Harold Baily Dixon   (1852–1930) was a British chemist.  He was also an amateur footballer who appeared for Oxford University in the 1873 FA Cup Final.

Early life
Born in Marylebone, London, England, he attended Westminster School from 1865 to 1871, and then studied at Christ Church, Oxford under Vernon Harcourt, graduating as B.A. with First Class Honours in Natural Science in 1875 and M.A. in 1878.

Academic and scientific career
Dixon was Millard Lecturer at Trinity College, Oxford, from 1879 to 1886, and from 1881 to 1886 Duke of Bedford Lecturer at Balliol College, where he became fellow in 1886.

On the opening of the first women's colleges in 1879, Dixon was instrumental in allowing women to attend physics lectures. Margaret Seward was a prominent beneficiary of Dixon's proposition.

Dixon served as Professor of Chemistry, succeeding Sir Henry Roscoe, at Owen's College, Manchester from 1886 to 1922.  He was chairman of governors of the Royal Technical College, Salford, Lancashire from 1916, Chairman of Salford Higher Education Committee from 1919, and of the Selective Committee for the North-West District of the Ministry of Labour from 1922.

His expertise in the chemistry behind the cause of mine explosions was availed of by governments of the day.  He served on the Royal Commissions on Explosion of Coal Dust in Mines from 1891 to 1894, and on the Coal Supply from 1902 to 1905, as well as the Home Office Committee on Explosions in Mines from 1911 to 1914

Dixon was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1886, and gave its Bakerian Lecture in 1893. He was a Fellow of the Chemical Society, serving as its president from 1909 to 1911. He was awarded the Royal Society's Royal Medal in 1913: "On the ground of his eminence in physical chemistry, especially in connexion with explosions in gases."

In 1907-08 and again in 1923-25 he was President of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.

During the First World War, Dixon became in 1915 Deputy Inspector of High Explosives for the Manchester area, for which service he was made a Commander of The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1918.

In 1922 he was appointed Honorary Professor of Chemistry at Manchester University and supervised research on ignition of gases for the Safety in Mines Research Board in 1927.

Dixon, who made his home in Fallowfield, Manchester, died in Lytham, Lancashire on 18 September 1930, aged seventy-eight.

Football career
Usually in the position of forward, Dixon played football for Westminster School in his final year 1870–71. When he started at university he was a founder member of Oxford University's Amateur Football Club at its inception on 9 November 1871. He played with them in the second competition for the FA Cup when Oxford reached the Cup Final, played at Lillie Bridge ground, West Brompton, on 29 March 1873, losing 2–0 Wanderers. He did later play for the Wanderers, as well as at county level for Middlesex.
Unlike most of his footballing university contemporaries, he did not take part in the Varsity matches which would have earned him a 'Blue'.

Other sports
Dixon was a good cricketer who was in the Westminster School XI, which he captained in his final season.

He was more noticeably active in mountaineering, undertaking exploring climbs in the Canadian Rocky Mountains, and was a member of the British Alpine Club, the Canadian Alpine Club,
and the Rucksack Club of Manchester.

Sports honours
Oxford University A.F.C.

1873 F.A. Cup Final (runner-up).

References

Sources
Entry for Dixon in the Royal Society's Library and Archive catalogue's details of Fellows (accessed 27 April 2008)
 DIXON, Harold Baily, Biographical Database of the British Chemical Community, 1880–1970, from the Open University
Physics in Oxford, 1839-1939: Laboratories, Learning, and College Life, Robert Fox and Graeme Gooday, ed.

External links
 Harold Bailey Dixon, photograph from the Edgar Fahs Smith Collection at the University of Pennsylvania Library
 The Chemical Society 1897 to 1944, includes a picture of Dixon, from the Royal Society of Chemistry

1852 births
1930 deaths
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
British chemists
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Fellows of the Chemical Society
Fellows of the Royal Society
People educated at Westminster School, London
Royal Medal winners
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society
Men's association football forwards
English men's footballers

Harold Baily Dixon


The Independence Day of Eritrea is one of the most important public holidays in the country. It is observed on May 24 every year. On this day in 1991, Eritrean People's Liberation Front forces moved into the capital Asmara, reinstating independence, following a 30-year war against the Ethiopian military regime. Eritrea Independence Day is a national holiday, with workers given a day off.

Independence Day is always celebrated on May 24 of every year in Eritrea. But the festivities are a week-long leading up to May 24 so it is referred to as "Independence Week''or qinyat natsnet. The week-long festivities are marked by carnivals, street performances, sporting competitions, cycling races, musical concerts, parades, tent parties, much flag-waving and many displays of patriotism.

During this special week, Eri-TV's schedule is sprinkled with documentaries from the armed struggle for independence to remind the population of the heavy sacrifice paid to liberate the country and defend it.

Eritrea's Independence Day is also celebrated by the diaspora communities who live outside the country. The diaspora communities tend to celebrate it on weekends to attract a larger crowd. There are many concerts, picnics, barbecues, and outdoor festivities at various parks across the globe stretching from Australia to California and all around the world.

Concerts, carnivals and street performances are always the big draw during Independence Week. In 2016, Eritrea's landmark Silver Jubilee Anniversary, bands and orchestras from such diverse nations as Germany, Turkey, Uganda, South Africa, Bolivia, China, Japan, Chile, Sudan, United States and Australia performed in Asmara. The Malian Superstar, Habib Koite, has also been known to perform to capacity crowds in Asmara's theaters during Independence Week.

Independence Day is one of three important state-related holidays in Eritrea. The others are Martyrs' Day and September 1st Revolution Day.

References

May observances
Eritrea
Society of Eritrea

Independence Day (Eritrea)


A gie wey or yield sign is a traffec sign that tells road uisers tae slaw doun an boun tae stap gin needit tae lat the vehicle wi the richt o wey gae. A driver thit staps or slaws doun tae lat anither vehicle gae has gied the richt o wey tae that vehicle. This differs fae a stap sign, that requires ilk vehicle tae mak a hale stap afore gaun. The style o gie wey signs differs bi aurie.

Terms
While gie wey an yield hae the same meanin, mony different kintras hae chosen wan term ower the ither. In North Americae, yield is the maist common term. This is the same wi Europe, except the Unitit Kinrick whaur gie wey is uised.

Traffec signs
Seembols

Gie wey sign


Ding Dong Daddy (DDD) is a comic book supervillain published by DC Comics and appearing as an enemy of the Teen Titans.

Ding Dong Daddy is based on legendary hot rod enthusiast/painter/pinstriper Ed "Big Daddy" Roth. Further evidence of this is shown by DDD's minions the Gremlins who strongly resemble some of Roth's creations.

Publication history
Created by Bob Haney and Nick Cardy, he first appeared in Teen Titans #3 (Jan. 1966).

Fictional character biography
The President's Commission on Education asked the Teen Titans to help deal with the problem of high school dropouts. In the town of Harrison, the young heroes discovered dropouts being hired by Ding-Dong Daddy Dowd, proprietor of a custom hot rod and bike shop. Uncovering evidence that Dowd's operation was a front for criminals, the Titans went undercover as would-be high school drop-outs and exposed his schemes, and persuaded his teenage employees to return to school. This was a morality issue to stay in school.

Ding Dong Daddy later steals the Arrowcar from Speedy after Green Arrow allowed the young hero to borrow it.

In other media
Ding Dong Daddy appears in the fifth season of the animated series Teen Titans, voiced by David Johansen. He appears as one of dozens of villains recruited by the Brotherhood of Evil to fight the Titans and their allies throughout the world. He later steals a locked briefcase containing Robin's most prized possession and offers to return it if the Titans can beat him in a road race. He drives a customized hot rod equipped with an arsenal of weapons and devices to foil pursuers and is accompanied by a pit crew of gremlins in a rolling full-service repair shop that can fix damage to his vehicle and sabotage those of his competitors. Several other villains learn of the race and join in, but Red X surprises everyone by disabling their vehicles so Robin can win. Robin opens the briefcase to show its contents to the other Titans, but the camera angle prevents the viewer from seeing what is inside. Ding Dong Daddy appears in "Titans Together", joining in the final all-out battle against the Titans in the Brotherhood's Paris hideout. Kole and Gnarrk destroy his car and is subsequently flash-frozen alongside all the other villains.

References

External links
 A blog on Ding Dong Daddy's only appearance

Characters created by Bob Haney
Comics characters introduced in 1966
DC Comics male supervillains
Fictional racing drivers

Ding Dong Daddy


Enrique Santiago Petracchi (16 November 1935 – 12 October 2014) was an Argentine lawyer, judge and a member of Supreme Court of Argentina.

History
Petracchi is the son of Enrique Carlos Petracchi, who was procurator to the Argentine Treasury and Procurator General. Enrique Santiago Petracchi studied law at the University of Buenos Aires, taking further studies at Tulane University in New Orleans in 1961. He has spent his entire legal career in the justice system, first appointed as a legal assistant in 1955.

Supreme Court
In 1983 the new democratic government of Raúl Alfonsín appointed Petracchi to the Supreme Court of Argentina, the only Peronist supporter to be appointed at that point.

From September 1989, following the resignation of José Severo Caballero, he served as President of the Court for nine months. From 2004 until 2006 he was again President of the Court, supported by all but one of his fellow Supreme Court Justices. Adolfo Vázquez was the only dissenting voice.

His presidency was a period of opening up the court and increasing its transparency, including publishing judgements on the internet.

References

1935 births
Lawyers from Buenos Aires
2014 deaths
20th-century Argentine judges
Supreme Court of Argentina justices
21st-century Argentine judges

Enrique Santiago Petracchi


Argyresthia deletella is a species of moth of the family Yponomeutidae. It is found in North America, including Texas.

The wingspan is about 10 mm. The forewings are whitish yellow, but darker on the costal and apical parts than below the fold and irregularly sprinkled with small indistinct brownish transverse streaks. On the middle of the dorsal edge is a poorly defined brown transverse marking, crossing the light dorsal part and reaching beyond the fold. The hindwings are light ochreous grey.

