Janne Viljami "Warman" Wirman (born 26 April 1979) is a Finnish musician; he is the former keyboardist for the Finnish melodic death metal band Children of Bodom from 1997 to 2019 and currently collaborating with Warmen.

Biography

Born in the city of Espoo, Finland, Wirman began playing the piano at the age of five. For most of his early life, he focused his style on jazz, switching his main interest to heavy metal music once he joined the metal band Children of Bodom in 1997.

He graduated from the Helsinki Pop & Jazz Conservatory at the age of sixteen and was subsequently invited by Jaska Raatikainen to join Children of Bodom, due to their previous keyboardist, Jani Pirisjoki, being fired from the band. Wirman was the deciding factor for them to truly begin their professional career. Not only did he bring his talent to the band, but after a single practice, he also became able to play in sync with lead vocalist and lead guitarist Alexi Laiho. This synchronization can be observed during their live performances, or on the recorded tracks Bed of Razors, Lake Bodom and Downfall.

His primary influence is keyboardist Jens Johansson from Stratovarius (also played with guitar virtuoso Yngwie Malmsteen and Dio) from whom he has adopted the style of playing his keyboard tilted forward.

In the year of 2000, Wirman assembled progressive metal band Warmen as his main side-project. The band's second album, Beyond Abilities, continued with the presence of his brother Antti Wirman.

In the same year, Johansson was asked by heavy metal band Masterplan to play on their debut album, but since he was already busy with other projects, he referred them to Janne instead. Thus, in early 2002, Wirman took part in the recording of Masterplan's self-titled debut album. The band proceeded to offer him a permanent position, but Warman opted to continue playing with Children of Bodom. Masterplan released their album and gave credit to Wirman's work on the CD's booklet. The band's keyboard player Axel Mackenrott, hired after Wirman's decline to enter the band, appeared on all of the promotional pictures, and was officially credited as Masterplan's keyboardist.

To record with Warmen, Wirman built the Warmen Productions Studio (now named Beyond Abilities). This studio has also served for the recording of Kotipelto's keyboard tracks, part of Ensiferum's Iron album and Sinergy's fourth album.

Wirman has had bad experiences with sponsor deals. He had deals with both Roland Scandinavia and Korg in the past and was promised new equipment, but he never received anything. On the back of Warmen's second album it reads: "No Roland or Korg products were used."

Wirman was originally just supposed to play a few shows with Children of Bodom, but they grew to like him. On the Chaos Ridden Years documentary, Laiho said, "But it was the first time I saw the guy drunk, and that's when I knew he was the fucking man." Wirman stayed with them, but said he felt like a real member of the band around the time of the recording of his second album with them.

Equipment

Throughout most of his career, Wirman relied on the Korg X5D keyboard to play live, although he only uses it as a master MIDI controller – the synth rack/module setup he is controlling onstage has varied. Wirman's lead sound was crafted by Jens Johansson. It is a Korg Polysix emulation patch Jens made for the Roland JV-1080.

Discography

With Children of Bodom
Albums
 Something Wild (1997)
 Hatebreeder (1999)
 Tokyo Warhearts (live CD, 1999)
 Follow the Reaper (2000)
 Hate Crew Deathroll (2003)
 Are You Dead Yet? (2005)
 Stockholm Knockout Live (2006)
 Blooddrunk (2008)
 Skeletons in the Closet (2009)
 Relentless Reckless Forever (2011)
 Halo of Blood (2013)
 I Worship Chaos (2015)
 Hexed (2019)

Singles & EPs
 Children of Bodom (single, 1997)
 Downfall (single, 1998)
 Hate Me! (single, 2000)
 You're Better Off Dead! (single, 2002)
 Trashed, Lost & Strungout (EP, 2004)
 In Your Face (single, 2005)
 Blooddrunk (single, 2008)

With Warmen
Albums
 Unknown Soldier (2000)
 Beyond Abilities (2001)
 Accept the Fact (2005)
 Japanese Hospitality (2009)
 First of the Five Elements (2014)
 Here for None (2023)

Singles
 Somebody's Watching Me (single, 2005)
 They All Blame Me (single, 2005)
 Alone (single, 2001)

With Kotipelto
Albums
 Waiting for the Dawn (2002)
 Coldness (2004)
 Serenity (2007)

Singles
 "Beginning" (single, 2002)
 "Reasons" (single, 2004)
 "Take Me Away" (single, 2004)
 "Sleep Well" (single, 2006)

With Masterplan
Albums
 Masterplan (2003)

References

 Interview
 Video interview with Noizr Zine

1979 births
Children of Bodom members
Finnish heavy metal keyboardists
Finnish pianists
Heavy metal keyboardists
Living people
People from Espoo
Masterplan (band) members
Warmen members

Janne Wirman


Balancing selection refers to selective processes by which different alleles (different versions of a gene) are kept in the gene pool of a population at frequencies above that of gene mutation.

This usually happens when the heterozygote for a gene has a higher relative fitness than the homozygote. In this way genetic polymorphism is conserved.

Evidence for balancing selection can be found in the number of alleles in a population which are maintained above mutation rate frequencies. All modern research has shown that this significant genetic variation is common in panmictic populations. It is the field experience of Darwin, Wallace and others, that natural populations in the wild are extraordinarily varied. Museum collections of single species tell the same story.

There are several ways balancing selection works to maintain polymorphism. The two major and most studied are heterozygote advantage and frequency-dependent selection.

Mechanisms of balancing selection

Heterozygote advantage

In heterozygote advantage, or heterotic balancing selection, an individual who is heterozygous at a particular gene locus has a greater fitness than a homozygous individual. Polymorphisms maintained by this mechanism are balanced polymorphisms.

A well-studied case is that of sickle cell anemia in humans, a hereditary disease that damages red blood cells. Sickle cell anemia is caused by the inheritance of a variant hemoglobin gene (HgbS) from both parents. In these individuals, hemoglobin in red blood cells is extremely sensitive to oxygen deprivation, and this causes shorter life expectancy.

A person who inherits the sickle cell gene from one parent, and a normal hemoglobin gene (HgbA) from the other, has a normal life expectancy. The heterozygote is resistant to the malarial parasite which kills a large number of people each year. The heterozygote frequency is kept high because of the fierce selection against both the homozygotes.

The heterozygote has a permanent advantage (a higher fitness) wherever malaria exists.

Frequency-dependent selection
Frequency-dependent selection occurs when the fitness of a phenotype depends on its frequency.

In positive frequency-dependent selection the fitness of a phenotype increases as it becomes more common. In negative frequency-dependent selection the fitness of a phenotype increases as it becomes less common. For example, in prey switching, rare morphs of prey are fitter because predators concentrate on more frequent morphs.

Fitness varies in time and space
The fitness of a genotype may vary greatly between larval and adult stages, or between parts of a habitat range.

Selection acts at different levels
The fitness of a genotype may depend on the fitness of other genotypes in the population: this covers many natural situations where the best thing to do (from the point of view of survival and reproduction) depends on what other members of the population are doing at the time.

References

Classical genetics

Balancing selection


Sclater's golden mole (Chlorotalpa sclateri) is a species of mammal in the family Chrysochloridae. It is found in Lesotho and South Africa. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry and high-altitude shrubland, Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, temperate grassland, arable land, pastureland, rural gardens, and urban areas. This species is locally common, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of "least concern".

Description
This is a small, stocky golden mole, growing to a head-and-body length of about , males being slightly larger than females. The chin and face have creamy-yellow markings, including over the sub-dermal eyes and across the bridge of the nose. The upper parts are clad in glossy, reddish-brown fur with a darker streak running along the spine. The underparts are dull grey with a reddish tinge. The forefeet are slender, and there is no tail.

Distribution and habitat
Sclater's golden mole is endemic to southern Africa where it is found in South Africa and Lesotho. Its typical habitat is grasslands at high elevation, scrubland and forested kloofs. There are four subspecies, but the range of each is poorly understood, and they are generally delineated by geographical barriers.

Ecology
Adult Sclater's golden moles are generally solitary. The slender claws restrict it to soils in which tunnels can be easily dug. A central nesting tunnel is surrounded by long, shallow tunnels in which it forages for invertebrate prey, particularly earthworms and grubs. Breeding takes place in the wet season (December and January) at which time food is more abundant.

References

Afrosoricida
Mammals of South Africa
Fauna of Lesotho
Least concern biota of Africa
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot
Mammals described in 1907

Sclater's golden mole


The Transcaucasian Highway () or TransKAM (ТрансКАМ) is a mountain highway in the South Caucasus region, connecting southern Russia and Georgia.

Geography

As the A164 highway, it crosses the Greater Caucasus mountain range through the Roki Tunnel, connecting North Ossetia–Alania and Russia with South Ossetia and Georgia. In the winter months the road is often closed due to the danger of avalanches.

