William Dickes (1815-1892) was an English illustrator, engraver, printmaker and lithographer.

Dickes worked as apprentice to the wood-engraver Robert Edward Branston, Allen Robert Branston's son, in about 1831. He studied at the Royal Academy Schools in 1835 and displayed examples of oil-colour printing at the Great Exhibition. He founded William Dickes & Company in London about 1864, his workshop and office being at 48 Salisbury Square, Fleet Street, London (1846–48); 4 Crescent Place, Bridge Street, Blackfriars, London (1849–51); 5 Old Fish Street, Doctor's Common, London (c.1852); 109 Farringdon Road, London (c.1867-1875). Dickes retired in 1873.

William Dickes was one of a group of London-based wood-engravers who saw in the developing market for illustration a great opportunity to profitably use their technical and artistic skills - the burgeoning book and periodical trade in London created an insatiable demand for images. Dickes assembled a team of wood-engravers between 1842 and 1847 to illustrate the Abbotsford edition of Walter Scott's work.

Dickes specialised in illustrating books on natural history—such as works by Anne Pratt— and was a licensee of the Baxter Process of printing. His biographer, Alfred Docker, bequeathed 1370 works by Dickes to the British Museum in 1931 and these are kept at Blythe House.

Dickes collected many awards for the quality of his lithography. Although starting with wood-engraving, he moved to and developed new processes in colour lithography using copper plates. His work was exhibited at International Exhibitions in London, Dublin and Paris in the 1860s.

Chromolithography reached its pinnacle toward the end of the 1800s. Colour images were printed using multiple stones, each printing a different colour in a process calling for precise alignment.

Illustrations
 Glaucus or The Wonders of the Shore - Charles Kingsley, MacMillan & Co., 1859
 Actinologia Britannica - A History of the British Sea-Anemones and Corals - Philip Henry Gosse, Van Voorst, 1860
 Studies from the Great Masters - Rev. Bennet George Johns, Hamilton, Adams and Co., London, 1862
A Year With the Wild Flowers - Edith Waddy, Wesleyan Conference Office of London, 1877
The Flowering Plants, Grasses, Sedges, & Ferns of Great Britain and their allies, the club mosses, horsetails, etc. - Anne Pratt (1806–1893), Edward Step (1855–1931), F. Warne, 1905

Bibliography
 The Colour Prints of William Dickes - Alfred Docker, London, Courier Press, 1924

References

External links

1815 births
1892 deaths
English illustrators
English engravers
Place of birth missing

William Dickes


Albert Marre (September 20, 1924 – September 4, 2012) was an American stage director and producer. He directed the stage musical Man of La Mancha in 1965, for which he won the Tony Award for Best Director of a Musical.

Biography

Early life
He was born in New York City as Albert Elliot Moshinsky. He received a bachelor's degree from Oberlin College. He enlisted in the United States Navy Reserve where he was initially held the rank of Seaman Apprentice. He attended the Naval Oriental Language School in Boulder, Colorado and then deployed to Berlin. After service in the Navy, he attended Harvard Law School. He joined a drama group at Harvard, where he met his first wife, actress Jan Farrand.

Career
Marre made his Broadway debut as an actor and associate director of the 1950 revival of John Vanbrugh's Restoration comedy The Relapse. He directed a production of Shaw's Misalliance. He directed Kismet on Broadway in 1954, for which he received the 1954 Donaldson Award (precursor to the Tonys) for Best Director of a Musical.
The cast of Kismet included Alfred Drake, Doretta Morrow, Richard Kiley and Joan Diener. Diener and Marre married in 1956, the same year he was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Director for The Chalk Garden. In 1956 he directed a Broadway revival of Shaw's Saint Joan starring Irish actress Siobhán McKenna.

In 1957, Marre directed the Jean Anouilh play, Time Remembered (translated by Patricia Moyes) on Broadway, which starred Helen Hayes, Richard Burton, Susan Strasberg and Sig Arno. The production received five Tony nominations including Best Play, and Hayes won the prize for Best Actress.

He directed a production of At the Grand, a musical version of Vicki Baum's 1930 novel, Grand Hotel, in Los Angeles in 1958, with Marre's wife, Joan Diener, as the opera diva who falls in love with a charming, but larcenous, faux baron. Marre returned to New York where he directed Jerry Herman's first Broadway musical, Milk and Honey in 1961, nominated for five Tony Awards including Best Musical. He directed a revival of Shaw's little-known Too True to Be Good, on Broadway in 1963, with an all-star cast that included Lillian Gish, Cyril Ritchard, Glynis Johns and David Wayne.

Several misfires were followed by what proved to be his greatest success, Dale Wasserman, Joe Darion and Mitch Leigh's Man of La Mancha (1965), again pairing Kiley and Diener. Marre won the Tony Award for Best Director of a Musical. He went on to direct numerous national and international productions of the hit musical, as well as the Broadway revivals in 1972, 1977, and 1992. He was signed to direct the screen version but was replaced first by Peter Glenville, and ultimately by Arthur Hiller, in favor of a more experienced film director. The film, starring Peter O'Toole and Sophia Loren, was critically and financially unsuccessful.

Marre's subsequent collaborations with Leigh and his wife, the musicals Cry for Us All (1970) and Home Sweet Homer (1976), were not successful.

Marre directed two versions of Chu Chem, a musical by Leigh, Ted Allan, Jim Haines and Jack Wohl. The original in 1966, starring Menasha Skulnick and Molly Picon, closed out of town in Philadelphia). A second version opened Off-Broadway in 1988 at the Jewish Repertory Theatre. Buoyed by good reviews from critics at The New York Times and The New York Post, the show was subsequently moved to Broadway in April 1989, where it was not as well received and closed after 45 performances.

In 1948, Marre was one of the co-founders of the historic Brattle Theatre in Cambridge, Massachusetts, one of the country's first classical repertory companies (and one not built on the not-for-profit model), which yielded five years of classics and new plays, many of which moved on to subsequent New York productions.

