Viking was a series of twelve sounding rockets designed and built by the Glenn L. Martin Company under the direction of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL). Designed to supersede the German V-2, the Viking was the most advanced large, liquid-fueled rocket developed in the United States in the late 1940s, returning valuable scientific data from the edge of space between 1949 and 1955. Viking 4, launched in 1950, was the first sounding rocket to be launched from the deck of a ship.

After twelve flights, the Viking was adapted into the first stage for the Vanguard rocket, which launched America's second satellite into orbit in 1958.

Origins
After World War II, the United States experimented with captured German V-2 rockets as part of the Hermes program. Based on these experiments the U.S. issued a contract 21 August 1946 to the Glenn L. Martin Company for a series of ten large liquid-fueled rockets. The intent was to provide an independent U.S. capability in rocketry, to continue the Hermes program after the V-2s were expended, and to provide a vehicle better suited to scientific research. Originally dubbed "Neptune," it was renamed "Viking" in 1947 to avoid confusion with the Lockheed P-2 Neptune The Viking was the most advanced large, liquid-fueled rocket being developed in the U.S. at the time.

Design

The Viking was roughly half the size, in terms of mass and power, of the V-2. Both were actively guided rockets, fueled with the same propellant (Ethyl alcohol and liquid oxygen), which were fed to a single large pump-fed engine by two turbine-driven pumps. The Reaction Motors XLR10-RM-2  engine was the largest liquid-fueled rocket engine developed in the United States up to that time, producing  (sea level) and  (vacuum) of thrust. Isp was  and  respectively, with a mission time of 103 seconds. As was also the case for the V-2, hydrogen peroxide was converted to steam to drive the turbopump that fed fuel and oxidizer into the engine. As its V-2 counterpart, it also was regeneratively cooled.

Viking pioneered important innovations over the V-2. One of the most significant for rocketry was the use of a gimbaled thrust chamber which could be swiveled from side to side on two axes for pitch and yaw control, dispensing with the inefficient and somewhat fragile graphite vanes in the engine exhaust used by the V-2. The rotation of the engine on the gimbals was controlled by gyroscopic inertial reference; this type of guidance system was invented by Robert H. Goddard, who had partial success with it before World War II intervened. Roll control was by use of the turbopump exhaust to power reaction control system (RCS) jets on the fins. Compressed gas jets stabilized the vehicle after the main power cutoff. Similar devices are now extensively used in large, steerable rockets and in space vehicles. Another improvement was that initially the alcohol tank, and later the LOX tank also, were built integral with the outer skin, saving weight. The structure was also largely aluminum, as opposed to steel used in the V-2, thus shedding more weight.

Vikings 1 through 7 were slightly longer (about ) than the V-2, but with a straight cylindrical body only  in diameter, making the rocket quite slender. They had fairly large fins similar to those on the V-2. Vikings 8 through 14 were built with an enlarged airframe of improved design. The diameter was increased to , while the length was reduced to , altering the missile's "pencil shape". The fins were made much smaller and triangular. The added diameter meant more fuel and more weight, but the "mass ratio", of fueled to empty mass, was improved to about 5:1, a record for the time.

Flight history

First model (Vikings 1-7)

On 3 May 1949, after two static firings (11 March and 25 April), the first Viking rocket took off from White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico. Its engine fired for 55 seconds, ten seconds short of the hoped-for maximum of 65, but the rocket flew on course and reached an altitude of —deemed a good start to the program. Viking 2, launched four months later, also suffered from premature engine cutoff and only made it to . Both had suffered from leaks in their turbines, the intense heat of the steam breaking the seal of the turbine casing. The solution was to weld the casing shut, there being no reason to access the turbine wheel again after a flight.

The fix worked, and Viking 3, launched 9 February 1950 and incorporating an integrated (rather than discrete) oxygen tank, reached  and could have gone higher. However, after 34 seconds of accurately guided flight, the rocket veered westward and threatened to leave the launch range. Range safety triggered charges in the rocket to separate the nose from the engine, and both tumbled to the ground, where they were recovered for analysis.

With successful tests of the engine and guidance systems conducted (though not on the same missions), Viking was deemed ready for its most ambitious test: shipboard launch from the deck of the USS Norton Sound. Viking 4 was identical to Viking 3, the first of the series not incorporate design changes to fix a problem on a previous Viking.} On 10 May 1950, from a site in the Pacific Ocean between Jarvis Island and Kiritimati, the fourth Viking became the first sounding rocket ever launched from a sea-going vessel. The flight was perfect, reaching , more than double that reached by Vikings 1 and 3.

Viking 5, launched 21 November 1950 carried a vast array of photomultiplier tubes, ionization chambers and Geiger counters, for the detection of radiation across a wide variety of energies and types. The rocket also carried two movie cameras to take high altitude film of the Earth all the way to its peak height of  as well as Pirani gauges to measure air densities in the upper atmosphere. Viking 6, launched 11 December, carried a much lighter payload, but its experiments included a battery of custom built pressure gauges. The rocket underperformed, however, only reaching a maximum altitude of .