In Georgia, the highway begins in Gori as S10 highway. It then crosses to Russia through the Roki Tunnel as road R297 to Alagir.

History
It was built by the Soviet Union (USSR) between 1971 and 1986, as an alternative to the older Georgian Military Road and Ossetian Military Road, to connect the USSR and the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic.

Since the breakaway of South Ossetia from Georgia in August 2008, crossing from Georgia to South Ossetia at Tskhinvali is not possible.

Roads in Georgia (country)
Roads in Russia
South Caucasus
International road networks
Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic
Transport in North Ossetia–Alania
Roads in South Ossetia
1981 establishments in the Soviet Union
1981 establishments in Georgia (country)

Transcaucasian Highway


Cam2Cam (also known under the working titles of Darknet and c2c) is a 2014 horror film who was directed by Joel Soisson and stars Tammin Sursok as a tourist who becomes the target of a serial killer after logging on to a cam website. The film was given a simultaneous limited theatrical and VOD release on August 22, 2014. The movie was based on a short film that was directed by Davy Sihali, in which Soisson worked into the first portion of the film.

Synopsis
Allie (Tammin Sursok) is a young American staying in a hostel apartment building while travelling through Thailand. A friendly boarder introduces her to Cam2Cam, a popular online chat program that allows people to interact with one another. Curious, Allie logs on and soon discovers that there was a serial killer who used Cam2Cam to find his female victims, one of whom was staying in Allie's current room. After fellow boarder Marit (Sarah Bonrepaux) is murdered, Allie begins to worry that she is next on the serial killer's list.

Cast
 Tammin Sursok as Allie
 Ben Wiggins as Michael
 Sarah Bonrepaux as Emilie / Marit / Charlotte
 Jade Tailor as Lucy
 Russell Geofrey Banks as Russell
 Kotchanan Grubbmo as Jade
 Nicky Tamrong as Pig Boy

Reception
Joshua Brunsting from Criterion Cast wrote, "Soisson's new film opens rather well. Erotically charged and not afraid of slowly building tension, the opening "act" is arguably the film's strongest point. Perfectly paced and featuring some fun performances, the opening sequence is tense and lushly shot, all throwing a cloud of impending doom over the proceedings." Dennis Harvey from Variety wrote, "a sloppy chiller about tourists falling prey to an online stalker in Bangkok that clumsily mixes slasher, sexploitation and supernatural elements." AwardsWiz.com wrote, "an ending I found satisfying and clearly sequel worthy."

Critical reception for Cam2Cam has been generally unfavorable, with the mixed criticisms centered upon how the film handled multiple genres, as review sites like Shock Till You Drop commented that the movie "straddles the middle without committing to any one genre", which they felt kept it from being as interesting as it might otherwise have been. The Hollywood Reporter commented the film was "all largely incoherent, with the screenplay's twists and surprise revelations having an utterly artificial feel" while Slant Magazine stated that the "promising first act, an effectively self-contained game of cat and mouse, paves the way for an increasingly tedious murder mystery that revels in the tired device of killing off characters just as they appear to be assuming prominence in the narrative as either the hero or the big bad". Twitch Film also panned the movie, praising the cinematography and gore while writing that "in the end, the crummy dialogue, the naive approach to technology, and the squandering of its many opportunities become too obvious to be overlooked". Ain't It Cool News praised the directors work stating "Soisson keeps things moving at a pretty rapid pace from start to finish and has a deft handling of suspense. Exemplified fantastically in the beginning sequence, Soisson knows how to ratchet up the thrills and tease us".

References

External links

2014 films
2014 horror films
2014 horror thriller films
Films set in Bangkok
Films set in Thailand
Films shot in Thailand
American serial killer films
Films scored by Elia Cmíral
Films directed by Joel Soisson
Films with screenplays by Joel Soisson
Features based on short films
2010s English-language films
2010s American films
English-language horror thriller films

Cam2Cam


Ashot Gevorkovich Egiazaryan (Russian: Ашот Геворкович Егиазарян; Armenian: Աշոտ Գեւորգովիչ Էկիազարյան; born July 24, 1965) is a former Russian politician and businessman.

Career

Banking
In 1988, Egiazaryan graduated from the Economics Faculty of Moscow State University with a Ph.D.  in economics, and subsequently began a career in banking.

In 1993, Egiazaryan established and became the Chairman of the Moscow National Bank (MNB).  By 1995, MNB had become one of the largest banks in Russia, housing accounts of the Administration of Moscow region, The Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, Russian State Arms Export Company, The Russian Space Agency and the General Prosecutor's Office.

In 1996, Egiazaryan was appointed Deputy Chairman of the Board of Directors of "Unikombank" JSCB, a position he held from June 1996 to May 1998.

In 1999, Egiazaryan provided testimony in the criminal case regarding the embezzlement of $130 million from accounts held at MNB. The embezzled funds belonged to state-owned Rosvooruzheniye Weaponry Company. The investigation found that MNB used forged documents to withdraw the state funds.  The stolen money was then moved through the MNB-controlled Unikom bank.

MNB's banking license was revoked in 1998, but no criminal charges were brought against Egiazaryan.

Politics
In 1999, Egiazaryan became a member of the State Duma and deputy chairman of the Committee on Budget and Taxes.

While Rinat Akhmetshin headed the International Eurasian Institute, Andrey Vavilov hired Akhmetshin to thwart the efforts of Ashot Egiazaryan who was trying to obtain political asylum in the United States.

Criminal Indictment
In August 2010, Europark investor Vitaly Smagin filed a lawsuit against Egiazaryan, accusing him of pledging Smagin's stake in the Europark shopping mall in western Moscow to Deutsche Bank as collateral on an $87.5M loan.  The $87.5M loan was then used to secure a 20% interest in the Moskva Hotel project.

In September 2010, after the commencement of a criminal investigation into the $87.5M fraud, Egiazaryan filed a claim in a Cyprus court complaining that a group of Russian politicians, and businessmen, including Suleyman Kerimov, conspired to take over Egiazaryan's share in the multi-billiondollar Moskva Hotel project.  On September 15, 2010, a Cyprus court granted an injunctive freeze on Suleyman Kerimov's assets.  The case was later dismissed on February 15, 2011, and the district court of Nicosia in Cyprus lifted the injunction on Kerimov's assets.   The court stated that Egiazaryan had failed to disclose essential facts in the original filing for the injunction and that the alleged conspiracy happened 15 months before the filing of the original complaint.

In October 2010 the State Duma's Credentials and Ethics Commission recommended stripping Egiazaryan of parliamentary immunity at the request of the Investigative Committee, based on accusations that Egiazaryan embezzled $87 million for his share of the Hotel Moskva project.

On November 3, 2010, the State Duma followed through with a request by Russian Prosecutor General Yury Chaika and officially stripped Egiazaryan of his immunity. A total of 352 lawmakers of the Duma voted in favor of this action, with 39 deputies, all members of the Liberal Democratic Party, opposing the motion and five members abstained from the vote.

In November 2010, investigators raided Egiazaryan's offices at the Dayev Plaza and also conducted searches at Egiazaryan's residences in Moscow. The search was later extended to the offices of the Europark shopping mall, of which Egiazaryan was a part owner.

On December 17, 2010, the Russian Authorities seized three land plots belonging to Egiazaryan. One plot is located in Barvikha, and the other two in Zhukovka. Egiazaryan's Duma office was also searched and investigators seized paperwork related to the case against him.

In January 2011, the Basmanny district court of Moscow indicted Egiazaryan on charges of large scale fraud.    The court also attached Egiazaryan's assets to be used to compensate Vitaly Smagin and Europark for the $87.5M that was embezzled.

As a result of the court ruling, the lower house of parliament in Russia gave approval on March 9, 2011, for Egiazaryan's arrest on charges of large-scale fraud.

Arrival in the United States
After being indicted for fraud in Russia, Egiazaryan fled to the United States, claiming that he feared for his life and that the fraud allegations against him were politically motivated.

Peter Zalmayev, director of the Eurasia Democracy Initiative (EDI), stated, "Egiazaryan claims he is fleeing persecution, but the real reason appears to be that he is fleeing prosecution. His lawyers are reportedly seeking political asylum for their client."

Egiazaryan later sued Zalmayev for defamation and Zalmayev countersued for infringement of his speech utilizing the anti-Strategic Lawsuits Against Public Participation laws of New York State.  Egiazaryan's case was dismissed, but Zalmayev's case continues.