In 1953, he was hired by Lincoln Kirstein to be the first Artistic Director for the New York City Drama Company at City Center, where he directed its first theatrical season, which were Love's Labour Lost (February 1953), The Merchant of Venice (March 1953) and Misalliance (April 1953).

He was an active director in both London and Los Angeles, particularly for Los Angeles Civic Light Opera Company, where he directed many major star-studded revivals including Burt Lancaster in Knickerbocker Holiday.

He directed one of the inaugural productions at the Ahmanson Theatre/Los Angeles Music Center, The Sorrows of Frederick by Romulus Linney in 1967, which starred Fritz Weaver.

Personal life
In the late 1940s, Marre was married to actress Jan Farrand, who played numerous leads with the Brattle Theatre and later on Broadway; the marriage ended in divorce. Marre and actress Joan Diener wed in 1956, had two children, Jennifer and Adam, and remained married until her death in 2006.

In 2009, Marre married actress-lyricist Mimi Turque, to whom he remained wed until his death three years later. He died on September 4, 2012, aged 87, at Mt. Sinai Hospital, New York City, after a long illness. Turque had played Antonia, Don Quixote's niece, in the original production of Man of La Mancha.

References

External links

1924 births
2012 deaths
20th-century American Jews
American male stage actors
American choreographers
American theatre directors
American theatre managers and producers
Donaldson Award winners
Tony Award winners
Male actors from New York City
Oberlin College alumni
United States Navy reservists
United States Navy sailors
Harvard Law School alumni
21st-century American Jews

Albert Marre


Herb Scharfman (August 24, 1912 – February 21, 1998) was an American photographer notable for several famous photographs of American sports people published by Sports Illustrated and other publications.

Scharfman, a native of Chicago, began his career in New York as a stringer for International News Photo. His picture of Rocky Marciano's knockout punch in a 1952 bout against Jersey Joe Walcott is widely considered to be one of the most iconic photographs in the history of photojournalism. He later chronicled Roger Maris during his pursuit of Babe Ruth's single-season home run record in 1961. Scharfman's photo of that record breaking moment is one of baseball's most famous photos.

After International News Photo went out of business, Scharfman joined the staff of Sports Illustrated. Although his photographs graced the magazine's cover fifteen times in a ten-year span, he is best known for a photo in which he appears—Neil Leifer's shot of Muhammad Ali standing over a fallen Sonny Liston in their 1964 rematch. Scharfman was directly across the ring from Leifer, appearing between the legs of Ali in the iconic image. Lefier later said, "Herbie Scharfman was one of the greats, but on that night, he was in the wrong seat."

References

External links
Famous Marciano-Walcott Photo
Scharfman's Photo of Maris' 61st homer
Leifer discusses Scharfman in Ali-Liston photo
Gallery of Scharfman's Roger Maris photos
SI Cover shot of Curt Flood
Herb Scharfman bio

1912 births
1998 deaths
American photojournalists
Journalists from New York City

Herb Scharfman


Ceratodon purpureus is a dioicous moss with a color ranging from yellow-green to red. The height amounts to 3 centimeters. It is found worldwide, mainly in urban areas and next to roads on dry sand soils. It can grow in a very wide variety of habitats, from polluted highway shoulders and mine tailings to areas recently denuded by wildfire to the bright slopes of Antarctica. Its common names include redshank, purple forkmoss, ceratodon moss, fire moss, and purple horn toothed moss.

Description
Fire moss is a native, short moss that forms dense tufts or sometimes cushions.  The stems are erect, usually about 0.5 inch (1.3 cm) long.  The upper 0.19 inch (0.5 cm) is current year's growth; often slightly branched by forking at the tip of the old growth.  The stems sometimes become 2.4 to 3.1 inches (7–8 cm) long in shaded places.  Leaves are short and hairlike, spreading when moist; somewhat folded or twisted when dry.

Fire moss contains photoprotective pigments, which are a useful adaptation for the bright Antarctic environment.  Leaf pigment varies from green to ginger.

Distribution and habitat
Fire moss likely occurs in every country throughout the world but is possibly replaced by closely related taxa in tropical latitudes. It is widespread throughout Canada, where it is known from every province and territory.  In the United States it occurs in every state.

Fire moss is able to tolerate much higher pollution levels than other mosses.  It is common in urban and industrial environments subjected to a variety of pollutants, along highways, and on the tailings and refuse associated with both coal and heavy-metal mining activities.

Fire moss is often found on disturbed sites.  It occurs on a wide range of substrates including soil, rock, wood, humus, old roofs, sand, and cracks of sidewalks. It is most abundant on exposed, compact, mineral, dry, gravelly or sandy soils but tolerates a wide range of soil textures.  Sand dunes close to water in Scotland are colonized by fire moss, which grows between the shoots of grasses.

Life cycle
Fire moss is dioecious, reproducing generatively with spores and vegetatively through protonemata. The capsules are held horizontally on the end of a long seta (fruit stalk).  Fire moss generally fruits abundantly.  Wind is the main method of spore dispersal.

Spore germination in fire moss is a two-phase process.  Spores first swell then distend.  Usually the setae are present in great numbers in the colony; with changes in humidity they twist and untwist.  This movement helps to jerk the capsules, helping in spore discharge. Possibly the contraction of the grooves in the capsule at maturity also helps to squeeze out the spores.  Spores of fire moss have remained viable even after drying for 16 years.

Fire moss reproduces vegetatively via protonemata (threadlike or platelike growths).

Fire moss sporophytes appear early in the spring, as soon as the snow melts.  In March, the setae reach their full height and begin to turn from green to red.  Capsules mature by late spring.  By midsummer the capsules often decay, and the setae break from the moss.

Microarthropod-mediated fertilization

A 2012 study has found that male and female fire moss emit different and complex volatile organic scents. Female plants emit more compounds than male plants. Springtails were found to choose female plants preferentially, and the study found that springtails enhance moss fertilization. All together, the results seem to suggest a plant-pollinator relationship analogous to those found in flowering plants.