References

Moths described in 1873
Argyresthia
Moths of North America

Argyresthia deletella


14-Methoxydihydromorphinone is a semi-synthetic opioid related to 14-methoxymetopon (14-MM), an opioid with a Ki of 0.15 nM, and 14-O-methyloxymorphone (14-OMO) with a Ki of 0.10 nM. By contrast, oxymorphone has a Ki of 0.97 nM and morphine one of 6.55 nM (all at mu receptors). This suggests that both 14-OMO and 14-MM have a higher mu/kappa selectivity than oxymorphone.

See also
 Metopon

References

4,5-Epoxymorphinans
Mu-opioid receptor agonists
Semisynthetic opioids

14-Methoxydihydromorphinone


Make It with You is a 1970 album by Peggy Lee. It was arranged and conducted by Benny Golson. The album peaked at No. 194 on the Billboard 200 in December 1970. It was Lee's last album to make the Billboard chart.

Track listing
"One More Ride on the Merry-Go-Round" (Howard Greenfield, Neil Sedaka) - 2:18
"The Long and Winding Road" (John Lennon, Paul McCartney) - 3:20
"That's What Living's About" (Paul Anka) - 2:29
"The No-Color Time of Day" (Barbara Fried, Milton Schafer) - 2:52
"Let's Get Lost in Now" (Charles Cane Courtney, Peter Link) - 3:08
"Make It with You" (David Gates) - 3:18
"Passenger of the Rain" (Sébastien Japrisot, Francis Albert Lai, Peggy Lee) - 4:00
"I've Never Been So Happy in My Life" (Lew Spence) - 2:29
"You'll Remember Me" (Arthur Hamilton, Stan Worth) - 3:15
"Goodbye" (Gordon Jenkins) - 3:53

Notes
The recording sessions for this album took place at the Capitol Tower in Hollywood, California.

Peggy Lee recorded "You'll Remember Me" in February 1970 for Bridge Over Troubled Water, her previous album for Capitol Records. The song was a minor hit single, peaking at #16 on the Billboard Easy Listening chart, and so it was released on both Make It With You and Bridge Over Troubled Water. Unlike the rest of the album, "You'll Remember Me" was arranged by Mike Melvoin.

The 2008 Collectors' Choice Music CD reissue of Make It With You also included the song "Pieces of Dreams (Little Boy Lost)" (the Oscar-nominated theme from the 1970 movie of the same name), which Lee recorded on June 1, 1970, between the sessions for Bridge Over Troubled Water and the sessions for this album.

Lee had recently turned 50 when she recorded this album. She had also won a Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Female Vocal Performance for "Is That All There Is?" in March 1970.

In a 1983 interview with the magazine Crescendo International, Benny Golson, the arranger of this album, said:
On the other hand — what a delight to work with Peggy Lee. I mean, she's a real professional. I had an experience with her that I've never had with any other artist as the arranger/conductor of the music for a complete recording session (Make It with You on Capitol). Incidentally, at a time when people were all overdubbing the strings, the horns and everything, she insisted on doing the whole date live. The strings, the whole orchestra was there, and she was singing in the room. We did half of it in L.A. and half in New York. She wasn't there for the mix, and when she heard it, it had been mixed so that the singing was very loud and you could hardly hear the arrangements – the vocal was just wiping the brass and everything. She said: 'The voice is too loud.' They went back in and remixed it, and she went with 'em this time – that's the way it should be.

Of course, that was more money she'd have to pay off, for the remixing of the session, before she'd go into profit. I never got over that. I talked to her about it later; I said: "That was really something, Peggy, that you would do that." Yes, Peggy is very musicianly; she writes good lyrics too.

"Passenger of the Rain" is the theme from the 1969 French film Rider on the Rain (or Le Passager de la Pluie). Lee wrote the English lyrics, which she sings on this album.

References

External links
Peggy Lee Discography
PeggyLee.com - CD Releases: Make It With You / Where Did They Go

1971 albums
Capitol Records albums
Peggy Lee albums
Albums arranged by Benny Golson
Albums conducted by Benny Golson

Make It with You (album)


Aryeh Leib Yellin (1820 in Jasionówka, Mońki County – 2 April 1886) (or Jelin [in Polish], Hebrew: אריה ליב יעלין) was rabbi of Bielsk Podlaski, Poland.

He was one of the most prominent Polish rabbis, to whom halakic matters were frequently referred for decision. He was the author of Kol Aryeh and Miẓpeh Aryeh, novellæ on various Talmudical tractates. His most important production is the Yefeh 'Enayim, (trans.: "beautiful eyes") giving the parallel passages found in the Babylonian Talmud, the Yerushalmi, the Midrashim, the Pesichtas, and other ancient rabbinic productions, occasionally with critical remarks which are of the greatest value to the rabbinic student. The Yefeh 'Enayim accompanies the Talmudic text in the new Talmud editions of the Romms of Wilna. Yellin left in manuscript many novellæ on the Talmud and a collection of responsa.

External links
Jewish Encyclopedia: "Jelin, Aryeh Löb" by Solomon Schechter and Isaac Broydé (1906).

1820 births
1886 deaths
People from Mońki County
Polish Orthodox rabbis
19th-century Polish rabbis

Aryeh Leib Yellin


Ivor Erskine St Clair Ramsay (1 November 1902 – 22 January 1956) was an eminent Anglican priest in the middle part of the  20th century.

He was born on 1 November 1902 and educated at Ardvreck School, Uppingham and Glasgow University. He was ordained in 1925 and began his career with  a curacy at St Paul's Cathedral, Dundee. In 1931 he became a  Novice of the College of the Resurrection, Mirfield and the following year Chaplain of the Home of St Francis, Dunfermline. He then held incumbencies at St John's Church, Jedburgh, Christ Church, Falkirk and St Andrew's, Dunmore before being appointed Provost of St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh. In 1949 he was appointed Dean of King's College, Cambridge, a post he held until January 1956 when he jumped to his death from the roof of King's College Chapel after reportedly suffering from depression. He was succeeded at King's by Dr. Alec Vidler.

References

1902 births
1956 suicides
1956 deaths
People educated at Uppingham School
People educated at Ardvreck School
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
Alumni of the College of the Resurrection
Provosts of St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh (Episcopal)
Fellows of King's College, Cambridge
Suicides by jumping in England
Deans of King's College, Cambridge

Ivor Ramsay


The International Federation of Women Lawyers (IFWL), in Spanish Federación Internacional de Abogadas (FIDA), is an international non-governmental organization (NGO) that enhances the status of women and children by providing legal aid, legal literacy and education programs, and through advocacy, law reform, research and publications.

History and activities
The Federacion Internacional de Abogadas was established in 1944 in Mexico City. It obtained United Nations Consultative status in 1954.
It works with the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the International Labour Organization (ILO).
FIDA publishes La Abogada Newsletter four times a year in Spanish and English, for members only.
Every two years FIDA publishes La Abogada Internacional in English, French and Spanish.

In 2011 UNESCO said of the organization: "The quality of the work of the IFWL, a professional organization whose geographical extension is fair and representativeness relatively balanced, is undoubted. Admitted to Category C in 1961, it has co-operated with UNESCO since 1953 in the context of the consultative arrangements. It received a financial contribution from UNESCO for organizing the international congress of lawyers (1989). Its co-operation with UNESCO, which is operational in nature, has slackened in the last few years.  It might consider drawing closer to NGOs that operate in similar fields."

Presidents
Before 1960, Luisa A. Perez Peroso, and Rosalind Goodrich Bates both served terms as president of FIDA. (Note: The dates below reflect the conference each woman presided over; they were generally elected at the previous conference.)

Regional affiliates

As of 2011 there were affiliated organizations and individuals in 73 countries:
 Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, Togo
 Argentina, Bermuda, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Netherlands Antilles, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, United States of America, Venezuela
 Bangladesh, Hong Kong/China, India, Indonesia, Iran - Islamic Republic of, Israel, Japan, Republic of Korea, Lebanon, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan/China, Thailand
 Australia, New Zealand
 Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

Ghana

FIDA Ghana was founded in 1974. The association set up the first legal aid program in Ghana in 1985, mainly targeting indigent women and children. To help people understand the law, FIDA Ghana has developed booklets that present some of the existing laws affecting the status of women and children in simple English, and in translations into the Dagbani, Ewe, Ga, and Akan languages.

Kenya

FIDA Kenya was formed in 1985 after the third United Nations World Conference on Women, which was held in Nairobi. FIDA Kenya was affiliated to the Federation International De Abogadas until 1993. As of 2011 FIDA Kenya had over 600 members.
FIDA Kenya prepared a "shadow report" on the Kenyan Government's 2007 report on the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. The report questioned the accuracy of the government's report and raised concerns about lack of government commitment to the advancement of women.

Nigeria

FIDA-Nigeria was founded in May 1982 to promote the welfare of women and children and remove harmful laws.
It provides free legal services to women and children, provides education and publications to help explain the law, and runs seminars, workshops and conferences.

Pamphlets cover subjects such as juvenile delinquency, rights of women, forced and early marriages and the effects of female circumcision.

United States
FIDA USA was re-established in September 2020. It publishes news, articles, and journal articles discussing the rights of women and children in the US. FIDA USA participates in conferences and events organized under the agenda of the United Nations.

References

Bar associations
Women's occupational organizations
International women's organizations
Organizations established in 1944


The English Electric/BAC Lightning () is an aviation book by British military historian and author Bruce Barrymore Halpenny about the English Electric Lightning. It was published by Osprey Publishing as part of their Air Combat series. It was a best seller in Grimsby, the home town of the Lightning.

The author, known for his books on airfields and aircraft, spent nine months researching the Lightnings with the pilots of 5 and 11 Squadrons and Binbrook's own Lightning Training Flight. To gather information for the book, the author talked to men like, Sqdn Ldr Dave Carden (with 3,000 plus hours, the most experienced Lightning pilot in the world) and fellow pilots and ground staff.

The book itself gives an insight into the workings of RAF Binbrook, its Lightnings, and the men that fly and maintain them. Sqdn Ldr Dave Carden takes the reader on a typically "hair-raising mission", while another section is devoted to a pilot's experiences when his aircraft caught fire and crashed into the sea off Flamborough Head in 1981. It also deals with the Quick Reaction Alert shed, where two fully armed Lightnings and their pilots were on constant standby to intercept Russian aircraft which used to sometimes fly to within 100 miles of Spurn Point.