The first generation of Vikings reached its acme of performance with the flight of Viking 7, the sole Viking launch of 1951. Launched 7 August from White Sands, the rocket set a new world altitude record of .

Second model (Vikings 8-12)

In the late spring of 1952, the Naval Research Laboratory team under the management of Milton Rosen prepared to launch the first second-generation Viking, Viking 8, from White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico. The new Viking design was nearly half-again as wide as its precursor, affording the highest fuel-to-weight ratio of any rocket yet developed. The tail fins no longer supported the weight of the rocket, has had previously been the case. Now, the Viking rocket rested on the base of its fuselage. This allowed the tail fins to be made much lighter, allowing the rocket to carry a heavier tank without weighing more than the first Viking design.

On 6 June 1952, Viking 8 broke loose of its moorings during a static firing test. After it was allowed to fly for 55 seconds in the hope that it would clear the immediate area and thus pose no danger to ground crew, Nat Wagner, head of the "Cutoff group" delivered a command to the rocket to cease its thrust. 65 seconds later, the rocket crashed  or  downrange to the southeast.

With lessons learned from the Viking 8 failure, the successful 9 December static firing of Viking 9 was followed on 15 December by a successful launch from White Sands. The rocket reached an altitude of , roughly the same as that of the first-generation Viking 7, launched in 1950. In addition to cameras that photographed the Earth during flight, Viking 9 carried a full suite of cosmic ray, ultraviolet, and X-ray detectors, including sixteen plates of emulsion gel for tracking the path of individual high energy particles. The experiment package was recovered intact after it had secured measurements high in the Earth's upper atmosphere.

Viking 10

On 25 May 1953, Viking 10, originally planned to be the last of the Vikings, arrived at White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico. A successful static firing on 18 June cleared the way for a 30 June launch date, a schedule that had been made months prior, before the rocket had even left the Glenn L. Martin Company plant where it had been built. At the moment of liftoff, the tail of Viking 10 exploded, setting the rocket afire. Water was immediately flooded into the rocket's base in an attempt to extinguish the fire, but flames continued to burn in the East Quadrant of the firing platform. Half an hour after launch, two of the launch team under manager Milton Rosen were dispatched to put out the fire to salvage what remained of the rocket.

Their efforts were successful but then were threatened by a slow leak in the propellant tank. The vacuum created by the departing fuel was causing the tank to dimple with the danger of implosion that would cause the rocket to collapse. Lieutenant Joseph Pitts, a member of the launch team, shot a rifle round into the tank, equalizing the pressure and saving the rocket. Three hours after the attempted launch, the last of the alcohol propellant had been drained from Viking 10. The launch team was able to salvage the instrument package of cameras, including X-ray detectors, cosmic ray emulsions, and a radio-frequency mass-spectrometer, valued at tens of thousands of dollars, although there was concern that the rocket was irreparable.

A thorough investigation of the explosion began in July, but a conclusive cause could not be determined. In a report presented in September, Milton Rosen noted that a similar occurrence had not happened in more than 100 prior tests of the Viking motor. It was decided to rebuild Viking 10, and a program for closer monitoring of potential fail points was implemented for the next launch, scheduled for 1954. Ten months of salvage, testing, and troubleshooting followed the failed launch.

On 30 June 1953, the rebuilt rocket was once again ready for launch. A successful static firing took place at the end of April 1954, and launch was scheduled for 4 May. Control issues revealed in the static firing as well as gusty, sand-laden winds caused a delay of three days. At 10:00 AM local time, Viking 10 blasted off from its pad at the White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico, reaching an altitude of —a tie with the highest altitude ever reached by a first-generation Viking (Viking 7 on 7 August 1951). Data was received from the rocket for all stages of the flight, and its scientific package, including an emulsion experiment, returned the first measurement of positive ion composition at high altitudes.

Final flights

Viking 11, which was ready for erection on 5 May, also had a successful static test and was ready for launch, 24 May 1954. Again, the countdown went without hold, and Viking 11, the heaviest rocket yet in the series, was launched at 10:00 AM. Forty seconds into the flight, several puffs of smoke issued from the vehicle, but these accidental excitations of the rocket's roll jets did no harm. Viking 11 ultimately reached  in altitude, a record for the series, taking the highest altitude photographs of the Earth to date. Viking 11 carried a successful emulsions experiment, measuring cosmic rays at high altitudes.

The final Viking flight was that of Viking 12, launched 4 February 1955. Reaching an altitude of , the rocket's K-25 camera took an infrared picture of the Southwestern United States, from the Pacific coast to Phoenix, just after reaching its apogee.

Viking into Vanguard

The Viking series returned a bonanza of scientific information measuring temperature, pressure, density, composition and winds in the upper atmosphere and electron density in the ionosphere, and recording the ultraviolet spectra of the Sun, The success of the program, at a cost of under $6 million, suggested that, with a more powerful engine and the addition of upper stages, the Viking rocket could be made a vehicle capable of launching an Earth satellite.