Ecology
Fire moss prefers low competition and high light; however, it is somewhat shade tolerant, and has, for example, been reported to grow in artificially illuminated caves. It is a colonizer of disturbed sites and readily invades mineral soil by spores.  Fire moss is typically found associated with other species characteristic of disturbed sites such as fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium) and pearly everlasting (Anaphalis margaritacea).  Fire moss is often replaced by flowering plants in later stages of succession.  In the black spruce (Picea mariana)-lichen woodlands of Alaska and Canada, the first stage of revegetation, which lasts from 1 to 20 years, is dominated by pioneer mosses such as fire moss.  Fire moss continues to increase in the early part of the shrub stage but begins to decrease toward the end of this stage.

Fire moss will colonize burned areas through lightweight, off-site, wind-dispersed spores.  High-severity fire, which exposes mineral soil, provides ideal conditions for the germination of fire moss spores. Fire moss is often the dominant vegetation for several years following  high-severity fire.  It produces few spores late in the first postfire year and many in the second.  If fire takes place in early spring; gametophores can develop in 4 to 5 months.  If the fire takes place in the fall, colonization is slower.

References
This article incorporates text from the following source, which (as a U.S. government work) is in the public domain: Tesky, Julie L. 1992. "Ceratodon purpureus". Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory.

External links

USDA Plants Profile

Ditrichaceae
Bryophyta of New Zealand
Flora of the South Sandwich Islands
Flora of the Antipodes Islands

Ceratodon purpureus


The New York Forum is a New York-based organization, holding an annual meeting in New York City that brings together political and business leaders from around the world as well as journalists. The Forum was founded in 2010 by Moroccan businessman Richard Attias.

Origins

The New York Forum was initiated by Richard Attias, former organizer of the World Economic Forum and co-founder of the Clinton Global Initiative in order to create a global meeting "dedicated to growth".

Attias wanted to create "an event exclusively dedicated to economic issues" that would be solution oriented.

Participants and activities

Over the years participants have included Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg, businessman Ricardo Salinas and IMF director Christine Lagarde.

The New York Forum has built its own economic think-tank, The New York Forum Institute, created for "testing, exploring and sharing ways to rebuild confidence and credibility, and to reinvigorate the economy".

The two main topics of the 2014 discussions were 'Is technology killing jobs?' and 'What will be the economic impact of climate change?'.

New York Forum Africa

From June 8 to 10, 2012, the first edition of The New York Forum AFRICA was held in Libreville, Gabon. Many personalities such as Robert De Niro and Muhammad Yunus took part in the debates about Africa's economic future.

The Last New York Forum Africa took place from May 23 to 25, 2014 and focused on transformation of the continent: unlocking the competitiveness of the African economy through building value chains around the transformation of the continent's natural resources. Speakers and participants included President Paul Kagame from Rwanda, Laurent Fabius, French Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Development, Vicente Fox, ex-President of Mexico, Youssou N'Dour, former Minister of Tourism and Culture of Senegal, Tunisia's former Minister of Finance Jaloul Ayed, UN Under-Secretary General and Executive Secretary of ECA Carlos Lopes, International recording artist Akon, among others.

References

External links
 New York Forum
 New York Forum AFRICA

Organizations based in New York City

The New York Forum


Ronald M. Kaplan (born 1946) has served as a Vice President at Amazon.com  and Chief Scientist for Amazon Search (A9.com).  He was previously Vice President and Distinguished Scientist at Nuance Communications and director of Nuance' Natural Language and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.  Prior to that he served as Chief Scientist and a Principal Researcher at the Powerset division of Microsoft Bing. He is also an Adjunct Professor in the Linguistics Department at Stanford University and a Principal of Stanford's Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI). He was previously a Research Fellow at the Palo Alto Research Center (formerly the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center), where he was the manager of research in Natural Language Theory and Technology.

He received his bachelor's degree (1968) in Mathematics and Language Behavior from the University of California, Berkeley and his Master's (1970) and Ph.D. (1975) in Social Psychology from Harvard University. As a graduate student he  investigated how explicit computational models of grammar, particularly Augmented Transition Networks, could be embedded in models of human language performance, and he wrote the grammar for the LUNAR system, the first large-scale ATN grammar of English. He also developed the notions of consumer-producer and active-chart parsing. He designed (in collaboration with Joan Bresnan) the formal theory of Lexical Functional Grammar and produced its initial computational implementation. He developed (with Martin Kay) the mathematical, linguistic, and computational concepts that underlie the use of finite-state phonological and morphological descriptions.

He helped to embed finite-state methods in a wide range of commercial products offered by Xerox and by several Xerox spin-off companies: Microlytics, Inxight, and Scansoft. In the 1980s he served as Chief Scientist of Microlytics. He holds 36 patents for inventions in the language technology field.

He was honored with the 2019 Lifetime Achievement Award from the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL). He is a past President (1979) and an inaugural Fellow (2011) of the ACL, a co-recipient of the 1992 ACM Software Systems Award for his contribution to the Interlisp programming system, and a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery. He is also a Fellow of the Cognitive Science Society. During 1995–1996 he was a Fellow-in-Residence at the Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences. In 2006, he was honored with a festschrift titled Intelligent linguistic architectures: variations on themes by Ronald M. Kaplan, published by CSLI Publications. He was awarded honorary doctorates from Copenhagen University in 2013 and from the University of York in 2019.

External links
 ACM Award for Interlisp
 Intelligent Linguistic Architectures CSLI book about Kaplan's work.