References

External links
 English-language site following Ashot Yegiazaryan's Press Coverage

1965 births
Living people
Economists from Moscow
Businesspeople from Moscow
Moscow State University alumni
Russian people of Armenian descent
Liberal Democratic Party of Russia politicians
Third convocation members of the State Duma (Russian Federation)
Fourth convocation members of the State Duma (Russian Federation)
Fifth convocation members of the State Duma (Russian Federation)

Ashot Egiazaryan


American Clean Skies Foundation (ACSF) is a 501(c)(3) not-for profit organization based in Washington, D.C., United States. It advocates for a cleaner, low-carbon environment through the expanded use of alternative energy sources and energy efficiency. ACSF stopped operations in 2019 pending further funding.

History
When it was formed in 2007 and during its initial years, the foundation was chaired by Aubrey McClendon, the former CEO and chairman of Chesapeake Energy, which provided funding. In February 2013, McClendon resigned from the ACSF Board of Directors and neither he nor Chesapeake Energy are currently involved with the foundation.

Denise Bode, a former Oklahoma Corporation Commissioner, was ACSF's first CEO. On 1 January 2009, Bode resigned from ACSF to become the new CEO of the American Wind Energy Association. Gregory C. Staple, a Partner in the Washington, D.C. office of Vinson & Elkins LLP, was named to replace Bode in December 2009.

Campaigns
The foundation is involved in research and advocacy on federal and state clean energy policy. Its activities include:
California renewable energy – The foundation is working with businesses, universities and environmental groups to analyze and develop policy to expand market access for renewable energy. In June 2014, the foundation's CEO published an op-ed supporting Community Choice Aggregation (CCA) and also contended that reform of outdated state rules is desirable to enable California companies to directly contract for renewable sources of electricity. The case for letting competitive renewable power providers serve large users in California was also the subject of a second op-ed in November 2014.
 Renewable Power Direct (RPD) – In 2013, the foundation provided seed-funding for RPD, a for-profit company that offers large electricity users medium-term wholesale contracts for the power generated from proven renewable energy projects. RPD provides a practical alternative for companies that are unable to install renewable energy on site or commit to long-term (15-20 year) power purchase agreements.  RPD is authorized by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission to act as a wholesale power marketer.
 The Oil Shift Campaign – The foundation's 2012 report contends that repointing federal procurement could enable federal agencies to reduce oil imports by billions of gallons annually, cut greenhouse gas emissions by over 20 million metric tons a year, and stimulate the nationwide introduction of tens of thousands of new alternative fuel vehicles. The foundation has worked to implement its report through industry workshops, op-eds, conferences and public advocacy. Supporters include American Council on Renewable Energy, Advanced Energy Economy and the Electric Drive Transportation Association. In January 2014, the Foundation claimed credit for new environmental provisions incorporated into a proposed government-wide contract announced by the General Service Administration (GSA) for an estimated $1.5 billion in overnight delivery services. Prospective vendors will be judged, in part, on their "continuous annual improvements in fleetwide fuel efficiency, alternative fuels use, greenhouse gas emissions intensity" and related factors.
 Interventions at the EPA in support of: (a) more stringent air pollution controls on fossil-fuel fired power plants; and (b) stricter tail-pipe emission standards for light and medium duty vehicles. For example, in November 2014 the foundation supported the EPA's proposed rules to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from existing coal-fired power plants. In 2011, ACSF also supported new Mercury and Air Toxic Standards (MATS) on power plants arguing, in part, that switching from coal to natural gas would facilitate industry compliance and lead to reduced greenhouse gas emissions as well. ACSF supported the new 54.5 mile per gallon corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) rules for light and medium duty vehicles. The foundation also sought to ensure that manufacturing incentives to spur the production of cleaner vehicles are fuel-neutral and cover compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles as well as electric and fuel cell vehicles.
 Potomac River Green – In August 2011, to spur the retirement of a 1940s era coal-fired power plant along the Potomac River, the foundation issued a 70-page redevelopment plan for the 25-acre site. The plan, titled Potomac River Green, was designed to fund environmental remediation of the site and demonstrate a net growth in employment and tax revenues following de-commissioning of the existing facility. The Potomac River Green plan, which is estimated to cost $450 million, envisions a mixed use community with an energy museum at its center as well as with hundreds of residential homes, office space, a 125-room hotel, recreational amenities and space for alternative energy start-ups. The plant had been the single largest source of air pollutants in Northern Virginia. Previously owned and operated by GenOn Energy, it is now owned by GenOn's successor company, NRG Energy, which permanently closed the plant in 2012.

Media Programs
In its early years, the foundation created an energy and environmental news service, branded as Clean Skies News; information was webcast twice daily and a half hour TV show was aired each Sunday on WJLA TV, the Washington, DC ABC affiliate.

In 2010, the foundation adopted a new magazine–news style format for the weekly show and changed the name to energyNOW!. The new show was distributed by Bloomberg TV to 65 million cable homes; it also aired on WJLA–TV in Washington, DC. Andrew Heyward, the former President of CBS News, served as the show's adviser and ombudsman.  The final episode of energyNOW! was distributed in January 2012.

In 2012, the foundation announced a $250,000 Energy Visions Prize contest to reward innovative clean energy apps and videos.

References

External links
 American Clean Skies Foundation

Conservation and environmental foundations in the United States
Organizations established in 2007

American Clean Skies Foundation


Joseph Bawa Akamba is a Ghanaian judge, who served as a justice of the Supreme Court of Ghana from 2012 to 2016. He was sworn into office by the President of Ghana, John Dramani Mahama in the presence of the Chief Justice of Ghana, Georgina Theodora Wood in November 2012. He retired from the Supreme Court in 2016. He had served a total of about 40 years in the Ghanaian Judicial Service. In 1994, he also served as Director of Public Prosecutions in The Gambia.

Akamba held various positions throughout his judicial career, some of which include; serving as the Chairman of the Committee of Inquiry into the Tamale Riots in 1993, Chairing the Committee of Inquiry into affairs of the Ghana School of Law in 2006, and also serving as the President of the Association of Magistrates and Judges of Ghana in 2007.

Early life and education
Akamba was born in Kumasi on 6 June 1946. He had his secondary education at Ghana Senior High School, Tamale (then Ghana College) where he obtained his 'O' Level Certificate in 1965 and Tamale Senior High School (then Government Secondary School) where he obtained his 'A' Level Certificate. He proceeded to the University of Ghana to pursue a Bachelor of laws degree (LLB), graduating in 1972. He entered the Ghana School of Law after his undergraduate studies and obtained his Barrister-at-law certificate (BL) in 1974. He also holds a certificate in Advanced Leadership from the Haggai Institute of Advanced Leadership which he received on 13 May 1999.

Career
Akamba taught at Tamale Business School from 1965 to 1969.  He also worked as an Assistant State Attorney at the Attorney-General's Office prior to joining the Judiciary as a District Magistrate. He served as a District Magistrate from 1977 until 1984 when he was promoted to Circuit Court judge.  In 1989, he was elevated to the High Court bench and remained in this position until 1994 when he gained an appointment at the Gambia to work as a Director of Public Prosecutions from 1994 to 1999. Later in 1999, he was appointed Justice of The Gambia Court of Appeal and he served in that capacity for about two years. Akamba returned to Ghana in 2001 taking up appointment as Justice of the Court of Appeal.  While serving on the Appeal Court bench, he doubled as the acting Director for the Judicial Training School from 2008 to 2011. He was sworn into office as a justice of the Supreme Court of Ghana on 11 November 2012. He served in this capacity for about four years and retired in 2016.

See also
List of judges of the Supreme Court of Ghana
Supreme Court of Ghana
Judiciary of Ghana

References

External links
GhanalLive TV
GhanaReview International

Living people
Justices of the Supreme Court of Ghana
University of Ghana alumni
Ghana School of Law alumni
1946 births
Tamale Senior High School alumni
Ghana Senior High School (Tamale) alumni

Joseph Bawa Akamba


Chromotherapy, sometimes called color therapy, colorology or cromatherapy, is an alternative medicine  that is considered pseudoscience and quackery. Chromotherapists claim to be able to use light in the form of color to balance "energy" lacking from a person's body, whether it be on physical, emotional, spiritual, or mental levels.  For example, they thought that shining a colored light on a person would cure constipation. Historically chromotherapy has been associated with mysticism and occultism.

Color therapy is unrelated to photomedicine, such as phototherapy and blood irradiation therapy, which are scientifically accepted medical treatments for a number of conditions, as well as being unrelated to photobiology, which is the scientific study of the effects of light on living organisms.

History
Avicenna (980–1037), seeing color as of vital importance both in diagnosis and in treatment, discussed chromotherapy in The Canon of Medicine. He wrote that "color is an observable symptom of disease" and also developed a chart that related color to the temperature and physical condition of the body. His view was that red moved the blood, blue or white cooled it, and yellow reduced muscular pain and inflammation.