References

Air force history
History of aviation
Books about the Cold War
1984 non-fiction books
Works by Bruce Barrymore Halpenny
Aviation books

English Electric/BAC Lightning (book)


An AC adapter (hereafter called adapter) is a type of external power supply. It is often in a small case similar to the end of an electrical extension cord that plugs into an electrical wall outlet. Charger and power adapter are more common names.

Adapters are used with electrical devices that need the voltage and power changed from the power available at the wall outlet. They are used to power electronic devices with or without batteries. By 2022, they frequently could both power a device and charge its battery at the same time through the same connection point. Some adapters with a limited voltage and cycle range can only be used in one country, but many newer ones can be used in most countries. Using devices that require adapters increases safety since the wall outlet power is transformed to a lower safer voltage.  Many adapters connect to the device by a small electrical cord with a USB-C connector at the adapter end and a connector that matches the device at the other.

Electronics

AC adapter


The Great Magician () is a 2011 Hong Kong action fantasy comedy film based on a 2009 novel by Zhang Haifan. It was directed by Derek Yee and starred Tony Leung, Sean Lau and Zhou Xun. Set in Beijing in the 1920s, the film tells the story of an illusionist who returns from overseas to find his fiancée, who has been kidnapped by a warlord hoping to make her his seventh wife.

Plot
The film is set in Beijing in the 1920s during the Warlord Era after the fall of the Qing dynasty. Liu Kunshan, a butler working for the warlord Lei Bully, uses magic tricks to scare convicts into joining the warlord's army. Although he already has six wives, Lei has kidnapped Liu Yin and hopes that she will willingly become his seventh wife.

Chang Hsien, a magician, shows up in town and bedazzles the locals with his tricks. He is secretly collaborating with a group of spies working for the Republican government to lure Lei into attending a performance and take the warlord hostage. Chang's true motive in participating in the plot is to win back the heart of Liu Yin, his fiancée whom he had left behind before he went abroad. Chang is also an apprentice of Liu Wanyao, Liu Yin's father who has been imprisoned by Liu Kunshan, who wants to force Liu Wanyao to teach him a secret magic trick.

Chang reunites with Liu Yin during his magic show and wants to run away with her, but she refuses because she is worried that her father will be killed and because she now has doubts about Chang. Lei and Chang strike up an uncanny friendship, and Lei pretends not to know even when he has managed to deduce that Chang is Liu Yin's fiancé and that Liu Yin still has feelings for Chang.

Later, Chang discovers that Liu Kunshan is secretly working with imperial loyalists to restore the Qing dynasty, with support from a Japanese paramilitary group. Lei catches Liu Kunshan having an affair with his third wife, but lets them go. After his cover is blown, Liu Kunshan openly sides with the Qing loyalists and Japanese, and leads a mutiny against Lei, catching him off guard. During the mutiny, Chang uses magic to trick everyone into thinking that Lei and Liu Yin had perished in a fire.

Chang, now captured by Liu Kunshan, is forced to perform a ritual in the theatre to help the Qing loyalists and Japanese raise an army to restore the Qing dynasty, or else his master, Liu Wanyao, will be executed. During the ceremony, Chang plays a movie and a tank rolls out from the screen. Lei and Liu Yin are revealed to have survived, and Lei's soldiers surround the theatre. Chang saves Liu Wanyao and all the Qing loyalists and Japanese are either killed or captured.

In the aftermath, Lei disbands his army to become a weapons researcher while Chang wants to travel to Europe to learn filmmaking. Liu Yin decides not to choose either Lei or Chang, and the both of them agree to fairly compete to win her heart.

Cast
 Tony Leung as Chang Hsien
 Sean Lau as Lei Bully (Lei Da-niu)
 Zhou Xun as Liu Yin
 Yan Ni as Lei's third wife
 Wu Gang as Liu Kunshan
 Kenya Sawada as Mitearai
 Alex Fong as Chen Kuo
 Paul Chun as Liu Wanyao
 Lam Suet as Li Feng-jen
 Wang Ziwen as Li Jiao
 Wang Ziyi as Li Yi
 Daniel Wu as Captain Tsai
 Berg Ng as Tuozi
 Morris Rong as a warlord
 Vincent Kok as a warlord
 Tsui Hark as a warlord

Awards and nominations
32nd Hong Kong Film Awards
 Nominated: Best Actress (Zhou Xun)
 Nominated: Best Costume Make Up Design (Yee Chung-man and Jessie Dai)

References

External links

2011 films
Hong Kong action comedy films
Films directed by Derek Yee
Films about magic and magicians
Chinese mystery films
Chinese action comedy films
Films based on Chinese novels

The Great Magician


Samantha Jane Power (born September 21, 1970) is an American journalist, diplomat, and government official who is currently serving as the Administrator of the United States Agency for International Development. She previously served as the 28th United States Ambassador to the United Nations from 2013 to 2017. Power is a member of the Democratic Party.

Power began her career as a war correspondent covering the Yugoslav Wars before entering academic administration. In 1998, she became the Founding Executive Director of the Carr Center for Human Rights Policy at Harvard Kennedy School, where she later served as the first Anna Lindh Professor of Practice of Global Leadership and Public Policy until 2009. She was a senior adviser to Senator Barack Obama until March 2008, when she resigned from his presidential campaign after apologizing for referring to then-Senator Hillary Clinton as "a monster" during an interview, thinking she was off the record.

Power joined the Obama State Department transition team in late November 2008. She served as Special Assistant to the President and Senior Director for Multilateral Affairs and Human Rights on the National Security Council from January 2009 to February 2013. In April 2012, Obama chose her to chair a newly formed Atrocities Prevention Board. As U.N. ambassador, Power's office focused on such issues as United Nations reform, women's rights and LGBT rights, religious freedom and religious minorities, refugees, human trafficking, human rights, and democracy, including in the Middle East and North Africa, Sudan, and Myanmar. She is considered to have been a key figure in the Obama administration in persuading the president to intervene militarily in Libya. In 2016, she was listed as the 41st-most powerful woman in the world by Forbes.

Power is a subject of the 2014 documentary Watchers of the Sky, which explains the contribution of several notable people, including Power, to the cause of genocide prevention. She won a Pulitzer Prize in 2003 for her book A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide, a study of the U.S. foreign policy response to genocide. She has also been awarded the 2015 Barnard Medal of Distinction and the 2016 Henry A. Kissinger Prize.

In January 2021, Joe Biden nominated Power to head the United States Agency for International Development. Her nomination was confirmed by the US Senate on April 28, 2021, by a vote of 68–26.

Early life and education
Power was born in London, the daughter of Irish parents Vera Delaney, a nephrologist and field-hockey international, and Jim Power, a dentist and piano player. Raised in Ireland until she was nine, Power lived in the Dublin district of Castleknock and was schooled in Mount Anville Montessori Junior School, Goatstown, Dublin, until her mother emigrated to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1979.

She attended Lakeside High School in Atlanta, Georgia, where she was a member of the cross country team and the basketball team. She subsequently received her B.A. degree in History from Yale University, where she was a member of Aurelian Honor Society, and her J.D. degree from Harvard Law School. In 1993, at the age of 23, she became a U.S. citizen.

Career
After graduating from Yale, Power worked at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace as a researcher for Carnegie's then-President Morton Abramowitz. From 1993 to 1996, she worked as a war correspondent, covering the Yugoslav Wars for U.S. News & World Report, The Boston Globe, The Economist, and The New Republic. When she returned to the United States, she attended Harvard Law School, receiving her J.D. in 1999. The following year, her first edited work, Realizing Human Rights: Moving from Inspiration to Impact (edited with Graham Allison) was published. Her first book, A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide, grew out of a paper she wrote while attending law school; it helped create the doctrine of "responsibility to protect."  The book won the Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction and the J. Anthony Lukas Book Prize in 2003. Her other books include Chasing the Flame: Sergio Vieira de Mello and the Fight to Save the World (2008), The Unquiet American: Richard Holbrook in the World (co-edited with Derek Chollet, 2011), and The Education of an Idealist: A Memoir (2019).

From 1998 to 2002, Power served as the Founding Executive Director of the Carr Center for Human Rights Policy at Harvard Kennedy School, where she later served as the Anna Lindh Professor of Practice of Global Leadership and Public Policy.

In 2004, Power was named by Time magazine as one of the 100 most influential people in the world that year. In fall 2007, she began writing a regular column for Time.

Power spent 2005–06 working in the office of U.S. Senator Barack Obama as a foreign policy fellow, where she was credited with sparking and directing Obama's interest in the Darfur conflict. She served as a senior foreign policy adviser to Obama's 2008 presidential campaign, but resigned during the primaries. In 2009 President Obama appointed her to a position on the National Security Council and in 2013 he appointed her as U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, a cabinet-rank position.

Involvement in 2008 U.S. presidential campaign
Power was an early and outspoken supporter of Barack Obama. When she joined the Obama campaign as a foreign policy advisor, Men's Vogue described her as a "Harvard brainiac who can boast both a Pulitzer Prize and a mean jump shot (ask George Clooney). Now the consummate outsider is working on her inside game: D.C. politics."

In August 2007, Power wrote a memo titled "Conventional Washington versus the Change We Need", in which she provided one of the first comprehensive statements of Obama's approach to foreign policy. In the memo she comments: "Barack Obama's judgment is right; the conventional wisdom is wrong. We need a new era of tough, principled and engaged American diplomacy to deal with 21st-century challenges."

In February and March 2008, Power began an international book tour to promote her book, Chasing the Flame. Because of her involvement in the Obama campaign, many of the interviews she gave revolved around her and Barack Obama's foreign-policy views, as well as the 2008 campaign.

"Armenians for Obama" uploaded a video of Power to YouTube where she referred to Obama's "unshakeable conscientiousness" regarding genocide in general and the Armenian genocide in particular, as well as saying that he would "call a spade a spade, and speak the truth about it".