Living people
1946 births
American computer scientists
Harvard University alumni
Stanford University Department of Linguistics faculty
Computational linguistics researchers
Scientists at PARC (company)
Fellows of the Cognitive Science Society
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Fellows of the Association for Computational Linguistics
Lisp (programming language) people
Presidents of the Association for Computational Linguistics

Ronald Kaplan


Tatul Tigrani Altunyan (Armenian: Թաթուլ Տիգրանի Ալթունյան; October 2 (15), 1901, Adana, Adana Vilayet, Ottoman Empire - November 29, 1973, Yerevan, Armenia) was an Armenian conductor, the founder of Armenian State Song-Dance Ensemble (currently named after him), People's Artist of USSR (1965), recipient of the State Prize of the USSR (1950) and university professor.

Altunyan was the student of Romanos Melikian and Spiridon Melikian. In 1934, after graduating from the Komitas State Conservatory of Yerevan, he studied at the Leningrad State Conservatory. Altunyan founded the Armenian National Song and Dance Ensemble in 1938, and acted as its principal conductor, giving performances around the world, until 1970. The ensemble is remembered as a "perfect illustration of the beauty of traditional Armenian music".

Altunyan died in 1973 and is buried at the Tokhmakh Cemetery in Yerevan, along with his wife Olga Altunyan. He is the father of conductor Zhirayr Altunyan, and composer Ruben Altunyan Karen Altunyan and Jilda Altunyan also .

References

External links
Biography (in Armenian)
TATUL ALTUNYAN'S ENSEMBLE 70 YEARS, Panorama.am, 2008

1901 births
1973 deaths
20th-century conductors (music)
People from Adana
People from Adana vilayet
Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
Saint Petersburg Conservatory alumni
People's Artists of Armenia
People's Artists of the USSR
Recipients of the Stalin Prize
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Recipients of the Order of the Red Star
Armenians from the Ottoman Empire
Armenian conductors (music)
Emigrants from the Ottoman Empire to the Russian Empire

Tatul Altunyan


Telescope is a Canadian  documentary series which aired on CBC Television between 1963 and 1973. The series was hosted by Fletcher Markle, which profiled notable Canadian people from celebrities to the unknown, who made a difference.

Starting in September 1966, Telescope was the first regular colour broadcast in Canada.  Its producer was Sam Levene.

In 2008, CBC offered 10 episodes of Telescope on their Digital Archives website. The episodes are from the 1970–71 season, and feature new host Ken Kavanagh.  Among those profiled were game show host Monty Hall, publisher Mel Hurtig, journalist Pat Carney, actor John Vernon, author Farley Mowat, amusement park impresario Patty Conklin, and underwater explorer Joe MacInnis. A 1970 episode featured actor Donald Sutherland including early footage of his son Kiefer.  Mentalist Uri Geller followed a week later by Ray Hyman and Jerry Andrus who explained and duplicated Geller's "paranormal" feats. First Nations filmmaker Alanis Obomsawin has stated that it was an interview with her on Telescope in the early 1960s that first brought her to the attention of the National Film Board of Canada.

References

External links
 Queen's University Directory of CBC Television Series (Telescope archived listing link via archive.org)

 CBC Digital Archives – Telescope

1963 Canadian television series debuts
1973 Canadian television series endings
1960s Canadian documentary television series
1970s Canadian documentary television series
Black-and-white Canadian television shows
CBC Television original programming
English-language television shows

Telescope (TV series)


Classical architecture usually denotes architecture which is more or less consciously derived from the principles of Greek and Roman architecture of classical antiquity, or sometimes more specifically, from the works of the Roman architect Vitruvius. Different styles of classical architecture have arguably existed since the Carolingian Renaissance, and prominently since the Italian Renaissance. Although classical styles of architecture can vary greatly, they can in general all be said to draw on a common "vocabulary" of decorative and constructive elements. In much of the Western world, different classical architectural styles have dominated the history of architecture from the Renaissance until World War II. Classical architecture continues to inform many architects.

The term classical architecture also applies to any mode of architecture that has evolved to a highly refined state, such as classical Chinese architecture, or classical Mayan architecture. It can also refer to any architecture that employs classical aesthetic philosophy. The term might be used differently from "traditional" or "vernacular architecture" although it can share underlying axioms with it.

For contemporary buildings following authentic classical principles, the term New Classical architecture is sometimes used.

History

Origins
Classical architecture is derived from the architecture of ancient Greece and ancient Rome. With the collapse of the western part of the Roman empire, the architectural traditions of the Roman empire ceased to be practised in large parts of western Europe. In the Byzantine Empire, the ancient ways of building lived on but relatively soon developed into a distinct Byzantine style. The first conscious efforts to bring back the disused language of form of classical antiquity into Western architecture can be traced to the Carolingian Renaissance of the late 8th and 9th centuries. The gatehouse of Lorsch Abbey (c. 800), in present-day Germany thus displays a system of alternating attached columns and arches which could be an almost direct paraphrase of e.g., that of the Colosseum in Rome. Byzantine architecture, just as Romanesque and even to some extent Gothic architecture (with which classical architecture is often posed), can also incorporate classical elements and details but do not to the same degree reflect a conscious effort to draw upon the architectural traditions of antiquity; for example, they do not observe the idea of a systematic order of proportions for columns. In general, therefore, they are not considered classical architectural styles in a strict sense.

Development

During the Italian Renaissance and with the demise of Gothic style, major efforts were made by architects such as Leon Battista Alberti, Sebastiano Serlio and Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola to revive the language of architecture of first and foremost ancient Rome. This was done in part through the study of the ancient Roman architectural treatise De architectura by Vitruvius, and to some extent by studying the actual remains of ancient Roman buildings in Italy. Nonetheless, the classical architecture of the Renaissance from the outset represents a highly specific interpretation of the classical ideas. In a building like the Ospedale degli Innocenti in Florence by Filippo Brunelleschi, one of the earliest Renaissance buildings (built 1419–1445), the treatment of the columns for example has no direct antecedent in ancient Roman architecture. During this time period, the study of ancient architecture developed into the architectural theory of classical architecture; somewhat over-simplified, that classical architecture in its variety of forms ever since have been interpretations and elaborations of the architectural rules set down during antiquity.