Pioneer of photography Robert Hunt performed experiments on the effects of different wavelengths of light on the germination and growth of plants, detailed in his 1844 book Researches on Light. Apparently influenced by this work, from 1860 Augustus Pleasonton started to conduct original experiments, and in 1876 published the book The Influence of the Blue Ray of the Sunlight and of the Blue Color of the Sky, detailing how the color blue can improve the growth of crops and livestock and can help heal diseases in humans. This led to the birth of modern chromotherapy, influencing contemporary scientists Dr. Seth Pancoast and Edwin Dwight Babbitt to conduct experiments and publish Blue and Red Light; or, Light and Its Rays as Medicine (1877) and The Principles of Light and Color (1878) respectively.

Pancoast's book has been described by historians as a confusing mix of color therapy, mysticism and occultism. He held a lifelong interest in the Kabbalah and was a founding member of the Theosophical Society. Pancoast held the view that God is light and "the one universal pathological agent" that could cure disease. He would expose medications to colored light before administering them to a patient and also utilized sun-baths fitted with colored panes of glass. Throughout the 19th century "color healers" claimed colored glass filters could treat many diseases, including constipation and meningitis. In Germany in the late 1890s, Georg von Langsdorff promoted Babbitt's ideas and mixed color therapy with psychometry and spiritualism.

The Buddhist monk Bhante Dharmawara was a notable advocate of color therapy who promoted the use of green, blue and yellow for health. Other notable advocates include Anthroposophist Theo Gimbel who authored many books on the subject and founded the Hygeia Institute for Colour Therapy in 1968.

Dinshah P. Ghadiali

In 1933, Indian scientist Dinshah P. Ghadiali  published The Spectro Chromemetry Encyclopaedia, a work on color therapy. Ghadiali claimed to have discovered why and how the different colored rays have various therapeutic effects on organisms. He believed that colors represent chemical potencies in higher octaves of vibration, and for each organism and system of the body there is a particular color that stimulates and another that inhibits the work of that organ or system. He also thought that, by knowing the action of the different colors upon the different organs and systems of the body, one can apply the correct color that will tend to balance the action of any organ or system that has become abnormal in its function or condition. The American Medical Association published refutations of Ghadiali's color therapy claims. In 1958, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) facilitated a permanent injunction against Ghadiali's Visible Spectrum Research Institute.

Ghadiali's son, Darius Dinshah, continues to provide information about color therapy via his Dinshah Health Society, a nonprofit organization dedicated to advancing non-pharmaceutical home color therapy, and his book Let There Be Light.

Colored chakras

Practitioners of ayurvedic medicine believe the body has seven "chakras", which some claim are 'spiritual centers', and  are thought to be located along the spine. New Age thought associates each of the chakras with a single color of the visible light spectrum, along with a function and organ or bodily system. According to this view, the chakras can become imbalanced and result in physical and mental diseases, but application of the appropriate color can allegedly correct such imbalances.

Scientific rejection

Chromotherapy is regarded by health experts and historians as pseudoscience and quackery.

According to a book published by the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that alternative uses of light or color therapy are effective in treating cancer or other illnesses". Regarding Dinshah Ghadiali's work, science writer Martin Gardner had described him as "perhaps the greatest quack of them all".  According to Gardner, photographs of Ghadiali at work in his laboratory are "indistinguishable from stills of a grade D movie about a mad scientist".

Historian Deborah Ascher Barnstone has noted that chromotherapy is "distinct from scientifically verified light treatments such as neonatal jaundice treatment. As, unlike chromotherapy, the light used in such therapies, whether scientifically proven or not, was not always colored, their particulars are not relevant in this context."

Photobiology, the term for the scientific study of the effects of light on living tissue, has sometimes been used instead of the term chromotherapy in an effort to distance it from its roots in Victorian mysticism and to strip it of its associations with symbolism and magic. Light therapy is a specific treatment approach using high intensity light to treat specific sleep, skin and mood disorders.

A review of the existing research on chromotherapy found that there is no evidence to support a causal link between specific colors to health outcomes, there is not enough evidence to support a causal link between specific colors and emotional or mental states, and there is no research to suggest there exists one-to-one relationships between specific colors and emotions.

Chromotherapy has been accused of oversimplifying psychological responses to colors, making sweeping statements based on myths or beliefs that lack empirical support. Guidelines for chromotherapy lack consistency and appear to be subjective judgements that have inconclusive and nonspecific applicability in healthcare systems. While twelve colors have been reported as beneficial for health and well-being, a rigorous definition of each of these colors has yet to be provided, making it impossible to know if all color therapists are using the same wavelengths for these colors.

More recently, concern regarding the theory has questioned the risks associated with the emergence of light-emitting diode (LED) based lamps that have been created for use in chromotherapy, these lamps are classified as low risk for exposure and do not require any warnings to accompany the products. However, certain chromotherapy procedures require the individual to place the lamps near their eyes, which is not the recommended use for these lights and may alter the exposure duration to a level that can cause risk of retinal damage. With no consensus or regulation regarding how these products are to be used and whether eyewear is required, this treatment puts participants at risk for serious eye damage.

See also
 Colorpuncture
 List of ineffective cancer treatments
 List of topics characterized as pseudoscience

References

Further reading
Edwin Dwight Babbitt. (1886). The Principles of Light and Color. East Orange, New Jersey.
Martin Gardner. (1957). Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. Dover Publications.
Color War: Dinshah P. Ghadiali's Battle with the Medical Establishment over his Revolutionary Light-Healing Science

External links

Color
Energy therapies
Pseudoscience

Chromotherapy


Isaac Oluwole (1852–1932) was a Nigerian bishop of Sierra Leonean and Egba heritage. He was one of the most prominent emigrants from Sierra Leone resident in Lagos during the second half of the nineteenth century. From 1879 to 1893, he was the principal of the CMS Grammar School, Lagos and was later ordained a priest.  During his time, he was one of the most loved among his peers of clergymen. A reason which may have led to his recommendation as a bishop after a leading radical candidate, James Johnson, complained about the neglect of indigenous control of the Church of Missionary Society.

Life

Oluwole was born in Abeokuta to a father of Ijebu heritage and mother from Ilesha. His parents were members of the Anglican Church in Abeokuta under Henry Townsend. He lost his father at the age of 13 and at the request of Townsend, he was placed under the care of Dr Harrison, a CMS missionary who was training other children in the region. Oluwole attended the Anglican elementary school in Ake, Abeokuta and continued his education at the Anglican Training Institution also in Abeokuta. When the school was moved to Lagos after protests against missionaries in Abeokuta, Oluwole continued his studies in Lagos. After completing his education, he taught for four years with the Anglican mission.

In 1876, at the request of Rev. J.B. Wood, he was sponsored to attend Fourah Bay College where he ended up earning his bachelor's degree. Along with N.S. Davies and Obadiah Johnson, Oluwole was among the first students to obtain a bachelor's degree from the school in 1879 through the college's affiliation with the University of Durham. After the death of Rev T. B. Macaulay, a son-in-law of Bishop Ajayi Crowther in 1879, the Church Missionary Society chose to elect Oluwole as the new principal of C.M.S. Grammar School, Lagos. He was sent to England for further studies and spent one term at Monkton Combe School, which was founded in 1868 by a former curate to Sierra Leone, before taking the position.

He was ordained a deacon in 1881 and a priest in 1884. After the death of Bishop Crowther, CMS elected to nominate an Englishman as the new Bishop who will hold title of Bishop of Western Equatorial Africa and also chose to nominate two African assistant bishops. Rev. J. Sidney Hill was made bishop designate and following a preliminary mission undertaken by Hill, Oluwole and Rev. Charles Philips were nominated to become Assistant Bishops. In 1893, he was consecrated as the Assistant Bishop of Western Equatorial Africa at St Paul's Cathedral, London, Ludgate Hill on June 29, 1893 and was subsequently awarded a doctor of divinity degree from the University of Durham.

On December 13, 1893, Oluwole, Hill, Philips and 12 other English priests arrived in Lagos. However, Hill and his wife died shortly. Hill died on January 6, 1894, just after spending 24 days in Lagos. Herbert Tugwell was chosen as Hill's replacement. In 1920, the Diocese of Equatorial Africa was split into two, the Lagos and Diocese on the Niger. Oluwole's title was changed to Assistant Bishop of the Diocese of Lagos.

He married in 1888 and had six children, three of whom died before 1932. His son Isaac Ladipo Oluwole studied medicine at the University of Glasgow graduating MB ChB in 1918.