Power appeared on BBC's HARDtalk on March 6, stating that Barack Obama's pledge to "have all U.S. combat brigades out of Iraq within 16 months" was a "best case scenario" that "he will revisit when he becomes president." Challenged by the host as to whether this contradicted Obama's campaign commitment, she responded, "You can't make a commitment in March 2008 about what circumstances will be like in January 2009. ... He will, of course, not rely on some plan that he's crafted as a presidential candidate or a U.S. Senator. He will rely upon a plan—an operational plan—that he pulls together in consultation with people who are on the ground to whom he doesn't have daily access now, as a result of not being the president." She concluded by saying that "what we can take seriously is that he will try to get U.S. forces out of Iraq as quickly and responsibly as possible." In February 2009, Obama announced that the U.S. would end combat operations in Iraq by August 31, 2010, and withdraw all U.S. soldiers by the end of 2011. The U.S. formally ended its mission in Iraq on December 15 of that year.

Resignation from the campaign
In a March 6, 2008, interview with The Scotsman, she said:

We fucked up in Ohio. In Ohio, they are obsessed and Hillary is going to town on it, because she knows Ohio's the only place they can win. She is a monster, too—that is off the record—she is stooping to anything ... if you are poor and she is telling you some story about how Obama is going to take your job away, maybe it will be more effective. The amount of deceit she has put forward is really unattractive.

Power apologized for the remarks on the night of the March 6 interview, saying that they "do not reflect my feelings about Sen. Clinton, whose leadership and public service I have long admired", and telling Irish TV reporter Michael Fisher: "Of course I regret them. I can't even believe they came out of my mouth. ... in every public appearance I've ever made talking about Senator Clinton, I have sung her praises as the leader she has been, the intellect. She's also incredibly warm, funny. ... I wish I could go back in time." The next day, in the wake of reaction to the remarks, she resigned from the Obama campaign. Soon afterward, The Weekly Standard said that it "might have been the most ill-starred book tour since the invention of movable type."

Following her resignation, she also appeared on The Colbert Report on March 17, 2008, saying, "can I just clarify and say, I don't think Hillary Clinton is a monster ... we have three amazing candidates left in the race." When Power later joined the State Department transition team, an official close to the transition said Power had apologized and that her "gesture to bury the hatchet" with Clinton had been well received. Power attended Clinton's swearing-in ceremony on February 2 and collaborated with her during her four-year tenure as Secretary of State.

On staff of the Obama Administration

After the 2008 presidential election, Power joined president-elect Obama's State Department transition team.

National Security Council
In January 2009, President Obama appointed Power to the National Security Council, where she served as a Special Assistant to the President and Senior Director for Multilateral Affairs and Human Rights.

In this capacity, Power kept the U.S. out of the Durban Review Conference, the 2009 iteration of the UN World Conference against Racism, which in 2001 was criticized for descending into "a festival of Israel bashing."

Within the Obama administration, Power advocated for military intervention in Libya during the Libyan Civil War on humanitarian grounds. With then-Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and UN ambassador Susan Rice, Power lobbied Obama to pursue a UN Security Council resolution authorizing an international coalition force to protect Libyan civilians.

Power left the National Security Council in February 2013.

U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations

Nomination
On June 5, 2013, U.S. president Barack Obama announced her nomination as the new United States Ambassador to the United Nations.

Power's nomination was backed by Republican senators John McCain and Lindsey Graham, and former independent senator Joseph Lieberman. Power also received support from U.S. diplomat Dennis Ross, the national director of the Anti-Defamation League Abraham Foxman, Israel's ambassador to the U.S. Michael Oren, lawyer and commentator Alan Dershowitz, the director of the Institute for Justice & Democracy in Haiti, the director of the Israel Project, the Jewish Council for Public Affairs, the President of the Rabbinical Assembly, the Eastern Director of the Simon Wiesenthal Center, the National Jewish Democratic Council, Rabbi Shmuley Boteach, publisher Marty Peretz, and military writer Max Boot.

Her nomination also faced some opposition. Former U.S. ambassador to the UN John R. Bolton and a former acting Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs, Frank Gaffney, criticized her for a 2003 article she authored in The New Republic, in which Bolton claims she compared the United States to Nazi Germany.

Power was confirmed as UN ambassador by the U.S. Senate on August 1, 2013, by a vote of 87 to 10, and was sworn in a day later by the Vice President.

Criticism

Power's advocacy of humanitarian intervention has been criticized for being tendentious and militaristic, for answering a "problem from Hell" with a "solution from Hell." Furthermore, her advocacy of deploying the United States armed forces to combat human rights abuses has been criticized as running contrary to the idea that the main purpose of the military is for national defense. It has been argued that Power's humanitarian idealism faded after she entered the State Department and began associating, both professionally and personally, with hardline realists like Henry Kissinger.

Power has also been criticized for her openness to military interventions in Libya, Syria and Yemen on perceived humanitarian grounds, but which critics say led to loss of lives and furthered extremism. Michigan State Professor Shireen Al-Adeimi has said, "These interventions, however, were anything but humanitarian: They led to a sharp increase in the loss of human lives, exacerbated a refugee crisis, enabled extremist groups, and caused an overall exacerbation of already-tenuous civil conflicts". Yet, in her 2019 memoir, The Education of an Idealist, Power downplays her role in the bloodshed that followed in Libya, although she still laments Obama's inaction earlier in the Syrian Civil War."

Sarah Lazare noted that "when Power in her role as a UN ambassador actually had the power to help stop the war on Yemen, by publicly breaking with her boss and encouraging meaningful action at the United Nations, she did nothing. Instead she embraced a policy of silence — and shielded the U.S.-Saudi coalition from meaningful international scrutiny as it dropped bombs on homes, schools, hospitals and funerals."

Views on Israel

Chemi Shalev wrote that individuals have described Power as being pro-Palestinian and anti-Israeli, on the basis of statements which she made in a 2002 interview with Harry Kreisler. When asked what advice she would give to the president if either the Israelis or the Palestinians looked "like they might be moving towards genocide", Power said that the United States might consider the deployment of a "mammoth protection force" to monitor developments between the Israelis and Palestinians, characterizing it as a regrettable but necessary "imposition of a solution on unwilling parties" and "the lesser of evils." She clarified that remark on several occasions, including in an interview with Haaretz correspondent Shmuel Rosner in August 2008.

In July 2014, Power expressed support for Israel's right to defend itself during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict.

In December 2016, she expressed support for the Obama administration's refusal to veto a resolution against Israeli settlements in occupied territories. Power told the 15-member U.N. Security Council: "Israeli settlement activity in territories occupied in 1967 undermines Israel's security, harms the viability of a negotiated two-state outcome, and erodes prospects for peace and stability in the region."

Tenure

Speaking in September 2013, regarding the U.S. Government Assessment of the Syrian Government's Use of Chemical Weapons on August 21, 2013, Power told a news conference that the American intelligence findings "overwhelmingly point to one stark conclusion: The Assad regime perpetrated an attack." She added, "The actions of the Assad regime are morally reprehensible, and they violate clearly established international norms." Power went on to criticize the failure of the United Nations structure to thwart or prosecute the atrocities committed in the Syrian conflict, which is now well into its third year. She said, "The system devised in 1945 precisely to deal with threats of this nature did not work as it was supposed to." She added, "Even in the wake of the flagrant shattering of the international norm against chemical weapons use, Russia continues to hold the council hostage and shirk its international responsibilities. "What we have learned, what the Syrian people have learned, is that the Security Council the world needs to deal with this crisis is not the Security Council we have." Power has herself, however, been criticized by journalist Jeff Jacoby for her lack of commitment to stopping the conflict, who wrote that she has mostly "acquiesced in the president's [Obama's] unwillingness to act."

In 2014, speaking on the crisis in Ukraine, Ambassador Power, told reporters that Washington was "gravely disturbed" by reports of Russian military deployments into the Crimea. "The United States calls upon Russia to pull back the military forces that are being built up in the region, to stand down, and to allow the Ukrainian people the opportunity to pursue their own government, create their own destiny and to do so freely without intimidation or fear," she said. Power declined to characterize Russian military actions when asked if they constituted aggression. She called for an independent international mediation mission to be quickly dispatched to Ukraine.

In July 2014, during a forum at Hunter College commemorating the 45th anniversary of the Stonewall riots, Power said that, in spite of significant progress in the US, the LGBT rights movement was "far from over", noting that "There are some parts of the world where the situation abroad is actually taking a sharp turn for the worse for LGBT individuals." She stated that homosexuality remains criminalized in nearly 80 countries, that Brunei was moving towards becoming the eighth country to enact capital punishment for same-sex sexual acts, and that Russia and Nigeria had also instituted anti-LGBT legislation in the last year. Referring to a law signed in February by Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni that imposes a life sentence upon anyone found guilty of repeated same-sex sexual acts, she said: "Unfortunately, Uganda's anti-gay legislation is not an outlier. Nor is the climate of intolerance and abuse that it has fostered." This speech occurred on the first anniversary of the U.S. Supreme Court decision that struck down a portion of the Defense of Marriage Act, and a week after the Obama administration announced travel bans against Ugandan officials responsible for anti-LGBT human rights abuses.

In March 2015, Power described defense cuts planned by European countries such as Britain as "very concerning" in light of the "diffuse" challenges facing the world, such as the Ebola crisis in west Africa and the threat from the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). She flew to Brussels to urge European nations to abide by a NATO pledge to devote to defense at least two per cent of their national budget, and she suggested that their current spending already risked being insufficient.

Power has faced criticism for her silence on Obama's failure to recognize the Armenian genocide, especially after its 100th anniversary in 2015. A long-time advocate for the recognition of the Armenian Genocide by the United States, Power details her efforts to convince President Obama up until just before his 2015 speech in her memoir.  She has described the day, during which she also gave birth to son Declan right after her failure to change Obama's decision, as "an example of loneliness" she experienced at the White House. Power apologized for the Administration's failure on Twitter in 2017.