Most of the styles originating in post-Renaissance Europe can be described as classical architecture. This broad use of the term is employed by Sir John Summerson in The Classical Language of Architecture. The elements of classical architecture have been applied in radically different architectural contexts than those for which they were developed, however. For example, Baroque or Rococo architecture are styles which, although classical at root, display an architectural language much in their own right. During these periods, architectural theory still referred to classical ideas but rather less sincerely than during the Renaissance.

The Palladian architecture developed from the style of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio (1508–1580) had a great influence long after his death, above all in Britain, where it was adopted for many of the grander buildings of the Georgian architecture of the 18th and early 19th century.

As a reaction to late Baroque and Rococo forms, architectural theorists from circa 1750 through what became known as Neoclassicism again consciously and earnestly attempted to emulate antiquity, supported by recent developments in Classical archaeology and a desire for an architecture based on clear rules and rationality. Claude Perrault, Marc-Antoine Laugier and Carlo Lodoli were among the first theorists of Neoclassicism, while Étienne-Louis Boullée, Claude Nicolas Ledoux, Friedrich Gilly and John Soane were among the more radical and influential. Neoclassical architecture held a particularly strong position on the architectural scene c. 1750–1850. The competing neo-Gothic style however rose to popularity during the early 1800s, and the later part the 19th century was characterised by a variety of styles, some of them only slightly or not at all related to classicism (such as Art Nouveau), and Eclecticism. Although classical architecture continued to play an important role and for periods of time at least locally dominated the architectural scene, as exemplified by the Nordic Classicism during the 1920s, classical architecture in its stricter form never regained its former dominance. With the advent of Modernism during the early 20th century, classical architecture arguably almost ceased to be practised.

Scope

As noted above, classical styles of architecture dominated Western architecture for a long time, roughly from the Renaissance until the advent of Modernism. That is to say, that classical antiquity at least in theory was considered the prime source of inspiration for architectural endeavours in the West for much of Modern history. Even so, because of liberal, personal or theoretically diverse interpretations of the antique heritage, classicism covers a broad range of styles, some even so to speak cross-referencing, like Neo-Palladian architecture, which draws its inspiration from the works of Italian Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio, who himself drew inspiration from ancient Roman architecture. Furthermore, it can be argued that styles of architecture not typically considered classical, like Gothic, can contain classical elements. Therefore, a simple delineation of the scope of classical architecture is difficult to make. The more or less defining characteristic can still be said to be a reference to ancient Greek or Roman architecture, and the architectural rules or theories that derived from that architecture.

Petrification

In the grammar of architecture, the word petrification is often used when discussing the development of sacred structures such as temples, mainly with reference to developments in the Greek world. During the Archaic and early Classical periods (about the 6th and early 5th centuries BC), the architectural forms of the earliest temples had solidified and the Doric emerged as the predominant element. The most widely accepted theory in classical studies is that the earliest temple structures were of wood and the great forms, or elements of architectural style, were codified and rather permanent by the time the Archaic became emergent and established. It was during this period, at different times and places in the Greek world, that the use of dressed and polished stone replaced the wood in these early temples, but the forms and shapes of the old wooden styles were retained in a skeuomorphic fashion, just as if the wooden structures had turned to stone, thus the designation "petrification" or sometimes "petrified carpentry" for this process.

This careful preservation of the traditional wooden appearance in the stone fabric of the newer buildings was scrupulously observed and this suggests that it may have been dictated by religion rather than aesthetics, although the exact reasons are now lost in antiquity. Not everyone within the reach of Hellenic civilization made this transition. The Etruscans in Italy were, from their earliest period, greatly influenced by their contact with Greek culture and religion, but they retained their wooden temples (with some exceptions) until their culture was completely absorbed into the Roman world, with the great wooden Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol in Rome itself being a good example. Nor was it the lack of knowledge of stone working on their part that prevented them from making the transition from timber to dressed stone.

See also

 New Classical architecture
 Outline of classical architecture
 Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

References

Further reading
Sir John Summerson (rev. 1980) The Classical Language of Architecture .
Gromort Georges (Author), Richard Sammons (Introductory Essay). The Elements of Classical Architecture (Classical America Series in Art and Architecture), 2001, .
OpenSource Classicism – project for free educational content about classical architecture (video on YouTube)
The Foundations of Classical Architecture Part Two: Greek Classicism – free educational program by the ICAA (published August 29, 2018)

Classical architecture


The Gibson-Todd House was the site of the hanging of John Brown, the abolitionist who led a raid on Harpers Ferry, West Virginia before the opening of the American Civil War. The property is located in Charles Town, West Virginia, and includes a large Victorian style house built in 1891.

The house was built by John Thomas Gibson, who led the first armed response to Harpers Ferry during Brown's raid as commander of the Virginia Militia in Jefferson County.  Gibson went on to serve as an officer for the Confederacy.  After the war he was mayor of Charles Town.

Among those present at Brown's hanging were Stonewall Jackson, John McCausland, J.E.B. Stuart and John Wilkes Booth.  When the old Jefferson County jail was demolished, Gibson saved stones from the building and built a monument to the event on the property. The house post-dates Brown's hanging.

The house was designed by Thomas A. Mullett, son of Alfred B. Mullett. Mullett also designed the New Opera House and the new Charles Town jail.

References

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in West Virginia
Houses in Charles Town, West Virginia
Victorian architecture in West Virginia
John Brown sites
Houses completed in 1891
National Register of Historic Places in Jefferson County, West Virginia
1891 establishments in West Virginia

Gibson-Todd House


Paul-Louis Weiller (September 29, 1893, Paris - December 6, 1993, Geneva) was a French industrialist and philanthropist.

Biography
From a Jewish Alsatian family, Weiller was the son of the industrialist and politician Lazare Weiller (1858–1928) and Alice Anna Javal (1869–1943), scion of the Javal family, who rose to prominence in business, finance, and politics during the 19th century. His maternal grandfather was Louis Émile Javal. Through his mother he was the cousin of Louise Weiss and Jenny Aubry.

