The National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) was formed on May 15, 1869, to work for women's suffrage in the United States.  Its main leaders were Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton.  It was created after the women's rights movement split over the proposed Fifteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution, which would in effect extend voting rights to black men. One wing of the movement supported the amendment while the other, the wing that formed the NWSA, opposed it, insisting that voting rights be extended to all women and all African Americans at the same time.

The NWSA worked primarily at the federal level in its campaign for women's right to vote.  In the early 1870s, it encouraged women to attempt to vote and to file lawsuits if prevented, arguing that the constitution implicitly enfranchised women through its guarantees of equal protection for all citizens.  Many women attempted to vote, notably Susan B. Anthony, who was arrested and found guilty in a widely publicized trial.  After the Supreme Court ruled that the constitution did not implicitly enfranchise women, the NWSA worked for an amendment that would do so explicitly.

The NWSA and its leaders also worked on related projects, such as a history of the women's suffrage movement and the establishment of the International Council of Women, which is still active.  The split in the suffrage movement was healed in 1890, when the NWSA merged with its rival, the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association under the leadership of Anthony and Stanton.

Background

Women's suffrage in the U.S. emerged as a significant issue in the mid-1800s.  A key event was the first women's rights convention, the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848, which was initiated by Elizabeth Cady Stanton.  Women's right to vote was endorsed at the convention only after a vigorous debate about an idea that was controversial even within the women's movement.  Soon after the convention, however, it became a central tenet of the movement.

In 1851, Stanton and Susan B. Anthony formed a decades-long partnership that became important to the women's rights movement and to the future National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA).  For the next several years, they worked together for the abolition of slavery and for women's rights.

In 1866, Anthony and Stanton organized the Eleventh National Women's Rights Convention, the first since the Civil War began.
The convention voted to transform itself into the American Equal Rights Association (AERA), whose purpose was to campaign for the equal rights of all citizens, especially the right of suffrage. Its members consisted mainly of activists in the women's rights and abolitionist movements, and its leadership included such prominent activists as Lucretia Mott, Lucy Stone and Frederick Douglass.

Over time, the AERA members whose primary interest was women's suffrage began to divide into two wings.  One wing, whose leading figure was Lucy Stone, was willing for black men to achieve suffrage first, as the abolitionist movement insisted, and wanted to maintain close ties with the Republican Party. The other, whose leading figures were Stanton and Anthony, wanted women and black men be enfranchised at the same time and worked toward a politically independent women's movement that would no longer be dependent on abolitionists for financial and other resources.  In 1868, Anthony and Stanton began publishing The Revolution, a weekly women's rights newspaper in New York City that became an important tool for supporting their wing of the movement.

The dispute became increasingly bitter after the Fifteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was introduced, which would in effect enfranchise black men by prohibiting the denial of suffrage because of race. Lucy Stone supported the amendment even though she argued that suffrage for women would be more beneficial to the country than suffrage for black men. Stanton and Anthony opposed it, insisting that all women and all African Americans should be enfranchised at the same time.   Stanton argued that by enfranchising almost all men while excluding all women, the amendment would give constitutional authority to the belief that men were superior to women, creating an "aristocracy of sex".

During the debate, Stanton wrote articles for The Revolution with language that was sometimes elitist and racially condescending. According to Cheris Kramarae and Lana Raknow, Stanton distinguished between " 'colorophobia' " and her own belief in the "evolutionary development of the human 'race.' Stanton, for example, sometimes referred to the 'lower orders of mankind', an indication of her belief that education and 'civilization' were needed to bring groups of people (particularly American Blacks and white working-class immigrants) out of barbarism and to the pinnacle of development...to admit Black men to enfranchisement was to admit them into 'manhood', making ever more difficult the task of redefining citizenship...for women." She also presumed that all "lower orders" promoted "low ideas of womanhood." Stanton wrote, "American women of wealth, education, virtue and refinement, if you do not wish the lower orders of Chinese, Africans, Germans and Irish, with their low ideas of womanhood to make laws for you and your daughters, to be your rulers, judges, and jurors---to dictate not only the civil, but moral codes by which you shall be governed, awake to the dangers of your present position, and demand, too, that women too shall be represented in government!"

These beliefs and contentions corresponded with her published comments from inaugural issues of The Revolution. In 1868, for instance, she argued that "there is only one safe, sure way to build a government, and that is on the equality of all its citizens, male and female, black and white...Just so if woman finds it hard to bear the oppressive laws of a few Saxon Fathers, of the best orders of manhood, what may she not be called to endure when all the lower orders, natives and foreigners, Dutch, Irish, Chinese and African, legislate for her and her daughters?" Ellen DuBois referred to this particularly litany of "lower orders" as "betraying her underlying elitism", whereas Sue Davis renounced her question as one in a series that "included racist and nativist comments." Stanton added that U.S. Senators "degrade" women "in their political status, below unwashed and unlettered ditch-diggers, boot-blacks, hostlers, butchers, and barbers." Stanton then objected to laws being made for women by "Patrick and Sambo and Hans and Yung Tung who do not know the difference between a Monarchy and a Republic, and who never read the Declaration of Independence or Webster's spelling book."

Formation of the National Woman Suffrage Association

The AERA essentially collapsed after an acrimonious convention in 1869, and two rival women's suffrage organizations were created in its wake.  The National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) was created on May 15, 1869, two days after what turned out to be the AERA's last convention, with Anthony and Stanton as its primary leaders. The American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) was formed in November 1869, with Lucy Stone as its primary leader.  The AWSA was initially larger and better funded, but Stanton and Anthony were more widely known as leaders of the women's suffrage movement and were more influential in setting its direction.

Membership of the NWSA came partly from activists in organizations that Anthony and Stanton had created.  One of those was the Women's Loyal National League, whose 5000 members had by 1864 completed a petition drive, the largest in the nation's history, in support of an amendment to abolish slavery. Another was the Working Women's Association, which began as an organization of wage-earning women but evolved into one consisting almost entirely of journalists, doctors and other middle-class working women.  Its members formed the core of the New York City segment of the NWSA, where the NWSA was headquartered.

Comparison to AWSA

Even after the Fifteenth Amendment was ratified in 1870, some important differences remained between the two organizations, and others emerged over time.

The NWSA worked mostly at the federal level, focusing on a constitutional amendment to achieve women's suffrage, while the AWSA worked toward the same goal mostly at the state level.  The NWSA's meetings were open to everyone, but the AWSA allowed only delegates from recognized state organizations to vote at its meetings, although any member could attend and speak.  The NWSA initially dealt with several women's issues, such as divorce reform and equal pay for women, while the AWSA focused almost exclusively on suffrage.  The AWSA's membership included both women and men, and its first president was a man, Henry Ward Beecher.  Stanton had originally proposed that the NWSA's membership be limited to women, but her proposal was not accepted.  In practice, however, the overwhelming majority of the NWSA members and officers were women.  The NWSA held its conventions in Washington in accordance with its strategy of working primarily at the federal level, while the AWSA, working mainly at the state level, met in various cities across the country.

The author of a study of African American women in the suffrage movement lists nine who participated in the AWSA during the 1870s and six who participated in the NWSA. Stanton, a NWSA leader, "moved to sever the women's rights movement from its earlier moorings in the antislavery tradition." She periodically "appealed to racial and ethnic prejudices, arguing that native-born white women deserved the vote more than non-whites and immigrants." Lee Boomer and New-York Historical Society educators noted that "while the NWSA did not prohibit Black women from joining at the national level, local [NWSA] organizations could reject their participation."

Early years

Many suffragists were appalled by the split and insisted on reunification.  Theodore Tilton, a newspaper editor and women's rights advocate, initiated a petition drive calling for an end to the split. In April 1870, he convened a meeting of members of both organizations in an attempt to merge the two groups.  Anthony opposed the idea of merger, as did her rival Lucy Stone.  The NWSA sent three official representatives to the meeting who reported that their organization would agree to a merger only if the new organization agreed to work toward a Sixteenth Amendment to enfranchise women.  Lucy Stone and two other AWSA members who were present as unofficial representatives of their organization left the meeting at that point.  Those remaining, including some non-affiliated activists, formed a new organization, the Union Woman Suffrage Association (UWSA) with Tilton as president and a Sixteenth Amendment as its central goal. Soon afterward, the executive committee of the moribund AERA met and voted, over Stone's objection, to merge into the UWSA.  The next month, the NWSA itself merged into the UWSA, which essentially became the NWSA under a new name.

In May 1870, Anthony was forced to sell The Revolution because of mounting debts, thereby losing the NWSA's primary media voice. The NWSA afterwards depended on smaller periodicals, such as The National Citizen and Ballot Box, edited by Matilda Joslyn Gage, and The Woman's Tribune, edited by Clara Bewick Colby, to represent its viewpoint.

The NWSA benefited from the extensive lecture tours that Stanton and Anthony undertook, which brought new recruits into the organization and strengthened it at the local, state and national levels. Their journeys during that period covered a distance that was unmatched by any other reformer or politician.  From 1869 to 1879, Stanton traveled eight months of the year on the lecture circuit, usually delivering one lecture per day, two on Sundays. In one year alone, Anthony traveled 13,000 miles and gave at least 170 lectures.

The NWSA did not have a national office, its mailing address being simply that of one of the officers. Anthony and Stanton did not receive a salary from the organization, supporting themselves with the money they earned by lecturing.  In Anthony's case, the money flowed the other way, with her lecture fees helping to fund the organization after she had paid The Revolution's debts.

