size to 3/4 of a meter with small modification, and even larger with additional adaptions.

Custom designed roof

Another novel feature of the DOT is the roof which is made of a special polymer fibre which retains its shape after being stretched and does not loosen after time. The shape of the several roof sections are made in such a way that they are always under tension when closed, so it is stronger (i.e., the sections are saddle-shaped).
Patterning and test installation of this specific skin is done in cooperation with the team of Poly-Ned who made more retractable coverings for telescope structures. Example of other similar projects is: GREGOR project on Tenerife.
A high UV resistance PVC coated Polyester weave is important for this kind of structures. We call them Textielarchitecture from the Dutch ground.

Despeckle

The despeckle algorithm that improves the image quality allows observers to reach the diffraction limit of the telescope more often than the seeing would normally allow. The despeckle takes 100 images of the same object (e.g., a granule), but each with a temporal distance such that the atmosphere has changed drastically, but the object has not. Then by using statistics and high powered computing (a 35 dual-Xeon computer-cluster powers these despeckle algorithms) the image is improved. Before the summer of 2005 the computation took months after a day of observations, but the new cluster reduces this time to a night.

See also
List of solar telescopes
 Swedish Solar Telescope

References

External links
Dutch Open Telescope (DOT) on the internet
DOT Database, a compilation of DOT-images
IAC website, the research institute which operates the observatory
Paper on the despeckle algorithm

Astronomical observatories in La Palma
Solar telescopes
1997 establishments in Spain

Dutch Open Telescope


Hélène Bertaux (), born Joséphine Charlotte Hélène Pilate (4 July 1825 – 20 April 1909) was a French sculptor and women's rights advocate.

Early life and career
She was born in Paris and began her studies at the age of twelve with her mother's companion (and her father), the sculptor Pierre Hébert; she started her career by doing small pieces at his workshop, such as clocks, which were very popular at that time. She separated from her first husband and, in 1854, began signing her works "Madame Léon Bertaux", the name of her companion, whom she married after her husband's death in 1865.

With very few exceptions, such as Rosa Bonheur, women at that time were viewed as models or inspirations for art, but not as artists themselves. Although young women in bourgeois and upper-class families were frequently given drawing lessons, they were not admitted to the École des Beaux-arts and were considered incapable of producing truly worthwhile art. Given these difficulties, Bertaux decided to open a drawing and modelling workshop in 1873, and opened a sculpture school exclusively for women in 1880. The following year, she founded the "Union des femmes Peintres et Sculpteurs" and served as its first President until 1894.

She exhibited regularly at the Salon. Her first major recognition came in 1864, when she received a commission for a new pediment at the Tuileries. Later, in 1878, she did another pediment, for the Place du Carrousel. She received a gold medal at the Exposition Universelle (1889) for her statue of Psyche.

In 1894, she resigned her position at the Union, to devote herself full-time to gaining admission for women at the École. As a result of her efforts, the school accepted its first female student in 1897 and began admitting them on a regular basis by 1900. She continued to sculpt during this period, however, and was a candidate for the Prix de Rome in 1903.

She died, aged 83, in Saint-Michel-de-Chavaignes, at the Château de Lassay, a fifteenth-century castle she had purchased in 1897.

Works
In the Dictionary of Women Artists, Tamar Garb used three works by Madame Léon Bertaux "to illustrate ... [her] work as a sculptor". The first highlighted work, Young Gallic Prisoner, features a male subject, which went against the accepted art world and societal etiquette. Female artists were generally forbidden from using male models due to societal norms about guarding "female modesty and male dignity". Bertaux's sculpture, Young Girl Bathing displays a more sensual scene. It shows a "pubescent woman" sitting on grass with a snail crawling up her back. The elements of this sculpture emphasize the woman's sexuality: "The invitation to touch here borders on an invitation to caress the body of the woman ..." The third work of art and Bertaux's most famous work, Psyché sous l'empire du mystère, is similar to Young Girl Bathing in that it features a standing sculpture of a nude woman "idealized, remote, and abstracted". These three pieces let Bertaux exemplify her sculpting ability, defy societal norms, and remain "true to her mission as a woman".

References

Further reading
 Édouard Lepage - Une conquête féministe - Mme Léon Bertaux, Imprimerie française, Paris 1911 (reissued in 2009 : )
 Sophie Jacques, La statuaire Hélène Bertaux (1825-1909) et la tradition académique – Analyse de trois nus, Mémoire de maîtrise en histoire de l'art, Québec, Université Laval, 2015. 173 p. (  en ligne sur Archimède).

External links

 More works by Bertaux at the Base Joconde

1825 births
1909 deaths
19th-century French sculptors
19th-century French women artists
19th-century French women lawyers
20th-century French sculptors
20th-century French women artists
20th-century French women lawyers
French women sculptors

Hélène Bertaux


Ravichandran Ashwin () (born 17 September 1986) is an Indian international cricketer from Chennai, who plays for the India cricket team. In Indian domestic cricket he plays for Tamil Nadu and for Rajasthan Royals in the Indian Premier League (IPL). He was part of the Indian team that won the 2011 Cricket World Cup and the 2013 Champions Trophy.

Ashwin is a right-arm off-spin bowler. He is the an Indian fast bowler (also in some records the joint-fastest in the world) to reach the 50-, 100-, 150-, 200-, 250-, 300-, 350-,400- and 450- wicket mark in Test cricket in terms of number of innings. In 2016, he became the third Indian to win the ICC Cricketer of the Year award. He is currently the highest-ranked bowler in Test cricket, and the highest-ranked bowler ever for India on the ICC Player Rankings. He has won ten Man of the Series awards in Test cricket, which is the highest by an Indian cricketer. He has also scored 5 Test centuries with a highest score of 124. Ashwin with his team won both the 2011 Cricket World Cup, and the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy, where he was the bowler of the final over in which England failed to chase the target.

Having achieved little success as an opening batsman at junior-level cricket, Ashwin dropped down the order and turned into an off-break bowler. He made his first-class debut for Tamil Nadu in December 2006 and captained the team the following season. However, it was not until the 2010 Indian Premier League in which he played for the Chennai Super Kings that he came into the limelight with his economical bowling and earned his maiden international call-up in the limited-overs formats in June 2010. He was the leading wicket-taker and player of the tournament of the 2010 Champions League Twenty20 in South Africa.

He was also part of the Indian squad that won the 2011 Cricket World Cup. Later that year, he made his Test debut against West Indies and became the seventh Indian bowler to take a five-wicket haul on Test debut. He took two five-wicket hauls and scored a century in that series and won the player of the series award.