In June 2015, Power spoke to the U.S. House Foreign Affairs Committee while negotiations were taking place with Iran regarding granting relief of sanctions on the country in return for them scaling back their nuclear program. She told the Committee that the US would retain the ability to reinstate sanctions against Iran without unanimous support from the UN Security Council, though she said she could not provide details until a deal was finalized.

Power supported the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh.

In 2016, while speaking on the situation in Syria, Power said, "What Russia is sponsoring and doing is not counter-terrorism, it is barbarism," "Instead of pursuing peace, Russia and Assad make war. Instead of helping get life-saving aid to civilians, Russia and Assad are bombing the humanitarian convoys, hospitals and first responders who are trying desperately to keep people alive," Power said. A September 9 ceasefire deal between U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry and Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov aimed at putting Syria's peace process back on track effectively collapsed on Monday when an aid convoy was bombed.

Power, in her last major speech in the role, told the international community it must do everything it can to stop what she described as a Russian assault on the world order. Outlining Russian actions such as the annexation of Crimea, the bombing of civilians in Syria, and a hacking of America's election, Power drew a picture of a state whose primary aim is to sow chaos and wreak havoc on the "rules-based" world order that is girded by international law and run in bodies like the United Nations. "Russia's actions are not standing up a new world order, they are tearing down the one that exists, and this is what we are fighting against," she said in a speech at the Atlantic Council on January 17. "Having defeated the forces of fascism and communism, we now confront the forces of authoritarianism and nihilism." Those who argue, as Trump has, that undoing sanctions against Russia will make the Kremlin more amenable "have it backwards," Power said. "Easing punitive measures ... will only embolden Russia," encourage North Korea and Iran to follow them and send the message that all they need to do is "wait it out," Power argued.

On May 31, 2017, Power's testimony and relevant records were subpoenaed by the House Intelligence Committee as part of its investigation into the unmasking of Americans whose conversations she obtained from intelligence surveillance.

Honors
Barnard College awarded Power its highest award, the 2015 Barnard Medal of Distinction, among other things her book A Problem from Hell, along with her denunciation of genocide and "hope that vows of 'never again' would truly mean 'never again'". The 2016 Henry A. Kissinger Prize was awarded on June 8, 2016, to Ambassador Samantha Power serving as the United States Permanent Representative to the United Nations at the American Academy in Berlin. She was awarded the Ulysses Medal by University College Dublin in November 2017. In 2019, she was selected as the recipient of the 2019 Daniel Patrick Moynihan Prize by the American Academy of Political and Social Science. In 2019, she presented the commencement address at Indiana University where she received her honorary doctorate.

Post Obama administration career

In April 2017, Power was named to a joint faculty appointment at Harvard Law School (HLS) and Harvard Kennedy School. At the Kennedy School, she is affiliated with both the Carr Center and the Belfer Center, where she serves as senior member, board member, and director of the new International Peace and Security Project. She is currently co-teaching a Harvard class with her husband, Cass Sunstein, called "Making Change When Change is Hard."

In addition, Power holds the following positions:
 Aurora Prize, Member of the Selection Committee
 International Refugee Assistance Project (IRAP), Member of the Board of Directors
 Let America Vote, Member of the Board of Advisors

In October 2018, in response to the Saudi Arabia's explanation about the death of dissident journalist Jamal Khashoggi, Power tweeted that "Shifting from bald-face lies ("#Khashoggi left consulate") to faux condemnation (of a "rogue operation") to claiming the fox will credibly investigate what he did to the hen ... will convince nobody."

Biden administration

In January 2021, President-elect Joe Biden nominated Power to head the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). She was confirmed to the position on April 28 by a vote of 68–26, and sworn in by Vice President Kamala Harris on May 3. Power has assumed leadership of USAID amidst its efforts to disburse massive amounts of foreign aid during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Between 19 and 20 September 2023, Azerbaijan launched a large-scale military offensive against the self-declared breakaway state of Artsakh, a move seen as a violation of the 2020 ceasefire agreement. Power called on Azerbaijan "to maintain the ceasefire and take concrete steps to protect the rights of civilians in Nagorno-Karabakh".

Personal life

On July 4, 2008, Power married law professor Cass Sunstein, whom she met while working on the Obama campaign. They were married in the Church of Mary Immaculate, Lohar, Waterville, County Kerry, in Ireland. On April 24, 2009, she gave birth to their first child, a son. On June 1, 2012, she gave birth to their second child, a daughter.

Further reading

 Barnett, Michael (2020). "A Problem from Washington: Samantha Power Enters the Foreign Policy Bureaucracy". Ethics & International Affairs. 34 (2): 241–254.

Selected bibliography

Books

 "A Problem from Hell": America in the age of Genocide. Basic Books, 2002.
 Chasing the Flame: Sergio Vieira de Mello and the Fight to Save the World. Penguin Books, 2008.
 The Unquiet American: Richard Holbrook in the World (co-edited with Derek Chollet, 2011). PublicAffairs, 2011
 The Education of an Idealist: A Memoir. Dey Street Books, 2019.

References

External links

 Speaking truth to power by Patrick Porter
 'Powered' Out: Samantha Power Misunderstood Her Role by David Rieff
 The Road to Hell by Samuel Moyn
 Idealism in service of Empire by Azad Essa

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1970 births
21st-century American non-fiction writers
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Benjamin Drake Wright (January 23, 1799 – April 28, 1874) was a Florida lawyer, journalist, and Whig politician who served in Territorial Legislature, the State Senate, and as a Florida Supreme Court justice in 1853, succeeding Walker Anderson. He was born in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania on January 23, 1799, the son of William and Sarah Ann Wright. He married Josephine De La Rua on February 23, 1826. He owned the Pensacola Gazette from 1834 to 1839 and  edited the paper till 1846. He opposed secession and refused to swear allegiance to the Confederacy. He died on April 28, 1874.

Wright was admitted to the Luzerne County, Pennsylvania bar on April 7, 1820. When he was twenty-four, he moved to the Pensacola area. He became friends with and went to work for Richard K. Call, a protégé of Andrew Jackson. In April 1824 he was appointed to the Florida Territorial Council. In May, the president appointed him United States Attorney for Middle Florida, and then for West Florida in  February 1826.

His political career encountered difficulties after he accused Judge Henry Marie Brackenridge of malfeasance in November 1827. The judge retaliated by seeking Wright's replacement through a letter writing campaign and his political connections. As a result, another man was appointed in his place when his term expired in 1830. He represented Escambia County in the territorial council from 1831 to 1833 and again in 1837. He served as a member of the 1838 constitutional convention till January 5, 1839. That year, he became a member of the Territorial Senate.

He left office to work behind the scenes politically. He served in the Florida Senate in 1845, and again returned to his law practice. In 1850 he became an Alabama and Florida Railroad commissioner. The governor appointed him to the Supreme Court in 1853 to replace Walker Anderson. He was replaced in turn when the voters elected Thomas Baltzell, the first Florida Justice chosen by popular election.

He again returned to his Pensacola business interests and law practice. He became president of the Alabama and Florida Railroad in 1856. He served on the 1865 constitutional convention, but never again served as an elected official. He died on April 28, 1874.

References
 THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF FLORIDA, 1856. Online. May 14, 2008.
Manley, Walter W., Brown, E. Canter. and Rise, Eric W. The Supreme Court of Florida and Its Predecessor Courts, 1821–1917. pp 148 – 153. University Press of Florida. Gainesville, Florida. 1997.  eBook . . at Netlbrary. Online. April 23, 2008.
Pearce, George F. Pensacola During the Civil War: A Thorn in the Side of the Confederacy. pg. 170. University Press of Florida. Pensacola. 2000.
Thursby, Mary Agnes. SUCCESSION OF JUSTICES OF SUPREME COURT OF FLORIDA Online. May 14, 2008.

1799 births
1874 deaths
Mayors of Pensacola, Florida
Justices of the Florida Supreme Court
Florida Whigs
Florida lawyers
American male journalists
Politicians from Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania
People from Escambia County, Florida
Florida state senators
Members of the Florida Territorial Legislature
19th-century American politicians
Journalists from Pennsylvania
Writers from Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania
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19th-century American lawyers

Benjamin D. Wright


A translator works with different languages. They may read something written in one language and speak it or write it in another language or vice versa. For example, they might read a book in French and then translate it into English. See translation for more information.

In order to convert meanings from one language into another one, translators must be able to know the target language deeply. They are conveying the original meaning of the source text or material to a second language. As a result, translators do not only convert words, which makes it more like an art than a science.

Translators also work to convert speech as well as writing. The United Nations debates are translated as they are spoken, one individual translator for every individual language if it is the General Assembly.

One advantage of professional translation is that it reduces the problems of understanding what is said. On the other hand, there is often a loss of nuance (subtlety) in a translations, especially one done immediately the text is spoken. For this reason, many translators do a rough version immediately, and then work it over later on.

Translation

Translator


The Ventôse Decrees were decrees proposed on February 26 and March 3, 1794 (8 and 13 Ventôse, An II in the French Republican Calendar) by the French revolutionary leader Louis de Saint-Just.  Saint-Just proposed to confiscate the property of exiles and opponents of the Revolution, and redistribute it to the needy.  Saint-Just and other radicals argued that the enemies of the revolution had forfeited their civil rights, including the right to own property.

Robespierre supported the Decrees in theory, but realized that he lacked the support to implement them, and efforts to enforce the Decrees ended within a few months.

External links
 David Andress, The Terror:The Merciless War for Freedom in Revolutionary France (2005), p. 302, Google Books excerpt
 Miguel A. Faria, "Bastille Day and the French Revolution" (2004)
 Asta Maskaliunaite, "Social ideas of Louis Antoine Saint Just", Sociumas magazine (1998)
 Encyclopædia Britannica entry (subscription required for full entry)

1794 events of the French Revolution
Decrees

Ventôse Decrees


Chroniosuchus (greek for "ancient crocodile"; chronos meaning "time" and suchus meaning "crocodile") is an extinct genus of chroniosuchid from the upper Permian period. The genus was first named by Vjuschkov in 1957.

Chroniosuchus is known for its distinctive body armor of large bony plates, known as scutes, that covered its back and sides. These scutes varied among species providing clues of their evolution and classification among the chroniosuchidae family.