The fact that Anthony was unmarried gave her a legal advantage in building the organization. A married woman at that time had the legal status of feme covert, which, among other things, excluded her from signing contracts (she had to convince her husband to sign for her). As Anthony had no husband, she had the legal status of a feme sole, enabling her to sign contracts for convention halls and printed materials.

New Departure

In 1869, Virginia Minor, a member of the NWSA, and her husband Francis developed the idea that achieving women's suffrage did not require a Sixteenth Amendment.  Their approach, which became known as the New Departure, was based on the belief that women were already implicitly enfranchised by the U.S. Constitution.   Their strategy relied heavily on the Fourteenth Amendment, which says, "No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States … nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."

In January 1871, the UWSA delayed the opening session of its annual convention in Washington so its members could hear the historic address to the House Judiciary Committee by Victoria Woodhull, the first woman to speak before a Congressional body.  A stockbroker with wealthy backers but little previous connection to the women's movement, she presented a modified version of the New Departure strategy.  Instead of asking the courts to rule that the Constitution implicitly enfranchised women, she asked Congress to pass a declaratory act to accomplish the same goal.  The committee did not accept her proposal.
Woodhull was invited to give the same speech to the UWSA's afternoon session and was greeted there with enthusiasm.

Woodhull's reputation as a women's suffrage leader continued to rise afterwards.  Both Stanton and Anthony eagerly supported her at first, although Anthony became increasingly wary of her.  At the UWSA's 1872 convention, Woodhull attempted to commandeer the organization, urging its delegates to meet the next day in a different hall to form a new political party with herself as its candidate for president of the United States.  In the chaotic situation that followed, Anthony shouted that the UWSA would meet the next day as usual and abruptly adjourned the session. The UWSA did meet the next day as planned, although with fewer participants because most of them had gone to the Woodhull event instead. The UWSA voted to transform itself at this meeting into a reconstituted NWSA with Anthony as president.

Later that year, Woodhull published details of an affair between Elizabeth Tilton, wife of Theodore Tilton, a prominent NWSA ally, and Reverend Henry Ward Beecher, the first president of the AWSA, seriously damaging the reputation of the entire women's movement.  Woodhull did not play a significant role in the women's suffrage movement afterwards.

In 1871 the NWSA officially adopted the New Departure strategy, encouraging women to attempt to vote and to file lawsuits if denied that right. Soon hundreds of women tried to vote in dozens of localities.

Challenging the denial of voting rights

In 1872, Susan B. Anthony convinced some election officials to allow her to vote in that year's presidential elections, for which she was arrested and found guilty in a widely publicized trial. The judge at the trial was Justice Ward Hunt, who had recently been appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court and who conducted the trial as part of the federal circuit court system at that time.

The trial, United States v. Susan B. Anthony, was closely followed by the national press. Following a rule of common law at that time which prevented criminal defendants in federal courts from testifying, Hunt refused to allow Anthony to speak until the verdict had been delivered. At the end of the trial, Justice Hunt delivered his opinion, which he had put in writing, and directed the jury to deliver a guilty verdict.
When he asked Anthony if she had anything to say, she responded with "the most famous speech in the history of the agitation for woman suffrage", according to Ann D. Gordon, a historian of the women's movement.
Repeatedly ignoring the judge's order to stop talking and sit down, she castigated him for denying her a trial by jury, but said that even if he had allowed the jury to discuss the case, she still would have been denied a trial by a jury of her peers because women were not allowed to be jurors.

The Supreme Court ruled in 1875 in Minor v. Happersett that "the Constitution of the United States does not confer the right of suffrage upon anyone".
The NWSA was obliged to return to the far more difficult strategy of achieving suffrage by constitutional amendment.  In 1878, Senator Aaron A. Sargent, who was married to NWSA treasurer Ellen Clark Sargent, introduced into Congress the women's suffrage amendment that more than forty years later would become the Nineteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution.  Its text is identical to that of the Fifteenth Amendment except that it prohibits the denial of suffrage because of sex rather than race.

Centennial of the Declaration of Independence
On July 4, 1876, The United States celebrated its 100th anniversary with a ceremony in Philadelphia at Independence Hall, where the Declaration of Independence was approved on July 4, 1776. In preparation for the event, the NWSA established headquarters nearby and began drawing up "articles of impeachment" against the country's male "Political Sovereigns". NWSA officers asked permission to present a Declaration of Rights for Women at the official celebration, but they were refused.  Despite the lack of permission, five women, headed by Anthony, walked onto the platform during the ceremony and handed their Declaration to Senator Thomas Ferry who was the acting Vice President of the United States, and the official in charge of the celebration. As they left, they handed out copies to the crowd. Stepping onto an unoccupied bandstand outside the hall, Anthony read the Declaration to a large crowd and invited everyone to a NWSA convention at the nearby Unitarian church to hear Stanton, Lucretia Mott and other speakers.

The Declaration was signed by Susan B. Anthony and these other leading members of the NWSA:  Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Paulina Wright Davis, Ernestine L. Rose, Clarina I. H. Nichols, Mary Ann McClintock, Amy Post, Sarah Pugh, Matilda Joslyn Gage, Clemence Sophia Harned Lozier, Olympia Brown, Mathilde Franziska Anneke, Mathilde F. Wendt, Adelaide Thomson, Laura de Force Gordon, Ellen Clark Sargent, Virginia L. Minor, Sara Andrews Spencer, Lillie Devereux Blake, Phoebe Couzins, Jane Graham Jones, Abigail Scott Duniway, Belva A. Lockwood.

Lucretia Mott, former president of the AERA, was listed first among those who signed the Declaration and was a vice president of the NWSA.  According to Sally Gregory McMillen, a historian of the women's movement during this period, Lucretia Mott "avoided taking sides" in the split in the women's movement, providing support to both sides.

History of Woman Suffrage

In 1876, Anthony and Stanton began working on the History of Woman Suffrage.  Originally envisioned as a modest publication that could be produced quickly, the history evolved into a six-volume work of more than 5700 pages written over a period of 41 years, preserving a rich history that otherwise might have been lost. The first three volumes, which cover the movement up to 1885, were produced primarily by Anthony and Stanton. Anthony handled the production details while Stanton wrote most of the text.  Matilda Joslyn Gage, another leading member of the NWSA, wrote three chapters of the first volume but was forced to abandon the project afterwards because of the illness of her husband.  After Stanton's death, Anthony published Volume 4 with the help of Ida Husted Harper. After Anthony's death, Harper completed the last two volumes, bringing history up to 1920.

Stanton and Anthony had encouraged their rival Lucy Stone to assist with the work, or at least to send material that could be used by someone else to write the history of her wing of the movement, but she refused to cooperate in any way.  Stanton's daughter Harriot Stanton Blatch, wrote the 120-page chapter on Stone and the AWSA, which appears in Volume 2.
Even so, the History of Woman Suffrage places Stanton, Anthony and the NWSA at the center of the movement's history and marginalizes the role of Stone and the AWSA.

International Council of Women

Anthony traveled to Europe in 1883, linking up with Stanton, who had arrived a few months earlier to visit her daughter, whose husband was British. Over a period of nine months, they met with leaders of various European women's movements and began laying the foundation for an international women's organization.

The NWSA agreed to host the founding congress of the organization that Stanton and Anthony were working toward.  The first congress of the International Council of Women (ICW) met in Washington in 1888 with delegates from fifty-three women's organizations in nine countries. The delegates represented various organizations, including suffrage associations, professional groups, literary clubs, temperance unions, labor leagues and missionary societies. The AWSA participated in the congress. The ICW convention brought increased publicity and respectability to the women's movement, especially when President Grover Cleveland honored the delegates by inviting them to a reception at the White House.
Still active, ICW is associated with the United Nations.

Reunification of the movement

Lucy Stone initiated the reunification of the rival suffrage organizations.  She was seventy years old and in declining health, and the AWSA was losing strength.  Anthony, by contrast, was by that point, "among the senior political figures in the United States", according to a prominent historian of women's history.  Stanton, a popular speaker and a prolific writer of articles for newspapers and magazines, was also well known.

The AWSA's annual meeting in November 1877 passed a resolution authorizing Stone to confer with Anthony about the possibility of a merger.  The proposal did not generate significant controversy within the AWSA.  There was strong opposition within the NWSA, however.  Ida Husted Harper, Anthony's co-worker and biographer, said the NWSA meetings that dealt with this issue "were the most stormy in the history of the association."  Matilda Joslyn Gage, an opponent of the merger, formed a competing organization called the Woman's National Liberal Union, but it did not attract a significant following, and plans for merger proceeded.

The NWSA and the AWSA met in a joint convention in Washington and formed the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) on February 18, 1890.  At Anthony's insistence, Stanton agreed to accept its presidency.  This was largely a symbolic move; the day after she was elected president, Stanton sailed to her daughter's home in England, where she stayed for eighteen months, leaving Anthony effectively in charge.  Stone was elected chair of the executive committee.

The NAWSA developed into the nation's largest voluntary organization, with two million members.  After women's suffrage was achieved in 1920 by the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, the NAWSA transformed itself into the League of Women Voters, which is still active.