Weiller studied engineering at the École Centrale Paris and graduated in 1914 with a graduate diploma. He later became an aviation hero during the First World War. Using aerial photography during his reconnaissance flights, he was shot down on several occasions and wounded.

Receiving 12 honorable citations from the army, he was made an officer in the Legion of Honor at the age of 25 (the youngest officer in the Legion of Honor to be so awarded after Georges Guynemer and René Fonck), he finished the war next to maréchal Foch and was present at the signing of the Treaty of Versailles as an aide-de-camp to the allied armies.

A business leader from the age of 29 (from 1922 to 1940), Weiller developed the most important airplane engine factory in Europe, Gnome et Rhône, which became Snecma S. A. after nationalization in 1945. From 1925, he progressively purchased capital in the aviation company CIDNA. He also participated in the creation of airlines serving Africa, which were all nationalized in 1933 to become Air France, of which he was one of the company's first administrators (in 1933, he was offered the post of president of Air France by Pierre Cot, the then ministre de l'Air, but refused the offer).

In 1940, Weiller and his family, his wife Aliki, his son Paul-Annik and his mother-in-law, Hélène Diplarakos, travelled to Bordeaux, France, where they received transit visas to Portugal from the Portuguese consul Aristides de Sousa Mendes, on 22 June. The family crossed into Portugal and stayed in Monte Estoril, at the Grande Hotel D'Itália, between 15 August and 23 August 1940, and the Hotel Atlântico, between 23 August and 25 September 1940. The family then flew from Lisbon to New York City on the Pan Am Atlantic Clipper seaplane in October 1940, with the exception of Paul-Louis.

Arrested on 6 October 1940 in Royat, he was stripped of his French citizenship by the Vichy government and placed under house arrest in Marseille. He escaped in January 1942, fleeing first to Morocco, then to Cuba, and finally to Canada, where he contributed to the efforts of France libre (he was issued passport no. 1). His mother was deported and murdered at Auschwitz in 1943.

Returning to Europe after the war, he began to concentrate his business activities first on energy (oil exploration in Venezuela and the Gulf of Mexico; natural gas exploration in Texas; electricity companies in Japan, etc.), and then later he focused on international finance.  He subsequently became a philanthropist of the arts; through his influence and financial support, he contributed to the restoration of the Palace of Versailles, created a ballet company, and aided a number of artists (Robert Hossein, Roger Vadim, Maurice Béjart, Michèle Mercier, Brigitte Bardot, Alain Delon, etc.). His objective was to revive Paris as the capital of culture, an action that led to his election to the Académie des beaux-arts.

Paul-Louis Weiller led an active social life associating with the royal families of Europe, business and political leaders (Aristotle Onassis, Henry Ford II, Jean Paul Getty, Richard Nixon, and Georges Pompidou, some of whom from time to time worked for him), and personalities in the arts and entertainment, whom he gathered in last of the salon traditions as described by Marcel Proust.  His home on the French Riviera, the villa La Reine Jeanne (designed by the American architect Barry Dierks), attracted international society for the greater part of the 20th century.  Weiller's philanthropic activities included numerous charitable works.

A small park in the city of Sélestat (Bas-Rhin), of which he was made an honorary citizen, was named in his honor.

Family
On 29 August 1922 in Paris, Weiller married princess Alexandra Ghica, with whom he had one daughter, Marie-Élisabeth (wife of Irisarri; 1924–2006). Princess Alexandra was the daughter of prince Ioan Ghica (1875–1922) and Hazel-Marie Paliner-Singer (1882–1951).

He later divorced on 25 March 1931, in order to marry on 31 October 1932 Aliki Diplarakou (Miss Europe of 1930) from whom he was also divorced.  They had one son, Paul-Annik, whose daughter, Sibilla Weiller, married Prince Guillaume of Luxembourg, youngest son of Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, in 1994.

References

Further reading
 Jacques Mousseau, Le Siècle de Paul-Louis Weiller 1893-1993, Stock, 1998.
 Roger Faligot, Remi Kauffer, Éminences grises, Fayard, 1992.

External links
 Musée aéronautique et spatial du groupe SAFRAN: Biography on museesafran.com
 Michel Harvey, délégué général de Snecma au Royaume-Uni, Institut de stratégie comparée, Commission française d'histoire militaire, Institut d'histoire des conflits contemporains : De 1920 à la fin de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale on stratisc.org
 Les Javal-Wallerstein-Weiller ou la médecine de campagne "Les Grandes Familles du Bassin Arcachon," L'express 21 May 2009

1893 births
1993 deaths
École Centrale Paris alumni
French centenarians
Men centenarians
French industrialists
20th-century French people
20th-century French Jews

Paul-Louis Weiller


Chaudhary Devi Lal (born Devi Dayal; 25 September 1914 – 6 April 2001) was an Indian statesman and politician who served as 6th Deputy Prime Minister of India from 1989 to 1990 and from 1990 to 1991.  Lal emerged as farmer leader from the state of Haryana, and served as the Chief Minister of Haryana from 1977 to 1979 and then from 1987 to 1989.He was the founder of Indian National Lok Dal. He was popularly known as Tau, meaning uncle.

Personal life
Chaudhary Devi Lal was born on 25 September 1914 in Teja Khera village of Sirsa district in present-day Haryana. His mother's name was Shugna Devi and father's name was Lekh Ram Sihag. Lekh Ram was a Jat of Chautala village and he owned 2750 bighas of land. He received education up to middle-school. His son Om Prakash Chautala has also served as Haryana's chief minister four times.