Ashwin continued to succeed in the subcontinent. In a home Test series against Australia in 2013, he took 29 wickets, the most by any Indian bowler in a four-match Test series. The same year, he took his 100th Test wicket in his 18th match, becoming the fastest Indian bowler to the milestone and the fastest in the world in over 80 years. In 2017, playing his 45th Test, Ashwin became the fastest bowler to pick up 250 Test wickets, bettering Dennis Lillee, who had achieved the landmark in 48 Tests. In October 2019, in his 66th Test match, Ashwin became the joint-fastest bowler, along with Muttiah Muralitharan, to take his 350th Test wicket.

On 10 April 2022, he became the first batsman to officially retire out in an IPL match during a league stage match between Rajasthan Royals and Lucknow Super Giants. He is one of the few players to reach 3000+ runs & 450+ wickets in tests and overall 2nd quickest player to reach this landmark.

Early years
Ashwin was born on 17 September 1986 in Chennai, Tamil Nadu. He lives in West Mambalam, Chennai. His father Ravichandran played cricket at club level as a fast bowler. Ashwin was educated at Padma Seshadri Bala Bhavan and St. Bede's Anglo Indian Higher Secondary School. He also attended SSN college of engineering, Chennai and graduated with a BTech in Information Technology. His time at St. Bede's was particularly important, as it had a cricket academy. Ashwin has stated that coaches C. K. Vijay and Chandra at St Bede's played a big role in his career, where he had changed his bowling style from medium pace to off spin.

Career

2010–present: International career
On the back of his impressive performance in the 2010 Indian Premier League, Ashwin was selected in a second-string squad that toured Zimbabwe in May–June 2010. He made his ODI debut against Sri Lanka on 5 June 2010, scoring a 32–ball 38 and taking 2/50 in that match which India lost to crash out of the tri-series. His T20I debut came a week later, against Zimbabwe at Harare where he took 1/22 in four overs in an Indian win. Ashwin was selected for the tri-series against New Zealand and hosts Sri Lanka, but did not get a game with Pragyan Ojha and Ravindra Jadeja being preferred over him throughout the series.

In October, the selectors decided to rest first-choice players in the three-match home ODI series against Australia, enabling Ashwin to get selected in the team again. Ashwin was the most economical bowler in the only match played in the series in which he took 1/34 in nine overs while India registered a five-wicket victory.

Ashwin played in all five matches of the home series against New Zealand in November–December 2010. India completed a 5–0 whitewash and Ashwin ended up as the leading wicket-taker of the series with 11 wickets at an average of 21.90. At the conclusion of the series, Ashwin earned the praise of captain Gautam Gambhir, who called him "the find" of the series and hailed his bowling during the powerplay overs. Despite this success, Ashwin failed to make it to the playing eleven in any of the five ODIs on the South African tour, with the inclusion of lead spinner Harbhajan Singh in the team. However, Ashwin did manage to find a place in the 15-member World Cup squad that was announced during the series, with Harbhajan and Piyush Chawla being the other two specialist spinners in the squad.

Ashwin played the fourth and fifth ODI of India's tour of West Indies in June–July 2011 but picked just one wicket. Ashwin was retained in the limited-overs squad for the England tour. He emerged as India's best bowler of the series, which India lost 3–0, taking six wickets at an average of 25.16. England toured India in October 2011 and were whitewashed in the ODI series 5–0. With 10 scalps at 20.20, Ashwin was as the second highest wicket-taker of the series, only behind teammate Jadeja.

In November 2011, West Indies toured India for three Tests and five ODIs. Ashwin and Ojha were the only two specialist spinners in the squad, with Harbhajan being omitted owing to his indifferent form during the England tour. Ashwin made his Test debut in the first match at Delhi, earning his cap from Sachin Tendulkar. Ashwin took 3/81 in the first innings and 6/47 in the second, helping India win the match. He was awarded the man of the match and became the third Indian player to win the award on Test debut. He picked four wickets in the second Test at Kolkata where India registered an innings victory. In the third Test at Mumbai, he took 5/156 while West Indies made a total of 590 and scored his maiden international century in India's first innings (103 runs from 118 balls) to take India's total to 482. Ashwin thus became the third Indian to score a century and take a five-wicket haul in the same Test and the first since 1962. West Indies were bowled out for 134 in their second innings as Ojha and Ashwin shared all ten wickets between them, with Ashwin picking 4/34. The match ended in a draw with the scores level, after Ashwin took a single and was dismissed run out attempting a second run off the last ball of the match. He was awarded the man of the match as well as the man of the series for his all-round performance. Ashwin featured in four matches of the subsequent ODI series and took four wickets at 49.00.

Ashwin was ineffective on India's 2011/12 tour of Australia. He played in three Tests on the tour taking nine wickets at an average of more than 62. He also featured in the subsequent triangular CB Series against Australia and Sri Lanka and took seven wickets in as many matches at 43.42. In March 2012, he took five wickets in three matches of the 2012 Asia Cup in Bangladesh. He had a quiet tour of Sri Lanka in July–August 2012 taking five wickets at 39.40 in the five-match ODI series and 1/22 in the one-off T20I.

Ashwin returned to form during the two-match home Test series against New Zealand. In the first Test at Hyderabad, he claimed 6/31 and 6/54 helping India seal an innings victory and was named the man of the match. His match figures of 12/85 bettered S. Venkataraghavan's 12/152 for the best figures by an Indian bowler against New Zealand in Tests. In the second match at Bangalore his efforts of 5/69 in the second innings helped India win the match and the series 2–0. He was awarded man of the series for his tally of 18 wickets at 13.11 average. Ashwin played four matches in the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 in Sri Lanka and took five wickets at an economy rate of 6 and an average of 19.

During the first Test of England's tour of India in late 2012, Ashwin became the fastest Indian to record 50 wickets in Test cricket as he overhauled the milestone in his ninth game. India eventually lost the series 2–1 in which he struggled with the ball managing to take only 14 wickets in the four Tests at an average of 52.64. However, he scored 243 runs, averaging 60.75 per innings, including two fifties and finished as India's second best batsman of the series. In the three-match ODI series against Pakistan and the five-match ODI series against England, he took three wickets at 43.33 and seven wickets at 35.71 respectively.