History and discovery
The first chroniosuchian remains were found in the early 20th century along the Malaya Severnaya Dvina River of the Russian pre-Urals and were mistakenly ascribed to Kotlassia prima by Hartmann-Weinberg (1935) and was noted to have similar anatomy based on dermal armour by Olson. However, studies by Vyushkov in the 1950s marked the recognition of chroniosuchians as their own group. Golubev revised the taxonomy of Permian chroniosuchians, recognizing the distinctive features of Chroniosuchidae and Bystrowianidae. The two major subtaxa were defined mainly on their distinct osteoderm morphologies. Golubev assigned fossils previously referred to Jugosuchus to Chroniosuchus or Chroniosaurus, creating a new genus, Jarilinus, to accommodate an intermediate species. Golubev suggested that the chroniosuchids formed a phylogenetic lineage with several successive species, and defined four biostratigraphic subzones for the Russian Late Permian.

Though multiple species have been named and debated in the genus Chroniosuchus, based on Golubev's revision, currently two Chroniosuchus species are considered valid which are C. paradoxus, discovered during the 1940s or 1950s and named by B.P. Vjuschkov in 1957, and C. licharevi named by Anatoly Riabinin in 1962.

Classification

Below is the cladogram from Buchwitz et al. (2012) showing the phylogenetic relations of chroniosuchids:

Description
Chroniosuchids are very uniform morphologically. Variation in dermal scutes is the main factor of differentiating between the species.

Dorsal armour
The dorsal osteoderms or armored scutes, are rectangular in shape with a semicircular anterior. The scutes have articulations and locks between them, and their terminology and minutiae are described by V.K. Golubev. The articulations with neighboring scutes are located on the ventral side, and the dorsal surface is strongly sculptured while the ventral surface of wings is smooth and contains many small openings. "The scutes have very wide wings and cover practically the whole upper part of the trunk. The tail scutes are narrower, the last of which lack wings. A long smooth strip extends about a third of the whole wing length along the posterior dorsal edge and represents the overlap area for the next wing of the scute." Chroniosuchus is noted to have pitted scutes by Golubev.

Skull
The skull was highly specialized and is characterized by a triangular shape with a short snout and large orbits. The skull had numerous fenestrae, or openings, which made it lightweight and allowed for better muscle attachment points. The lower jaw was also highly specialized and had two pairs of tusks that extended from the lower jaw. The teeth were small and pointed anteroventrally, and the palate was highly ornamented with numerous ridges and pits. It is thought that the Chroniosuchus was about 1.5m in length, and Golubev describes C. paradoxus as "small-sized".

Paleobiology
Chroniosuchians were most likely semi-terrestrial predators. The most notable feature of Chroniosuchus is its heavily armored body, which was covered with bony plates called osteoderms. These osteoderms most likely provided protection against predators and may have also helped regulate body temperature.

Chroniosuchians had a broad, flat skull and a wide, powerful jaw, which suggests that it was a predator that fed on small animals, such as insects and other amphibians. It had a short, stocky body and powerful limbs, which would have allowed it to move quickly over short distances.

Paleoecology
Based on its anatomy and the paleoenvironmental context of its fossils, it is believed that Chroniosuchus lived primarily on land. Chroniosuchus most likely spent some time in freshwater environments, but its heavily armored body and robust limbs suggest that it was better adapted for terrestrial life. In addition, the location of Chroniosuchus fossils in terrestrial deposits supports the idea that it primarily lived on land. It is likely that Chroniosuchus spent most of its time near the edges of rivers or other bodies of water, where it could find prey and water when necessary.

References

Chroniosuchians
Permian tetrapods
Permian animals of Europe
Permian temnospondyls
Crocodyliforms

Chroniosuchus


Erik Bethke is a computer games developer.

Bethke worked on UV Spectrometer experiments under Dr. D.E. Shemanksy at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the University of Southern California, but did not complete his PhD studies in Space Sciences.

He began a career in the games industry working on GoPets, GoDance, Star Trek: Starfleet Command, Star Trek: Starfleet Command II: Empires at War and Star Trek: Starfleet Command: Orion Pirates.

His first book, Game Development and Production, describing the methodology of creating games; was edited by Ray Muzyka and Greg Zeschuk, Co-CEOs of BioWare. A subsequent book, Settlers of the New Virtual Worlds, co-edited with Erin Hoffman, explored human and property rights in  virtual worlds, and highlighted current End User License Agreements (EULAs).

In 2003 Bethke moved to Seoul, Korea and founded GoPets, Ltd. which was acquired by social gaming company Zynga.  Bethke worked at Zynga from 2009 to 2012 as the General Manager of Mafia Wars 2..

In September 2012, Bethke co-founded Bee Cave Games with Nimai Malle and Jeremy Strauser - a social and mobile game developer focused on the casino sector and makers of Blackjack Casino.

Bibliography
 Bethke, Erik. Game Development and Production. Wordware game developer's library. Plano, Tex: Wordware Pub, 2003.

References

External links
 Erik Bethke and The World of GoPets

American video game designers
University of Southern California alumni
1972 births
Living people

Erik Bethke


The Lanchester 10, or Lanchester Ten, is a model of car that was produced by the Lanchester Motor Company intermittently from 1900 until 1951. It was the first production car offered for sale by the company.

Name origins
The name referred to the car's fiscal horsepower, which was a function of the cylinder diameter.  Fiscal horsepower was used in the UK, as in other European countries, by government to determine how much tax they would levy on the cars' owners.  It was differently defined in each country: the common feature was that there was no arithmetical correlation between tax horsepower and actual horsepower.

Fiscal horsepower categories were used to name cars in many parts of Europe until well into the 1950s, and they effectively defined the class within which the car competed.  Thus a Lanchester Ten from the 1950s was approximately the same size as the Ford Model C Ten, the Morris Ten, the Standard Ten and a plethora of cars from other manufacturers carrying the "Ten" name during the same period.

Lanchester 10 (1900–1904)

The original Lanchester 10 was introduced in 1900, and was designed by Frederick Lanchester, the eldest of the three Lanchester brothers, while the third brother, George, took responsibility for designing the production processes.

References

External links

10
Cars introduced in 1900
1900s cars

Lanchester 10


Caroline Herschel (16 March 1750 – 9 January 1848) was a German astronomer who spent most of her life in England. She was the first female astronomer that we know of.

She was the first woman to receive a salary as a scientist. She was the first woman in England to hold a government position. She was the first woman to be awarded a Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1828), and to be named an Honorary Member of the Royal Astronomical Society (1835, with Mary Somerville). She was also named an honorary member of the Royal Irish Academy (1838). The King of Prussia presented her with a Gold Medal for Science on the occasion of her 96th birthday (1846).

Early life and childhood

Caroline was born on March 16, 1750 in Hanover, Germany. She was encouraged by her father to get an education. She learnt geometry on her own. She had a hard life because people that she loved died. After her father's death, her brother William Herschel suggested she join him in England. She left Hanover for England on August 16, 1772, with her brother.

In England, Caroline's neighbor taught her how to cook, market, and to speak English. This expanded her horizons. William encouraged her to be independent. She signed up to learn how to sing and to play the harpsichord. This led her to being a part of William's musical shows in small gatherings. She and William discussed astronomy in their free time. This caused her interest to grow. Caroline began including English society in her everyday life. She eventually decided to devote her time to astronomy. This helped William: he needed Caroline's talents in copying papers.

Astronomy
When they were in England, Caroline helped her brother in his scientific work. She helped him to discover Uranus with a six-foot telescope. William was credited with the discovery of Uranus. He was knighted because of his discovery, and she was his assistant. She recorded and completed tasks for him. Her calculations and record keeping were always accurate. They saved her brother a lot of time. Caroline often worked on discoveries of her own. She independently discovered the second companion of the Andromeda Galaxy (Messier 110; NGC 205) and another, new, nebula.  She also discovered eight comets in 17861795.

She reworked Flamsteed's  Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars. The result was published by the Royal Society in 1798 and contained an index of every observation of every star made by Flamsteed, a list of errata, and a list of more than 560 stars that had not been included. In 1825, Caroline donated the works of Flamsteed to the Royal Academy of Göttingen.

She was the first woman to discover a comet. She discovered seven more comets between 1789 and 1797. The comet 35P/Herschel-Rigollet is named in her honor, as well as the lunar crater C. Herschel, and the planetoid (281) Lucretia. She also is famous for her work with her brother. She aided him in his studies. She reorganized John Flamsteed's British Catalogue, which listed nearly 3,000 stars.

Herschel's brother died in 1822 and left her without his financial support. She returned to Hanover after his death and received her stipend from the British Royal Family. She also helped her brother's son finish his father's work.

Awards

Caroline Herschel was awarded a gold medal for her works in science from the Royal Astronomical Society in 1828. She was made an honorary member at the Royal Astronomical Society ten years later. Herschel also received a similar award from the Royal Irish Academy. She was awarded the gold medal for science by the King of Prussia on her ninety-sixth birthday.

Legacy
Toward the end of Caroline's life, she arranged two-and-a-half thousand nebulae and star clusters into zones of similar polar distances. Her nephew, John Herschel,  re-examined them systematically.  The list was eventually enlarged and renamed the New General Catalogue.  Many non-stellar objects are still identified by their NGC number.

Herschel died on January 9, 1848 in Germany. She died at the age of 97. Herschel was never married.

An asteroid was discovered in 1888. It was called Lucretia, Herschel's middle name. Herschel continued to have a legacy after her death because she discovered several comets.

References

1750 births
1848 deaths
German astronomers
People from Hanover

Caroline Herschel


The MAC mle 1931 machine gun (official French designation Mitrailleuse modèle 1931 - machine gun, model of 1931), was a machine gun used in French tanks of the World War II era, as well as in fortifications such as the Maginot line. It is also sometimes known as the JM Reibel, from Jumelage de mitrailleuses, or Reibel twin-mounted guns and really refers to the specialized twin-mounting frame used in JM cloche cupolas on the Maginot Line fortifications, while MAC mle 1931 refers specifically to the gun. The JM twin-mounts were the standard emplacement for the mle 1931 in fixed fortifications, while tanks and other AFVs received single guns.