Some leading members other than Anthony and Stanton

See also
List of suffragists and suffragettes
List of women's rights activists
Timeline of women's suffrage
Timeline of women's suffrage in the United States
Women's suffrage organizations

References

Bibliography

 Anthony, Susan B.; Harper, Ida Husted (1902), History of Woman Suffrage, Vol. 4, Rollenbeck Press, Indianapolis, Indiana.
 Barry, Kathleen (1988). Susan B. Anthony: A Biography of a Singular Feminist. New York: Ballantine Books.  .
 Buhle, Mari Jo; Buhle, Paul editors (1978). The Concise History of Woman Suffrage. University of Illinois.   .
 DuBois, Ellen Carol (1978).  Feminism and Suffrage: The Emergence of an Independent Women's Movement in America, 1848–1869.  Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.  .
 DuBois, Ellen Carol (1998).  Woman Suffrage and Women's Rights.  New York: New York University Press.  .
 Dudden, Faye E., (2011). Fighting Chance: The Struggle over Woman Suffrage and Black Suffrage in Reconstruction America.  New York: Oxford University Press. .
 Flexner, Eleanor (1959). Century of Struggle. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.  .
 Gordon, Ann D., ed. (2000).  The Selected Papers of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony: Against an aristocracy of sex, 1866 to 1873.  Vol. 2 of 6.  New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.  .
 Gordon, Ann D., ed. (2003).  The Selected Papers of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony: National protection for national citizens, 1873 to 1880. Vol. 3 of 6. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.  .

  Griffith, Elisabeth (1985).  In Her Own Right: The Life of Elizabeth Cady Stanton.  Oxford University Press; New York, NY.
 McMillen, Sally Gregory (2008). Seneca Falls and the origins of the women's rights movement. Oxford University Press.
 Rakow, Lana F. and Kramarae, Cheris, editors (2001). The Revolution in Words: Righting Women 1868–1871, New York: Routledge.  .

 Sherr, Lynn (1995).  Failure Is Impossible: Susan B. Anthony in Her Own Words. New York: Random House.
 Stanton, Elizabeth Cady; Anthony, Susan B.; Gage, Matilda Joslyn (1887), History of Woman Suffrage, Volume 2, Rochester, NY: Susan B. Anthony (Charles Mann printer).

 Venet, Wendy Hamand (1991). Neither Ballots nor Bullets: Women Abolitionists and the Civil War. Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia. .
 Ward, Geoffrey C., with essays by Martha Saxton, Ann D. Gordon and Ellen Carol DuBois (1999).   Not for Ourselves Alone: The Story of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. New York: Alfred Knopf.

External links
  The Constitution of the National Woman Suffrage Association at the Library of Congress
  The Declaration of Rights of the Women of the United States - July 4, 1876, presented at the official celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, from the Carrie Chapman Catt Center for Women and Politics at Iowa State University

Elizabeth Cady Stanton
Liberal feminist organizations
Feminist organizations in the United States
First-wave feminism in the United States
History of women's rights in the United States
Organizations established in 1869
Susan B. Anthony
Women's suffrage advocacy groups in the United States
1869 establishments in New York (state)
National American Woman Suffrage Association

National Woman Suffrage Association


Independent income is a stream of income  received without directly exchanging labour power for it. Examples are interest on money capital, dividends earned by share ownership, rental income, etc.

Many economists and other professionals consider that there is a need in modern capitalist economies for policies that encourage the acquisition of income generating capital assets that supplement or replace employment generated income. This need, it is argued, is driven by the progressive replacement of labour by capital in modern production.

Traditional economic theory counters this by contending that employment created in the growing service sector can absorb labour displaced in manufacturing. But this is by no means a smooth process since extensive retraining may be required before labour can be transferred to entirely new areas of activity.

References

Factor income distribution

Independent income


Marilita Lambropoulou (, Marilíta Lampropoúlou; born July 15, 1974, in Athens, Greece) is a Greek actress. She is very popular with home audiences for her work in films like Athens Blues (Μια Μέρα τη Νύχτα, Mia Mera ti Nychta), directed by Giorgos Panousopoulos (2002) and The King (Ο Βασιλιάς, O Vasilias), directed by Nikos Grammatikos (2002), for which she won the "Quality Award".

Marilita trained at the Theatre Studies Department of the University of Patras, as well as at a series of seminars organised by the National Theatre. Her stage work includes roles in both classical and contemporary theatre, most recently in Bat's The House of the Sleeping Girls at the Amore Theater. Marilita has also directed theatre, including The Caretaker by Harold Pinter and Psychology of the Syrian Husband by Emmanuil Roidis. She has acted in television in such leads roles as Maria in the television film, Three Wishes (Tρεις Eυχές, Treis Evches). For the last 5 years she has been acting in leading roles in both comedy and drama series for TV. In 2003 she represented Greece in Berlin and was voted as one of Europeas film Shooting Stars by the European Film Promotion.

Filmography

Television

External links
Official Site
Fan Club

1974 births
Living people
Actresses from Athens
Greek film actresses
Greek television actresses
University of Patras alumni

Marilita Lambropoulou


A traveling block is the freely moving section of a block and tackle that contains a set of pulleys or sheaves through which the drill line (wire rope) is threaded or reeved and is opposite (and under) the crown block (the stationary section).

The combination of the traveling block, crown block and wire rope drill line gives the ability to lift weights in the hundreds of thousands of pounds. On larger drilling rigs, when raising and lowering the derrick, line tensions over a million pounds are not unusual.

See also
 List of components of oil drilling rigs

Oilfield terminology
Drilling technology
Petroleum engineering

Traveling block


Five Golden Dragons is a 1967 international co-production comedy action film set in Hong Kong and photographed in Techniscope on location in September 1966 at the Tiger Balm Pagoda and Shaw Brothers studios. It was directed by Jeremy Summers and starred Bob Cummings in his final theatrical feature film, Margaret Lee who sings two songs in the film, Rupert Davies and a cast of "guest stars".

The film was produced and written (under pen name Peter Welbeck) by Harry Alan Towers and co-stars his wife Maria Rohm as one of the three female leads.  The film features a minor connection to Edgar Wallace's short stories by using his Commissioner Sanders as an officer in the Royal Hong Kong Police with Towers using Wallace's name to attract funds from international film investors.

Plot
The Five Golden Dragons are an international criminal gold trafficking secret society syndicate based in Hong Kong.  They plan to break up after selling their criminal enterprise to the Mafia for US$50 million. However the members of the group fear the greed of each other in receiving their share of the profits. Visiting American playboy Bob Mitchell, as well as sisters Ingrid and Margret, become targets of killer Gert and his murderous accomplices, while Shakespeare-quoting police commissioner Sanders and his subordinate, Inspector Chiao investigate the matter. Sanders quotes Hamlet, act 1, scene 4, but Chiao corrects him, "Scene 5", and leaves. Sanders then quotes Merchant of Venice, act 1, scene 2.

Margret sneaks into Mitchell's hotel suite, looks through his papers and, when he returns, tells him she knows he is really "Doctor Mitchell, graduate of Stanford". She then confesses that, as a stewardess, she was working for the Dragons, but now fears for her life. In the morning, as Chiao knocks on the door of Mitchell's suite to take him for questioning by Sanders, the door to the bedroom, where Margret spent the night, is locked and, when opened, reveals her in bed, covered with a Dragons cape, dead as a result of a broken neck.

Mitchell sneaks out and, upon learning from his friend and helper Ah Sing about The Blue World nightclub, goes there to watch the club's star singer, Magda, perform "Time of Our Lives" while being observed by the club's shady manager Peterson. He tells Peterson, "I sell chewing gum... confections...

Magda spots Mitchell, sings to him, kisses him in front of Peterson and leads him to her dressing room where she asks him to help her change outfits. She then locks the room and goes out to perform another song, "Five Golden Dragons". When she finishes, the emcee introduces "one of Japan's most popular singing stars, Miss Yukari Ito", who performs a song in Japanese.

Meanwhile, in his office, Sanders struggles to remember a quote which Chiao finishes for him and adds that it is from "Henry Five". Sanders then adds, "Act 2, scene 1". Trapped in Magda's room, Mitchell discovers a secret passage to Peterson's office and escapes with Peterson's briefcase, but is intercepted by Chiao and his men and brought to Sanders' office. Exiting, he sees Ingrid outside and they leave together as Sanders closes the door and quotes Macbeth, act 4, scene 3.

One by one, four of the Dragons arrive in Hong Kong. When the second Dragon arrives, it is Chiao who provides the quote which Sanders recognizes as Othello. The Dragons are members of a secret society, each with a key to a cabinet. Each member wears a golden dragon head. When this scene is first used one of the dragons is revealed as Christopher Lee. The earlier scenes only have four dragons. Learning that Ingrid has been kidnapped, Mitchell argues with Sanders about rescuing her and storms out as Sanders, alone, quotes Othello, act 3, scene 2. Having captured Ah Sing and Ingrid, Gert menaces her, but Ah Sing manages to free himself and strangles Gert.

The climax of the film results from the arrival of Mitchell, disguised as the fifth dragon but, owing to a double-cross by Magda, Peterson switches places with Mitchell and, while still wearing his mask, is fatally shot by the gun concealed inside the cabinet he opens, thus inadvertently saving Mitchell's life. Immediately thereafter, Sanders and Chiao arrive in the Dragons' meeting room and arrest them as well as Magda.