While playing for India Cements at the BCCI Corporate Trophy in February 2013, Ashwin worked with former Tamil Nadu spinner and childhood coach Sunil Subramaniam to make changes to his bowling ahead of the four-match Test series against Australia. Subramaniam and Ashwin spent a few hours every day for a week at the nets in Nagpur. Among the changes made was shortening Ashwin's bowling stride.

Ashwin was highly successful on Australia's four-Test tour of India in February–March 2013. In the first Test at Chennai, his home ground, he took 7/103 and 5/95 leading India to a comfortable eight-wicket victory. He had a haul of 5/63 in the second innings of the second Test at Hyderabad where India registered an innings win. He took a total of four wickets in the Mohali Test where India sealed the series with a six-wicket victory. In the last match at Delhi, he took 5/57 and 2/55 in another Indian win which completed a 4–0 whitewash of Australia. During the match, Ashwin surpassed former India captain Anil Kumble's tally of 27 wickets for most wickets by an Indian bowler in a four-Test series. Ashwin finished the series as the leading wicket-taker with a tally of 29 wickets at 20.10 and won the Man of the Series award. It was the first time India won four or more Tests in a series and the first time Australia was whitewashed since 1969–70. Ashwin also became the third Indian off-spinner to take 25-plus wickets in a series after E. A. S. Prasanna and Harbhajan Singh.

Ashwin was a member of the Indian team that won the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy in England. His figures of 2/15 in four overs in the 20-overs-a-side final helped India restrict England to 124/8 and win the match by five runs. He had a total of eight wickets from five matches at an average of 22.62, conceding 4.41 runs per over, and ended as the joint-fifth highest wicket-taker of the tournament. He was named as part of the 'Team of the Tournament' by Cricinfo. With nine wickets in six matches, Ashwin finished as the leading wicket-taker of the home ODI series against Australia in October–November 2013 which India won 3–2.

On India's tour of South Africa, Ashwin had a difficult time with the ball. He picked only one wicket across three ODIs and went wicketless in his 42 overs in the first Test at Johannesburg, following which, he lost his spot in the team to Jadeja for the second Test. In early 2014, Ashwin's overseas struggles continued during the New Zealand tour where he managed to bag a solitary wicket in the five-match ODI series which India lost 4–0. However, in the third ODI, coming in to bat with India at 146/5 in pursuit of 315, he scored his maiden ODI fifty of 65 runs from 46 balls. He shared a 38-run partnership with Dhoni and an 85-run seventh wicket stands with Jadeja, as the match eventually ended in a tie. In the two-match Test series that followed, Jadeja was preferred over Ashwin as the lone spinner in the playing eleven.

Ashwin was back among the wickets when India went to Bangladesh for the 2014 Asia Cup and the 2014 ICC World Twenty20. He took nine wickets in four matches of the Asia Cup and finished as the joint-third highest wicket-taker of the tournament. He played a vital role in India's unbeaten run to the World Twenty20 final. His tally of 11 wickets in six matches at an average of 11.27 and economy rate of 5.35 put him joint third on the list of most wickets in the tournament. He was named in the 'Team of the Tournament for the 2014 T20 World Cup by the ICC and Cricinfo.

Ashwin was part of the Indian team that toured England in 2014. He played his first match of the Test series only in the fourth game in which he scored 40 and 46 not out but went wicketless in an innings defeat for India. He took three wickets in the last match, which was another innings defeat. India and Ashwin found more success in the ODI series that followed. With India winning the series 3–1, Ashwin took seven wickets from four matches at an average of 24.85 and an economy rate of less than 4.5. India whitewashed Sri Lanka in a five-match ODI series in November 2014 in which Ashwin had 6 wickets to his name at 33.33.

Debutant leg-spinner Karn Sharma was chosen over Ashwin for the first Test of India's tour of Australia in December 2014. After Sharma's indifferent debut, Ashwin returned to the playing eleven as the lone spinner and took a total of 12 wickets at an average of 48.66 in the remaining three matches.

Ashwin was selected to represent India for the second consecutive ODI World cup to be held in Australia-New Zealand in 2015. He was also named as bench for the 'Team of the tournament' by Cricbuzz.

In the 2015 three-match series against Sri Lanka, he dismissed Kumar Sangakkara, who was retiring following the second Test, four consecutive times in his final four innings. At the end of the series, he finished with 21 wickets and in the process, broke the record for most wickets by an Indian bowler in a series against Sri Lanka. He was awarded the Man of the Series. These efforts led him to achieve the number 1 ranking in ICC Test Bowling Rankings for the year 2015 (which he retained in 2016).

In November 2015, Ashwin was a star performer throughout the Freedom Trophy Test series against South Africa in India. During the course of the series, he became the fastest Indian to reach 150 wickets in Test cricket. In the third Test in Nagpur, he picked up 12 wickets for 98 runs to hand South Africa their first away series loss in nine years. His career-best figures of 7/66 in the second innings bowled the visitors out for 185 and gave India a 2–0 series win. For his performances in 2015, he was named as 12th man in the World Test XI by the ICC. He was also named in the Test XI of the year 2015 by Cricinfo.

In New Zealand's tour of India in 2016, Ashwin took 27 wickets in 3 Tests, including a career-best of 7 for 59 in an innings.

For his performances in 2016, he was named in the World Test XI by the ICC and Cricinfo.

In December 2016, the International Cricket Council named Ashwin the "ICC Cricketer of the Year" and the "ICC Test Cricketer of the Year" for 2016. In the process, he became the third Indian to win the Sir Garfield Sobers Trophy for the "ICC Cricketer of the Year" after Rahul Dravid and Sachin Tendulkar, and also the second cricketer ever after Dravid to win the two awards in the same year.

For his performances in 2017, he was named in the World Test XI by the ICC.

During England's tour of India in 2021, he became the fastest Indian bowler to reach the landmark of 400 Test wickets and the fourth Indian after Kapil Dev, Anil Kumble and Harbhajan Singh to achieve the milestone.

In September 2021, Ashwin was named in India's squad for the 2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup.

He made a comeback in white-ball cricket in India's third match of the tournament against Afghanistan and bowled a good spell of 2–14 in 4 overs.

In December 2021, Ashwin was ranked second in the ICC Men's Test Player Rankings for bowlers and all-rounders.

Domestic cricket
He playplayed for Chennai Super Kings from 2008 to 2015.

In 2016, he played for Rising Pune Supergiant. He was ruled out of 2017 Indian Premier League due to an injury.

In 2018, he was appointed as the captain of Punjab Kings.