Overview

The Reibel machine gun is a gas operated weapon chambered in the 7.5 mm MAS cartridge and was loaded with vertical, side-mounted, 150-round pan magazines. The variant used in fortifications was modified with a different rifling to accommodate the balle D heavy ball type of ammunition.

Some other guns in French service during the late 1940s were converted to ground role, with adoption of the side-mounted 35-round box magazines and adapters for US M2 tripods.

The modele 1931 machine gun is a gas operated weapon which fires from open bolt and in full automatic only. It is derived from the French FM 24/29 Fusil-Mitrailleur (light machine gun) also designed by Lt Colonel Reibel, and based on the Browning Automatic Rifle. The FM 24/29 was developed into a heavier machine gun capable of relatively sustained fire, by giving it an extremely thick and massive barrel, to act as a heat sink. This was necessary, since the FM 24/29 lacked a quick-change barrel or water-cooling and its normal light barrel would rapidly overheat and wear out, if fired in more than short bursts, with cooling rests between. The long stroke gas piston is located below the barrel and operates the vertically tilting bolt group. Ammunition is fed from side-mounted multi-layer 150-round pan magazines (with bullets pointing to the center of the round magazine). The gun can be modified to take magazines on either the left or right side, to ease magazine changes while mounted in the standard side-by-side JM twin-mount. Ejection is straight down, through the short chute attached to the base of the receiver, which in fortifications, usually led into a longer tube or chute that directed the spent cases into the ditches outside. The gun was fitted with a forward-curved pistol grip to aid control and a standard rifle-style trigger. When mounted in fortifications, the twin-mount included an adjustable twin-shoulder stock, a tubular metal bar that extended from the rear of the mounting frame, which mounted a horizontal crossbar, with shoulder pads on each end. The operator would face the breeches of the guns and place these pads against his shoulders. He would then use his body to control traverse, while his hands would grip the pistols grips to fire one or both guns. Elevation was controlled by a brass crank underneath the weapon. Twin mountings came in T and F configurations; F types used standard triggers and stocks and were used for embrasure mounts in casemates and cupolas, while the T featured a trigger operated by Bowden cable and was intended for remote use in retractable turrets.

The standard for a mle 1931 in fixed emplacements was a JM Reibel twin-mount, complete with telescopic sight, azimuth and level indicators, elevation screw and spent case ejection chutes. It was manned by a crew of eight, including two gunners, two loaders, two assistant loaders (to fetch ammunition and reload pan magazines with a table-mounted reloading machine that took standard 5-round stripper clips), a mechanic to repair any faults or jams, and a commander to direct or coordinate fire. The purpose of pairing the guns was to allow for sustained and rapid fire. During normal use, the two guns would be fired in turn, allowing the other gun time to cool down. When called for, both guns could be fired together, increasing instantaneous rate of fire. Charts were posted on the walls in each emplacement, outlining standard operating technique:
 normal fire was 150 rounds (one magazine) per minute, alternating between guns. Each gun would be fired for one minute, in bursts, until the  magazine was empty. Then, the gunner would stop, and fire the second gun for a minute while the first gun cooled and was reloaded. Then the first gun could be used again. This rate of fire could be sustained for 3 minutes per gun, before the accumulated heat built to a dangerous level.
 Accelerated rate was 450 rounds per minute (3 magazines) per gun and was achieved in the same way as normal fire; the gunner would fire off three magazines within a minute and then stop before his barrel overheated, and then repeat with the second. Due to the higher rate of fire, accelerated fire was limited to a maximum of two minutes per gun, since the guns would be so heated after firing 6 magazines each, they would be ready to overheat, even with a minute to cool down after the first 3 magazines.
 Rapid fire; In cases of emergency, such as enemy crossing the barbed wire, the gunners were authorized to rapid-fire bursts of 75 rounds per gun, either in turn or simultaneously, allowing a full magazines worth to be fired in much less than a minute. Such a rapid rate would very quickly overheat the barrel if not limited to only 75 rounds. To help cool the guns down faster, buckets of water and water sprayers were kept next to each JM emplacement. Barrels were cooled either by spraying them with water (evaporative) or by removing the gun from the mount and dipping the barrel into the water bucket. Up to 20 liters of water could be used per day per emplacement just to cool the barrels.
The JM mount consisted of a thick, metal, square frame, sized to fit into a standard French fortification embrasure (opening); the guns were mounted on an equally heavy-duty pivoting cradle inside this frame. The square frame fit snugly into the embrasure and was attached by hinges and bolts. This ensured that there were no gaps where enemy bullets could enter into the bunker (except the very small opening that the telescopic sight peeped through), yet allowed the guns to be aimed and trained on anyone outside the walls. Emplacements were often shared with an anti-tank gun sharing the same embrasure opening; the JM mount would be hinged back, and the anti-tank gun slid forward on its ceiling-mounted rail, until its barrel was outside and breech inside. It was surrounded by a similar square frame, which fit tightly into the embrasure. The only time the occupants of the bunker were exposed to enemy fire, was in the brief moments when switching the machine gun mounting for an artillery mount.

Users

 , used on the Hotchkiss H35 light tank.
 , used dismounted by governmental Armée Nationale Tchadienne during Chadian Civil War (1965–79).
 , used on the Renault UE Chenillette.
 , used on the Hotchkiss H35 light tank.
 , used on armoured vehicles, such as AMR 33, Renault FT or Panhard EBR and on fortifications. During the Indochina War, M1931As were used on vehicles or dismounted on tripods.
 , captured examples. The MAC-1931 model served as Kpfw MG 331(f).
 , used on the Hotchkiss H35 light tank.
 , used on the Hotchkiss H35 light tank.
 , used on Renault R35 light tank.
 , used on Renault R35 light tank.
 , used on Renault R35 light tank.
 , used on Renault R35 light tank.
 , used on Renault R35 light tank.
 , used on Renault R35 light tank.
 , used on Renault R35 light tank.

Non state groups
 Chetniks, used on the Hotchkiss H35 light tank.
 Yugoslav Partisans, used on the Hotchkiss H35 light tank.
 Viet Minh, used dismounted.
 Viet Cong

See also
 FM-24/29, the BAR-based box-magazine fed LMG that the mle 1931 was based on
 MAC 1934, a faster-firing, belt-fed derivative of the mle 1931 used aboard aircraft

References

 Ferrard, Stéphane. France 1940 l'armement terrestre, ETAI, 1998,

Medium machine guns
Machine guns of France
World War II weapons of France
World War II machine guns
7.5×54mm French firearms
Military equipment introduced in the 1930s

Reibel machine gun


Éric Degbegni, better known as Éric Blanc (born October 13, 1965 in Cotonou, Benin), is a French Impressionist and comedian.

His father was a professional magistrate and his mother was a pediatric nurse. He lived in Cotonou until 1975,  when his family move to Paris in exile after Général Kérékou's coup d'état. He discontinued his law courses for the stage. In 1986 he began his career with an engagement at the Caveau de la République, a venue for new humorists in Paris, performing imitations of President  Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, the TV host Frédéric Mitterrand, and the French tennis player Yannick Noah. He has played on different TV shows as la Classe on  France 3.

He has performed one-man shows in the Bataclan and the Bobino theatres in Paris.

Filmography
 L'œil au beur(re) noir (1987)
 Black mic-mac 2  (1988)
 À gauche en sortant de l'ascenseur (1988)
 L'Invité surprise (1989)
 Thank You Satan  (1989)
 L'un contre l'autre (1995)
 Que la lumière soit (1997)
 Retour à la vie (2000)

References

External links

French stand-up comedians
French people of Beninese descent
1965 births
Living people
People from Cotonou
French impressionists (entertainers)

Éric Blanc


The Eurasian nomads were groups of nomadic peoples living throughout the Eurasian Steppe, who are largely known from frontier historical sources from Europe and Asia.

A nomad is a member of people having no permanent abode, who travel from place to place to find fresh pasture for their livestock. The generic title encompasses the varied ethnic groups who have at times inhabited the steppes of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Mongolia, Russia, and Ukraine. They domesticated the horse around 3500 BCE, vastly increasing the possibilities of nomadic life and subsequently their economy and culture emphasised horse breeding, horse riding, and nomadic pastoralism; this usually involved trading with settled peoples around the steppe edges. They developed the chariot, wagon, cavalry, and horse archery and introduced innovations such as the bridle, bit, stirrup, and saddle and the very rapid rate at which innovations crossed the steppelands spread these widely, to be copied by settled peoples bordering the steppes. During the Iron Age, Scythian cultures emerged among the Eurasian nomads, which was characterized by a distinct Scythian art.

History

Scythia was a loose state or federation covering most of the steppe, that originated as early as the 8th century BCE, composed mainly of people speaking Scythian languages and usually regarded as the first of the nomad empires. The Scythians were Iranic pastorialist tribes who dwelled the Eurasian Steppes from the Tarim Basin and Western Mongolia in Asia to as far as Sarmatia in modern day Ukraine and Russia. The Roman army hired Sarmatians as elite cavalrymen. Europe was exposed to several waves of invasions by horse people, including the Cimmerians. The Scythians and Sarmatians enjoyed a long age of dominion in the 1st Millennium BCE, but at the start of 1st Millennium CE they were displaced by waves of immigrations of other people, to the East, in the steppes east of the Caspian Sea. They were dislocated by the Yuezhi people and were forced to assimilate into them, and many of these Eastern Scythians (Saka) moved and settled in the Parthian Empire in the region later named as Sakastan.

The western Iranians, the Alans and Sarmatians, settled down and became the ruling elite of several eastern Slavic tribes
and some of these Iranians also assimilated into the Slavic cultures, while others retained their Iranian identity, and their languages are spoken today by the modern Ossetian people. Various peoples also expanded and contracted later in history, including the Magyars in the Early Middle Ages, the Mongols and Seljuks in the High Middle Ages, the Kalmuks and the Kyrgyz and later the Kazakhs up to modern times. The earliest example of an invasion by a horse people may have been by the Proto-Indo-Europeans themselves, following the domestication of the horse in the 4th millennium BCE (see Kurgan hypothesis). The Cimmerians were the earliest invading equestrian steppe nomads that are known in Eastern European sources. Their military strength was always based on cavalry, and they were among the first to have developed true cavalry.