References

External links
Church of Nigeria history

19th-century Nigerian Anglican priests
Egba people
1852 births
1932 deaths
Yoruba Christian clergy
Sierra Leonean people of Yoruba descent
20th-century Nigerian Anglican priests
People from colonial Nigeria
Sierra Leonean emigrants to Nigeria
Heads of schools in Nigeria
19th-century Nigerian educators
Yoruba educators
Fourah Bay College alumni
people educated at Monkton Combe School
Anglican assistant bishops of Lagos

Isaac Oluwole


A branchiostegal lung is a respiration organ used by some air-breathing arthropods. It is one of the most significant adaptations of some crabs and hermit crabs such as the coconut crab to their terrestrial habitats.

The branchiostegal (gill) tissue is supported by folds or other mechanisms to increase surface area and are of a similar tissue to that normally found in gills. In this case, the lung is more suited to the absorption of oxygen from air, rather than water.

Instead of branchiostegal lungs, some terrestrial hermit crabs (Coenobita) possess multiple gills and small lungs, with other varieties of gas diffusion methods supporting the transition from aquatic to terrestrial dwelling.

The developmental shift from water diffusion "gills" to air perfusion "lungs" may have been related to the need for reduced rates of water loss in air.

References

Organs (anatomy)
Invertebrate respiratory system
Crustacean anatomy

Branchiostegal lung


"The Crazy Otto Medley" is a ragtime medley, originally arranged and recorded by the German comic performer Fritz Schulz-Reichel under the pseudonym of "Der schräge Otto" aka "Crazy Otto".  The best-known version is a  1955 recording made by pianist Johnny Maddox.

The opening tune in the medley is "Ivory Rag" by Lou Busch and Jack Elliott. The closing song is "Play a Simple Melody" by Irving Berlin. The songs sandwiched in between these two are pop songs from Germany. The first of them is "In der Nacht ist der Mensch nicht gern alleine" by Franz Grothe. The second is "Das machen nur die Beine von Dolores" by Michael Jary. The third is "Was macht der alte Seemann" (Heino Gaze & Günther Schwenn).

The Maddox recording of the Crazy Otto Medley entered the Billboard charts on February 5, 1955, and spent 20 weeks, peaking at #2 for seven weeks. It also became the first million-selling ragtime record in the United States since Del Wood's "Down Yonder" in 1951, and eventually sold in excess of two million copies.

Due to its success, the Crazy Otto Medley became synonymous with Maddox in the United States, who became nicknamed "Crazy Otto", the same nickname already used by Schulz-Reichel.

The Grateful Dead song "Ramble on Rose" contains a line about Crazy Otto.

References

External links
Ragtime and Honky-Tonk of the 1950s: Sorting Out the Players, Bill Edwards: (2004)

1955 singles
Music medleys
Year of song missing

The Crazy Otto Medley


Ngokulandela amazinga abekwe ngabe-International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED), imfundo eyisisekelo iqukethe izigaba ezimbili, okuyimfundo yeprayimari kanye nemfundo yesikondari yebanga eliphansi.

Imfundo kawonkewonke eyisisekelo
Imfundo eyisisekelo kwaxoxwa ngayo kakhulu kwidokhumende yonyaka ka 1997, ye-ISCED, kodwa ithemu lalingabandakanyiwe kwiglasari. Izwe nezwe litolika ithemu ngezindlela ezehlukile, kanti ukuya kunyaka ka 2011 lerivishini, kwaba nephepha lengxoxo elakhishwa ukuzama ukucacisa.

Kumazwe amaningi, i-ISCED 1 ihambisana nemfundo kazwelonke yeprayimari, ebese kanti imfundo eyisisekelo yona ibandakanye i-ISCED 2 okuyimfundo yebanga eliphansi lesekondari (izinga elisezansi lesekondari). Kwamanye amazwe, lapho khona kungekho ukwehlukaniswa kweprayimari kanye nezinga elisezansi lesekondari, "imfundo eyisekelo" ibandakanya sonke isikhathi semfundo yesikole ephoqelelayo. Ngezizathu zamastatistiki, i-ISCED 1 ithathwa njengeminyaka yesithupha yokuqala yesikole.

Universal basic education is regarded as a priority for developing countries and is the focus of the Education For All movement led by UNESCO. It is also included in the Millennium Development Goals as goal number 2: achieve universal primary education by 2015.

An extensive number of studies have proven its benefits for public health (e.g. lower spread of HIV/AIDS; better vaccination; prevention and medication of disease; better nutrition; lower maternal, infant, and child mortality),  demography (e.g. longer life expectancy, accelerated demographic transition through better birth control) and the economy (e.g. increased purchase power, increased productivity in traditional sectors, increased demand on service sectors). Other benefits, although more difficult to measure, include a beneficial impact on democracy, human rights, governance, and political stability through increased understanding of non-violent ways to solve problems and mutual understanding between groups in conflict.

The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), established by UNICEF in 1989, protects children's inalienable rights by setting standards for multiple issues, one of which is education.

Gender equality in basic education
Gender equality in education has traditionally been narrowly equated with gender parity at different levels of formal education. Gender has been a traditional factor of inequality and disparity in education, most often to the disadvantage of girls and women. Yet there has been  significant progress in narrowing the gap around the world since 2000, with a larger proportion of girls and women accessing different levels of formal education. Indeed, gender parity in primary education has been achieved in Central and Eastern Europe, Central Asia, East Asia and the Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean, North America and Western Europe. In addition, significant progress has been made since 2000 in narrowing the gender gap, particularly in South and West Asia and to a lesser degree in sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab States. However, despite the significant progress made, the majority of out-of-school children are girls, while two-thirds of youth and adults with low levels of literacy in the world are women. To help ensure women's empowerment, boys and men must also be engaged in the fight against gender inequality. This must begin with basic education.

See also

References

Imfundo eyisisekelo


The Gambling Commission is a government organisation in the United Kingdom responsible for regulating gambling and supervising gaming law in Great Britain.  It was set up by the Gambling Act 2005.  Before it was set up there was the Gaming Board for Great Britain.  It is answerable to the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport.

It has to supervise arcades, betting, bingo, casinos, slot machines and lotteries, as well as remote gambling, but not spread betting.  It is supposed to keep crime out of gambling, and to protect vulnerable people. From 2013 it has to regulate the National Lottery.

It can fine organisations which break the rules. William Hill was fined  £19.2million in 2023 for failing to protect its customers from accruing unpayable debts.

Gambling companies have to pay an annual contribution "to one or more organisation(s) which deliver research, harm prevention and treatment for those harmed by gambling". The amount is not fixed and in 2023 the government said it would bring in new rules.

References

Gambling
Government agencies of the United Kingdom

Gambling Commission


The Mujahideen in Chechnya (, Muzhakhady v Chechnye) () were foreign Islamist Mujahideen volunteers that fought in Chechnya and other parts of the North Caucasus.

It was created by Fathi al-Urduni in 1995 during the First Chechen War, where it fought against the Russian Federation in favor of Chechnya's independence as the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. During the Second Chechen War it played an important part in further fighting.

Name
The unit has been known by several names throughout its existence. Examples include the Chechen Mujahideen, the Islamic Regiment, the Islamic Battalion, the Arabs in Chechnya and the Ansaar in Chechnya.

Although the overwhelming majority of the unit has always consisted of Arab volunteers, there were also members of non-Arab, usually Kurds, Turks and other North Cauсasians. It is not to be confused with the Special Purpose Islamic Regiment (SPIR), al-Qaeda's 055 Brigade or the Islamic International Peacekeeping Brigade (IIPB).

History
Foreign Mujahideen have played an important part in both First and Second Chechen Wars. After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the subsequent Chechen declaration of independence, foreign fighters started entering the region and associated themselves with Chechen rebels, most notably Shamil Basayev with whom Ibn al-Khattab build up a friendship. Many of them were veterans of the Soviet–Afghan War and prior to the Russian invasion, they used their expertise to train Chechen fighters.

First Chechen War and Interwar period

During the First Chechen War they were notorious and feared for their guerilla tactics, inflicting severe casualties on Russian forces. The mujahideen also made a significant financial contribution to the Chechen cause; with their access to the immense wealth of Salafist charities like al-Haramein, they soon became an invaluable source of funds for the Chechen resistance, which had little to none resources of its own.

After the withdrawal of Russian forces from Chechnya most of the mujahideen decided to remain in the country, including Khattab who married a woman from Dagestan. In 1999, foreign fighters played an important role in the War of Dagestan. Shamil Basayev and Khattab had created the Islamic International Peacekeeping Brigade which was composed of Chechen fighters. The invasion was started in support of the Islamic Djamaat of Dagestan separatist rebels. After the battle, they retreated back into Chechnya. The incursion provided the new Russian government with a pretext for intervention and in December 1999 Russian ground forces invaded Chechnya again.

Second Chechen War
During the ensuing Second Chechen War, the Arab Mujahideen played another important part, both for delivering fighters and their financial contributions. It was during this time that the Russians succeeded in eliminating the most prominent mujahideen commanders Ibn al-Khattab and Abu al-Walid.