In March 2019, in a match against Rajasthan Royals, Ashwin mankaded Jos Buttler reigniting the debate around dismissal in this manner.

In 2019, Ashwin was traded to Delhi Capitals ahead of the 2020 Indian Premier League. He took 13 wickets in the season and was the fourth highest wicket taker in the team. Delhi retained him for the 2021 season.

In the 2022 IPL Auction, Ashwin was bought by the Rajasthan Royals for ₹5 crores. During the group stage match between Rajasthan Royals and Lucknow Super Giants in the IPL 2022, he tactically retired out in the 19th over of the Rajasthan Royals innings after coming in at no 6 scoring 28 off 23 deliveries. He became only the fourth player to retire out in T20 cricket after Shahid Afridi, Sonam Tobgay and Sunzamul Islam.

In April 2022, Ashwin became only the second off-spinner after Harbhajan Singh to achieve a milestone of 150 wickets in the history of Indian Premier League.

Bowling style
Ashwin produces several variations of the ball and flights the ball, thereby giving it more chance to spin and dip on the batsman. In addition to his normal off-breaks, he produces an arm ball and the carrom ball, the latter of which he uses frequently in the shorter formats. In IPL 2013, he bowled leg-breaks and googly as well. However, in an interview, he has stated that he refrains from bowling the doosra as it requires him to bend and straighten his arm which he finds difficult to do.

Ashwin's childhood coach Sunil Subramaniam recalls Ashwin's early days at the TNCA Academy:

[...] what struck me was his intelligence. His use of angles, length and width of the crease. Also, guessing what a batsman was likely to do. And the kind of field placing that he is comfortable with. Those are the factors that struck me immediately – that this guy not only loves bowling, he also has a fair idea of what spin actually is. For somebody who started out at 18 or 19, I thought that was a big thing [...] Here is a guy who knew what the ball is supposed to do, where this guy is expected to play and what are the plans to keep that guy in check and put pressure on that guy. He was pretty clear at 18 itself.

Personal life

On 13 November 2011, Ashwin married his childhood friend Prithi Narayanan. They have two children.

Records and achievements
He is fastest among Indian bowlers to reach 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400 and 450 test wickets milestone.
Ashwin is ranked number 1 among bowlers and 2 among all-rounders in Test cricket as of March 2023
In his 37th Test match, Ashwin became the fastest Indian bowler and the second fastest in the world to reach 200 Test wickets after Australian spinner Clarrie Grimmett (36 matches).
He is fastest to reach 250, 300 and 350 wickets in test cricket.
Ashwin became the first Indian cricketer to score a century and take five wickets in the same Test match on three separate instances.
In 2016, Ravichandran Ashwin became first Indian to take 50 T20I wickets.
On 23 August 2016, Ashwin grabbed his sixth Man-of-the-Series Award, surpassing the tie by Sachin Tendulkar and Virender Sehwag, and in only his 13th Test series, and 8th series where he played every Test.
On 10 October 2016, Ashwin took his 20th five-wicket haul, making him the third fastest to reach the landmark.
On 27 November 2016, he completed a double of 500 runs and 50 wickets in 2016. He is the second all-rounder from India to achieve this in a single calendar year after Kapil Dev.
Ashwin was the world's highest wicket taker in 2016 with 72 scalps.
On 12 February 2017, with the dismissal of Mushfiqur Rahim, Ashwin became the fastest to reach 250 test wickets.
In India's 2016–17 home season, Ashwin took 64 wickets in 13 Tests, becoming the highest wicket-taker for India in a single domestic season, surpassing Kapil Dev's record of 63 wickets in 10 Tests during the 1979–80 season.
During the home test series against Australia, he became the fastest bowler to take 25 fifers in test history in terms of matches(47) and in terms of innings(89).
He along with Ravindra Jadeja became the first pair of spinners to be jointly ranked number 1 bowler in ICC Test Rankings history
In the 4th and final Test match against Australia national cricket team at Dharamshala Cricket Stadium, March 2017, Ashwin dismissed Steve Smith and took his wickets' tally to 79. This is the most number of wickets by a bowler in a home season surpassing Dale Steyn's record of 78 in 2007–08.
In November 2015, he became fastest Indian to 150 wickets as well during his 5 wicket haul against South Africa at Mohali.
In September 2016, he became the fastest Indian and second overall to get 200 wickets by dismissing Kane Williamson in India's 500th test match.
On 27 November 2017, during the second Test against Sri Lanka, Ashwin became the fastest bowler to reach 300 Test wickets in his 54th Test. His 300th victim was Sri Lankan tail-ender batsman Lahiru Gamage. India won the match by an innings margin along with the milestone. The previous record holder was Australian fast bowling legend Dennis Lillee who had reached the milestone in 56 Test matches way back in 1981.
In November 2020, Ashwin was nominated for the Sir Garfield Sobers Award for ICC Male Cricketer of the Decade.
In the next month, Ashwin became the bowler for dismissing most left-handers (200 left hand batsman dismissals as of February 16, 2021) in Test cricket surpassing Muralitharan previous record (191).
In February 2021, he became the fourth Indian to take 400 wickets in Test cricket. Ashwin also became the second fastest bowler ever to achieve the landmark (77 Tests) after Muttiah Muralitharan (73 Tests).
On 6 December 2021, Ashwin became only the second Indian bowler to take 300 Test wickets in home conditions, after Anil Kumble.
Ashwin took the highest wickets (71) in the inaugural World Test Championship. In January 2022, Ashwin was named in ICC Men's Test Team of the Year for the year 2021.
In March 2022, he became the second leading wicket taker (436) in tests for India, surpassing Kapil Dev (434).
Ashwin Becomes Second Indian Bowler After Anil Kumble to Complete 450 Test Wickets.
Ashwin Becomes Second Indian Bowler After Anil Kumble to Take 100 Wickets Against Australia.
After Anil Kumble(953) and Harbhajan Singh (707), Ravichandran Ashwin became the third Indian to record 700 international wickets.

Honours
 ICC Cricketer of the Year: 2016
 CEAT International Cricketer of the Year: 2016–17
 ICC Men's Player of the Month: February 2021
 Indian Premier League Champion: 2010, 2011

Other works

 Ravichandran Ashwin is active on YouTube through his channel where he analysis Cricket and movies. His channel has 1.24 million subscribers.
 Ashwin runs his own cricket academy called "Gen-Next Cricket Institute" in Chennai where he mentors young kids.
 The Tamil Nadu State Election Commission used Ashwin to help create electoral awareness by encouraging voters to check whether their names were on the electoral roll.