Historically, areas to the north of China including Manchuria, Mongolia and Xinjiang were inhabited by nomadic tribes. Early periods in Chinese history involved conflict with the nomadic peoples to the west of the Wei valley. Texts from the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050–256 BCE) compare the Rong, Di and Qin dynasty to wolves, describing them as cruel and greedy. Iron and bronze were supplied from China. An early theory proposed by Owen Lattimore suggesting that the nomadic tribes could have been self-sufficient was criticized by later scholars, who questioned whether their raids may have been motivated by necessity rather than greed. Subsequent studies noted that nomadic demand for grain, textiles and ironware exceeded China's demand for Steppe goods. Anatoly Khazanov identified this imbalance in production as the cause of instability in the Steppe nomadic cultures. Later scholars argued that peace along China's northern border largely depended on whether the nomads could obtain the essential grains and textiles they needed through peaceful means such as trade or intermarriage. Several tribes organized to form the Xiongnu, a tribal confederation that gave the nomadic tribes the upper hand in their dealings with the settled agricultural Chinese people.

During the Tang dynasty, Turks would cross the Yellow River when it was frozen to raid China. Contemporary Tang sources noted the superiority of Turkic horses. Emperor Taizong wrote that the horses were "exceptionally superior to ordinary [horses]". The Xiajiasi (Kyrgyz) were a tributary tribe who controlled an area abundant in resources like gold, tin and iron. The Turks used the iron tribute paid by the Kyrgyz to make weapons, armor and saddle parts. Turks were nomadic hunters and would sometimes conceal military activities under the pretense of hunting. Their raids into China were organized by a khagan and success in these campaigns had a significant influence on a tribal leader's prestige. In the 6th century the Göktürk Khaganate consolidated their dominance over the northern steppe region through a series of military victories against the Shiwei, Khitan, Rouran, Tuyuhun, Karakhoja and Yada. By the end of the 6th century, following the Göktürk civil war, the short-lived empire had split into the Eastern and Western Turkic Khaganates, before it was conquered by the Tang in 630 and 657, respectively.

Nomadism persists in the steppe lands, though it has generally been disapproved of by modern regimes, who have often discouraged it with varying degrees of coercion.

Culture
Social networks were a crucially important part of nomadic life on the Eurasian steppe. Although Eurasian nomads usually considered themselves the descendants of a single ancestor, they also welcomed outsiders to join their tribe. One could do this by becoming a "sworn brother" of a powerful tribal figure, or by forsaking one's own lineage, and becoming a noker.

Alliances could also be established through intermarriage. Eurasian steppe nomads practiced exogamy, by marrying off women from their tribe to outside groups. It was also common for nomadic men to marry foreign princesses. These marriages were an important part of the empire-building process.

Eurasian steppe nomads shared common Earth-rooted cosmological beliefs based on the themes of sky worship. Ancient Turkic origin myths often reference caves or mines as a source of their ancestors, which reflects the importance of iron making among their ancestors.

Ageism was a feature of ancient Eurasian nomad culture. Steppe societies placed a premium on the value of young males, as shown by their harsh treatment of older people. The Alans held their elderly in low regard, and the Saka customarily executed people once they were too old to work. The Xiongnu often witheld food from older people during times of need or conflict. Hsu argues that these phenomena can best be explained by the war-like nature of steppe society.

Among the Scythians, a third gender existed, known as the Enaree. The Enaree were described by a Greek historian as males with feminine characteristics, who wore female clothing and adopted women's mannerisms. These transgendered individuals belonged to the most highly esteemed elements of Scythian society, and were believed to have had excellent shamanistic abilities. The transgender features of the Enaree may have arisen accidentally through excessive horseback riding, or they may have consumed fermented mare urine, which could have altered their hormonal profiles and facilitated the transition to a feminine gender. The Scythians may have adopted this gender tradition from other Central Asian steppe or Siberian societies. Similar transgender phenomena have also been documented among Turkic peoples in Central Asia, as well as in other nomads from Siberia.

There is striking uniformity in the material cultures of Eurasian nomads.

Chronological division

Chronologically, there have been several "waves" of invasions of either Europe, the Near East, India and China from the steppe.

Bronze Age
Proto-Indo-Europeans (see Indo-European migrations), Kurgan theory and the later Indo-Aryan migration

Iron AgeClassical Antiquity
Iranian peoples;

Late Antiquity and Migration period

Early Middle Ages
Turkic expansion, Magyar invasion;

High Middle Ages to Early Modern period
Mongol Empire and continued Turkic expansion;

See also
Eurasiatic languages
Inner Asia
Nomadic empire
Steppe Route
Lev Gumilyov

By region

 Nomadic peoples of Europe
 Nomads of India
 Uralic languages
 Mongolic languages
 Turkic languages

References

Bibliography
 Amitai, Reuven; Biran, Michal (editors). Mongols, Turks, and others: Eurasian nomads and the sedentary world (Brill's Inner Asian Library, 11). Leiden: Brill, 2005 ().
 Drews, Robert. Early riders: The beginnings of mounted warfare in Asia and Europe. N.Y.: Routledge, 2004 ().
 Golden, Peter B. Nomads and their neighbours in the Russian Steppe: Turks, Khazars and Qipchaqs (Variorum Collected Studies). Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003 ().
 Hildinger, Erik. Warriors of the steppe: A military history of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1700. New York: Sarpedon Publishers, 1997 (hardcover, ); Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2001(paperback, ).
Kradin, Nikolay. 2004. Nomadic Empires in Evolutionary Perspective. In Alternatives of Social Evolution. Ed. by N.N. Kradin, A.V. Korotayev, Dmitri Bondarenko, V. de Munck, and P.K. Wason (p. 274–288). Vladivostok: Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences; reprinted in: The Early State, Its Alternatives and Analogues. Ed. by Leonid Grinin et al. (р. 501–524). Volgograd: Uchitel'.
 Kradin, Nikolay N. 2002. Nomadism, Evolution, and World-Systems: Pastoral Societies in Theories of Historical Development. Journal of World-System Research 8: 368–388.
 *Kradin, Nikolay. 2003. Nomadic Empires: Origins, Rise, Decline. In Nomadic Pathways in Social Evolution. Ed. by N.N. Kradin, Dmitri Bondarenko, and T. Barfield (p. 73–87). Moscow: Center for Civilizational Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences.
 *Kradin, Nikolay. 2006. Cultural Complexity of Pastoral Nomads. World Cultures 15: 171–189.
 Kradin, Nikolay. Nomads of Inner Asia in Transition. Moscow: URSS, 2014 ().
 Littauer, Mary A.; Crouwel, Joost H.; Raulwing, Peter (Editor). Selected writings on chariots and other early vehicles, riding, and harness (Culture and history of the ancient Near East, 6). Leiden: Brill, 2002 ().
 Shippey, Thomas "Tom" A. Goths and Huns: The rediscovery of Northern culture in the nineteenth century, in The Medieval legacy: A symposium. Odense: University Press of Southern Denmark, 1981 (), pp. 51–69.

External links

 Nomadic Art of the Eastern Eurasian Steppes, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Eurasian nomads
 Center for the Study of Eurasian Nomads

Nomads
Central Asian people
Nomadic groups in Eurasia
Nomads
Pastoralists

Eurasian nomads


Murchad mac Flann mac Glethneachan () was King of Maigh Seóla.

Biography

All that is known of Murchad is contained in an entry in the Annals of the Four Masters, sub anno 973, the year Murchadh Glunillar ua Flaithbheartach, King of Aileach, invaded Connacht and gave battle to King Cathal mac Tadg at Ceis Corran. Cathal was killed as were some of his prime vassals - "Geibheannach, son of Aedh, lord of Ui-Maine; Tadhg, son of Muircheartach, chief of Ui-Diarmada; Murchadh, son of Flann, son of Glethneachan, chief of Clann-Murchadha; and Seirridh Ua Flaithbheartaigh, with a countless number along with them."

Murchadh totally plundered Connaught afterwards, while Cathal was succeeded as King of Connacht by Cathal mac Conchobar mac Taidg.

See also

 Cathal mac Tadg, King of Connacht
 Geibennach mac Aedha, King of Uí Maine

References

 West or H-Iar Connaught Ruaidhrí Ó Flaithbheartaigh, 1684 (published 1846, ed. James Hardiman).
 Origin of the Surname O'Flaherty, Anthony Matthews, Dublin, 1968, p. 40.
 Irish Kings and High-Kings, Francis John Byrne (2001), Dublin: Four Courts Press,
 Annals of Ulster at CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts at University College Cork
 Byrne, Francis John (2001), Irish Kings and High-Kings, Dublin: Four Courts Press,

People from County Galway
10th-century Irish monarchs

Murchad mac Flann mac Glethneachan


Re Sarflax Ltd [1979] Ch 592; [1979] 1 All E.R. 529 is a UK insolvency law case concerning voidable preferences and fraudulent trading, now in the Insolvency Act 1986. It concerns the definition of "intention to defraud", which is found in a number of legal provisions.

Facts

Sarflax Ltd was in liquidation. It incurred another debt after a judgment that it had delivered unsatisfactory goods. The liquidator moved for a declaration that the delivery of these unsatisfactory goods was evidence of fraudulent trading. It also argued Sarflax had preferred other creditors over the , knowing it was unable to pay its debts in full.

Judgment
Oliver J held that "intention to defraud" in the voidable preference section (now Insolvency Act 1986, section 239) did not cover a case where a debtor merely knew or had grounds to think he had no sufficient funds to pay creditors in full.

See also
R v. Grantham [1984] QB 675
Re Augustus Barnett & Son Ltd [1986] BCLC 170
Re a Company (No 001418 of 1988) [1990] BCC 526

References
Gary Scanlan (2003) Company Lawyer 234

United Kingdom insolvency case law
High Court of Justice cases
1979 in United Kingdom case law

Re Sarflax Ltd