In October 1952, the General Assembly of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) adopted a proposal to undertake simultaneous observations of geophysical phenomena over the entire surface of the Earth. The International Geophysical Year (IGY), set for 1957–58, would involve the efforts of a multitude of nations in such farflung regions as the Arctic and Antarctica. In January 1955, Radio Moscow announced that the Soviet Union might be expected to launch a satellite in the near future. This announcement galvanized American space efforts; in the same month, the National Academy of Sciences' IGY committee established a Technical Panel on Rocketry to evaluate plans to orbit an American satellite.

On 26 May 1955, the U.S. National Security Council also endorsed a satellite program. On 8 June, United States Secretary of Defense Charles Wilson directed Assistant Secretary Donald A. Quarles to coordinate the implementation of a satellite program, with the United States Department of Defense providing the rocket and launch facilities, and the civilian IGY National Committee producing the satellite and its experimental package, the National Science Foundation being intermediary between the two agencies. A committee, under the chairmanship of Homer J. Stewart of Jet Propulsion Laboratory, was developed to manage the project to weigh and choose between the available satellite orbiting options. They were Project Orbiter, an Army plan to use a slightly modified Redstone (a ) range surface-to-surface missile developed the prior year) combined with upper stages to put a satellite into orbit, which could be tracked optically., and the NRL plan to develop an orbital capability for the Viking (Project Vanguard).

On 28 July, confident that a satellite could be lofted during the IGY, President Dwight D. Eisenhower's press secretary, James Hagerty, announced that a satellite would officially be among the United States' contributions to the IGY. The Soviets responded four days later with their own announcement of a planned IGY satellite launch.

By 9 September, the Stewart Committee had chosen Vanguard over Orbiter, citing the Navy's impressive planned Minitrack communications technology and network as well as both the civilian nature and the greater growth potential of the Viking/Vanguard rocket. The contract authorizing the construction of two more Viking rockets to continue upper atmospheric research was expanded to include development of the Vanguard rockets. The Viking was thus incorporated as the first stage of NRL's three-stage Project Vanguard vehicle which launched the second U.S. satellite in 1958. Vikings 13 and 14, substantially similar to Vikings 8 through 12, were used as suborbital test vehicles (Vanguard TV-0 and Vanguard TV-1) before the first Vanguard vehicle, Vanguard TV-2, became available for test in the fall of 1957.

Current examples

The National Air and Space Museum contains a full-size cutaway reconstruction of Viking 12, built from original blueprints and reconstructed from parts recovered from the original rocket. The vehicle was donated by the Martin Marietta Corp in 1976 to the Smithsonian.

Table of flights

(Vikings 1–12, excepting Viking 4, were flown from White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico.) Vikings 13 and 14 were launched from Cape Canaveral.

See also

 Vanguard rocket

References

Spaceflight before 1951
1951 in spaceflight
1952 in spaceflight
1954 in spaceflight
1955 in spaceflight
Sounding rockets of the United States

Viking (rocket)


Alpine climate is the typical weather (climate) for elevations above the tree line, where trees fail to grow due to cold. This climate is also referred to as a mountain climate or highland climate.

Definition

There are multiple definitions of alpine climate.

In the Köppen climate classification, the alpine and mountain climates are part of group E, along with the polar climate, where no month has a mean temperature higher than .

According to the Holdridge life zone system, there are two mountain climates which prevent tree growth :

a) the alpine climate,
which occurs when the mean biotemperature of a location is between . The alpine climate in Holdridge system is roughly equivalent to the warmest tundra climates (ET) in the Köppen system.

b) the alvar climate, the coldest mountain climate since the biotemperature is between 0 °C and 1.5 °C (biotemperature can never be below 0 °C). It corresponds more or less to the coldest tundra climates and to the ice cap climates (EF) as well.

Holdrige reasoned that plants net primary productivity ceases with plants becoming dormant at temperatures below  and above . Therefore, he defined biotemperature as the mean of all temperatures but with all temperatures below freezing and above 30 °C adjusted to 0 °C; that is, the sum of temperatures not adjusted is divided by the number of all temperatures (including both adjusted and non-adjusted ones).

The variability of the alpine climate throughout the year depends on the latitude of the location. For tropical oceanic locations, such as the summit of Mauna Loa, the temperature is roughly constant throughout the year. For mid-latitude locations, such as Mount Washington in New Hampshire, the temperature varies seasonally, but never gets very warm.

Cause
The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between radiation and convection. Sunlight in the visible spectrum hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly , and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.

However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an adiabatic process, which has a characteristic pressure-temperature curve. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic lapse rate, which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometer (or 5.4 °F per 1000 feet) of altitude.

The presence of water in the atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor. The water vapor condenses (forming clouds), and releases heat, which changes the lapse rate from the dry adiabatic lapse rate to the moist adiabatic lapse rate (5.5 °C per kilometre or 3 °F per 1000 feet). The actual lapse rate, called the environmental lapse rate, is not constant (it can fluctuate throughout the day or seasonally and also regionally), but a normal lapse rate is 5.5 °C per 1,000 m (3.57 °F per 1,000 ft). Therefore, moving up  on a mountain is roughly equivalent to moving 80 kilometres (50 miles or 0.75° of latitude) towards the pole. This relationship is only approximate, however, since local factors, such as proximity to oceans, can drastically modify the climate. As the altitude increases, the main form of precipitation becomes snow and the winds increase. The temperature continues to drop until the tropopause, at , where it does not decrease further. This is higher than the highest summit.