When asked by Sanders about his plans, Mitchell replies, "Well, uh... I... I think that's... uh... more or less up to Ingrid... right? As Sanders and Chiao watch a plane take off from the airport, Sanders quotes, "That is the true beginning of our end" from Midsummer Night's Dream, act 4, scene 1.

Cast

 Bob Cummings as Bob Mitchell
 Margaret Lee as Magda
 Rupert Davies as Commissioner Sanders
 with Klaus Kinski as Gert
 Maria Rohm as Ingrid
 Sieghardt Rupp as Peterson
 Roy Chiao as Inspector Chiao
and guest stars in alphabetical order
 Brian Donlevy as Third Dragon
 Dan Duryea as First Dragon
 Christopher Lee as Fourth Dragon
 George Raft as Second Dragon
  and Maria Perschy as Margret
  guest singer Yukari Ito

Production notes
The film was one of three Harry Alan Towers made at the Hong Kong studios of Run Run Shaw the others being The Vengeance of Fu Manchu (also directed by Jeremy Summers, with Christopher Lee in the title role and Maria Rohm again named Ingrid) and The Million Eyes of Sumuru (with Klaus Kinski and Maria Rohm in supporting roles). In September 1966 Don Sharp was going to direct. The film originally planned to feature George Sanders and Basil Rathbone as two of the Dragons.

Cummings met his fourth wife Regina Fong who was a script girl on the film.

Five Golden Dragons was one of a number of lighthearted spy and action films released during the second half of the 1960s. A year earlier, in April 1966, two other films were released in London with a similar plot of a tourist being chased by assassins — A Man Could Get Killed, directed by Cliff Owen and Ronald Neame and starring James Garner as well as Harry Alan Towers' Our Man in Marrakesh, directed by Don Sharp and starring Tony Randall, with Klaus Kinski, Margaret Lee and uncredited Maria Rohm in supporting roles.

Song credits
Song "Five Golden Dragons" words by Hal Shaper
Song "Time of Our Lives" words by Sid Colin
The voice of Domino

See also
 Christopher Lee filmography

References

External links

Five Golden Dragons at British Film Institute

Five Golden Dragons at TV Guide (1987 write-up was originally published in The Motion Picture Guide)

1967 films
1960s action adventure films
1960s English-language films
English-language German films
1960s German-language films
West German films
German action adventure films
British action adventure films
Films directed by Jeremy Summers
Films scored by Malcolm Lockyer
Films shot in Hong Kong
Constantin Film films
1960s British films
1960s German films

Five Golden Dragons


The Pergamon Bridge is a Roman substruction bridge over the Selinus river (modern Bergama Çayı) in the ancient city of Pergamon (today Bergama), modern-day Turkey. The  wide structure, the largest of its kind in antiquity, was designed during Hadrian's reign (AD 117–138) in order to form a passageway underneath a large court in front of the monumental "Red Basilica" temple complex. The two intact tubes, which consist of supporting walls covered with barrel vaults, still serve their purpose to this day.

Classification as bridge substruction
Although the Pergamon Bridge is, due to its extraordinary width, often misleadingly called a tunnel, it should rather be treated as a bridge substruction, since the entire structure was erected above ground, which necessitates construction techniques more akin to bridge building and very different from those employed in tunnel-driving.

For urban development, such substructions are regarded as particularly useful for providing large open spaces in densely populated inner city areas. This was also the case in Pergamon, as the building of the Serapis Temple required the bridging of an entire section of the River Selinus in order to create sufficient space for a large platform in front of the temple.

A similar urban project was also executed in another ancient Anatolian city, Nysa, where the  wide Nysa Bridge supported a theatre forecourt.

Vault structure
The bridge substruction features two parallel and linear barrel vaults which are separated by a continuously running partition wall. While the uphill entrances of the double tube are on the same level, the exits on the down-valley side are spaced at a  interval, leading to a significant difference in length between the western () and the eastern branch (). Due to a later built-in  high threshold, parts of the western tube are today silted up.

The dimensions of both semi-circular arches are practically identical: the clear spans are  each, the rise from the springing line to the apex of the arch  and the clearance to ground level measures . The vaults are built of rubble bound with mortar, and rest on an ashlar stone base.

Up- and downstream of the bridge substruction are another two well-preserved ancient bridges across the Selinus, called Tabak Köprüsü and Üc Kemer Köprüsü ("Three Arch Bridge").

Discharge capacity
The capacity limit of the Pergamon Bridge in case of floods has been the subject of hydraulic and hydrological research. The gradient of the tunnel was calculated as 0.6% with a maximum discharge capacity of 360 m³/s. Exceeding this limit puts the bridge under internal pressure and damages the structure in the process. Considering that the Selinus is  long, with a median gradient of 2.2% and a drainage basin of , the following median intervals were calculated, depending on the method employed:

250 years (Günerman method)
550 years (D.S.I. method)
1,100 years (Mockus method)
8,500 years (Snyder method)

The study came to the conclusion that statistically every 700 years, a value which has been referred to as the "arithmetic mean", floods are to be expected which would exceed the capacity of the bridge.

See also
 List of Roman bridges
 Roman architecture
 Roman engineering

Notes

Sources

Further reading

External links

Roman bridges in Turkey
Deck arch bridges
Stone bridges in Turkey
Pergamon
Bergama
Tunnels in Turkey
Buildings and structures in İzmir Province
Arch bridges in Turkey

Pergamon Bridge


The LW blood system was first described by Landsteiner and Wiener in 1940. It was often confused with the Rh system, not becoming a separate antigen system until 1982. The LW and RhD antigens are genetically independent though they are phenotypically related and the LW antigen is expressed more strongly on RhD positive cells than on RhD negative cells. In most populations, the antithetical LW antigens, LWa and LWb are present as very high and very low frequency, respectively.

Genomics
The LW locus is located on the short arm of chromosome 19 (19p13.3).

Molecular biology
LW antigens reside on a 40- to 42-kiloDalton red cell membrane glycoprotein named CD242. The LW glycoprotein has recently been renamed ICAM-4 due to its similarity to intercellular adhesion molecule, although exactly which integrins bind to ICAM-4 is subject to controversy.

The function of ICAM-4 is not fully understood but appears to be restricted to erythroid cells. During in vitro erythropoesis, LW appears at either the erythroid colony forming stage or later at the proerythroblast stage. A vital part of erythropoesis is the clustering of erythroblasts around bone marrow macrophages to form erythroblastic islands. The erythroblast is then able to remove its nucleus, which is in turn ingested and broken down by the macrophages, to become a mature erythrocyte. During this process ICAM-4 binds to VLA-4, an erythroblast binding site, on adjacent erythroblasts and to αv integrins on macrophages to help stabilise the erythroblastic islands. The binding of red cells to macrophages in the spleen by ICAM-4 could also play a part in the removal of senescent red cells.

Despite the functional aspects of ICAM-4, its apparent absence in LW(a-b-) and Rhnull phenotypes does not appear to lead to any obvious pathological effects. ICAM-4 expression is elevated on sickle red cells and its binding to αv integrins on the endothelial cells may cause the pain associated with sickle cell crises.

Auto anti-LW is not uncommon as an autoantibody but usually presents with transient suppression of the LW antigen in genetically LW+ individuals, and so appears to be an alloantibody. True alloanti-LW is a very rare occurrence, with only two known examples of alloanti-LWab, produced by patients with an LW(a-b-) phenotype. Anti-LW can be present as a clinically insignificant autoantibody and not be associated with increased red cell destruction. Anti-LW has also been associated with cases of warm type autoimmune haemolytic anaemia; Philip Levine suggested that it was the most common antibody in cases of AIHA with a positive Coombs test.

Transfusion medicine
Haemolytic disease of the newborn (HDFN) due to alloanti-LW is described as mild and very rare, even the very potent anti-LWab of one known patient caused minimal evidence of HDFN in her three pregnancies. To date auto anti-LW has only been implicated as the cause of one case of HDFN.

References

Blood antigen systems
Transfusion medicine

ICAM4


The Electorate of Hanover ( or simply Kurhannover) was an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire, located in northwestern Germany and taking its name from the capital city of Hanover. It was formally known as the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg (). For most of its existence, the electorate was ruled in personal union with Great Britain and Ireland following the Hanoverian Succession.

The Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg had been split in 1269 between different branches of the House of Welf. The Principality of Calenberg, ruled by a cadet branch of the family, emerged as the largest and most powerful of the Brunswick-Lüneburg states. In 1692, the Holy Roman Emperor elevated the Prince of Calenberg to the College of Electors, creating the new Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg. The fortunes of the Electorate were tied to those of Great Britain by the Act of Settlement 1701 and Act of Union 1707, which settled the succession to the British throne on Queen Anne's nearest Protestant relative, the Electress Sophia of Hanover, and her descendants.

The Prince-Elector of Hanover became King of Great Britain in 1714. As a consequence, a reluctant Britain was forced time and again to defend the king's German possessions. However, Hanover remained a separately ruled territory with its own governmental bodies, and the country had to sign a treaty with Great Britain whenever Hanoverian troops fought on the British side of a war. Merged into the Napoleonic Kingdom of Westphalia in 1807, it was re-established as the Kingdom of Hanover in 1814, and the personal union with the British crown lasted until 1837.

Name
In 1692, Emperor Leopold I of the House of Habsburg elevated Duke Ernest Augustus of the Brunswick-Lüneburg line of Calenberg, to the rank of prince-elector of the Empire as a reward for aid given in the Nine Years' War. There were protests against the addition of a new elector, and the elevation did not become official until the approval of the Imperial Diet in 1708. Calenberg's capital, Hanover, became colloquially eponymous for the electorate, but it officially used the name Chur-Braunschweig-Lüneburg of the entire ducal dynasty.