Commanders

As Mujahideen in Chechnya
 Ibn al-Khattab (1999–2002)
 Abu al-Walid (2002–2004)
 Abu Hafs al-Urduni (2004–2006)
 Muhannad (2006–2011)
 Abdulla Kurd (2011)

Structure
The battalion was mostly composed of Arabs, however, there were also Caucasian and Kurdish fighters in relatively small numbers. All known Emirs (leaders) are deceased. Its first Emir was Ibn Al-Khattab (Saudi) who was killed in March 2002 and succeeded by Abu al-Walid (Saudi), who was killed in April 2004. His successor became Abu Hafs al-Urduni (Jordanian) who was killed in November 2006. He was succeeded by Muhannad (Saudi), who was killed in a clash with security forces in the Chechen village of Serzhen-Yurt on 21 April 2011. Several weeks later, his successor Abdulla Kurd (Kurdish) was also killed. The battalion was split into multiple units of Mujahideen commanded by their respective Emirs which disbanded by 2012.

See also
 Pan-Islamism
 White Tights (Alleged female Baltic snipers in the Chechen Wars)

Afghanistan
 Afghan mujahideen
 Afghan Arabs
Yugoslav wars
 Bosnian mujahideen
Iraqi conflict
 Kurdish Mujahideen

References

Caucasus Emirate
Jihadist groups
Second Chechen War
Pan-Islamism
Mujahideen

Mujahideen in Chechnya


Tandon Motorcycles were manufactured in Watford by Devdutt Tandon (1902–1980)from 1947 to 1959for export to his native India and other third world countries initially. The simplicity of the initial Tandon design reflected the chosen export market where the two-stroke engined motorcycles were to be sent CKD (Completely Knocked Down) for assembly abroad. Indeed, it took one Tandon factory worker only eight hours to completely assemble four Tandon motorcycles. The model in question was the 122 cc Milemaster, powered like all but the last Tandons by a Villiers two-stroke engine. Tandon received great publicity when Pandit Nehru, the Prime Minister of India, was photographed astride a Milemaster while visiting Caxton Hall in 1948.

The export plan never materialised and the Milemaster, with its modest specificationhand gear change and bicycle seatand lacking rear suspension, was marketed instead in the United Kingdom until 1952. In 1949, Tandon introduced the 122 cc Superglid featuring conventional foot gear-change and a new frame with swinging-arm rear suspension. However, the suspension itself was highly unusual with damper units being replaced by a bell crank linked to rubber bands for suspension and a hard rubber block for compression action, all located under the gearbox.

Sufficient sales enabled Tandon to move to larger premises within Watford from Bushey Hall Road to Colne Way and introduce the larger-engined 197 cc Superglid Supreme. The short-lived (1951–1953) but relatively popular 122 cc Kangaroo trials model boasted the attractions of significant ground clearance and light weight with a 197 cc Kangaroo Supreme also featuring conventional damper units in the swinging-arm rear suspension. A Tandon 200 cc scrambler model enjoyed success beating a factory-sponsored 500 cc BSA motorcycle in an Irish handicap race in 1956.

Replacing the Milemaster was the 122 cc Imp which sacrificed rear suspension for light weight. However, the later, larger 197 cc Imp Supreme adopted conventional rear suspension.

New roadster models with conventional rear suspension, stronger frames and bigger engines were introduced in 1954 being the 224 cc Monarch (also known as the Sprite) and, with a 242 cc British Anzani (and later 322 cc) two-stroke twin cylinder engine, the Viscount (also known as the Twin Supreme). These did not have as standard the telescopic front fork as fitted to prior Tandon models but instead boasted an Armstrong Earles-fork arrangement. These and the new 99 cc Starlett scooter could not stop Tandon Motors Limited being wound-up in 1955 by the United Kingdom Commissioners of Custom & Excise, their sales hampered by a dealer network not extending outside London. Devdutt Tandon was able however to continue manufacture of his motorcycles through his other firm Indian Commerce & Industries Limited until 1959.

Despite the Milemaster design and manufacture having shown "a good deal of thought", Tandon motorcycles suffered from a poor reputation , enjoying only limited popularity. Their simplistic approach, perhaps born out of an initial design philosophy catering for the third world market, finally was neither sold cheap enough to attract the budget market nor was of sufficient quality to challenge other similar lightweight competitor marques. That said, there were positives: the Milemaster being described as "an absolute hoot to ride" with "staggering" fuel economy of around 100 miles per gallon.

References

Wilson, Steve British Motorcycles Since 1950 Volume 4 (Patrick Stephens Limited 1991)
Devdutt's dream The Classic MotorCycle (6/12)
Tandon Done And Dusted Classic Bike (8/16)

Motorcycle manufacturers of the United Kingdom
History of Watford
Companies based in Watford

Tandon Motorcycles


Sir Arthur John Evans (Nash Mill, Hertfordshire, 1851ko uztailaren 8a - Youlbury, Oxfordshire, 1941eko uztailaren 11) britainiar arkeologoa izan zen.

Harrow Schoolen eta Oxfordeko Unibertsitatean ikasi zuen. Udan ikasketa bidaiak egiten zituen: Frantzia, Balkanak, Laponia...

Balkanetara bidaiatu zuen 1875-78ko Herzegovinako matxinadan otomandarren aurka eta Manchester Guardian egunkarian argitaratu zituen bere erreportajeak.

1884an Ashmolean Museumeko arduradun izendatu zuten.

Brontze Aroko Egear zibilizazioen azterketan aitzindaria izan zen. Knossos jauregia aurkitu zuen Kretan. Bere aurkikuntzek zibilizazio minoikoa eta zibilizazio mizenikoa bereiztera eraman zuten. Gainera, A Lineala eta B Lineala idazketa sistemak deskribatu zituen lehena izan zen.