See also

 List of international cricket five-wicket hauls by Ravichandran Ashwin
 List of India cricketers who have taken five-wicket hauls on Test debut

References

External links

 R Ashwin's profile page on Wisden
 Ravichandran Ashwin ready with his mystery ball

1986 births
Living people
India Test cricketers
India One Day International cricketers
India Twenty20 International cricketers
Tamil Nadu cricketers
South Zone cricketers
India Blue cricketers
India Red cricketers
India Green cricketers
Chennai Super Kings cricketers
Cricketers who have taken five wickets on Test debut
Cricketers at the 2011 Cricket World Cup
Cricketers at the 2015 Cricket World Cup
Indian cricketers
Cricketers from Chennai
Padma Seshadri Bala Bhavan schools alumni
Rising Pune Supergiant cricketers
International Cricket Council Cricketer of the Year
Worcestershire cricketers
Punjab Kings cricketers
Tamil sportspeople
Delhi Capitals cricketers
Recipients of the Arjuna Award
Surrey cricketers
Rajasthan Royals cricketers

Ravichandran Ashwin


Forza Horizon 4 is a 2018 racing video game developed by Playground Games and published by Microsoft Studios. It was released on 2 October 2018 for Windows and Xbox One after being announced at Xbox's E3 2018 conference. An enhanced version of the game was released on Xbox Series X/S on 10 November 2020. The game is set in a fictionalised representation of areas of Great Britain. It is the fourth Forza Horizon title and eleventh  instalment  in the Forza series. The game is noted for its introduction of changing seasons to the series, as well as featuring several content-expanding updates which have included new game modes. A sequel, Forza Horizon 5, was released on 9 November 2021.

Gameplay

Forza Horizon 4 is a racing video game set in an open world environment based in a fictionalised Great Britain, with regions that include condensed representations of Edinburgh, the Scottish Highlands, the Lake District (including Derwentwater), Ambleside and the Cotswolds (including Broadway), Bamburgh among others. The game features a route creator which enables players to create races using completely customised routes. The game takes place in a synchronised shared world, compared to the AI-driven 'drivatars' from its predecessors, with each server supporting up to 72 players. The game is also playable in offline mode.

The game features a dynamic weather system that also depicts the change of seasons. The environment in the world will change depending on the season: for example, Derwentwater would freeze over in winter and allow players the ability to drive on the ice to reach areas of the game world that would be inaccessible during all the other seasons. The seasons are fixed across the game's servers, meaning that all players will experience the same conditions at the same time. After completing a prologue series of events which introduce players to all four seasons, the shared-world seasons will change every week, with the changes happening on Thursdays at 2:30PM GMT. The season changes are forewarned to players in the game with a countdown clock, which, when finished, will trigger a short cinematic cutscene showing the previous season changing to the new one, although the cinematic will be delayed for players who are in the middle of an event or activity.

The game features over 750 licensed cars. Players have the opportunity to buy in-game houses which unlock new items, cars and game-play perks, including Horizon Promo and the ability to fast travel anywhere on the map.

Returning from Forza Horizon 3, Wheelspins are prize spins with random rewards ranging from cars, Credits (in-game currency), emotes, horns, and clothing. Wheelspins are rewarded from progressing through the story and completing certain seasonal challenges. These can also be bought in the #Forzathon shop. Super Wheelspins, enhanced versions of Wheelspins with better prizes, are also given for completing parts of the story and seasonal challenges. Super Wheelspins can also be bought in the #Forzathon Shop. Also returning from the past two games, British drum & bass label Hospital Records provided a soundtrack composed of 20 original tracks from various label artists, as well as an unreleased track by Fred V & Grafix titled "Sunrise", made for the game's opening cinematic. The soundtrack album was released on 26 October 2018.

The game features a Dolby Atmos soundtrack.

Owing to licensing issues, vehicles from Mitsubishi Motors and Toyota (including Lexus marque with the exception of some offroad racing and pre-customised trucks and Subaru BRZ) were not present in the base game, but updates released in 2019 re-introduced these brands; Mitsubishi returned on 15 January 2019 with the release of the Free Mitsubishi Motors Car Pack DLC. That same day, however, two dancing emotes ("Carlton" and "Floss") were removed from the game due to lawsuits filed by those dances' creators against Epic Games for their use of the dances as emotes in their game Fortnite Battle Royale. On 19 November 2019, the official Forza Motorsport Twitter account announced that Toyota cars would be returning to the Forza series in the Series 17 update of Forza Horizon 4 on 12 December with the release of the 1998 Toyota Supra RZ.

Content and gameplay updates
Forza Horizon 4 has seen several content expansions and updates since its release. There are two downloadable content expansions for the game. The first of these, Fortune Island, was released in December 2018. It includes a new map, a range of additional cars and adds extreme weather conditions to the game, along with a treasure hunting campaign in which players find treasure chests to earn up to ten million Credits. The second, Lego Speed Champions, was announced at E3 2019 and released on 13 June 2019. Similar to the Forza Horizon 3: Hot Wheels expansion, it is based on the Lego brand's Lego Speed Champions toyline featuring Lego toy versions of real cars, a map "built" with various Lego pieces, and its own separate campaign. It also added a new in-game radio station, Radio Awesome, which is dedicated solely to playing The Lego Movie theme song "Everything Is Awesome" by Tegan and Sara featuring The Lonely Island.

The Series 5 update in January introduced the Free DLC Mitsubishi Motors Car Pack. It included 7 new cars and added a new 10-mission campaign called Isha's Taxis. Four additional car packs have also been released as of 22 February 2021, one including cars from the James Bond films, the other being a collection of Formula Drift cars and a pack of cars from the Barrett-Jackson Car Pack from Forza Motorsport 7. Another car pack featuring Hot Wheels cars was released on 22 February 2021.
There was also a Car Pass featuring 42 new cars. Along with that, there was also the Welcome Pack which featured cars that were pre-tuned and a free player house. There is also a high performance car pack and an all-terrain car pack.
Every four weeks, at the end of every Spring season, a new update for the game was released introducing new gameplay content, cars, and cosmetic items. The first of these updates, at the end of October 2018, saw the addition of the Route Creator tool and a new Horizon Story, British Racing Green. The Series 7 update in March 2019 introduced the Festival Playlist. Players complete daily, weekly, and monthly challenges, including, but not limited to, Seasonal Championships, Playground Games, Ranked Adventure, and Seasonal PR Stunts. While completing these tasks alone earns players rewards, they also contribute to weekly and monthly rewards. 50% and 80% completion of both the Series and the current season rewards drivers with an exclusive car or cosmetic item, consisting of the Common, Rare, Epic, or Legendary rarity. The Festival Playlist has continued to be a part of each series since its introduction.