The electoral coat of arms and flag (see info box upper right of this article) displayed the Saxon Steed (; ; Low Saxon: Witte Peerd) is a heraldic motif associated with the German provinces of Lower Saxony and Westphalia, and the Dutch region of Twente as the electorate covered large portions of the original stem Duchy of Saxony.

Geography

The electorate comprised large parts of the modern German state of Lower Saxony in Northern Germany. Beside the Principality of Calenberg it also included the former princely lands of Göttingen and Grubenhagen as well as the territory of the former County of Hoya.

In 1705, Elector George I Louis inherited the Principality of Lüneburg with the Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg upon the death of his uncle Duke George William of Brunswick-Lüneburg. In 1715, he purchased the Duchies of Bremen-Verden from King Frederick IV of Denmark (confirmed by the 1719 Treaty of Stockholm), whereby his former landlocked electorate gained access to the North Sea.

In 1700, the territories forming the electorate introduced, like all other Protestant territories of imperial immediacy, the Improved Calendar, as the Gregorian calendar was called by Protestants to avoid mentioning the name of Pope Gregory XIII. Sunday, 18 February (Old Style) was thus followed by Monday, 1 March (New Style).

History

In 1692, the Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold I, elevated George's son, Duke Ernest Augustus to the rank of Elector of the Empire as a reward for aid given in the War of the Grand Alliance. There were protests against the addition of a new Elector, and the elevation did not become official (with the approval of the Imperial Diet) until 1708, in the person of Ernest Augustus's son, George Louis. Though the Elector's titles were properly Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Elector of the Holy Roman Empire, he is commonly referred to as the Elector of Hanover after his residence.

Hanover acquired Bremen-Verden in 1719.

The Electorate was legally bound to be indivisible: it could add to its territory, but not alienate territory or be split up among several heirs; and its succession was to follow male primogeniture. The territory assigned to the Electorate included the Brunswick-Lüneburg principalities of Calenberg, Grubenhagen, and Lüneburg (even though at the time Lüneburg was ruled by Ernest Augustus's older brother) and the counties of Diepholz and Hoya.

Link with Great Britain

In 1714, George Louis became king of Great Britain and Ireland and so the electorate and Great Britain and Ireland were ruled in personal union. The possessions of the electors in Germany also grew, as they de facto purchased the formerly-Swedish-held duchies of Bremen and Verden in 1719.

George Louis died in 1727 and was succeeded by his son George II Augustus. In 1728, Emperor Charles VI officially enfeoffed George II (gave him land in exchange for a pledge of service), with the reverted fief of Saxe-Lauenburg, which had de facto been ruled in personal union with Hanover and with one of its preceding Principality of Lüneburg since 1689.

In 1731, Hanover also gained Hadeln. In return, Hanover recognised the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, which changed the Habsburgs' inheritance law. It took George II Augustus until 1733 to persuade Charles VI to enfeoff him also with the Duchy of Bremen and the Principality of Verden, colloquially called Duchies of Bremen-Verden. At both enfeoffments, George II Augustus swore that he would respect the existing privileges and constitutions of the estates in Bremen-Verden and in Hadeln, thus confirming 400-year-old traditions of estate participation in government.

In Hanover, the capital of the Electorate, the Privy Council of Hanover (electoral government) installed a new ministry in charge of the Imperial Estates ruled by the Electors in personal union. It was called the Department of Bremen-Verden, Hadeln, Lauenburg and Bentheim. However, the Electors spent most of their time in England. Direct contact with the electorate was maintained through the office of the German Chancery, situated in St James's Palace in London.

Seven Years' War

During the French and Indian War (1754–1763) in the North American colonies, Britain feared a French invasion of Hanover. George II formed an alliance with his Brandenburg-Prussian cousin Frederick II combining the North American conflict with the Brandenburg-Prusso–Austrian Third Silesian, or Seven Years' War (1756–1763).

In the summer of 1757, the French invaded Hanover and defeated George II's son Prince William, Duke of Cumberland, leading the Anglo-Hanoverian army, at the Battle of Hastenbeck and drove him and his army into remote Bremen-Verden, where in the former Zeven  he capitulated on 18 September (Convention of Kloster-Zeven). However, George II did not recognise the convention. The following year, the British Army, supported by troops from Brandenburg-Prussia, Hesse-Kassel and the ducal Principality of Brunswick and Lunenburg (Wolfenbüttel), again expelled the occupants.

French Revolutionary Wars
Hanover remained unaffected for the rest of the war. After the war ended, peace prevailed until the French Revolutionary Wars started. The War of the First Coalition against France (1792–1797) with Great Britain, Hanover and other war allies forming the coalition, did not affect Hanoverian territory since the first French Republic was fighting on several fronts, even on its own territory. However, men were drafted to recruit the 16,000 Hanoverian soldiers fighting in the Low Countries under British command against France. In 1795, the Holy Roman Empire declared its neutrality, including Hanover, but a peace treaty with France was being negotiated until it failed in 1799. Brandenburg-Prussia, however, ended for its part the war with France by the Treaty of Basel (1795), which stipulated that Brandenburg-Prussia would ensure the Holy Roman Empire's neutrality in all of the latter's territories north of the demarcation line of the River Main, including the British continental dominions of Hanover, Bremen-Verden, and Saxe-Lauenburg. To that end, Hanover also had to provide troops for the so-called demarcation army maintaining the armed neutrality.

Napoleonic era
During the War of the Second Coalition against France (1799–1802) Napoléon Bonaparte urged Prussia to occupy the continental British dominions. In 1801, there was an invasion of 24,000 Prussian soldiers that surprised Hanover, which surrendered without a fight. In April they arrived at Bremen-Verden's capital, Stade, and stayed there until October. The British first ignored Prussian hostility, but when the latter joined the pro-French coalition of armed neutral powers, including Denmark-Norway and Russia, Britain began to capture Prussian ships. After the Battle of Copenhagen (1801), the coalition fell apart and Prussia withdrew its troops.

As part of the German Mediatisation of 25 February 1803, the Electorate received the Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück in real union, which had been ruled by every second ruler of the House of Hanover since 1662.

After Britain, this time without any allies, had declared war on France (18 May 1803), French troops invaded Hanover on 26 May. According to the Convention of Artlenburg (5 July 1803), confirming the military defeat of Hanover, the Hanoverian Army was disarmed, and its horses and ammunitions were handed over to the French. The Privy Council of Hanover, with the minister Friedrich Franz Dieterich von Bremer holding up the Hanoverian stake, fled to Saxe-Lauenburg, across the Elbe, which was ruled by Britain and Hanover in personal union. Soon, the French also occupied Saxe-Lauenburg.

In the autumn of 1805, at the beginning of the War of the Third Coalition against France (1805), the French occupying troops left Hanover in a campaign against Austria. British, Swedish and Russian coalition forces captured Hanover. In December, the French Empire, since 1804 France's new government, ceded Hanover, which it no longer held, to Brandenburg-Prussia, which captured it in early 1806.

On 6 August 1806, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved, thereby abolishing the function of prince-electors electing its emperors. Thus, the title of Elector of Brandenburg became meaningless for the Kingdom of Prussia. After it had turned against France, it was defeated in the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt (11 November 1806), and France recaptured Hanover.

Following the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807, the new Kingdom of Westphalia was founded, ruled by Napoléon's brother Jérôme Bonaparte, then including territories of the former Electorate of Hesse-Cassel, the ducal Brunswick-Lünebergian principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and formerly-Prussian territories. In early 1810 Hanover proper and Bremen-Verden but not Saxe-Lauenburg were also annexed by Westphalia. In an attempt to assert the Continental System, the French Empire annexed in late 1810 all of the continental North Sea coast (as far as Denmark) and the areas along the sections of the rivers navigable for seagoing vessels, including Bremen-Verden and Saxe-Lauenburg and some adjacent territories of Hanover proper.

However, the government of George III did not recognise the French annexation and was at war continuously with France for the entire period, and Hanoverian ministers continued to operate out of London. The Privy Council of Hanover maintained its own separate diplomatic service, which maintained links with countries such as Austria and Prussia. The Hanoverian Army was dissolved, but many of the officers and soldiers went to England, where they formed the King's German Legion. That was the only German army to fight continually throughout the Napoleonic Wars against the French.

French control lasted until October 1813, when the territory was overrun by Russian troops, and the Battle of Leipzig later that month spelled the definitive end to the Napoleonic client state of Westphalia, as well as the entire Confederation of the Rhine, and the rule of the House of Hanover was restored. The former electorate became the Kingdom of Hanover, which was confirmed at the Congress of Vienna in 1814.

Electors of Hanover

The Electorate was legally indivisible: it could add to its territory, but not alienate territory or be split up among several heirs, as had been the rule before, which led at times to a multitude of Brunswick-Lüneburgian principalities. Its succession was to follow male primogeniture. Since that was against Salic law, which was then valid for the ducal family, the change needed imperial confirmation, which Emperor Leopold I granted in 1692.