Distribution
Although this climate classification only covers a small portion of the Earth's surface, alpine climates are widely distributed. They are present in the Himalayas, the Tibetan Plateau, Gansu and Qinghai in Asia, the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Cantabrian Mountains and the Sierra Nevada in Europe, the Andes in South America, the Sierra Nevada, the Cascade Mountains, the Rocky Mountains, the northern Appalachian Mountains (Adirondacks and White Mountains), and the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt in North America, the Southern Alps in New Zealand, the Snowy Mountains in Australia, high elevations in the Atlas Mountains, Ethiopian Highlands, and the Eastern Highlands of Africa, and the central parts of Borneo and New Guinea and the summits of Mount Pico in the Atlantic and Mauna Loa in the Pacific.

The lowest altitude of alpine climate varies dramatically by latitude. If alpine climate is defined by the tree line, then it occurs as low as  at 68°N in Sweden, while on Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, the tree line is at .

See also
Alpine plant
Climate of the Alps
List of alpine climate locations

References

A
Köppen climate types
Mountain meteorology
Montane ecology
Climate by mountain range
Climate of the Alps

Alpine climate


Safir is a Danish female singer, musician, composer, writer and producer.

Safir is primarily known as a performing artist and from her debut album, Safirsongs. For a period of time she was also the drummer of Danish hip hop phenomenon White Chocolate.

Before Safir started performing as a musician, she worked as a DJ at the radio stations Radio Olga and Radio Næstved. Here she was hosting several popular weekly programs. Safir started playing drums at the age of 15 and began shortly after singing professionally in several constellations. This included e.g. her jazz quartet, big band, pop-bands etc.

In 2002 Safir took a PhD from the Rhythmic Conservatory in Copenhagen, Denmark, in voice. Safir has at times taught singing and music at different schools, including at the prestigious Danish boarding school Herlufsholm.

In 2008 Safir released the debut album Safirsongs on indie label Nefertiti Records in cooperation with Scandinavian distributor Gateway Music. Safir is now based in Los Angeles and performs, writes and records with different collaborators.

Discography
 Safir: Safirsongs. Nefertiti Records, 2008.

External links
Official website

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Danish women singers

Safir (singer)


An Ethernet crossover cable is a crossover cable for Ethernet used to connect computing devices together directly.  It is most often used to connect two devices of the same type, e.g. two computers (via their network interface controllers) or two switches to each other.  By contrast, straight through patch cables are used to connect devices of different types, such as a computer to a  network switch.

Intentionally crossed wiring in the crossover cable connects the transmit signals at one end to the receive signals at the other end.

Many network devices today support auto MDI-X (aka "auto crossover") capability, wherein a patch cable can be used in place of a crossover cable, or vice versa, and the receive and transmit signals are reconfigured automatically within the device to yield a working connection.

Motivation

The 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX Ethernet standards use one wire pair for transmission in each direction. This requires that the transmit pair of each device be connected to the receive pair of the device on the other end. The 10BASE-T standard was devised to be used with existing twisted pair cable installations with straight-through connections.

When a terminal device (with an MDI port) is connected to a switch or hub, this crossover is done internally in the switch or hub (MDI-X port). A standard straight-through cable is used for this purpose where each pin of the connector on one end is connected to the corresponding pin on the other connector.

One terminal may be connected directly to another without the use of a switch or hub, but in that case, the crossover must be done in the cabling. Since 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX use pairs 2 and 3, these two pairs must be swapped in the cable. This wiring scheme constitutes a crossover cable.  A crossover cable may also be used to connect two hubs or two switches on their upstream ports.

Because the only difference between the T568A and T568B pin and pair assignments are that pairs 2 and 3 are swapped, a crossover cable may be envisioned as a cable with one modular connector following T568A and the other T568B (see TIA/EIA-568 wiring). Such a cable will work for 10BASE-T or 100BASE-TX.

The polarity of each pair is not swapped, but the pairs crossed as a unit: the two wires within each pair are not crossed.

Automatic crossover

Introduced in 1998, this made the distinction between uplink and normal ports and manual selector switches on older hubs and switches obsolete. If one or both of two connected devices has the automatic MDI/MDI-X configuration feature, there is no need for crossover cables.

Although Auto MDI-X was specified as an optional feature in the 1000BASE-T standard, in practice it is implemented widely on most interfaces.

Besides the eventually agreed upon Automatic MDI/MDI-X, this feature may also be referred to by various vendor-specific terms including: Auto uplink and trade, Universal Cable Recognition and Auto Sensing.

1000BASE-T and faster
In a departure from both 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX, 1000BASE-T and faster use all four cable pairs for simultaneous transmission in both directions through the use of telephone hybrid-like signal handling. For this reason, there are no dedicated transmit and receive pairs. 1000BASE-T and faster require either a straight or one of the crossover variants only for the autonegotiation phase. The physical medium attachment (PMA) sublayer provides identification of each pair and usually continues to work even over cable where the pairs are unusually swapped or crossed.