With the Series 9 update in May 2019, the developers implemented a system to prevent wallriding—the practice of driving into a curved wall on the outside of a corner instead of braking and steering, thus allowing the player to carry more speed through a corner—and high-speed collisions in online multiplayer. The system predicts the occurrence of a collision between two cars with a large difference in speed and ghosts the faster vehicle, preventing rammings (both intentional and accidental). The anti-wall riding measures include slowing down a car in contact with the wall for an extended period of time, depending on speed and the predicted distance the player would have travelled if they did not hit the wall.

In July 2019, as part of the Series 11 update, a special Horizon Story was added in collaboration with BBC's Top Gear. The missions, narrated by presenter Chris Harris, provided players with rewards including the "Track-tor" (a race-modified tractor featured in Series 25 of the show) and the Mercedes-Benz G63 AMG 6x6. The update also saw the return of class-based Rivals modes from previous games in the series, and the ability to track progress in the Horizon Life menu, as well as several new unlockable cars in the game's Festival Playlist feature.

In December 2019, as part of the Series 17 update, a new 72-player battle royale-style mode called The Eliminator was added. In this mode, players start by driving around the game world in a fairly slow, weak car such as a 1965 Mini Cooper. As players roam the safe zone, they can acquire car drops that contain more powerful vehicles that randomly appear on the map. Players can also challenge other players to head-to-head races to specific points on the map by pointing their camera at the other's vehicle and honking their horn. Players are eliminated from the event if they drive out of the safe zone (which shrinks over time like in other battle royale games) or lose a head-to-head race, where the winner of such has the option to drive the opponent's car or receive an upgrade. Eventually, when the safe zone shrinks to a certain point, the remaining players will then race to one final point on the map to determine the winner. Microsoft stated in 2021 that The Eliminator was the most popular multiplayer mode in the game.

In April 2020, as part of the Series 21 update, Horizon Promo, a feature previously found in Forza Horizon 2 and 3 where players take in-game photographs of cars using Photo Mode for rewards, made its return to the Forza Horizon series in Horizon 4. In July 2020, the Series 24 update brought a new Photo Challenge feature in the Festival Playlist. This feature would reward players if they took a photo of the specified car in front of the specified location as set out by the Photo Challenge for that week. In July 2020, it was announced that Forza Horizon 4 would be one of a suite of games published by Xbox Game Studios to receive an upgraded version for Xbox Series X/S through Microsoft's Smart Delivery system, which will make the game playable on the new console in 4K resolution at 60 fps.

In December 2020, as part of the Series 30 update, another new game mode called Super7 was added to the game, which came alongside the expanded "Blueprint Builder" feature. In Super7, players have to complete a series of seven randomly selected stunt challenges for rewards. The Blueprint Builder expands upon the Forza Blueprint feature by allowing players to set up ramps, structures and scenery à la TrackMania series to create their own challenges and share them with the game's online community. In the following days, a fictional car, known as the 2058 Quadra V-Tech, was included in the game as part of the release of Cyberpunk 2077.

On 9 March 2021, the game was released on Steam, which suffered from various gameplay issues and game crashes, as well as the inability to import Microsoft Store savegames. On 14 April 2021, the Steam version received a patch, which contained "various stability improvements", according to the patch notes. In July 2021, as part of the Series 37 update, a more difficult variant of the Super7 game mode, called Super7 High Stakes was released, which uses the same gameplay mechanics as the standard Super7, but with a "High Stakes" concept. After completing a challenge, the player has two options: Stick, which lets the player claim their previously earned reward(s) and which also restarts the game, or Twist, which piles up the rewards. The player has three attempts to complete every challenge and the opportunity to pick a new challenge three times per game. If the player loses three times, all previously earned rewards will be lost and the game will start from the beginning. It is also the last major content update for Forza Horizon 4, featuring only one new car, the VUHL 05RR, which is a nod to the Mexican location in Forza Horizon 5.

Reception

Forza Horizon 4 received  "universal acclaim" for the Xbox One version, while the PC version received "generally favourable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. The Xbox One version is the highest rated Forza Horizon title and is tied with Forza Motorsport and Forza Motorsport 3 as the highest rated entry in the Forza series based on Metacritic scores.

Game Informer praised the changing weather, feeling it added more variety to each race, "The weather greatly impacts the way you race, and sometimes forces you to retreat to your garage to bring out rides that are more suitable for the conditions. VG247 liked the variety of challenges and activities available to the player, writing, "There are so many different events, and so much to do and find, but it never feels daunting unless you want to nail every weekly challenge and goal". While criticising the festival system as confusing, The Guardian enjoyed the different feel of the game's cars, "Playground Games' attention to car-modelling detail means that a garage full of 50 vehicles offers 50 slightly different experiences, and lets you develop a curated collection of favourites". Polygon criticised how the game world felt like a theme-park version of England, "everything has the faint whiff of an idealised 1950s about it, a place of ordered pub gardens and rosebushes. There's no graffiti, no council estates, no industry, no suburbs".

GamesRadar+ felt the setting of England wasn't as interesting as 3's Australia, but liked the online modes, saying "messing around with a group of mates was always fun in Burnout Paradise, and Forza Horizon 4 gives you everything you need to do that, if it's your bag". GameSpot praised the new additions Forza Horizon 4 added, "You're also now able to create your own custom courses, and the series' more creative pursuits return with story missions--which feature things like stunt driving and nice homages to other racing games". Destructoid had mixed feelings on winter, saying it was "the only season that feels truly unique and actually affects the way driving works", but could be "less fun for the players who don't want to slip and slide without much traction".

On 18 January 2019, Playground Games announced that they had reached 7 million registered users after the launch of Fortune Island expansion. In June 2019, prior to the launch of the Lego Speed Champions expansion, Playground Games announced the game had reached 10 million users. In August 2019 it was then announced that the game had now topped the 12 million player milestone. By November 2020, Microsoft reported that the game had been played by 24 million players since launch.