Lal's ancestral roots lie in Bikaner, Rajasthan, from where his great-grandfather Tejaram had migrated. His father Lekhram relocated to Chautala village in 1919 when Lal was five years old. In 1928 at the age of 16 Lal participated in demonstration by Lala Lajpat Rai. He was a student of "Dev Samaj Public High School Moga" in Moga during his 10th class, at that time was arrested at Congress office in 1930, he quit studies and joined freedom movement. He also took wrestling lesson at an Akhara in Badal village of Punjab. He was first elected MLA in 1952.

Lal comes from a prolific political dynasty of Haryana. His elder brother Sahib Ram Sihag was the first politician from the family who became Congress MLA from Hisar in 1938 and 1947. Lal had four sons, Partap Singh, Om Prakash Chautala, Ranjit Singh and Jagdish Chander. All joined politics except Jagdish who died at a young age. His eldest son, Partap Singh, was an MLA from Indian National Lok Dal in the 1960s.

Independence movement

Lal was a follower of Mahatma Gandhi and was involved in the struggle for India's independence from the British Raj. Both he and his elder brother, Sahib Ram, left their studies unfinished to take part in the freedom movement.

For this, he was sentenced to one year rigorous imprisonment and sent to Hissar jail on 8 October 1930. He took part in the movement of 1932 and was kept in Sadar Delhi Thana. In 1938 he was selected delegate of All-India Congress Committee. In March 1938 his elder brother was elected a Member of the Legislative Assembly in a by-election on the Congress party ticket. In January 1940, Sahib Ram courted arrest as a satyagrahi in the presence of Lal and over ten thousand people. He was fined Rs 100 and sentenced to 9 months imprisonment.

Lal was arrested on 5 October 1942 and kept in jail for two years for taking part in the 1942 Quit India movement. He was released from prison in October 1943 and he negotiated parole for his elder brother. In August 1944, Chhotu Ram, the then Revenue Minister, visited Chautala village. He, along with Lajpat Rai Alakhpura, made efforts to woo both Sahib Ram and Lal to desert Congress and join the Unionist Party. But both workers, being dedicated freedom fighters, refused to leave the Congress Party.

Post independence

Pre-1960: Punjab Assembly politics
After independence, Lal emerged as a popular farmer leader in the 1950s and started a farmers' movement, for which he was arrested along with his 500 workers. After some time, then chief minister, Gopi Chand Bhargava, made an agreement and the Muzzara Act was amended. He was elected a member of the Punjab Assembly in 1952 and President of the Punjab Congress in 1956. In 1958, he was elected from Sirsa.

Pre-1980: Haryana Assembly politics
He played an active and decisive role in the formation of Haryana as a separate state. In 1971 he left Congress. In 1972 vidhan sabha elections, he contested unsuccessfully against the two Congress heavyweights, Bansi Lal in Tosham constituency and Bhajan Lal in Adampur seat. In 1974 he successfully contested in the Rori constituency. In 1975, Indira Gandhi declared the Emergency and Lal along with all opposition leaders were jailed for 19 months. In 1977, the emergency ended and general elections were held. He was elected on the Janata Party ticket from Bhattu Kalan and became the Chief Minister of Haryana.

Post-1980: national and state politics
He remained a Member of Parliament from 1980 to 1982 and was a member of State assembly between 1982 and 1987. He formed Lok Dal and started Nyaya Yuddh (en. battle for justice), under the banner of Haryana Sangharsh Samiti, and became hugely popular among masses. In the 1987 state elections, the alliance led by Lal won a record victory winning 85 seats in the 90 member house. Congress won the other five seats. Lal became the chief minister of Haryana for the second time. In the 1989 parliamentary election, he was simultaneously elected, both from Sikar, Rajasthan and Rohtak, Haryana.On 1 December 1989, VP Singh nominated Devi Lal for the post of Prime Minister in the middle house of Parliament, despite Singh himself being nominated as a pure alternative prime ministerial candidate.  But the Jat leader of Haryana refused to accept the post of Prime Minister and magnanimously nominated VP Singh for the post of Prime Minister.  But the refusal to give the prime ministership to Devilal's close friend Chandrasekhar, who was VP Singh's prime ministerial rival within the Janata Dal, caused surprise among many party members.  Because some leaders told him that Devilal will come as the prime ministerial candidate.  VP Singh was working honestly in many positions in the Congress and found many allegations of corruption against the government of Rajiv Gandhi.  After declaring Singh as a qualified candidate for Prime Minister, Devi Lal walked out of the assembly and refused to participate in the cabinet. He became deputy prime minister of the country from 1989 to 1991 in the non-Congress governments of VP Singh and Chandra Shekhar He was elected to Rajya Sabha in August 1998. Later, his son Om Prakash Chautala also became the chief minister of Haryana.

Lal died on 6 April 2001 at the age of 85. He was cremated at Sangarsh Sthal on the banks of the river Yamuna in New Delhi. "Kisan Ghat" is the samadhi of another popular leader of the farmers, Charan Singh, the fifth Prime Minister of India.

See also
 First Devi Lal ministry (1977–1979)
 Second Devi Lal ministry (1987–1989)
 Aaya Ram Gaya Ram
 Dynastic politics of Haryana

References

External links

Official website of Indian National Lok Dal

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1914 births
2001 deaths
Chief Ministers of Haryana
Indian Deputy Prime Ministers
Indian independence activists from Haryana
People from Sirsa district
V. P. Singh administration
Punjab, India MLAs 1952–1957
Prisoners and detainees of British India
India MPs 1989–1991
Lok Sabha members from Rajasthan
Indians imprisoned during the Emergency (India)
Chief ministers from Janata Party
Chautala family
Samata Party politicians
Indian National Lok Dal politicians
Chief ministers from Janata Dal
Agriculture Ministers of India
Samajwadi Janata Party politicians
Indian National Congress politicians from Haryana
Janata Party politicians
Janata Dal politicians
Bharatiya Lok Dal politicians
Leaders of the Opposition in Punjab, India
Lok Sabha members from Haryana
India MPs 1980–1984

Devi Lal


Mlungu dalitsani Malawi lii Malawi aalmuglâšlaavlâ. Tot lii lamaš kiävtust Malawi jiečânâšvuođâ rääjist ađai ive 1964 rääjist. Lavluu lii nuottim Michael-Fredrick Paul Sauka, kii lii meid čáállám ton saanijd.