In 1692, at its upgrading to the rank of electorate, its territory comprised the Brunswick-Lüneburgian principalities of Calenberg and Grubenhagen, which the line of the former had already inherited in 1665. However, before the confirmation of the electorate by the Imperial Diet in 1708, the Calenberg line further inherited the principality of Celle in 1705. Further included were the earlier-acquired counties of Diepholz and Hoya.

Although the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806, George III's government did not consider the dissolution to be final, and he continued to be styled "Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, Arch-treasurer and Prince-Elector of the Holy Roman Empire" until 1814.

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

1692 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1807 disestablishments in Germany
Former principalities

Electorate of Hanover


The Port of Lázaro Cárdenas () is the largest Mexican seaport and one of the largest seaports in the Pacific Ocean basin, with an annual traffic capacity of around 25 million tonnes of cargo and 2,200,000 TEU.

In November 2003, the Mexican Navy seized the port from criminal gangs.

Description
Lázaro Cárdenas is home to a deep-water seaport that handles container, dry bulk, and liquid cargo. The port currently has one container terminal, which handled 1.24 million TEU in 2012, and has a total capacity of 2.2 million TEU annually.  APMT has plans to build an additional container terminal that would bring the port's capacity to 3.4 million TEU in 2015 and 6.5 million TEU in 2020.  Cargo moves to and from the port by road and rail equally, with rail service provided exclusively by Canadian Pacific Kansas City. The port is expected to become a major container facility due to congestion at the U.S. ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach and its relative proximity to major cities such as Chicago, Kansas City, and Houston. In preparation for the port's increased capacity, railway and highway infrastructure running north–south through the center of Mexico has been upgraded in recent years to handle the anticipated increase in volume of goods bound for the United States using this transportation corridor.  If a proposed government-backed Pacific port is built at Punta Colonet, Baja California, goods flowing to U.S. states like Arizona and Nevada could bypass the congested Los Angeles region with closer access to those markets, providing increased competition with Lázaro Cárdenas.

Lázaro Cárdenas is the terminus of the Salamanca-Lazaro Cardenas gas pipeline.

Statistics

In 2012, the Port of Lázaro Cárdenas handled 30,671,996 tonnes of cargo and 1,242,777  TEU's, making the busiest cargo port in Mexico and one of the largest container ports in the country.

* figures in tonnes

Terminals
The port of Lázaro Cárdenas has both public and private terminals specialised in:

Public terminals
Grain terminal:
Multi use terminals:
Container terminals:

Private terminals
Mineral terminal:
Fluid terminal:
Coal terminal:
Fertilizer terminal:

References

Lazaro Cardenas, Port of
Coal terminals
Buildings and structures in Michoacán

Port of Lázaro Cárdenas


For the last name spelling of "R o w e", see: Henry Rowe (disambiguation)

Henry Roe (22 February 1829 – 3 August 1909) was a Church of England minister. He was also a professor and author. He was born in Henryville Lower Canada to a large family and his father, John Hill Roe, was a doctor.

Roe was a professor of divinity at Bishop's College and Second Master at Bishop's College School when It was an emerging institution. He also published theological treatises and letters that were in opposition to a number of Roman Catholic teachings. In performing his teaching, writing, and ministry, he advocated a particular brand of Canadian Anglicanism. It was not necessarily an intellectual approach but it became the norm for the Anglican Church in Quebec.

References

External links
Bibliographic directory from Project Canterbury

Canadian clergy
1829 births
1909 deaths
Bishop's College School alumni

Henry Roe


The  is an AC electric multiple unit (EMU) train type operated by Hokkaido Railway Company (JR Hokkaido) on Super Kamui and Suzuran limited express services in Hokkaido, Japan, since 1990.

Design
The trains were built jointly by Hitachi and Kawasaki Heavy Industries.

Formations

Sets NE 1–5

Cars 2 and 4 are each fitted with one N-PS785S single-arm pantograph.

Sets NE 501–502

Cars 2 and 5 are each fitted with one N-PS785S single-arm pantograph.

Original 2+4-car sets

(1990–2002)

Cars 3 and 5 were each fitted with one N-PS721B scissors-type pantograph.

785-300 series Super Hakuchō set NE303
2-car set converted from former stored cars for use on Super Hakuchō services from December 2010

Interior
The 785 series trainsets do not include Green class (first class) accommodation, but car 4 is designated as a "u-Seat" car with improved seating for reserved seat passengers. All other cars are normally designated as non-reserved seating.

History

30 vehicles were delivered in 1990, formed as five 2-car (NE 101–105) and five 4-car (NE 1–5) sets. These entered service from 1 September 1990 on new Super White Arrow limited express services between  and . Sets were also used on some Lilac services.

From 18 February 2002, the original 4- and 2-car sets were reformed with the addition of newly built MoHa 784-500 and MoHa 785-500 cars to create a fleet of seven 5-car sets and one spare 2-car set, which was kept in storage. The control equipment from the cabs of cars within sets was removed between 2007 and 2008.

From 1 October 2007, they were reassigned to new Super Kamui limited express services between  and , and Airport rapid services between Sapporo and  in conjunction with 789-1000 series EMUs.

The spare 2-car set, NE 105, stored out of use since 2002 was modified in 2010 and repainted with green cab ends for use in conjunction with 789 series sets on Super Hakuchō services from the start of the revised timetable on 4 December 2010. This set has a maximum speed of 140 km/h.

References

External links

 JR Hokkaido 785/789 series Super Kamui
 JR Hokkaido 785/789 series Suzuran
 JR Hokkaido 785-300 series (Japan Railfan Magazine)

Electric multiple units of Japan
Hokkaido Railway Company
Train-related introductions in 1990
Hitachi multiple units
20 kV AC multiple units
Kawasaki multiple units

785 series


The Italic peoples were an ethnolinguistic group identified by their use of Italic languages, a branch of the Indo-European language family.

The Italic peoples are descended from the Urnfield and Tumulus culture, Indo-European speaking peoples who inhabited Italy from at least the second millennium BC onwards. Latins achieved a dominant position among these tribes, establishing ancient Roman civilization. During this development, other Italic tribes adopted Latin language and culture in a process known as Romanization. This process was eventually extended to certain parts of Europe. The ethnic groups which emerged as a result are known as Romance peoples.

Classification

The Italics were an ethnolinguistic group who are identified by their use of the Italic languages, which form one of the branches of Indo-European languages.

Outside of the specialised linguistic literature, the term is also used to describe the ancient peoples of Italy as defined in Roman times, including pre-Roman peoples like the Etruscans and the Raetians, who did not speak Indo-European languages. Such use is improper in linguistics, but employed by sources such as the Encyclopædia Britannica, which contends that «Italy attained a unified ethnolinguistic, political, and cultural physiognomy only after the Roman conquest, yet its most ancient peoples remain anchored in the names of the regions of Roman Italy — Latium, Campania, Apulia, Bruttium, Lucania, Emilia Romagna, Samnium, Picenum, Umbria, Etruria, Venetia, and Liguria».

History

Copper Age

During the Copper Age, at the same time that metalworking appeared, Indo-European speaking peoples are believed to have migrated to Italy in several waves. Associated with this migration are the Remedello culture and Rinaldone culture in Northern and Central Italy, and the Gaudo culture of Southern Italy. These cultures were led by a warrior-aristocracy and are considered intrusive. Their Indo-European character is suggested by the presence of weapons in burials, the appearance of the horse in Italy at this time and material similarities with cultures of Central Europe.

Early and Middle Bronze Age

According to David W. Anthony, between 3100 and 3000 BC, a massive migration of Proto-Indo-Europeans from the Yamnaya culture took place into the Danube Valley. Thousands of kurgans are attributed to this event. These migrations probably split off Pre-Italic, Pre-Celtic and Pre-Germanic from Proto-Indo-European. By this time the Anatolian peoples and the Tocharians had already split off from other Indo-Europeans. Hydronymy shows that the Proto-Germanic homeland was in Central Germany, which would be very close to the homeland of Italic and Celtic languages as well. The origin of a hypothetical ancestral "Italo-Celtic" people is to be found in today's eastern Hungary, settled around 3100 BC by the Yamnaya culture. This hypothesis is to some extent supported by the observation that Italic shares a large number of isoglosses and lexical terms with Celtic and Germanic, some of which are more likely to be attributed to the Bronze Age. In particular, using Bayesian phylogenetic methods, Russell Gray and Quentin Atkinson argued that Proto-Italic speakers separated from Proto-Germanics 5500 years before present, i.e. roughly at the start of the Bronze Age. This is further confirmed by the fact that the Germanic language family shares more vocabulary with the Italic family than with the Celtic language family.

From the late third to the early second millennium BC, tribes coming both from the north and from Franco-Iberia brought the Beaker culture and the use of bronze smithing, to the Po Valley, to Tuscany and to the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily. The Beakers could have been the link which brought the Yamnaya dialects from Hungary to Austria and Bavaria. These dialects might then have developed into Proto-Celtic. The arrival of Indo-Europeans into Italy is in some sources ascribed to the Beakers. A migration across the Alps from East-Central Europe by early Indo-Europeans is thought to have occurred around 1800 BC. According to Barfield the appearance of Polada culture is connected to the movement of new populations coming from southern Germany and from Switzerland. According to Bernard Sergent, the origin of the Ligurian linguistic family (in his opinion distantly related to the Celtic and Italic ones) would have to be found in the Polada and Rhone cultures, southern branches of the Unetice culture. These individuals settled in the foothills of the Eastern Alps and present a material culture similar to contemporary cultures of Switzerland, Southern Germany, and Austria.