Accolades

Notes

References

External links

2018 video games
Forza
Lego video games
Microsoft games
Playground Games games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Open-world video games
Racing video games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games set in Scotland
Video games set in the United Kingdom
Windows games
Xbox Cloud Gaming games
Xbox One games
Xbox One X enhanced games
Xbox Play Anywhere games
Xbox Series X and Series S games
British Academy Games Award for British Game winners
Sumo Digital games
Panic Button (company) games

Forza Horizon 4


India's rail system, Indian Railways, is managed at a regional level as eighteen zonal railways.

Each zone is headed by a General Manager. At the top is the Railway Board, a part of the Ministry of Railways. It is headed by a chairman who directly reports to the Railway Minister. The board has five other members. The General Managers of the zonal railways and the production units report to the board.  There is a total of 71 divisions on the system nationwide. The divisions are primarily involved with train running but may also have locomotive sheds. Each division has all the functional organizations (both line and staff). The heads of these functional groups report to the DRM for administrative purposes but depend on the railway board and the zonal headquarters for policy guidelines.

Rail transport in India

Indian Railways organisational structure


Arthur Kasherman (ca. 1900 – January 22, 1945) was a publisher of the Public Press, Newsgram and other alternative newspapers in Minneapolis, Minnesota in the 1930s and 1940s. He saw himself as a "vice crusader" publishing fearless exposés about corruption and gangster rule in the city, while others derided him as a blackmailer who threatened to write defamatory articles about people if they didn't pay him off. He was the third of three newspapermen murdered in Minneapolis between 1934 and 1945. No one was ever punished in Kasherman's death, but the brazen killing came during the mayoral election season and helped elect Hubert Humphrey on a clean-up-the-city platform.

Early life
Kasherman was born in Russia and immigrated to the United States when he was about 10 years old. He grew up in the heavily Jewish enclave of north Minneapolis and graduated from North High School. He wanted to be a lawyer and attended the Minnesota College of Law. But his legal career was derailed when he got caught up in a corruption investigation in City Hall. He was jailed for contempt of court when he refused to name his confidential sources about a gangster's payoff of the Minneapolis police chief. His reason: he was a "newspaperman."

From then on, Kasherman fancied himself a crusader against the criminal activities controlled by Twin Cities' Jewish-American organized crime with the collusion of corrupt policemen and politicians. Kasherman ran a long-shot campaign for mayor in 1931, but he devoted most of his efforts to the gritty, blog-like world of the scandal sheet and alternative press.

Tangles with authority
Kasherman worked for a time with Howard Guilford, the muckraking, often scurrilous and bigoted publisher of the Saturday Press and the Twin City Reporter. Like Guilford, Kasherman found himself on the receiving end of the city's censorship efforts when authorities confiscated his newspaper twice in 1931. Kasherman was also hit over the head with an iron pipe. As if Kasherman needed more evidence of the dangers of practicing his kind of journalism, his old mentor, Guilford, was murdered in a drive-by shooting in 1934. The next year, another publisher who had written about ties between gangsters and government, Walter Liggett of the Midwest American, was slain in an alley in front of his family. In 1936, Kasherman was arrested in a sting operation in which a brothel operator accused him of shaking her down for $25 per month on threats he would write her up in his paper. The following year, Kasherman was sentenced to prison in a clear effort to silence him. He served time in Stillwater until 1940.

His final years
Kasherman quickly resumed publishing the Public Press, and set his sights on Mayor Marvin L. Kline, a Republican, whom he accused of allowing gangsters to run rampant. The December 1944 issue of the "Public Press" featured the headline "Kline Administration Most Corrupt Regime in the History of the City." A month later, on the night of Jan. 22, 1945, Kasherman was ambushed after eating dinner with a friend and shot dead on a sidewalk at 15th and Chicago avenues in Minneapolis. His death made the front pages of newspapers across the Twin Cities, but few in the city were surprised when the police investigation quickly petered out. Still, the killing was a timely boost to the would-be mayor Hubert Humphrey, who capitalized on Kasherman's death with the help of campaign staffers with inside knowledge of the investigation and the ability to plant newspaper stories about it that damaged Kline. Humphrey was elected with an overwhelming margin and has been credited with reducing corruption and gangsterism in Minneapolis during his three years in office. Kasherman's murder was never solved, but he perhaps received some posthumous vindication in Humphrey's choice as police chief, Ed Ryan, a police officer who was a friend of Kasherman. Kasherman was buried next to his father in United Hebrew Brotherhood Cemetery, Richfield, Minnesota. The Minneapolis police still have an open homicide file for Arthur Kasherman that is available to the public in Room 31 in City Hall.

See also
 List of journalists killed in the United States
 Censorship in the United States

Notes

1945 deaths
American newspaper publishers (people)
Assassinated American journalists
Murdered American Jews
Year of birth uncertain
Journalists killed in the United States
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States
People murdered in Minnesota
Deaths by firearm in Minnesota
Businesspeople from Minneapolis
Journalists from Minnesota
William Mitchell College of Law alumni
People murdered by Jewish-American organized crime

Arthur Kasherman


Oscar Loew (2 April 1844 – 26 January 1941) was a German agricultural chemist, active in Germany, the United States, and Japan in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Biography
Loew was born in Marktredwitz, Bavaria, where his father was a pharmacist.  He studied at the University of Munich under the noted chemist Justus von Liebig; he was Liebig's last student. Loew was an assistant in plant physiology at the City College of New York and participated in four expeditions to the southwestern United States in 1882 before returning to Munich, Germany, where he collaborated with Carl Nägeli. Loew became associate professor at Munich University in 1886. In 1893, he was recruited by the Meiji government of Japan as a foreign advisor, and travelled to Tokyo, where he remained until 1898. Loew served as instructor at Tokyo Imperial University between 1893 and 1907, succeeding Oskar Kellner as professor of agricultural chemistry there. He trained many notable Japanese chemists, including Umetaro Suzuki. While in Japan, he researched the effects of lime on acidic soils.

On the expiration of his contract in 1898, Loew moved to Washington, D.C., where he worked in the United States Department of Agriculture until 1900. While in Washington, he discovered the enzyme catalase and carried out investigations on the influence of calcium and magnesium on plant development. He worked for a short time in Puerto Rico before settling back in Munich in 1910, where he was employed as private contractor working with soil bacteriological problems. In 1913 he accepted the position of professor of chemical plant physiology at the University of Munich.