Lanak
 Evans, Arthur John (1871). "On a hoard of coins found at Oxford, with some remarks on the coinage of the first three Edwards". Numismatic Chronicle. New Series (11): 260–282.
 —— (1876). Through Bosnia and the Herzegóvina on foot during the insurrection, August and September 1875; with an historical review of Bosnia and a glimpse at the Croats, Slavonians, and the ancient republic of Ragusa. London: Longmans, Greens and Co. arthur john evans.
 —— (1877). Through Bosnia and the Herzegdvina on foot, during the insurrection, August and September 1875, with an historical review of Bosnia, and a glimpse at the Croats, Slavonians, and the ancient republic of Ragusa (2nd ed.). London: Longmans, Green and Co.
 —— (1878). Illyrian letters: a revised selection of correspondence from the llllyrian provinces of Bosnia, Herzegdvina, Montenegro, Albania, Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia during the troubled year 1877. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
 —— (1883). Antiquarian researches in Illyricum. (Parts I and II). From The Archaeologia Vol. XLVIII. Westminster: Nichols and Sons.
 —— (1884). The Ashmolean museum as a home of archæology in Oxford: an inaugural lecture given in the Ashmolean Museum, November 20, 1884. Oxford: Parker & Co.
 —— (1885). "Antiquarian researches in Illyricum, Parts III, IV". Archaeologia. XLIX. London: 1–167.
 —— (1886). "Megalithic Monuments in their Sepulchral Relation". Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society. Manchester: A. Ireland Co., Printers. III, 1885.
 —— (1889). "The "horsemen" of Tarentum. A contribution towards the numismatic history of Great Greece. Including an essay on artists', engravers', and magistrates' signatures". Numismatic Chronicle. 3rd Series. 9.
 —— (1890). "On a Late-Celtic urn-field at Aylesford, Kent, and on the Gaulish, Illyro-Italic, and Classical connexions of the forms of pottery and bronzework there discovered". Archaeologia. 52 (2): 315–88. doi:10.1017/S0261340900007591.
 —— (1892). Syracusan "medallions" and their engravers in the light of recent finds, with observations on the chronology and historical occasions of the Syracusan coin-types of the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. And an essay on some new artists' signatures on Sicilian coins (reprinted from the Numismatic Chronicle of 1890 and 1891). London: Bernard Quaritch.
 —— (1894). "Primitive Pictographs and Script from Crete and the Peloponnese". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. XIV: 270–372. doi:10.2307/623973. JSTOR 623973.
 —— (1895). Cretan pictographs and prae-Phoenician script: with an account of a sepulchral deposit at Hagios Onouphrios near Phaestos in its relation to primitive Cretan and Aegean culture. London: Bernard Quaritch.
 —— (1898). Letters from Crete. Repr. from the "Manchester Guardian" of May 24, 25, and June 13, with notes on some official replies to questions asked with reference to the above in the House of Commons. Oxford: Hart.
 —— (1901A). "The Mycenaean Pillar Cult and its Mediterranean Relations with Illustrations from Recent Cretan Finds". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 21: 99–204. doi:10.2307/623870. hdl:2027/uva.x000381934. JSTOR 623870. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2017.
 —— (1901B). "Minoan Civilization at the Palace of Knosses" (PDF). Monthly Review.
 —— (1906A) [1905]. Essai de classification des Époques de la civilization minoenne: résumé d'un discours fait au Congrès d'Archéologie à Athènes (Revised ed.). London: B. Quaritch.
 —— (1906B). "The prehistoric tombs of Knossos: I. The cemetery of Zapher Papoura, with a comparative note on a chamber-tomb at Milatos. II. The Royal Tomb at Isopata". Archaeologia. London: B. Quaritch. 59: 391–562. doi:10.1017/S0261340900027612.
 —— (1909). Scripta Minoa: The Written Documents of Minoan Crete: with Special Reference to the Archives of Knossos. Volume I: The Hieroglyphic and Primitive Linear Classes: with an account of the discovery of the pre-Phoenician scripts, their place in the Minoan story and their Mediterranean relatives: with plates, tables and figures in the text. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
 —— (1912). "The Minoan and Mycenaean Element in Hellenic Life". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 32: 277–287. doi:10.2307/624176. JSTOR 624176.
 —— (1914). "The 'Tomb of the Double Axes' and Associated Group, and the Pillar Rooms and Ritual Vessels of the 'Little Palace' at Knossos". Archaeologia. 65: 1–94. doi:10.1017/S0261340900010833.
 ——. The Palace of Minos: a comparative account of the successive stages of the early Cretan civilization as illustrated by the discoveries at Knossos (1921, 1928A, 1928B, 1930, 1935A, 1935B, 1936). London: MacMillan and Co; Online by Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg. Archived from the original on 16 February 2012. Retrieved 27 April 2012. [Volume 1, Volume 2 Parts 1&2, Volume 3, Volume 4 Parts 1&2, Index by Joan Evans].
 —— (1921). PM. Volume I: The Neolithic and Early and Middle Minoan Ages. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013.
 —— (1928A). PM. Volume II Part I: Fresh lights on origins and external relations: the restoration in town and palace after seismic catastrophe towards close of M. M. III and the beginnings of the New Era. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013.
 —— (1928B). PM. Volume II Part II: Town-Houses in Knossos of the New Era and restored West Palace Section, with its state approach. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013.
 —— (1930). PM. Volume III: The great transitional age in the northern and eastern sections of the Palace: the most brilliant record of Minoan art and the evidences of an advanced religion. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013.
 —— (1935A). PM. Volume IV Part I: Emergence of outer western enceinte, with new illustrations, artistic and religious, of the Middle Minoan Phase, Chryselephantine "Lady of Sports", "Snake Room" and full story of the cult Late Minoan ceramic evolution and "Palace Style". Archived from the original on 6 January 2013.
 —— (1935B). PM. Volume IV Part II: Camp-stool Fresco, long-robed priests and beneficent genii, Chryselephantine Boy-God and ritual hair-offering, Intaglio Types, M.M. III – L. M. II, late hoards of sealings, deposits of inscribed tablets and the palace stores, Linear Script B and its mainland extension, Closing Palatial Phase, Room of Throne and final catastrophe. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013.
 Evans, Joan (1936). PM. Index to the Palace of Minos. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013.
 —— (1925). ʻThe ring of Nestor;̓ a glimpse into the Minoan after-world, and a sepulchral treasure of gold signet-rings and bead-seals from Thisbê, Boeotia. London: Macmillan and Co.
 —— (1929). The shaft graves and bee-hive tombs of Mycenae and their interrelation (PDF). London: MacMillan and Co. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 September 2011.
 —— (1933). Jarn Mound, with its panorama and wild garden of British plants. Oxford: J. Vincent.
 —— (1952). Scripta Minoa: The Written Documents of Minoan Crete: with special reference to the archives of Knossos. Volume II: The Archives of Knossos: clay tablets inscribed in linear script B: edited from notes, and supplemented by John L. Myres. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Bibliografia
 Brown, Ann Cynthia (1993). Before Knossos: Arthur Evans's Travels in the Balkans and Crete (Illustrated ed.). Ashmolean Museum. .
 Cottrell, Leonard (1958). The Bull of Minos. New York: Rinehart & Company.
 Fox, Margalit (2013). The Riddle of the Labyrinth: The Quest to Crack an Ancient Code. Ecco. .
 Gere, Cathy (2009). Knossos and the Prophets of Modernism. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. .
 MacGillivray, Joseph Alexander (2000). Minotaur: Sir Arthur Evans and the Archaeology of the Minoan Myth. New York: Hill and Wang (Farrar, Straus and Giroux).

Kanpo estekak

Hertfordshire konderriko jendea
Erresuma Batuko arkeologoak
Copley Domina
Royal Societyko kideak
Knights Bachelor

Arthur Evans


Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz (; born 20 December 1959) is a Polish conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of Poland from 31 October 2005 to 14 July 2006. He was a member of the Law and Justice party (Prawo i Sprawiedliwość, PiS).

Early life
Born in Gorzów Wielkopolski, Marcinkiewicz graduated in 1984 from the Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry (having studied physics) of the Wrocław University. He  also completed post-graduate course in Administration at the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. He worked as an elementary school teacher and a headmaster in his homecity of Gorzów Wielkopolski.

In the 1980s he was also a member of the Solidarity movement and editor of underground press materials. In 1992 he became a State Secretary (formal name for deputy minister) in the Ministry of National Education. From 1999 to 2000 he was the cabinet chief for Prime Minister Jerzy Buzek.

Prime Minister of Poland
Following the victory of the Law and Justice party in the September 2005 Polish parliamentary elections, its prime ministerial candidate, party leader Jarosław Kaczyński decided against becoming prime minister so as not to damage the chances of his twin brother, Lech Kaczyński in the then-upcoming October presidential election. Instead the little-known Marcinkiewicz became PM, leading a coalition formed by Jarosław, who remained in the background, but influential.

Before his prime ministerial appointment, Marcinkiewicz remained a political cipher, which resulted in a political carte blanche after the appointment. Relatively unknown to the public at that time, due to his intensive political activity Marcinkiewicz gained a high public recognition, rapidly becoming the most trusted and popular politician in Poland.

Marcinkiewicz strongly supports Polish membership in EU, although he disagrees with several more integrationist ideas, such as the European Constitution. Economic policy of his cabinet is a continuation of those conducted by previous governments.

Following speculations of a rift with Jarosław Kaczyński, Marcinkiewicz tendered his resignation on 7 July 2006, maintaining however that no one will insert a wedge between him and Kaczyński, words he directed at Donald Tusk. He was succeeded as prime minister on 14 July by Kaczyński.

Later life
On 18 July Marcinkiewicz was appointed as the temporary acting mayor of Warsaw, a so-called "comissar".
During the municipal elections in 2006, he was the Law and Justice candidate for mayor of Warsaw. In the first round of voting, held on 12 November, he got 38.42%, while his closest rival, Hanna Gronkiewicz-Waltz of the opposition Civic Platform won 34.15% of the votes. In the second round, held on 26 November, he got 46.82% of the votes, losing the election.

He was one of the directors of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from March 2007 until May 2008.

From 2008 until 2013 he worked for Goldman Sachs, presumably as a lobbyist. Despite his work for Goldman Sachs, major Polish newspapers and news television channels, informed that former Polish prime minister barely spoke English after one year spent in London. He could not answer simple questions asked by Warsaw based English native speakers hired by one of the Polish tabloid who called him to offer a job in other bank in UK.

In 2009, after divorcing his wife and mother of four, he married his former mistress, 22 years his junior, with whom he was embroiled in a bitter divorce battle in September 2015.

Criticism
In the first half of 2009, he came under heavy criticism because of not keeping up with the moral values he promoted while being engaged in politics. In particular, it was discovered that he was criticizing extra-marital affairs and praising traditional family values, while having an affair himself.

Famous quotes
He became famous for his enthusiastic "Yes, yes, yes!" after the success in negotiations of the EU budget on 17 December 2005, – the phrase that has entered into the Polish popular culture as a symbol of a political success 'with a human face' (not refraining from real emotions), but at the same time as a symbol of untempered self-confidence. As a rhetorical device (epizeuxis), it has already been re-used by Volkswagen in its publicity campaign.