Fiber
For most optical fiber variants of Ethernet, fibers are used in pairs with one fiber for each direction. The transmitter on one end of the connection needs to be connected to the receiver on the other and vice versa. For this, fiber patch cables with duplex connectors are normally configured as crossover as is the on-premises wiring. Thus, a simple connection with two patch cables at each end and a section of fixed cable in the middle has three crossovers in total, resulting in a working connection. Patch cable crossovers can usually be reconfigured very easily by swapping the connectors within a duplex bracket if required.

Pinouts
In practice, it does not matter if non-crossover Ethernet cables are wired as T568A or T568B, just so long as both ends follow the same wiring format. Typical commercially available pre-wired cables can follow either format depending on the manufacturer. What this means is that one manufacturer's cables are wired one way and another's the other way, yet both are correct and will work. In either case, T568A or T568B, a normal (un-crossed) cable will have both ends wired identically according to the layout in either the Connection 1 column or the Connection 2 column.

Half crossed

Certain equipment or installations, including those in which phone and/or power are mixed with data in the same cable, may require that the "non-data" pairs 1 and 4 (pins 4, 5, 7 and 8) remain un-crossed. This is the most common kind of crossover cable.

Fully crossed

See also
 Networking cable

References

Ethernet cables

fr:RJ45#Câblage croisé complet

Ethernet crossover cable


James Fraser (18 August 1818 – 22 October 1885) was a reforming Anglican bishop of Manchester, England. An able Church administrator and policy leader, he was active in developing the Church's approach to education and in practical politics and industrial relations. Though his views were ecumenical and he was respected within a wide variety of religions, against his own instincts he allowed himself to become involved in some unpleasant litigation under the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874.

Early life
Born in Prestbury, Gloucestershire, Fraser's father was an unsuccessful merchant who left his wife and seven children in penury when he died in 1832. Fraser was brought up by his grandfather in Bilston, Staffordshire, then at various schools, including Bridgnorth Grammar School. He finished his education at Shrewsbury School and then Lincoln College, Oxford, where he graduated in 1839. His limited funds and the continual competition for bursaries entailed a scholastic life only relieved by his passion for athletics. He loved horses and hunting but found it difficult to finance the lifestyle.

Elected a fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, in 1840, he worked tutoring and in the library before taking deacon's orders in 1846 and giving up his passion for hunting. After some parochial work in Oxford, he was ordained a priest in 1847 before becoming rector of Cholderton, Wiltshire. He continued his educational work as a tutor and as occasional examiner.

In 1858, he served on the Royal Commission on education and in 1860 became rector of Ufton Nervet, Berkshire, soon establishing a reputation as an able church manager. He travelled to the United States and Canada in 1865 on a commission to examine education there and his insightful report enhanced his reputation as a social analyst and leader of church opinion. Though he was offered the post of Bishop of Calcutta he turned it down. In 1867 he was appointed by the Home Secretary to a commission on child labour in agriculture and further enhanced his reputation in policy development.

Bishop of Manchester
Respect for his knowledge of educational matters led Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone to appoint him Bishop of Manchester and he was consecrated on 25 March 1870 (Lady Day) at Manchester Cathedral. The Anglican Diocese of Manchester was still comparatively new and its only former bishop, James Prince Lee, had done little to develop its infrastructure. Fraser set to work to remedy this with a programme of consecrating 99 new churches and establishment of a bureaucratic structure including, of course, a Board of Education.

Politics and arbitration
Bishop Fraser's opponents said of him that, "Omnipresence was his forte, and omniscience his foible", reflecting his restless activity in preaching the gospel, reform and activity in civil society. He was a common sight on the streets of Manchester, hurrying to address workers of all kinds several times a day. He was a vocal opponent of Charles Darwin's ideas and in an address of 1871 said that they were, "merely guesses, conjectures, and inferences resting upon remote analogies". He was governor of many educational institutions including Manchester Grammar School and Owens College. In 1874 he began a career as an arbitrator, working to resolve conflict in a number of strikes. He was an early enthusiast for and advocate of the cooperative movement. He served as President of the first day of the 1878 Co-operative Congress.

Doctrine and litigation
Never overly-interested in theology, Fraser was a liberal in matters of worship who favoured the old high church school, though with little sympathy for what he saw as the excesses of the Oxford Movement. He supported the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874 but in 1878 was unhappy to be unable to prevent the imprisonment of the Rev. Sidney Faithorn Green, the incumbent of Miles Platting.

Fraser ultimately secured Green's release but Green's benefice was sequestrated by the courts. The parish patron, Sir Percival Heywood nominated Rev. Harry Cowgill, Green's unlawful curate, as the new incumbent. Fraser was involved in much litigation over his opposition to the appointment before being exonerated in a judgement by Baron Pollock in 1884.

Later life
In 1880, he married Agnes Ellen Frances Duncan shortly after the death of his mother who had shared his home. He died suddenly at the bishop's palace following complications from a chill. Long known as the bishop of all denominations, his death was honoured by all the nonconformist churches along with the Jewish and Greek Orthodox congregations. Huge crowds attended his funeral in Manchester. He was interred in Ufton Nervet in his mother's grave.