Loew was a versatile researcher and produced several significant technical papers on organic chemistry and enzyme theory. Decades before the work of Buchner, Loew was convinced that the activity of yeasts was not a function of the living cell, but of the enzymes produced by the yeasts. Loew invented a method to produce formaldehyde from methanol by oxidation with atmospheric oxygen and metallic copper as a catalyst. He proposed the name 'catalase' for the enzyme that decomposes hydrogen peroxide to oxygen and water. His work in this area focused on tobacco leaf extracts.

In 1892 Loew observed that both calcium and magnesium can be toxic to plants when there is an excess of one and a deficiency of the other, thus suggesting there may be an optimal Ca:Mg ratio. In 1901, with D.W. May, he did further testing and suggested an ideal Ca:Mg ratio of 5 to 4, though for several species maximum growth was obtained across a wide range of ratios. This work was key to identifying the principle of cation exchange capacity and facilitating William Albrecht's later work on the Base Cation Saturation Ratio (BCSR), which is a method of interpreting soil test results that is now widely used in sustainable agriculture.

Loew died in Berlin in 1941. His grave is at the municipal cemetery of Lichterfelde West in Berlin.

Partial bibliography
 Ein natürliches System der Gift-Wirkungen . Wolff & Lüneburg, München 1893 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
 The Energy of Living Protoplasm (1896)
 Die Chemische Energie der Lebenden Zellen (1899; second edition 1906)
 The Physiological Role of Mineral Nutrients (1899)
 Curing and Fermentation of Cigar Leaf Tobacco (1899)
 Physiological Studies on Connecticut Leaf Tobacco (1900)
 The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth (1901)
 Catalase: A New Enzym of General Occurrence, with special reference to the tobacco plant (1901)
 L'Énergie Chimique Primaire de la Matière Vivante (1904, par Oscar Loew avec la collaboration de M.-Emm. Pozzi-Escot)
 Studies on Acid Soils of Porto Rico (1913)
 Der Kalkbedarf von Mensch und Tier. Zur chemischen Physiologie des Kalks (1924)
 Das Calcium im Leben der Haustiere, 1939

Notes

1844 births
1941 deaths
People from Wunsiedel (district)
20th-century German chemists
German expatriates in Japan
Foreign advisors to the government in Meiji-period Japan
Foreign educators in Japan
Academic staff of the University of Tokyo
19th-century German chemists

Oscar Loew


Arthur Campbell (November 3, 1743 – August 8, 1811) was a soldier in the Indian Wars and the American Revolutionary War as well as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates. Campbell County, Tennessee, was named after him.

Family
He was a brother-in-law of General William Campbell. Two of his sons died in the War of 1812: Colonel James Campbell died in the service at Mobile, Alabama; and Colonel John B. Campbell fell at the Battle of Chippewa, where he commanded the right wing of the army under General Winfield Scott.

Early life and capture
Campbell was born in Augusta County, Virginia in 1743. When just fifteen years old, he volunteered as a militiaman, to perform duty in protecting the colonial frontier from incursions by the Indians. He was stationed at a fort near where the road leading from Staunton to the Warm Springs crossed the Cowpasture River.

While engaged in this service, he was captured by the Indians, who loaded him with their packs, and marched him seven days into the forest.  His captors were from the area of Lakes Erie and Michigan, and were on their return from hunting. Campbell, at the end of the journey, was so exhausted that he was unable to travel, and was treated by the Indians with great severity. An old chief, taking compassion on him, protected him from further injury, and on reaching the Lakes adopted Campbell, in whose family the young man remained during his three years' captivity.

During this time, Campbell made himself familiar with his captors' language, manners and customs. He soon acquired the confidence of the old chief, who took him on all his hunting excursions. During these trips they rambled over present-day Michigan and the northern parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.

In 1759 (during the French and Indian War), a British force marched towards the Upper Lakes, of which the Indians were informed by their scouts. Campbell conceived the bold resolution of escaping to this force. While out on one of their hunting excursions, Campbell left the Indians, and after a fortnight's tramp through the pathless wilds reached the British. The British commander was much interested in Campbell's account of his captivity and escape, and with his intelligence, and engaged him to pilot the army, which he did with success. Shortly afterward he returned to Augusta County, Virginia, after an absence of more than three years. For his services in piloting the army he received a grant of  of land near Louisville, Kentucky. At the same time Campbell, along with Joseph Martin, began acting as an agent to the Indians, reporting back to Virginia governors Benjamin Harrison V, Edmund Randolph and others on the state of Indian-colonial relations.

In 1772, his father, David Campbell, and family, removed to the "Royal Oak," on Holston River. In 1775 he was one of the 13 signers of the Fincastle Resolutions, the earliest statement of armed resistance to the British Crown in the American Colonies. In 1776, Arthur Campbell was appointed major in the Fincastle militia and elected to the General Assembly. He was also a member of the convention for forming the State Constitution. When Washington County, Virginia, was formed he was commissioned colonel commandant of a regiment for more than 30 years, and during that time he commanded several expeditions, particularly that against the Cherokees, in December 1780 and January 1781, with whom he made an important treaty.

After 35 years' residence at Holston, he removed to Yellow Creek, Knox County, Kentucky, the present site of Middlesboro, Kentucky.

He was tall, of a dignified air, an extensive reader and good talker. He married his cousin, Margaret Campbell, a sister of Gen. General William Campbell. He died from the effects of a cancer in Yellow Creek, leaving a widow, six sons and six daughters to mourn his loss.

When Middlesboro first attracted the attention of the business people of this country, and great developments were in progress at that point, the grave of Colonel Campbell was discovered in an out-of-the-way place, and his remains were removed by his Tennessee relatives, and the grave newly marked.

References

 Peyton, John Lewis, History of Augusta County, Virginia, Samuel M. Yost & son, 1882.
 Summers, Lewis Preston,History of southwest Virginia, 1746-1786: Washington County, 1777-1870, J.L. Hill Print. Co., 1903.
 Drake, Francis Samuel,Dictionary of American biography, including men of the time: containing nearly ten thousand notices of persons of both sexes, of native and foreign birth, who have been remarkable, or prominently connected with the arts, sciences, literature, politics, or history, of the American continent, J.R. Osgood and company, 1876.
 Ripley, George and Dana, Charles Anderson, The New American cyclopaedia: a popular dictionary of general knowledge, Volume 4, Appleton, 1859.

External links
 Colonel Arthur Campbell

Members of the Virginia House of Delegates
Signers of the Fincastle Resolutions
Virginia militiamen in the American Revolution
1743 births
1811 deaths
Virginia colonial people
People of Virginia in the French and Indian War

Arthur Campbell (Virginia soldier)