In the mid-second millennium BCE, the Terramare culture developed in the Po Valley. The Terramare culture takes its name from the black earth (terra marna) residue of settlement mounds, which have long served the fertilizing needs of local farmers. These people were still hunters, but had domesticated animals; they were fairly skillful metallurgists, casting bronze in moulds of stone and clay, and they were also agriculturists, cultivating beans, the vine, wheat and flax. The Latino-Faliscan people have been associated with this culture, especially by the archaeologist Luigi Pigorini.

Late Bronze Age

The Urnfield culture might have brought proto-Italic people from among the "Italo-Celtic" tribes who remained in Hungary into Italy. These tribes are thought to have penetrated Italy from the east during the late second millennium BC through the Proto-Villanovan culture. They later crossed the Apennine Mountains and settled central Italy, including Latium. Before 1000 BC several Italic tribes had probably entered Italy. These divided into various groups and gradually came to occupy central Italy and southern Italy. This period was characterized by widespread upheaval in the Mediterranean, including the emergence of the Sea Peoples and the Late Bronze Age collapse.

The Proto-Villanovan culture dominated the peninsula and replaced the preceding Apennine culture. The Proto-Villanovans practiced cremation and buried the ashes of their dead in Urnfield-style double-cone shaped funerary urns, often decorated with geometric designs. Elite graves containing jewellery, bronze armour and horse harness fittings were separated from ordinary graves, showing for the first time the development of a highly hierarchical society, so characteristic of Indo-European cultures. The burial characteristics relate the Proto-Villanovan culture to the Central European Urnfield culture and Celtic Hallstatt culture that succeeded it. It is not possible to tell these apart in their earlier stages. Generally speaking, Proto-Villanovan settlements have been found in almost the whole Italian peninsula from Veneto to eastern Sicily, although they were most numerous in the northern-central part of Italy. The most important settlements excavated are those of Frattesina in Veneto region, Bismantova in Emilia-Romagna and near the Monti della Tolfa, north of Rome. Various authors, such as Marija Gimbutas, associated this culture with the arrival, or the spread, of the proto-Italics into the Italian peninsula.

In the 13th century BC, Proto-Celts (probably the ancestors of the Lepontii people), coming from the area of modern-day Switzerland, eastern France and south-western Germany (RSFO Urnfield group), entered Northern Italy (Lombardy and eastern Piedmont), starting the Canegrate culture, who not long time after, merging with the indigenous Ligurians, produced the mixed Golasecca culture.

Iron Age

In the early Iron Age, the relatively homogeneous Proto-Villanovan culture (1200-900 BC), closely associated with the Celtic Hallstatt culture of Alpine Austria, characterised by the introduction of iron-working and the practice of cremation coupled with the burial of ashes in distinctive pottery, shows a process of fragmentation and regionalisation. In Tuscany and in part of Emilia-Romagna, Latium and Campania, the Proto-Villanovan culture was followed by the Villanovan culture. The earliest remains of Villanovan culture date back to circa 900 BC.

In the region south of the Tiber (Latium Vetus), the Latial culture of the Latins emerged, while in the north-east of the peninsula the Este culture of the Veneti appeared. Roughly in the same period, from their core area in central Italy (modern-day Umbria and Sabina region), the Osco-Umbrians began to emigrate in various waves, through the process of Ver sacrum, the ritualized extension of colonies, in southern Latium, Molise and the whole southern half of the peninsula, replacing the previous tribes, such as the Opici and the Oenotrians. This corresponds with the emergence of the Terni culture, which had strong similarities with the Celtic cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène. The Umbrian necropolis of Terni, which dates back to the 10th century BC, was identical in every aspect to the Celtic necropolis of the Golasecca culture.

Antiquity
By the mid-first millennium BC, the Latins of Rome were growing in power and influence. This led to the establishment of ancient Roman civilization. In order to combat the non-Italic Etruscans, several Italic tribes united in the Latin League. After the Latins had liberated themselves from Etruscan rule they acquired a dominant position among the Italic tribes. Frequent conflict between various Italic tribes followed. The best documented of these are the wars between the Latins and the Samnites.

The Latins eventually succeeded in unifying the Italic elements in the country. Many non-Latin Italic tribes adopted Latin culture and acquired Roman citizenship. During this time Italic colonies were established throughout the country, and non-Italic elements eventually adopted the Latin language and culture in a process known as Romanization. In the early first century BC, several Italic tribes, in particular the Marsi and the Samnites, rebelled against Roman rule. This conflict is called the Social War. After Roman victory was secured, all peoples in Italy, except for the Celts of the Po Valley, were granted Roman citizenship.

In the subsequent centuries, Italic tribes were assimilated into Latin culture in a process known as Romanization.

Theatre

The Italic peoples such as the Etruscans had already developed forms of theatrical literature. The legend, also reported by Livy, speaks of a pestilence that had struck Rome, at the beginning, and the request for Etruscan historians. The Roman historian thus refused the filiation from the Greek theater before contacts with Magna Graecia and its theatrical traditions. There are no architectural and artistic testimonies of the Etruscan theater. A very late source, such as the historian Varro, mentions the name of a certain Volnio who wrote tragedies in the Etruscan language.

Even the Samnites had original representational forms that had a lot of influence on Roman dramaturgy such as the Atellan Farce comedies, and some architectural testimonies such as the theater of Pietrabbondante in Molise, and that of Nocera Superiore on which the Romans built their own. The construction of the Samnite theaters of Pietrabbondante and Nocera make the architectural filiation of the Greek theater understood.

Genetics

A genetic study published in Science in November 2019 examined the remains of six Latin males buried near Rome between 900 BC and 200 BC. They carried the paternal haplogroups R-M269, R-311, R-PF7589 and R-P312 and the maternal haplogroups H1aj1a, T2c1f, H2a, U4a1a, H11a and H10. A female from the preceding Proto-Villanovan culture carried the maternal haplogroups U5a2b. These examined individuals were distinguished from preceding populations of Italy by the presence of about 25–35% steppe ancestry. Overall, the genetic differentiation between the Latins, Etruscans and the preceding proto-villanovan population of Italy was found to be insignificant.

See also
 List of ancient Italic peoples
 Romance-speaking world
 Legacy of the Roman Empire
 Pan-Latinism

References

Sources

Further reading
M. Aberson, R. Wachter, «Ombriens, Sabins, Picéniens, peuples sabelliques des Abruzzes : une enquête historique, épigraphique et linguistique", in : Entre archéologie et Histoire : dialogues sur divers peuples de l'Italie préromaine, Bern, etc., 2014, p. 167-201.

Indo-European peoples

Italic peoples


Hans Henrik Andersen (May 1, 1937 in Frederiksberg, Denmark – November 3, 2012) was a professor at the Niels Bohr Institute at the University of Copenhagen (emeritus since 2004). He was the founder and subsequently co-editor of the scientific journal "Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B".

He has made important contributions to various fields of atomic physics and solid state physics, especially in the field of the stopping power of matter for fast charged particles. The accuracy (0.3–0.5%) of his measurements is unsurpassed even today (2006). They were done by measuring the amount of heat deposited in a foil at the temperature of liquid helium (−269 °C).

Together with his collaborators, he succeeded in showing in 1969 that the stopping power for fast alpha particles is more than four times as large as that for protons. Since the atomic number (Z) of alpha particles is exactly twice as big as that of protons, that means that the stopping power is not exactly proportional to Z2, as the simple Bethe formula would have it. That was an additional proof of the existence of the Barkas effect.

Literature

References

1937 births
2012 deaths
20th-century Danish physicists
Danish nuclear physicists

Hans Henrik Andersen


Antonio Santosuosso (1936-12 July 2014) was a Professor Emeritus of History at the University of Western Ontario in London, Ontario.

Assessment of the Battle of Tours
In Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels, Santosuosso, considered an expert historian of the Carolingian era, makes a case that the defeats of invading Muslim armies by Charles Martel, including the famous defeat at Tours, were important as in their defense of Western Christianity and the preservation of those Christian monasteries and centres of learning which ultimately led Europe out of the Dark Ages. He also makes a case that while Tours was considered by western historians such as Creasy to be of macrohistorical importance, the later battles were more so. The later invading forces defeated in those campaigns had come to set up permanent outposts for expansion, and there can be no doubt that these three defeats combined broke the back of Islamic expansion in Europe while the Caliphate was still united.  Further, Santosuosso dates the ties between the Papacy and the Carolingians to this period, and credits Charles Martel with beginning a much greater martial vigor in Christianity.  Dr. Santosuosso in Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels page 212 says "The stemming of the Muslim advance at Poitiers in 732 and the Frankish kings' decision to become the champions of Papal claims against the Longobards in Italy strengthened the Christian acceptance of the idea of war."

Sources

Soldiers, Citizens, and the Symbols of War: From Classical Greece to Republican Rome, 500-167 B.C. (1997),
Storming the Heavens: Soldiers, Emperors, and Civilians in the Roman Empire (2001),
Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels: The Ways of Medieval Warfare (2004),

1936 births
20th-century Canadian historians
Canadian male non-fiction writers
Canadian medievalists
Academic staff of the University of Western Ontario
2014 deaths
21st-century Canadian historians

Antonio Santosuosso


The Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813 () broke out in China under the Qing dynasty. The rebellion was started by some elements of the millenarian Tianli Sect (天理教) or Heavenly Principle Sect, which was a branch of the White Lotus Sect. Led by Lin Qing (林清; 1770–1813) and Li Wencheng, the revolt occurred in the Zhili, Shandong, and Henan provinces of China.