Honours
A grade II listed statue by Thomas Woolner stands in Albert Square, Manchester. Local legend has it that Fraser is posed looking away from Alfred Waterhouse's Town Hall building because he disliked it so much.

References

Bibliography

Bentley, J. (1987) Ritualism and Politics in Victorian Britain: The Attempt to Legislate for Belief
Bullock, C. (1889) The Lives of Three Bishops
Diggle, J. W. (1887) The Lancashire Life of Bishop Fraser

— rev. H. C. G. Matthew (2007) "Fraser, James (1818–1885)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, online edn, accessed 27 February 2008
Hughes, T. (1887) James Fraser, Second Bishop of Manchester: A Memoir, 1818–1885

1818 births
1885 deaths
People from Cheltenham
Alumni of Lincoln College, Oxford
Bishops of Manchester
People educated at Bridgnorth Endowed School
Fellows of Oriel College, Oxford
People educated at Shrewsbury School
Presidents of Co-operative Congress

James Fraser (bishop)


The main language of the Isle of Man is English, predominantly the Manx English dialect. Manx, the historical language of the island, is still maintained by a small speaker population.

Both English and Manx are official languages in Tynwald.

Manx

The Manx language is a Celtic language of the Goidelic subdivision, and descendant of Old Irish. It is sometimes called Manx Gaelic to distinguish it from the local variety of English.

The language was historically the dominant one on the island, but fell out of general use during the twentieth century. Following the death of Ned Maddrell in 1974, Manx is now considered to be "critically endangered". At the present time, less than one hundred children receive their education exclusively in Manx. There are an additional 1,689 second-language speakers, comprising 2.2% of the population of the Isle of Man. The language has been offered in public schools since 1992.

English language

The English language has replaced Manx as the dominant language on the island. The native dialect is known as Anglo-Manx or Manx English, and has been employed by a number of the island's more notable writers such as T.E. Brown and "Cushag". which distinguishes itself by considerable influence and a large number of loanwords and phrases from Manx Gaelic. However, this dialect is being supplanted by other dialects of English, especially from north west England.

For formal purposes British English is the usual form of English used in the Isle of Man. For many years, the BBC has been the main broadcaster to the island, and many English people, and those from other parts of the United Kingdom, have settled in the island.

Forms of Irish English can also be heard on the island, from both Dublin and Belfast. The island has historically had many Irish tourists, and settlers.

Other minority languages
There are a few people in the island who speak other languages habitually. These include Irish speakers.

The Deaf community on the Isle of Man use British Sign Language.

Extinct languages of the Isle of Man

Historical forms of "Irish"
Old Irish and Middle Irish are the ancestors of today's Manx language. Neither of these became extinct, so much as evolved, and Manx diverged from Scottish and Irish forms.

During the Middle Ages, the three Gaelic languages maintained a single standard for higher registers and poetry. This is sometimes misleadingly referred to as "Classical Irish" - despite the fact it was much in use in Scotland and presumably the Isle of Man. It is also known as Classical Gaelic.

Old Norse
Many of the island's placenames are Norse in origin, e.g. Laxey, Ramsey, and so are some of the island's institutions e.g. Tynwald (Þingvóllr). A few Norse inscriptions remain.

Brythonic
There seems to be evidence that the island once spoke a form of P-Celtic before it became Gaelicised. There is little evidence of this in placenames, however.

Latin and French
Latin and French have been used in ceremonial purposes, e.g. legal use, and mottos, as in the UK.

References

gov.im

Manx culture
Languages of Europe

Languages of the Isle of Man


Coenraad Valentijn Bos (7 December 1875 - 5 August 1955) was a Dutch pianist, most notably as an accompanist to singers of lieder.  His peers such as Gerald Moore considered him the doyen of accompanists in his day.

Life
He was born in Leiden in 1875. He studied under Julius Röntgen and at the Berlin High School for Music. He decided early to become an accompanist, a field of which he made a special study.

On 9 November 1896, in the presence of the composer, and still a month shy of his 21st birthday, he accompanied the Dutch baritone Anton Sistermans at the premiere of Brahms' Vier ernste Gesänge in Vienna.

In 1899 he founded The Dutch Trio (Das Holländische Trio) together with his Berlin-based countrymen Jacques van Lier and Joseph Maurits van Veen. The pianotrio was active for over ten years and acquired fame throughout Europe.

For many years he worked with singers such as Raimund von zur-Mühlen, Elena Gerhardt (USA tour 1920, Spanish tour 1928), Julia Culp, Frieda Hempel, Alexander Kipnis, Gervase Elwes, Ludwig Wüllner and Helen Traubel (he accompanied Traubel on a world tour in 1945–46).

He appeared with the 13-year-old Yehudi Menuhin in Berlin on 23 April 1929, and they exchanged inscribed photographs of themselves in commemoration of the event (Bos's gift to Menuhin is now in the Museum of the Royal Academy of Music).