References

External links

 Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz's homepage
 Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz's blog
 100 Days of Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz: Euro-Pragmatism Victory
 Jarosław Kaczyński Becomes Poland's Prime Minister

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1959 births
Living people
People from Gorzów Wielkopolski
Law and Justice politicians
Prime Ministers of Poland
University of Wrocław alumni
Polish Roman Catholics
Members of the Polish Sejm 1997–2001
Members of the Polish Sejm 2001–2005
Members of the Polish Sejm 2005–2007

Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz


Probabilistic logic (also probability logic and probabilistic reasoning) involves the use of probability and logic to deal with uncertain situations. Probabilistic logic extends traditional logic truth tables with probabilistic expressions. A difficulty of probabilistic logics is their tendency to multiply the computational complexities of their probabilistic and logical components.  Other difficulties include the possibility of counter-intuitive results, such as in case of belief fusion in Dempster–Shafer theory. Source trust and epistemic uncertainty about the probabilities they provide, such as defined in subjective logic, are additional elements to consider. The need to deal with a broad variety of contexts and issues has led to many different proposals.

Logical background
There are numerous proposals for probabilistic logics. Very roughly, they can be categorized into two different classes: those logics that attempt to make a probabilistic extension to logical entailment, such as Markov logic networks, and those that attempt to address the problems of uncertainty and lack of evidence (evidentiary logics).

That the concept of probability can have different meanings may be understood by noting that, despite the mathematization of probability in the Enlightenment, mathematical probability theory remains, to this very day, entirely unused in criminal courtrooms, when evaluating the "probability" of the guilt of a suspected criminal.

More precisely, in evidentiary logic, there is a need to distinguish the objective truth of a statement from our decision about the truth of that statement, which in turn must be distinguished from our confidence in its truth: thus, a suspect's real guilt is not necessarily the same as the judge's decision on guilt, which in turn is not the same as assigning a numerical probability to the commission of the crime, and deciding whether it is above a numerical threshold of guilt.  The verdict on a single suspect may be guilty or not guilty with some uncertainty, just as the flipping of a coin may be predicted as heads or tails with some uncertainty.  Given a large collection of suspects, a certain percentage may be guilty, just as the probability of flipping "heads" is one-half. However, it is incorrect to take this law of averages with regard to a single criminal (or single coin-flip): the criminal is no more "a little bit guilty" than predicting a single coin flip to be "a little bit heads and a little bit tails": we are merely uncertain as to which it is.  Expressing uncertainty as a numerical probability may be acceptable when making scientific measurements of physical quantities, but it is merely a mathematical model of the uncertainty we perceive in the context of "common sense" reasoning and logic.  Just as in courtroom reasoning, the goal of employing uncertain inference is to gather evidence to strengthen the confidence of a proposition, as opposed to performing some sort of probabilistic entailment.

Historical context
Historically, attempts to quantify probabilistic reasoning date back to antiquity. There was a particularly strong interest starting in the 12th century, with the work of the Scholastics, with the invention of the half-proof (so that two half-proofs are sufficient to prove guilt), the elucidation of moral certainty (sufficient certainty to act upon, but short of absolute certainty), the development of Catholic probabilism (the idea that it is always safe to follow the established rules of doctrine or the opinion of experts, even when they are less probable), the case-based reasoning of casuistry, and the scandal of Laxism (whereby probabilism was used to give support to almost any statement at all, it being possible to find an expert opinion in support of almost any proposition.).

Modern proposals
Below is a list of proposals for probabilistic and evidentiary extensions to classical and predicate logic.

 The term "probabilistic logic" was first used by Jon Von Neumann in a series of Cal Tech lectures 1952 and 1956 paper "Probabilistic logics and the synthesis of reliable organisms from unreliable components", and subsequently in a paper by Nils Nilsson published in 1986, where the truth values of sentences are probabilities. The proposed semantical generalization induces a probabilistic logical entailment, which reduces to ordinary logical entailment when the probabilities of all sentences are either 0 or 1. This generalization applies to any logical system for which the consistency of a finite set of sentences can be established.
 The central concept in the theory of subjective logic is opinions about some of the propositional variables involved in the given logical sentences. A binomial opinion applies to a single proposition and is represented as a 3-dimensional extension of a single probability value to express probabilistic and epistemic uncertainty about the truth of the proposition. For the computation of derived opinions based on a structure of argument opinions, the theory proposes respective operators for various logical connectives, such as e.g. multiplication (AND), comultiplication (OR), division (UN-AND) and co-division (UN-OR) of opinions, conditional deduction (MP) and abduction (MT)., as well as Bayes' theorem.
 The approximate reasoning formalism proposed by fuzzy logic can be used to obtain a logic in which the models are the probability distributions and the theories are the lower envelopes. In such a logic the question of the consistency of the available information is strictly related with the one of the coherence of partial probabilistic assignment and therefore with Dutch book phenomena.
 Markov logic networks implement a form of uncertain inference based on the maximum entropy principle—the idea that probabilities should be assigned in such a way as to maximize entropy, in analogy with the way that Markov chains assign probabilities to finite state machine transitions.
 Systems such as Pei Wang's Non-Axiomatic Reasoning System (NARS) or Ben Goertzel's Probabilistic Logic Networks (PLN) add an explicit confidence ranking, as well as a probability to atoms and sentences.  The rules of deduction and induction incorporate this uncertainty, thus side-stepping difficulties in purely Bayesian approaches to logic (including Markov logic), while also avoiding the paradoxes of Dempster–Shafer theory.  The implementation of PLN attempts to use and generalize algorithms from logic programming, subject to these extensions.
 In the field of probabilistic argumentation, various formal frameworks have been put forward. The framework of "probabilistic labellings", for example, refers to probability spaces where a sample space is a set of labellings of argumentation graphs. In the framework of "probabilistic argumentation systems" probabilities are not directly attached to arguments or logical sentences. Instead it is assumed that a particular subset  of the variables  involved in the sentences defines a probability space over the corresponding sub-σ-algebra. This induces two distinct probability measures with respect to , which are called degree of support and degree of possibility, respectively. Degrees of support can be regarded as non-additive probabilities of provability, which generalizes the concepts of ordinary logical entailment (for ) and classical posterior probabilities (for ). Mathematically, this view is compatible with the Dempster–Shafer theory.
 The theory of evidential reasoning also defines non-additive probabilities of probability (or epistemic probabilities) as a general notion for both logical entailment (provability) and probability. The idea is to augment standard propositional logic by considering an epistemic operator K that represents the state of knowledge that a rational agent has about the world. Probabilities are then defined over the resulting epistemic universe Kp of all propositional sentences p, and it is argued that this is the best information available to an analyst. From this view, Dempster–Shafer theory appears to be a generalized form of probabilistic reasoning.

See also

 Statistical relational learning
 Bayesian inference, Bayesian networks, Bayesian probability
 Cox's theorem
 Dempster–Shafer theory
 Fréchet inequalities
 Fuzzy logic
 Imprecise probability
 Logic, Deductive logic, Non-monotonic logic
 Possibility theory
 Probabilism, Half-proof, Scholasticism
 Probabilistic database
 Probabilistic soft logic
 Probability, Probability theory
 Probabilistic argumentation
 Probabilistic causation
 Probabilistic proof
 Scientific evidence
 Subjective logic
 Uncertain inference
 Upper and lower probabilities

References

Further reading
 Adams, E. W., 1998. A Primer of Probability Logic. CSLI Publications (Univ. of Chicago Press).
 Bacchus, F., 1990. "Representing and reasoning with Probabilistic Knowledge. A Logical Approach to Probabilities". The MIT Press.
 Carnap, R., 1950. Logical Foundations of Probability. University of Chicago Press.
 Chuaqui, R., 1991. Truth, Possibility and Probability: New Logical Foundations of Probability and Statistical Inference. Number 166 in Mathematics Studies. North-Holland.
 Haenni, H., Romeyn, JW, Wheeler, G., and Williamson, J. 2011. Probabilistic Logics and Probabilistic Networks, Springer.
 Hájek, A., 2001, "Probability, Logic, and Probability Logic," in Goble, Lou, ed., The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic, Blackwell.
 Jaynes, E., 1998, "Probability Theory: The Logic of Science", pdf and Cambridge University Press 2003.
 Kyburg, H. E., 1970. Probability and Inductive Logic Macmillan.
 Kyburg, H. E., 1974. The Logical Foundations of Statistical Inference, Dordrecht: Reidel.
 Kyburg, H. E. & C. M. Teng, 2001. Uncertain Inference, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Romeiyn, J. W., 2005. Bayesian Inductive Logic. PhD thesis, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Groningen, Netherlands.
 Williamson, J., 2002, "Probability Logic," in D. Gabbay, R. Johnson, H. J. Ohlbach, and J. Woods, eds., Handbook of the Logic of Argument and Inference: the Turn Toward the Practical. Elsevier: 397–424.

External links
 Progicnet: Probabilistic Logic And Probabilistic Networks
 Subjective logic demonstrations
 The Society for Imprecise Probability

Probabilistic arguments
Non-classical logic
Scientific method
Formal epistemology

Probabilistic logic