Säänih

Chichewakielâliih säänih
Mulungu dalitsa Malawi,
Mumsunge m'mtendere.
Gonjetsani adani onse,
Njala, nthenda, nsanje.
Lunzitsani mitima yathu,
Kuti tisaope.
Mdalitse Mtsogo leri nafe,
Ndi Mayi Malawi.
Malawi ndziko lokongola,
La chonde ndi ufulu,
Nyanja ndi mphepo ya m'mapiri,
Ndithudi tadala.
Zigwa, mapiri, nthaka, dzinthu,
N'mphatso zaulere.
Nkhalango, madambo abwino.
Ngwokoma Malawi.
O Ufulu tigwirizane,
Kukweza Malawi.
Ndi chikondi, khama, kumvera,
Timutumikire.
Pa nkhondo nkana pa mtendere,
Cholinga n'chimodzi.
Mai, bambo, tidzipereke,
Pokweza Malawi.

Eŋgâlâskielâliih säänih
O God bless our land of Malawi,
Keep it a land of peace.
Put down each and every enemy,
Hunger, disease, envy.
Join together all our hearts as one,
That we be free from fear.
Bless our leader, each and every one,
And Mother Malawi.
Our own Malawi, this land so fair,
Fertile and brave and free.
With its lakes, refreshing mountain air,
How greatly blest are we.
Hills and valleys, soil so rich and rare
Give us a bounty free.
Wood and forest, plains so broad and fair,
All – beauteous Malawi.
Freedom ever, let us all unite
To build up Malawi.
With our love, our zeal and loyalty,
Bringing our best to her.
In time of war, or in time of peace,
One purpose and one goal.
Men and women serving selflessly
In building Malawi.

Käldeeh

Aalmuglâšlavluuh
Malawilâš aalmuglâšsymboleh

Mlungu dalitsani Malawi


Third Star is a 2010 British drama film directed by Hattie Dalton and starring Benedict Cumberbatch, JJ Feild, Tom Burke, Adam Robertson, and Hugh Bonneville. It premiered at the Edinburgh Film Festival in June 2010, where it was shown as the closing film, and was released in the United Kingdom on 20 May 2011.

Plot
After celebrating his 29th and - as everyone including himself knows - last birthday, James, a young man terminally ill with cancer, sets out on a last hiking trip with his three best friends, Davy, Bill and Miles. Their destination is James's favourite beach at Barafundle Bay, on the Pembrokeshire coast.

Davy is a kind, loyal and responsible soul who has been unemployed and helping James's family take care of him for quite a while already. Bill is boisterous and fun-loving, and everybody hopes he is finally getting around to breaking up with his oppressive girlfriend. Miles, lately absent from James's life, is a handsome intellectual turned into a businessman and the son of a successful novelist who died, also of cancer, when Miles was a child. James's and Miles's friendship used to be very close and has always bordered on rivalry, particularly as aspiring writers. James is too weak to walk much any more, so he mostly sits in a special cart and needs a lot of very practical and physical help from his companions, in addition to liquid morphine and other medications at increasing frequency to manage his chronic pain and other symptoms. Having been ill for years already, he seems to be at peace with his rapidly approaching death and takes childlike delight in everything this last journey has to offer. However, his failing strength and increasing discomfort and outright pain also bring out his bitterness in the knowledge that his life will be over before he ever had time to make anything much of it.

Traveling over the rugged and isolated coastal terrain, the young men fool around having light-hearted, juvenile fun to give James the time of his life. They also encounter various odd persons and situations and are faced with a series of setbacks and accidents, including loss of various supplies and finally the cart. Everyone's nerves and patience are sorely tested by James's outbursts at each of his friends in turn: out partly of premeditation and partly of spontaneous pain-induced anger, he seems to attempt to shake them out of mediocrity, settling for things and excessive unselfishness and into making what they actually want out of the lives they still have ahead. Davy is mortified by James's observations; Bill reveals that his girlfriend is pregnant and while he knows that they are not right for each other, he can't and won't leave her; Miles counters James's attacks with equally brutal honesty regarding James himself. Eventually James and Miles come to reveal the guilty secrets each has kept from the other. James found and read a novel manuscript Miles finished years ago without ever telling anyone, and has been jealous ever since but also impressed by Miles's talent. Miles has kept away from James lately because he has been unable and unwilling to cope with his best friend's illness, but he is in love and sleeping with James's married sister, and she and her children will soon come to live with Miles – something he did not intend James ever to know.

On the night they finally arrive at Barafundle Bay, James reveals the true purpose of the trip: he plans to drown himself in the sea before pain takes his life over completely. He asks his friends to let him do so and tell his family and the police that they woke up in the morning and found his body in the water. Horrified at the thought, they refuse; however, after temporarily losing James's morphine supply and witnessing him struggle with severe pain, they change their minds.

In the morning, James swims out with his friends keeping him company, and eventually Miles helps James drown himself near the shore and brings his body back.

Cast
 Benedict Cumberbatch as James
 Tom Burke as Davy
 JJ Feild as Miles
 Adam Robertson as Bill
 Hugh Bonneville as the beachcomber
 Rupert Frazer as Mr.
 Helen Griffin as Mrs.

Reception
The Observers Philip French called the film "competent", though "rather familiar and predictable, though not dislikable". The Santa Monica Daily Presss Cynthia Citron called it "an absorbing, moving, and captivating experience". The Guardians Phelim O'Neill described it as "picaresque and directionless for quite some time, only falling into focus in the final furlong".

References

External links

2010 films
2010 drama films
British drama films
Films about cancer in the United Kingdom
Films set in Wales
Films shot in Wales
2010s English-language films
2010s British films

Third Star