He recorded lieder of Brahms, Reger, Schubert, Schumann and Wolf with Elena Gerhardt (1927–32). He figures prominently in the Hugo Wolf Society's Complete Edition 1931–38, accompanying Gerhardt, Herbert Janssen, Gerhard Hüsch, Alexandra Trianti and Elisabeth Rethberg.

He died in Chappaqua, New York, United States on 5 August 1955, aged 79.

Legacy
He preserved his musical memories in "The Well-tempered Accompanist" (1949; co-written with Ashley Pettis).

External links

Coenraad V. Bos at the New York Philharmonic

References

Dutch classical pianists
Classical accompanists
Berlin University of the Arts alumni
People from Chappaqua, New York
Musicians from Leiden
1875 births
1955 deaths

Coenraad V. Bos


The British Ever Ready Electrical Company (BEREC) was a British electrical firm formed in 1906 as the export branch of the American Eveready Battery Company. In 1914 it became independent of its American parent company.

For decades the firm dominated the UK consumer battery market and had several factories in the UK, the largest of which was built at Tanfield Lea, County Durham, in 1968. Other factories included Dawley, Four Ashes, Maldon, Newburn, London (Victoria Works, Forest Road and from 1936, the St Ann's Works in Harringay) and Park Lane, Wolverhampton.  The company's research effort was centred upon the Central Laboratories, later known as Group Technical Centre, in St. Ann's Road, Harringay, London N15.  The company's head office was Ever Ready House in Whetstone, London N20. Overseas manufacturing sites included South Africa, Nigeria, Sri Lanka and Jamaica. The company also included UK engineering divisions: Cramic Engineering and Toolrite.

In 1972, the company acquired J. A. Crabtree & Co, a manufacturer of electrical accessories.

The company was the subject of a hostile takeover by Hanson Trust in 1981. Hanson closed factories, cut jobs and sold the German (Daimon) and Italian (Superpila) subsidiaries to Duracell. Shortly before this the British Ever Ready Electrical Company changed its name to Berec Group. From the 1950s the BEREC name was only used for exports of batteries and radio sets (as British Ever Ready Export Company). Some Daimon batteries were branded BEREC as were some produced in Switzerland. One of Hanson's first decisions was to revert from BEREC to Ever Ready as the UK brand.

In 1992, the company was sold by Hanson Trust to Ralston Purina, owners of the American Eveready company, and is now a part of Energizer Holdings. The company closed Tanfield Lea, its last UK factory, in 1996. Production of some Ever Ready batteries (PP6, PP7 and PP9) continued in the UK until 1999 by Univercell Battery Company, located close to the old Dawley factory using the original machinery. Univercell moved to Stafford Park 12 and was sold to the AceOn Group in 2012. AceOn still manufacture Ever Ready batteries for specialist applications that are still used today.

The company was also a producer of torches and bicycle lamps. Ever Ready also manufactured radios from 1934 up until 1964. Ever Ready owned a controlling interest in Lissen (radio sets mostly) from 1928. With the 1922 founder of Lissen forming Vidor in 1934, Ever Ready took over Lissen completely. Many models of radio set were manufactured in both Lissen and Ever Ready versions until 1941 when the Blitz ended production. From 1942 until 1945 only one Ever Ready radio model was produced. In 1981 three "offshore" models were produced, one from Hong Kong and two from Malaysia. The "Saucepan Special" radio was sold in large numbers to Africa. The Dawley factory was originally set up primarily to make B103 and B136 batteries for the Saucepan radio.

See also
Eveready East Africa
P. R. Mallory and Co Inc
Ucar batteries

References

External links
 1974 U.K. government document concerning Ever Ready/B.E.R.E.C., P. R. Mallory and Co Inc, Exide, Crompton Parkinson Ltd and Rayovac over an apparent monopoly by Ever Ready/B.E.R.E.C., Exide and P. R. Mallory and Co Inc at the other firms' apparent expense.
 Ever Ready Co. - company timeline, retrieved August 8, 2011

Consumer battery manufacturers
Defunct manufacturing companies of the United Kingdom
Ralston Purina
British companies established in 1906
Manufacturing companies established in 1906

British Ever Ready Electrical Company


CSS Sumter, converted from the 1859-built merchant steamer Habana, was the first steam cruiser of the Confederate States Navy during the American Civil War. She operated as a commerce raider in the Caribbean and in the Atlantic Ocean against Union merchant shipping between July and December 1861, taking eighteen prizes, but was trapped in Gibraltar by Union Navy warships. Decommissioned, she was sold in 1862 to the British office of a Confederate merchant and renamed Gibraltar, successfully running the Union blockade in 1863 and surviving the war.

Construction and merchant service before the American Civil War
The wood-hulled merchant steamship Habana was built in 1859 at the Philadelphia shipyard of Birely & Lynn for Captain James McConnell's New Orleans & Havana Steam Navigation Co. She was powered by a 400-horsepower steam engine made by Neafie, Levy & Co, also of Philadelphia, driving a single propeller and was also rigged for sail, generally described as bark rigged. She was variously reported to measure 499 or 520 gross registered tons, with a length overall of , beam of  and a draft of . Habana was launched on 18 May 1859, performed well on trials and was considered a fast ship in subsequent mail service out of New Orleans.