In 1812, the leaders of the Eight Trigram Sect (Bagua jiao) also known as the Sect of Heavenly Order (Tianli jiao)  announced that leader Li Wencheng was a 'true lord of the Ming' and declared 1813 as the year for rebellion, while Lin Qing declared himself the reincarnation of Maitreya, the prophesied future Buddha in Buddhism, using banners with the inscription "Entrusted by Heaven to Prepare the Way", a reference to the popular novel Water Margin. They considered him sent by the Eternal Unborn Mother of esoteric Chinese religions, to remove the Qing dynasty whom they regarded as having lost the Mandate of Heaven to rule.

The third leader was Feng Keshan, who was called the "King of Earth", Li titled the "King of Men", and Lin referred to as "King of Heaven".

The group won support from several powerful Eunuchs in the Forbidden City. On 15 September 1813, the group attacked the imperial palace in Beijing. The rebels made it into the city, and may have been successful in overthrowing the Qing had not Prince Mianning—the future emperor—used his forbidden musket to repel the invaders.

The rebellion is seen as being similar to the previous White Lotus Rebellion, with the former being of religious intent and the latter leaders of the Eight Trigram appearing more interested in personal power by overthrowing the Qing dynasty.

History

Leading up to Rebellion

Leader Lin Qing (林清; 1770–1813) was a hustler who drifted between odd jobs before taking over a local White Lotus sect. He met Li Wencheng in 1811, who at the time was acquiring control over a network of similar sects. Feng Keshan was a martial artist with strong ties to martial arts groups in the border region between Shandong, Henan and Zhili, and thus access to a large pool of recruits for rebellion, although he was significantly less interested in religious affairs. The name "Eight Trigrams" comes from the ancient Chinese divination text I Ching.

Lin Qing and Li Wencheng were partially inspired by the appearance in 1811 of a bright comet. Although the imperial government took this comet to predict glory for the dynasty, Lin and Li saw it as an "auspicious blessing for their enterprise". Dividing their followers into eight "trigrams", they told them that "when Li Wencheng has risen up, everyone who had given money or grain" to their enterprise "would be given land or official rank."

During July 1813, the main leaders of the Eight Trigrams met to set a date for the rebellion. They were prompted by droughts and floods, as well as by sharp increases in the price of wheat, and set 15 September as an appropriate time for the rebellion to begin. In addition to being right after the harvest, the Jiaqing Emperor was scheduled to be out of Beijing on a hunting trip, so the Forbidden City would be lightly guarded. The plan was that when Jiaqing returned to Beijing, they would attack him outside the city and assassinate him.

Li Wencheng was to rise in Huaxian and march northward to gather more followers and converge with Lin Qing in Beijing.

Beijing officials heard rumors of the planned rebellion and arrested Li Wencheng on 2 September. Officials tortured Li, but before they hurt him too seriously, Li's followers broke in and released him. This event pushed forward the date of the rebellion, and by 6 September, the members were busy collecting weapons. Followers of the Eight Trigrams quickly took control of the towns of Huaxian, Caoxian, and Dingtao in southern Zhili and Shandong provinces.

Assault of the Forbidden City
Lin Qing was in charge of the attack on the Forbidden City, although he personally did not participate in the attack. The rebels hid in shops outside the Eastern and Western palace gates. Lin enlisted several palace eunuchs to lead his approximately 250 followers through the gates. To distinguish themselves, the rebels tied white cloth around their heads and waists. Armed with knives and iron bars, they planned to enter the Forbidden City at noon, when the guards would be eating their meals. In addition, the Jiaqing Emperor was less than fifty miles from the city walls. This plan met with mixed success and about eighty rebels made it through the gates before they were closed. Fighting soon erupted as the Manchus realized that the rebels were inside the gates. It was at this time that Prince Mianning joined the battle and used his musket to wound one rebel and to kill another.

Aftermath
With the advantage of surprise lost, the rebels turned and fled. Under the leadership of the Ti Prince the princes Cheng, Mianzhi, Mianning, as well as officers of the Imperial Guards Brigade and loyal eunuchs, the surviving rebels were hunted down.

Several thousand supporters continued besieging several cities from their headquarters in Huaxian, Henan province for several months until suppressed by Qing forces on 1 January 1814.

Li Wencheng, along with 4000 supporters, withdrew to Huixian. He self-immolated and died while besieged by Qing troops. His wife Li Zhangshi kept Huaxian until the following year when she hanged herself as the city fell.

During the battle at the Forbidden City, a total of thirty-one rebels were killed and forty-four captured alive, but before it was over the rebels had either murdered or injured over a hundred people in the palace. By the time the government suppressed the revolt, more than 20,000 Eight Trigrams members had been killed. It is estimated that 70,000 were killed in total during the period of disorder.

See also
White Lotus Rebellion
Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)

References

Further reading
Naquin, Susan. Millenarian Rebellion in China: The Eight Trigrams Uprising of 1813. Yale University Press, 1976.

19th-century rebellions
Rebellions in the Qing dynasty
19th century in China
Conflicts in 1813
1813 in China
Millenarianism

Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813


A ceiling is the upper surface of a room.

Ceiling may also refer to:

Ceiling function in mathematics
Glass ceiling, a barrier to advancement of a qualified person
Ceiling (aeronautics), the maximum density altitude an aircraft can reach under a set of conditions
Price ceiling, an imposed limit on the price of a product
Ceiling (cloud), the height above ground at which (accumulated) cloud layers cover more than 50% of the sky
 Ceilings (album), an album by Dentist
"The Ceiling" (short story), a 2001 short story by American writer Kevin Brockmeier
 The Ceiling (album), a 2019 album by Jaws
 Katto, also known as The Ceiling, a short film that competed in the Short Film Palme d'Or group at the 2017 Cannes Film Festival

See also
Ceiling effect (disambiguation)

Ceiling (disambiguation)


Yvonne and Christine Lerolle at the Piano (Yvonne et Christine Lerolle au piano) is an 1897 oil painting (73 x 92 cm) by the French painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir representing his late work period (1892–1919).  It is kept at the Musée de l'Orangerie in Paris.

Background
Renoir achieved great success with his portraits, becoming the favourite painter for the French bourgeoisie. This meant that the Parisian bourgeoisie accepted impressionist painters and rejected the works of academic masters. The Lerolle family was a great protector of the new creators, especially French Impressionist artist Edgar Degas (1834–1917).

Description

Yvonne dresses in white and strives to play a piece on the piano while her sister Christine contemplates the score in an accomplice way. Although Renoir does not renounce capturing natural light and colour, he is particularly interested in the modelling and drawing of the figures, wrapped in an atmosphere that does not manage to dilute the contours like Claude Monet (1840–1926), the French painter and founder of Impressionism.

The expressiveness of the two models is another point of reference in the work, although in recent works Renoir does not load the inks on the personality of his models as in his early works (see Léonard Renoir or Victor Chocquet). In this way, Renoir presents himself as a painter who gives joy and a certain romanticism to his compositions, achieving an important success before the public, as proof that this work was the first acquired by the French State.

Like Girls at the Piano (1892) before it, Yvonne and Christine Lerolle at the Piano is also significant on the formal level since the pictorial material here is no longer treated with the severely linear style of the previous decade, but with a renewed freshness and a recovery of the chromatic harmonies typical of the impressionist phase of the painter. An optimistic theme, much loved by bourgeois collectors, is portrayed: that of girls in a domestic atmosphere, playing games, reading or, as in this case, practicing music.

Renoir describes with great precision various details of the domestic environment in which the girls find themselves, focusing mainly on the two paintings hanging on the wall, in this case Before the Race and A Group of Dancers, both by Degas. The dominant colour is the white of the girl's dress in the foreground, which, however, does not resolve itself in the soft luminosity that flooded Girls at the Piano, creating an all in all cold atmosphere.

Renoir addresses several iconographic models in this canvas. Transparent is the reference to contemporary paintings by French Impressionist painter Berthe Morisot (1841–1895), who loved to paint domestic scenes of this type: in the nineteenth century, in fact, the home assumed new meanings, and became a place to escape from the alienating and depersonalizing frenzy of modern civilization. The scene as a whole is also linked to the genre scenes of 17th century Dutch painters, especially Dutch Baroque Period painter Johannes Vermeer (1632–1675), the author of paintings that stand out for their tame, pearly quietness.

Provenance
The painting, completed in 1897, was purchased by Henry Roujon during the exhibition dedicated to the painter. At the instigation of Stéphane Mallarmé, Roujon intended to create a collection of living artists, of contemporary art, to be permanently exhibited at the Luxembourg Palace in Paris: this is a detail that shows how, at the end of the 19th century, Renoir had by then become one of the most famous French artists. Today the painting is on display at the Musée de l'Orangerie.

See also
 List of paintings by Pierre-Auguste Renoir

References

External links
  Yvonne and Christine Lerolle at the Piano (Musée de l'Orangerie)
  Yvonne e Christine Lerolle al piano
 Le destin brisé de Christine et Yvonne
 Yvonne et Christine Lerolle au piano, ca. 1897; Renoir

19th-century portraits
Lerolle
Portraits of women
1897 paintings
Musical instruments in art
Paintings in the Musée de l'Orangerie