Confederate States Navy service

Habana was purchased by the Confederate government at New Orleans in April 1861, converted to a cruiser and placed under the command of Raphael Semmes. Renamed Sumter, she was commissioned into the Confederate States Navy on 3 June 1861 and broke through the Federal blockade of the Mississippi River mouth later that month.

Eluding the pursuing sloop-of-war , the pioneering Confederate Navy commerce raider captured eight U.S.-flagged merchant ships in waters near Cuba early in July 1861, then moved south to the Brazilian coast off Maranhão, where she took two more ships. Two additional merchantman fell to Sumter in September and October 1861. While coaling at Martinique in mid-November, she was blockaded by the Union sloop of war , but was able to escape to sea at night. Sumter captured another six ships from late November 1861 into January 1862 while cruising from the western hemisphere to European waters. Damaged during a severe Atlantic storm, she anchored at Cadiz, Spain, on 4 January 1862, where she was allowed only to make necessary repairs without refueling, and was then forced to sail to British-held Gibraltar.

Unable to make more comprehensive repairs or purchase coal there, Sumter remained at anchor in Gibraltar watched by a succession of U.S. Navy warships, among them the sloop-of-war  and the gunboat . Semmes and many of his officers were reassigned to the new cruiser , while most of the crew was paid off, leaving only a skeleton crew aboard her.

In October 1862, acting captain Midshipman William Andrews was shot dead in his quarters aboard the Sumter by acting master's mate Joseph Hester.  Hester alleged that Andrews had planned to sail Sumter to Algeciras, Spain and surrender her to a U.S. Navy ship there.  Hester was arrested by British authorities, and a coroner's jury returned a verdict of wilful murder.  Hester's allegations of Andrews' supposed treachery was not corroborated by the rest of the crew.

Blockade runner Gibraltar
Sumter was disarmed and sold at auction on 19 December 1862 to the Liverpool office of Fraser, Trenholm and Company.  Sumter'''s sail plan was changed to a ship rig and she continued her service to the Confederacy under British colors as the blockade runner Gibraltar.

Though her career as a warship had lasted barely six months, Sumter had taken eighteen prizes, of which she burned eight, and released or bonded nine; only one was recaptured. The diversion of Union warships to blockade her had been in itself of significant service to the Confederate cause.

As Gibraltar, she ran at least once into Wilmington, North Carolina, under Capt. E. C. Reid, a Southerner. He sailed from Liverpool on 3 July 1863 with a pair of 22-ton Blakely rifles and other valuable munitions, returning with a full load of cotton. The beginning of this voyage is recorded only because the United States Consul in Liverpool passionately protested Gibraltars being allowed to sail (ostensibly for Nassau), days before formal customs clearance: "She is one of the privileged class and not held down like other vessels to strict rules and made to conform to regulations." The arrival at Wilmington is also a matter of record because of the accidental sinking of the Confederate transport steamer Sumter by Confederate gunners at Fort Moultrie near Charleston in late August 1863. Until November 1863, U.S. naval intelligence understandably confused this ship with the former commerce raider.

The last official report of her appears to have been by the U.S. Consul at Liverpool on 10 July 1864: "The pirate Sumter (called Gibraltar) is laid up at Birkenhead." Gibraltar was sold at auction at Liverpool on orders from the U.S. Consul on 14 June 1866. She was purchased for £1,150 and based in Hull, East Riding of Yorkshire, employed in the Baltic trade. On 10 February 1867 she sprang a leak whilst on a voyage from Helsingborg, Sweden to Grimsby, Lincolnshire, and foundered on the Dogger Bank on 14 February 1867, with her crew being rescued by a fishing smack.

See also
Blockade runners of the American Civil War
Confederate States Navy
Union Navy
Bibliography of American Civil War naval history

Notes

References

Sources
 Semmes, Raphael, The Cruise of the Alabama and the Sumter, Carleton, 1864, Digitized by Digital Scanning Incorporated, 2001, .

See The Cornhill Magazine, No6 (Jy-Dec 1862) pp187–205: "The Cruise of the Confederate Ship 'Sumter': [From the Private Journal of an Officer]".  A swaggering account, unsigned.This article contains public domain material from the Naval History and Heritage Command, entry here.''

Cruisers of the Confederate States Navy
Missing ships
Commerce raiders
Raids of the American Civil War
Ships built in Philadelphia
1859 ships
Blockade runners of the American Civil War
Maritime incidents in February 1867

CSS Sumter


Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein (30 January 1723, Wernigerode – 6 July 1795, Copenhagen) was a German-born doctor, physicist and engineer. From 1753 to the end of his life he was a professor at the University of Copenhagen where he served as rector four times. He is especially known for his investigations of the use of electricity in medicine and the first attempts at mechanical speech synthesis. As a teacher he wrote the first textbook on experimental physics in the united kingdom of Denmark-Norway.Around 1780, he built a machine that was able to imitate vowels. This was the base for later such machines which were more advanced. In 2010, the city of Wernigerode, where he was born, named a street in his honor.

1723 births
1795 deaths
German physicists
German engineers

Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein