Mucosal-associated invariant T cells (MAIT cells) make up a subset of T cells in the immune system that display innate, effector-like qualities. In humans, MAIT cells are found in the blood, liver, lungs, and mucosa, defending against microbial activity and infection. The MHC class I-like protein, MR1, is responsible for presenting bacterially-produced vitamin B2 and B9 metabolites to MAIT cells. After the presentation of foreign antigen by MR1, MAIT cells secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines and are capable of lysing bacterially-infected cells. MAIT cells can also be activated through MR1-independent signaling. In addition to possessing innate-like functions, this T cell subset supports the adaptive immune response and has a memory-like phenotype. Furthermore, MAIT cells are thought to play a role in autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease, although definitive evidence is yet to be published.

Molecular characteristics
MAIT cells constitute a subset of αβ T lymphocytes characterized by a semi-invariant T cell receptor alpha (TCRα) chain. The TCRα originates from the rearrangement of TCRα variable (V) and joining (J) gene segments TRAV1-2/TRAJ12/20/33 during VDJ recombination in the nucleus. However, TRAJ33 is expressed more often than TRAJ12 and TRAJ20. With little diversity in the TCRα chain, the TCR is more conserved in MAIT cells than in other T cell subsets. In addition, the TCRα chain can combine with a restricted number of possible TCRβ chains to form a functional MAIT cell TCR, further limiting TCR diversity.

MAIT cells were initially specified as T cells that do not express the TCR co-receptors CD4 or CD8 on the cell surface. However, CD8+ MAIT cells have been recently observed. In humans, MAIT cells express high levels of CD161, interleukin-18 (IL-18) receptor, and chemokine receptors CCR5, CXCR6, and CCR6 on the cell surface. Additionally, as an indication of their memory-like phenotype in the periphery, mature MAIT cells express a CD44+, CD45RO+, CCR7−, CD62Llo phenotype.

Development & presence in the body
Like all T cell subsets, MAIT cells develop in the thymus. Here, T cells rearrange their TCRs and are subjected to TCR affinity tests as a part of positive selection and negative selection. However, rather than undergoing selection on MHC class I or II molecules, MAIT cells interact with the MHC class I-like molecule, MR1, on thymocytes. MR1 also serves as the antigen-presenting molecule outside of the thymus that binds to TCR and activates MAIT cells. MAIT cells display effector-like qualities before leaving the thymus, which is why they are often described as innate-like T cells in the peripheral tissue. This thymic development process is found in both mice and human MAIT cell populations.

In healthy humans, MAIT cells are found in the lungs, liver, joints, blood, and mucosal tissues, such as the intestinal mucosa. In total, MAIT cells make up roughly 5% of the peripheral T cell population. MAIT cells are most common in the liver, where they usually comprise 20-40% of the T lymphocyte population. Moreover, parenchymal and nonparenchymal liver cells are efficient antigen presenting cells for MAIT. The total murine MAIT cell population is roughly ten times smaller than the human MAIT cell population.

While MAIT cells display effector characteristics immediately out of the thymus, they may also undergo clonal expansion in the periphery and establish antigen memory. In this way, MAIT cells display both innate and adaptive characteristics.

MAIT cell activation
MAIT cells can be activated in ways that involve, and do not involve, MR1-mediated antigen presentation. However, MR1-independent and MR1-dependent activation elicit separate MAIT cell functions as part of an immune response. During MR1-independent activation against Mycobacteria, MAIT cells bind extracellular IL-12, which is often secreted by stressed macrophages. In response to IL-12, MAIT cells produce and secrete interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), a cytokine that activate macrophages, assists in the maturation of dendritic cells, and promotes the expression of MHC class II on antigen presenting cells. MAIT cells also secrete IL-17, an important pro-inflammatory cytokine, after binding IL-23.

MAIT cells are also activated in a MR1-dependent manner, in which a MAIT cell's semi-invariant TCR binds to the MR1 protein presenting antigen. While most T cell subsets have TCRs that recognize peptide or lipid-based antigens in association with MHC or CD1, MAIT cells are unique in that they recognize small molecules created through the process of vitamin B2 (riboflavin) and B9 (folic acid) biosynthesis. The vitamin B2 related molecules that activate MAIT cells are chemically unstable, and undergo spontaneous degradation in water, although they have now been successfully chemically synthesised and isolated. Riboflavin and folic acid are both crucial components of the metabolic pathways in bacteria. When MR1 associates with these small molecules and becomes expressed on the surface of antigen-presenting cells, the MAIT TCR then binds to MR1, leading to MAIT cell activation, clonal expansion, memory, and an array of antimicrobial responses. While protective against some pathogens, MAIT cell activation can produce inflammatory cytokines that augment immunopathology and gastritis in chronic infection by Helicobacter pylori.

MAIT cell antigens
MAIT cells are activated by compounds derived from bacterial vitamin B2 (riboflavin) biosynthesis. In 2014, the exact identity of the antigens were found to be the compounds 5-OP-RU (5-(2-oxopropylideneamino)-6-D-ribitylaminouracil) and 5-OE-RU (5-(2-oxoethylideneamino)-6-D-ribitylaminouracil). Both compounds are highly potent in activating MAIT cells, but are chemically unstable. Both have been chemically synthesised, stabilised and characterised in the solvent DMSO, allowing for the unstable compounds to be used as reagents for the study of MAIT cells.

A chemically stable antigen that is functionally similar to 5-OP-RU has also been created.

A 2017 study also found that some common drugs and drug-like molecules can modulate MAIT cell function in mammals.

MAIT cell antigen precursor can cross the intestinal blood barrier and is needed for MAIT cell development. Moreover serum from human patients can activate MAIT cells in a MR1 dependent manner.

MR1
Like MHC class I, MR1 is found in all a large variety of cells and associates with β2-microglobulin. However, it remains to be understood whether certain cell types, such as myeloid or epithelial cells, more commonly display antigen to MAIT. While MHC class I alleles are extremely diverse in human populations, MR1 is non-polymorphic and highly conserved. In fact, when comparing the genetic content of humans and mice to each other, there is a 90% similarity in MR1 coding sequences. Furthermore, the ligand-binding grooves of MR1 molecules differ from those of MHC class I molecules in that they are smaller in size and specifically bind metabolic products of bacteria.

MR1 is found intracellularly in the endoplasmic reticulum and interacts with some of the common MHC loading complex components and chaperone proteins (e.g. TAP, ERp57, and tapasin). The loading of vitamin B metabolic molecules onto MR1 occurs in a way that is different from peptide loading onto MHC class I. Yet the specifics of this process must be further looked into.

In healthy cells, MR1 is sparsely exhibited on the cell surface. However, MR1 expression is upregulated on the surface after cell infection or the introduction of a bacterially-produced MR1 ligand. Once expressed on the surface, MR1, with its antigen ligand covalently-attached, binds to the appropriate MAIT cell TCR.

Microbial and viral response
MAIT cells display effector-like qualities, allowing them to directly respond to microbial pathogens immediately following activation. In a MR1-dependent manner, MAIT cells respond to bacteria by producing cytokines and strengthening their cytotoxic functions. After TCR binding and activation, MAIT cells secrete several cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), IFN-γ, and IL-17. These cytokines are pro-inflammatory and activate important cells in the immune response, such as macrophages and dendritic cells. After activation, MAIT cells also produce cytolytic molecules perforin and granzyme B, which form pores in the bacterially-infected cells, leading to apoptosis and the elimination of dangerous microbes from the body.

MAIT cells can target a wide variety of microbes, including Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Escherichia coli Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Candida albicans, and Salmonella enterica, to name a few. However, some types of bacteria, including strains of Listeria and Enterobacter, may escape MAIT cell targeting. These strains avoid MAIT cell-mediated elimination because they have unusual riboflavin metabolic pathways that do not produce viable ligands for MR1 molecules.

While MAIT cells have not been found to target viruses in a TCR-dependent manner, they can respond against viruses upon stimulation with IL-18 and other cytokines, such as IL-12 and IFN-α/β. After receiving these cytokine signals, MAIT cells secrete anti-viral cytotoxic molecules and cytokines that aid the immune response.

Tissue repair
The role of MAIT cells in tissue repair is an evolving topic in murine models and humans. After their TCR dependent activation cutaneous MAIT cells initiate support wound repair mechanisms. One reason for their involvement is their localization which is predominantly near the interface of the dermis and in lesser extend in the epidermis, in close proximity to the basal layer. This stands in contrast to the localization of conventional T-cells which are under normal physiological conditions predominantly in the epidermis localized close to hair follicles. MAIT cells have therefore a superior localization for reaction to tissue disruption. Upon TCR stimulation MAIT cells react with a rapid, polyfunctional, proinflammatory response correlating with the production of a broad array of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines like IL-1A, IL-1B, IL-2, IL-22, GM-CSF, CCL3, CCL4 and CCL20, and the recruitment of neutrophils via CCL2 and CXCL2 in an MR1-dependent manner. Additionally to cytokine production after TCR stimulation MAIT express a tissue repair signature typical for unconventional Th17 cells, this signature is independent of MAIT stimulation with cytokines and does not appear when stimulated with cytokine-mediate stimulation alone. This gene expression points to the role of MAIT in tissue homeostasis and uncovers a potential link between maintaining and repairing a barrier with more conventional antimicrobial functions at barrier surfaces. The gene signature is similar in both human and mice and includes among others immune genes involved in tissue repair (TNF, PTGES2, TGFB1, CCL3, HMGB1), proteases (Furin, MMP25), growth factors (GM-CSF, M-CSF, PDGFB, LIF) as well as angiogenic genes (HIF1A, VEGFB). This expression profile was first shown in RORyt+ CD8+T-cells, which reside in the mouse and human skin and are next to the acceleration of wound repair also responsible for the response to commensal bacteria. Naturally the activation of MAIT cells critically depends on the presence of co-activating signals from the local innate immune system, suggesting a two-signal model, similar to conventional T-cell activation. Although activation through only TCR is sufficient to generate the described tissue repair gene profile and therefore promoting tissue repair.

In vitro wound healing assays have shown that MAIT-containing CD8+ T-cell populations stimulated with E.coli are able to significantly accelerate wound closure, mostly at later stages in the healing process. Though this effect is reduced after blocking of MR1, compared to non-blocked MR1. This underscores the importance of MR1 in the context of TCR signaling. TCR dependent activation is essential for expression of tissue-repair-associated molecules by MAIT cells. This allows MAIT cells to initiate and accelerate important aspects of tissue repair like the migration and proliferation of epithelial-type cells.

Intestine homeostasis
Even though the gene signature which is descriptive for tissue repair has been repeatedly described, the exact mechanism of the contribution of MAIT to this process cells remains unclear. The specific gene signature appears to be expressed in MAIT cells for acceleration of the cellular monolayer regrowth after physical damage or other irradiation of the skin. Furthermore, this function of MAIT cells contributes daily to an important homeostatic role which keeps the intestinal barrier integrity, namely through aiding the healing of microscopic injuries which occur on a frequent basis in the intestine. This process modulates certain disease severities like the ones of Type 1 diabetes, acute GvHD and liver disease. The microbiome components involved in this response, and the effects of specific changes in the microbiome are possible key factors in MAIT function.

Role in autoimmunity
While MAIT cells play a crucial role in the immune system by targeting bacterially-infected cells and other pathogens, they may also attack healthy cells and play a role in certain autoimmune diseases.

Multiple sclerosis
For individuals with the autoimmune disease multiple sclerosis (MS), the immune system attacks the myelin sheaths covering nerves, causing impaired nerve signaling. While T helper 1 (Th1) and T helper 17 (Th17) cells have been reported as contributors to MS by increasing inflammation at myelin sites, human MAIT cells have also been observed at these sites. In addition, during periods of myelin degeneration, MAIT cell levels in the peripheral blood have been found to decrease, suggesting their tendency to migrate to sites of MS-related inflammation. At these sites, MAIT cells further contribute to the autoimmune response by secreting pro-inflammatory cytokines. However, in contrast to these findings, MAIT cells have also been found to display a protective role in MS by limiting Th1 cell secretion of IFN-γ at sites of inflammation. To explain these findings, the role of MAIT cells in MS must be further explored.

Inflammatory bowel disease
In autoimmune-related inflammatory bowel disease, the immune system initiates a response against healthy parts of the gastrointestinal tract, such as the mucosal microbiome. During relapse periods of certain types of inflammatory bowel disease, such as Crohn's disease, MAIT cells have been found to migrate to sites of inflammation, triggering the harmful responses of other immune cells through the expression of NKG2D and increasing inflammation by secreting IL-17.

Rheumatic disease
In systematic autoimmune rheumatic diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), MAIT cells are activated through TCR-independent signaling. Stimulated by IL-12, IL-18, and IL-23, MAIT cells can produce and secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines, drawing immune cells into areas of the autoimmune attack. In this way, MAIT cells facilitate and intensify the harmful effects of systematic autoimmune rheumatic diseases.

See also
 T cell#Mucosal associated invariant T cells

References

T cells

Mucosal-associated invariant T cell


A biliary fistula is a type of fistula in which bile flows along an abnormal connection from the bile ducts into a nearby hollow structure. Types of biliary fistula include:
 bilioenteric fistula: abnormal connection to small bowel, usually duodenum.
 thoracobiliary fistula: abnormal connection to pleural space or bronchus (rare).
 bronchobiliary fistula: pathological communication between a bronchus and the biliary tract (extremely rare).

These may be contrasted to a bile leak, in which bile escapes the bile ducts through a perforation or faulty surgical anastomosis into the abdominal cavity. Damage to a bile duct may result in a leak, which may eventually become a biliary fistula.

Signs and symptoms
A biliary fistula often occurs or may be suspected in a person who has recently undergone a surgical procedure. Pain may occur if the leaked bile is also infected, which can subsequently lead to biliary peritonitis.

Brochobilary fistula is challenging because patients may experience repeat chest infections, pleural effusion, and perihepatic abdominal collection. Such patients usually present with bilioptysis (presence of bile in sputum), persistent cough, chest infections, or respiratory distress due to pleural effusion. Bilioptysis is the pathognomonic clinical feature of BBF.

Extensive ascites may accumulate, especially in the setting of sterile bile leakage, which is often asymptomatic in nature.

Causes
It can occur as a complication following biliary trauma (such as cholelithiasis), as an iatrogenic effect or as a result of a penetrating injury.
Bronchobilary fistula commonly caused by primary and metastatic tumors, bile duct obstruction secondary to biliary stenosis, cholangiolithiasis, hepatic hydatidosis
and trauma.

Diagnosis
For bronchobiliary fistula, the following tests are performed:
1) ultrasound abdomen, may show subdiaphragmatic collection around the surface of the right lobe of the liver.
2) preoperative chest X-ray, may demonstrate mild to moderate right-sided pleural effusion without an active lung pathology.
3) CT scan, may reveal focal collection along the liver's right lateral margin, which can be communicating with one of the right lower lobe bronchi, supporting the diagnosis of a BBF.

Treatment
Cholecystectomy with a choledochoplasty is the most frequent treatment of primary fistulas, whereas the bile duct drainage or the endoscopic stenting is the best choice in case of minor iatrogenic bile duct injuries.

See also
 Biliary injury
 Gallstone ileus

References

External links

Biliary tract disorders

Biliary fistula


A list of metaphors in the English language organised alphabetically by type. A metaphor is a literary figure of speech that uses an image, story or tangible thing to represent a less tangible thing or some intangible quality or idea; e.g., "Her eyes were glistening jewels".  Metaphor may also be used for any rhetorical figures of speech that achieve their effects via association, comparison or resemblance.  In this broader sense, antithesis, hyperbole, metonymy and simile would all be considered types of metaphor. Aristotle used both this sense and the regular, current sense above.
With metaphor, unlike analogy, specific interpretations are not given explicitly.

Animals
800-pound gorilla
Albatross (metaphor)
Song bird (metaphor)
Belling the cat
Blind men and an elephant
Boiling frog
Butterfly effect
Camel's nose
Canary in the coal mine
Chicken or the egg
Dead cat bounce
Duck trick
Elephant in the room
Beating a dead horse
Four Asian Tigers
His Eye is on the Sparrow
Letting the cat out of the bag
Mama grizzly
Monkey see, monkey do
Ostrich effect
Reverse ferret
Seeing pink elephants
The Sheep and the Goats
Snake venom
Spherical cow
Throw to the wolves
Turkeys voting for Christmas
Turtles all the way down
White elephant
Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel?
You have two cows
Shaving a cat with no hair

Body parts
Broken heart
Cold feet
Heart (symbol)

Nautical

 Taken aback, on a sailing vessel the sails were 'taken aback' when the wind was unintentionally blowing on the wrong side of the sails causing a potentially dangerous situation. Later used to indicate a difficult or unexpected situation.
 Batten down the hatches, to secure the hatch covers against ingress of water in preparation for a storm or other rough conditions.
 Clear the decks to get everything out of the way as a warship went into action.
 Show someone the ropes to show or explain to someone how to do a task or operation. Taken from the use of ropes to orient and adjust the sails, and that each rope is belayed at a specific place.
 Sail close to the wind is to operate hazardously on very slim margins, usually applied in a financial sense. Derived from the practice  of sailing close to the direction of the oncoming wind, where a small shift in the wrong direction could set the vessel aback.
 Loaded to the gunwales
 Back and fill
 On one's beam ends
 Awash
 Adrift
 A wide berth
 Flagship
 Unmoored
 Nail one's colors to the mast, to commit completely to a course of action, as striking the colors is no longer an option
 Flying the flag
 Plain sailing
 With flying colors - the colors was the national flag flown at sea during battle, a ship would surrender by lowering the colors and the term is now used to indicate a triumphant victory or win.
 In the doldrums
 All hands to the pumps
 Weathering a storm
 A different tack
 Swinging the lead is to avoid duty by feigning illness or injury, original a confusion between Swing the leg which related to the way dogs can run on three legs to gain sympathy and the sailor's term heaving the lead which was to take soundings.
 Left high and dry
 Three sheets to the wind, meaning "staggering drunk," refers to a ship whose sheets have come loose, causing the sails to flap uncontrolled and the ship to meander at the mercy of the elements. Also, "Three sheets in the wind, unsteady from drink."
Sun over the yardarm: This phrase is widely used, both afloat and ashore, to indicate that the time of day has been reached at which it is acceptable to have lunch or (more commonly) to have an alcoholic beverage.
 "Take soundings":  In suspected shallow waters, a crew member may have the task of repeatedly throwing into the water a lead line, or piece of lead tied to a string knotted every fathom, for the purpose of estimating the depth of the sea. This saying the nautical equivalent of "Take the lay of the land":  see how things are going, or see what people think about a proposed course of action.
 "By and large" comes from a term for sailing a ship slightly off of the wind
 "To the bitter end" may have originally referred to a rope fastened to the bitt, a post attached on the deck of a ship., although this etymology has been disputed

Objects
Big red button
Brass ring
Brass monkey
Bucket brigade
Chain reaction
Chinese fire drill
Cultural mosaic
Domino effect
Don't judge a book by its cover
Holy Grail
Inverted pyramid
Law of the instrument
Melting pot
Rosetta Stone
Silver bullet
Snowball effect
Soapbox
Zanata Stone
A big chair
A sailboat

People
Aunt Sally
Cassandra (metaphor)
Copernican Revolution (metaphor)
Hobson's choice
Judgment of Solomon
Mary Sue
Procrustes
Whipping boy
Aunt Flow
Uncle Sam

Places
Crossing the Rubicon
wikt:crossroads, a decision point; a turning point or opportunity to change direction, course, or goal.
Fork in the road (metaphor)
wikt:grey area, an area or topic that is not one thing or the other, or where the border between two things is fuzzy. See also wikt:fall between two stools
Ground zero
Mother lode
Plateau effect
Podunk
Point of no return
Slippery slope
Walk to Canossa

Science
Richard Honeck described three forms of scientific metaphors: "mixed scientific metaphor, the scientific metaphor theme, and the scientific metaphor that redefines a concept from a theory."

1959 Valency (linguistics), by Lucien Tesnière, from Valence (chemistry) (1789, by William Higgins)
1973 Inductor, by Deleuze and Guattari, from Electromagnetic induction (1831, by Michael Faraday)
1980 Rhizome (philosophy), by Deleuze and Guattari, from botanical rhizome

Sport
Baseball metaphors for sex
Carnoustie effect
Doing a Leeds
Face-off
False start
Jump the Gun
Media scrum
Own goal
Pole position
Political football
Par for the course

Various
Aesopian language
Apollo archetype
Bad apples
Battle of egos
Betamax
Bīja
Black-and-white dualism
Bootstrapping
Cabin fever
Cherry picking (fallacy)
China Syndrome
City on a Hill
Closeted
Coming out
Drunkard's search
Enchanted loom
Endianness
Fatted calf
Five wisdoms
Gates of horn and ivory
Gold in the mine
Gordian Knot
Greek to me
Green shoots
Hue and cry
Hungry ghost
Indra's net
Iron (metaphor)
Jungle
Kōan
Late bloomer
List of scientific metaphors
McNamara fallacy
Mindstream
Moral compass
Musical chairs
The Myth of Sisyphus
Neurathian bootstrap
Nutshell
Panopticon gaze
Pear-shaped
Post turtle
The price of milk
Ignoratio elenchi
Invincible ignorance fallacy
Red pill and blue pill
Representation (systemics)
Roof of the World
Salad days
Salt and Light
Ship of state
Son of a gun
Survival of the fittest
Teaching grandmother to suck eggs
Technical debt
Touchstone (metaphor)
Tragedy of the commons
Tunnel vision
Unmarked grave
Yin and yang
New Testament military metaphors
New Testament athletic metaphors

War
Catch-22 (logic)
Double edged sword
Dry powder
Fog of war
No-win situation
Pyrrhic victory
Saber noise
Shareholder rights plan
Shooting the messenger
Smoking gun
Texas sharpshooter fallacy
War chest
Win-win game

Lists
List of political metaphors
:Category:Political metaphors referring to people
:Category:Metaphors by reference

References

Further reading

Metaphors

List of English-language metaphors


Edoardo Alfieri (1913 in Foggia, Italy – 1998 in Sanremo, Italy) was an Italian sculptor.

Although he was born in Foggia, southern Italy, his family was of Piemontese origin and soon moved to Genoa, where he spent his childhood. He studied art at the school of Guido Galletti at Genoa and then, from 1932 to 1936, continued his studies at the Brera Academy of Fine Arts in Milan, under Francesco Messina.

Already at the age of sixteen he won a first prize for his artwork at an exhibition in Genoa. In the 1930s, he was a member of the futurist group Synthesis. After World War II, he held a post as a lecturer at the Academy of Fine Arts of Genoa until 1969.

Alfieri presented his work several times at the Biennale of Venice: in 1940, 1948, 1950, and in 1956 even in a dedicated hall. His work has been characterized as oscillating between avant-garde and traditional. Besides expressionist works, such as the Dagna grave at the cemetery of Staglieno, he also did traditional sculptures like the statue of Christopher Columbus that was given as gift to the city of Columbus, Ohio in the United States in 1955. Some of his works are abstract, for instance the Mele grave at Staglieno, or the bas-relief "Furor Mathematicus".

References
Edoardo Alfieri (in Italian). URL last accessed 2007-08-08.
Alfieri, Edoardo (in Italian). URL last accessed 2007-08-08.

Further reading
Sbrogi, F.: Edoardo Alfieri, L'opera 1929 – 1997, Mazzotta, Milan 1998. Texts in Italian and English. .

1913 births
1998 deaths
20th-century Italian sculptors
20th-century Italian male artists
Italian male sculptors

Edoardo Alfieri


Toén is a municipality in the Spanish province of Ourense. It has a population of 2649(Spanish 2007 Census) and an area of 58 km².

Population in Toén has suffered big changes all along 20th Century. At the beginning, in 1900, Toén has 3,881 people living in Toén with its maximum level of population in 1950 (4369 people). One of the reasons of this rising population is to be located very near the Capital City in the province Ourense. This slowed emigration, as happened in other municipalities. Nevertheless, this reason was not enough for stopping a decreasing in the population from 1950 to the present.

References

Municipalities in the Province of Ourense

Toén


Cultural environmentalism is the movement that seeks to protect the public domain. The term was coined by James Boyle, professor at Duke University and contributor to the Financial Times.

The term stems from Boyle's argument that those who seek to protect the public domain are working towards a similar ends as environmentalists. Boyle's contention is that whereas the environmentalist movement illuminated the effects that social decisions can have upon ecology, cultural environmentalists seek to illuminate the effects that intellectual property laws can have upon culture.

References

External links
 Cultural Environmentalism at 10.
 James Boyle: Cultural environmentalism?
 A Politics of Intellectual Property: Environmentalism for the Net?
 An IP Environmentalism for Culture and Knowledge?

Environmentalism
Intellectual property law
Public domain
Science and culture

Cultural environmentalism


R. Parthasarathy, commonly known as Indira Parthasarathy or Ee. Paa., is an Indian author and playwright who writes in Tamil. He has published 16 novels, 10 plays, anthologies of short stories, and essays. He is best known for his plays,  "Aurangzeb", "Nandan Kathai" and "Ramanujar".

He has been awarded the Saraswati Samman (1999), and is the only Tamil writer to receive both the Sahitya Akademi Award (1977) and the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award (2004). He received Padma Shri in the year 2010, given by Government of India.

Biography
He was born on 10 July 1930 in Chennai in a traditional Iyengar family.

He has written several short stories, plays and novels in Tamil that have been translated into several Indian and world languages.

He has carved a special niche for himself in Tamil literature - his characters, mostly urban intellectuals, speak very openly and analyze deeply what others say. Most of his novels are set in Delhi, where he lived during his working years, or in the Srirangam area of Tamil Nadu, where he spent his childhood. Some of his novels, such as Kuruthi Punal intermingle these two milieus.

He has won several awards including the Sangeeth Natak Academy, Sahitya Academy and Saraswathi Samman Award. He is the only Tamil writer to have won both the Sangeeth Natak and Sahitya Academy Award.

Works
Some of Ee. Paa.'s novels are:

Thiraigalukku Appaal
Kuruthi Punal (Sahitya Academy Award-winning novel)
Aakasa Thamarai
Helicoptergal Keezhe Irangi Vittana
Mayaman Vettai
Theevukal
Yesuvin Thozhargal
Suthanthira Bhoomi
Krishna Krishna

Plays by Ee. Paa.:
Uchchi Veyyil
Porvai Porthiya Udalgal
Aurangazeb
Nandan Kathai
Ramanujar

Works in adaptation
Marupakkam (1991) directed by K.S. Sethu Madhavan, is based on his novel Uchi Veyyil, and won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film.

See also
 List of Indian writers

References

Tamil-language writers
Recipients of the Saraswati Samman Award
Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Tamil
Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award
Living people
1930 births
People from Thanjavur district
Indian male novelists
Tamil dramatists and playwrights
Recipients of the Padma Shri in literature & education
Indian male dramatists and playwrights
Novelists from Tamil Nadu
20th-century Indian novelists
20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights
Dramatists and playwrights from Tamil Nadu
20th-century Indian male writers

Indira Parthasarathy


Wittenberg University is a private liberal arts college in Springfield, Ohio. It has 1,326 full-time students representing 33 states and 9 foreign countries. Wittenberg University is associated with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.

History
Wittenberg College was founded in 1845 by a group of ministers in the English Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Ohio, which had previously separated from the recently established German-speaking Evangelical Lutheran Joint Synod of Ohio and Other States. The college was named for the historic University of Wittenberg in Wittenberg, Germany, the town in which Martin Luther famously posted his Ninety-five Theses on the church door on October 31, 1517.

A German American pastor of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, the Rev. Ezra Keller was the principal founder and first president of the college. Its initial focus was to train clergy with the Hamma School of Divinity as its theological department. One of its main missions was to "Americanize" Lutherans by teaching courses in the English language instead of German, unlike the nearby Capital University in Columbus, Ohio.

The first class originally consisted of eight students at the beginning of the academic year, but grew to seventy-one by the end. With a faculty of one professor and two tutors, classes were held in Springfield, Ohio, in a church on land that was donated. That city was selected for its location on the National Road, running from the eastern cities of Baltimore and Cumberland, Maryland, to the west in the Illinois Country, eventually to the territorial capital of Vandalia, near the Mississippi River.

In 1874, women were admitted to the college, and, the following year, black people were admitted. The college attained university status in 1957 and was renamed accordingly. In 1993, the university and its namesake city Wittenberg entered into an official partnership.

In 1995, the American Philosophical Association censured Wittenberg University when the Wittenberg administration overruled the faculty personnel board and denied a faculty member tenure. The university was censured again in 2021, this time by the American Association of University Professors (AAUP), for discontinuing eight academic programs and firing two tenured faculty members without, in the AAUP's opinion, respecting faculty rights.

Hamma Divinity School
Luther Alexander Gotwald, Professor of Theology in the Hamma Divinity School that served as the theological department of the college, was famously tried for and unanimously acquitted of heresy by the board of directors at Wittenberg on April 4–5, 1893. The trial concerned many key issues that Evangelical Lutherans still debate today.

For decades, Hamma and Wittenberg were associated with the local English-speaking regional Lutheran synods in the Midwest.

In 1978, Hamma Divinity School merged with the nearby Evangelical Lutheran Theological Seminary (associated with Capital University) in the Bexley suburb of Columbus, Ohio, to form Trinity Lutheran Seminary.

Presidents

 Ezra Keller (1844–1848)
 Samuel Sprecher (1849–1874)
 John B. Helwig (1874–1882)
 Samuel Alfred Ort (1882–1900)
 John M. Ruthrauff (1900–1902)
 Charles G. Heckert (1903–1920)
 Rees Edgar Tulloss (1920–1949)
 Clarence Charles Stoughton (1949–1963)
 John Nissley Stauffer (1963–1968)
 G. Kenneth Andeen (1969–1974)
 William A. Kinnison (1974–1995)
 Baird Tipson (1995–2004)
 William H. Steinbrink (Interim President)
 Mark H. Erickson (2005–2012)
 Laurie M. Joyner (2012–2015)
 Richard "Dick" Helton (2016–2017) (Interim President)
 Michael Frandsen (2017–present)

Academics

Wittenberg offers more than 70 majors and special programs. Eight pre-professional programs are offered to students, 70 percent of whom eventually pursue graduate studies. The institution's science facilities are housed in the Barbara Deer Kuss Science Center. Krieg Hall is the home of the music department. Wittenberg's art department is housed in Koch Hall. Thomas Library contains 400,000 volumes and provides access to OhioLINK, a consortium of Ohio college and university libraries and the State Library of Ohio. The library houses the Kemper Special Collection Area which contains the Luther-Reformation Collection with more than 400 items written by Martin Luther and his contemporaries between 1517 and 1580. The library was built in 1956 to the designs of Thomas Norman Mansell of Mansell, Lewis & Fugate of Wynnewood, Pennsylvania.

Rankings and honors

Campus

Blair Hall
Blair Hall houses the university's education department. The Springfield-Wittenberg Teacher Institute and Upward Bound are housed in Blair. Upward Bound is a high school program for students in low-income areas of the city to receive a high level education from college professors while in high school.

The education department occupies a second building at 49 East College Avenue that formerly contained the administration offices of the Springfield Public City Schools, but is now owned by Wittenberg University.

Carnegie Hall

The athletic department in currently housed in Carnegie Hall, named for the famous Scottish-American immigrant and steel industrialist Andrew Carnegie, (1835–1919), who was known for his philanthropy and endowment of many public library buildings across the country.

Hollenbeck Hall
Hollenbeck Hall is home to the History, English, Foreign Languages, Political Science, International Studies, and Philosophy departments, and the Office of International Education. The building's six wings, two per floor, are separated by the Ness Family Auditorium in the center of the building. It is also the home of the Writing Center and Foreign Language Learning Center, two of the predominantly student-run organizations.

Barbara Deer Kuss Science Center
The Barbara Deer Kuss Science Center houses ten academic departments in the fields of mathematics and natural sciences. It also serves as a popular breakfast and lunch location for students, as it includes a vendor on the first floor that can be used with the Wittenberg meal plans.

Recitation Hall
Recitation Hall was the second building erected on the campus. It contains many of the university's administrative offices, including admissions, financial aid, president's office, provost's, student employment, university communications (Wittenberg's Media office for "Wittenberg Magazine", Press office, New Media, Sports Media, and Publications office), and human resources. Recitation Hall also has its own chapel. In 1883, classes were first held in Recitation Hall. A building behind Recitation Hall serves as the university's police and security headquarters, the campus switchboard and the transportation office.

Synod Hall
Synod Hall is home to the Department of Sociology and Information Technologies (IT).

Zimmerman Hall
Zimmerman Hall is home to the Department of Psychology.

Shouvlin Center
Shouvlin Center houses the Department of Nursing, the School of Graduate and Professional Studies, Womyn's Center, Counseling Services, and Medical Services.

Thomas Library
Thomas Library is Wittenberg's main library. The building holds over 500,000 books and resources. Wittenberg is also a member of OhioLINK.

The Steemer

In April 2017, Wittenberg University broke ground on the development of a $40 million health, wellness, and athletics facility to supplement the existing Health Physical Education and Recreation (HPER) Center. This project will include the renovation of the university's 1929 Field House, 1982 HPER Center, and include a new indoor practice field, classrooms, and locker rooms. The project is expected to be completed by the end of 2019. In September 2018, it was announced the facility would be named "The Steemer", after the company Stanley Steemer, whose CEO, Wes Bates, is a graduate of Wittenberg and a major financial sponsor of the project.

Athletics

Wittenberg University teams participate as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division III. The Tigers are a member of the North Coast Athletic Conference (NCAC). Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, lacrosse, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball; while women's sports include basketball, cross country, field hockey, golf, lacrosse, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball. The school's newest varsity sport for men, volleyball, was added in the 2015–16 school year (2016 season); that team began play in the Midwest Collegiate Volleyball League (MCVL), left after the 2018 season for single-sport membership in the Allegheny Mountain Collegiate Conference, and returned to the MCVL after the 2020 season. The newest women's varsity sport, water polo, was added to the 2018–19 school year. That team plays in the Division III varsity division of the Collegiate Water Polo Association.

In 2017 the men's golf team won the Division III National Championship.

In 2017 the women's volleyball team competed in the NCAA Division III National Championship, rising to Division III runner-up.

Wittenberg ended the 2009 fall sports season ranked 16th among more than 430 NCAA Division III schools in the Learfield Sports Directors Cup standings, administered by the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics (NACDA)

Student organizations
The university has over 100 active, registered student organizations.

Hagen Center for Civic and Urban Engagement
Wittenberg University opened the Hagen Center for Civic and Urban Engagement on 24 September 2008, to help coordinate community service projects. It builds partnerships between the university and city, state and federal governments. Dr. Kimberly Creasap is the faculty director.

Womyn's Center
The university's Womyn's Center is located in Shouvlin Center. It has included the Peer Advocate program since 2016, providing advocacy services for survivors of power-based violence (regardless of gender identity). The Womyn's Center also houses Tiger Health Educators, a peer-to-peer education program that offers training and resources regarding sexual health and consent.

William C. McClain Center for Diversity
The William C. McClain Center for Diversity is located on Alumni Way and is named for the first African American to graduate from Wittenberg University in 1934. Wittenberg also has several multicultural student programs that are supported by the diversity center including Shades of Pearl, Concerned Black Students, the Gender and Sexuality Diversity Alliance, and the American International Association.

Radio station

The university had a student-run 24-hour radio station, WUSO, on 89.1 FM. WUSO simulcasts the Dayton classical station WDPR on weekday mornings, filling the remaining hours with news, politics, sports, food, and music shows. The Tiger Sports Network broadcasts the sports programming. The station's studios are located in the basement of Firestine Hall on Woodlawn Ave. The radio station's website allows audio streaming.

The launch of a new media program called the Integrated Media Corps has recently developed. A team of ten university students creates and produces news videos, sports highlight videos for Dayton, Ohio, television stations WDTN, WHIO, and WKEF and for the university website. The team also records news stories for WUSO and writes press releases for the university website. The program also has begun broadcasting sports programs on WIZE-AM in Springfield.

The university sold WUSO to Dayton Public Radio, Inc. effective March 13, 2023.

The Wittenberg Torch
The Torch is Wittenberg University's weekly student-run newspaper; it is staffed by news reporters, editors, features writers, sportswriters, designers and photographers. The paper was founded in 1873 and celebrated its 100th volume in 2012. In 2012, The Torch also won an ACP Online Pacemaker Award. In 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, The Wittenberg Torch ended the print copies of their newspaper and moved to a fully digital format.

Residence life

Wittenberg's residence halls on campus are Tower Hall, Myers Hall, Firestine Hall, Ferncliff Hall, Woodlawn Hall, New Residence Hall, and Polis House. Myers Hall is the oldest, the first campus building when the university opened. The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1975. It now houses the University Honors Program. The newest residence hall, New Hall, opened in 2006. The Polis House was formerly the international residence hall on campus. Students who are at junior or senior standing have the option to live in the university-provided on-campus apartments or off-campus in apartments or university rental houses.

The Benham-Pence Student Center houses most of the university's dining services. The main floor of the student center houses Post 95 which offers four different options, including Champ City Grill, Ward & Wood Subs, The Pour, and Ezra's (serving prepared-to-order stirfry). Founders Pub, in the basement of the student center, was opened in 2009. The Campus Dining Room is on the second floor of the Student Center along with the faculty dining room. Breakfast and lunch are also served on weekdays in the Barbara Deer Kuss Science Center's "Simply To Go" cafe.

Greek life
Wittenberg has an active Greek Life community with ten fraternities or sororities currently chartered on campus.

Fraternities:
 Beta Theta Pi (Alpha Gamma chapter)
 Phi Kappa Psi (Ohio Beta chapter)
 Delta Tau Delta (Iota Beta chapter)
 Delta Sigma Phi (Beta Iota chapter)

Sororities:
 Alpha Delta Pi (Chi chapter)
 Delta Gamma (Gamma Rho chapter)
 Gamma Phi Beta (Alpha Nu chapter)
 Kappa Delta (Alpha Nu chapter)
 Sigma Kappa (Gamma Omega chapter)
 Alpha Xi Delta (Zeta chapter)

Notable alumni

References

External links

Official website

Buildings and structures in Springfield, Ohio
Private universities and colleges in Ohio
Educational institutions established in 1845
Education in Clark County, Ohio
Tourist attractions in Clark County, Ohio
German-American culture in Ohio
1845 establishments in Ohio

Wittenberg University


A shotgun shell is the standard type of ammunition for a shotgun. It is fired after being loaded into the chamber or chambers of a shotgun. The shell is cylindrical in shape and is normally between  and  long. It holds a charge of gunpowder and either lead shot or a shotgun slug made to be fired from the shotgun. Shotgun shells are usually mostly plastic but have thin brass at the base, though they can be made of solid brass, paper, or other combinations of these materials.

A shotgun shell's size is usually measured in gauge (also known as bore). The most common size of shotgun shell is the 12-gauge. When measuring gauge, a smaller number means a larger shell: a 12-gauge shell is larger than a 20-gauge shell. Shell gauge is an old measurement. Except for the .410 bore or gauge, which is not a gauge at all but a caliber,
the gauge of a shotgun was equal to the number of lead balls that added up to . So in a 12 gauge, 12 balls add up to about a pound of lead. So the diameter is equal to a ball weighing 1/12th of a pound of lead. A 20 gauge, another popular size today, has the diameter of a ball weighing 1/20th of a pound of lead.

Besides lead shot and slugs which are designed to be lethal, there are special less lethal types of shotgun shells which shoot things made to hurt but not kill people. Less lethal shells are most often used by police. These can be loaded with plastic or rubber shot, rubber slugs, beanbags, or salt.

References

Other websites
 Shotgun Gauges Explained - Shotguns 101 #3; YouTube
 Less Than Lethal Shotgun vs Ribs, Rock Salt & Bean Bags; YouTube

Ammunition

Shotgun shell


A deliberative assembly is a group of members (of any kind of bigger group) who use parliamentary procedure to make decisions.

Characteristics
Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised describes the following characteristics of a deliberative assembly:
 A group of people meets to talk about and make decisions for the entire membership.
 They meet in a single room or area.
 Each member is able to act how they want to.
 Each member has an equal vote.
 The members at the meeting act for the entire group, even if there are members gone.

Kinds of assemblies

Mass meeting

A mass meeting, which is an unorganized group meeting open to all individuals in a sector of the population who are interested in deliberating about a subject proposed by the meeting's sponsors. Examples include meetings to discuss common political concerns or community interests.

Local assembly of an organized society

A local assembly of an organized society, which is a membership meeting of a local chapter or branch of a membership organization. Examples include local chapter meetings of organizations like the Sierra Club.

Convention

A convention, which is a meeting of members who represent constituent units of a population. Conventions are not permanent, and delegates are normally selected for a short time.

Legislative body

A legislative body, which is a legally created group that makes laws. It is made up of representatives chosen by voters. Examples include national legislatures such as parliaments, and local governments such as state legislatures, regional assemblies and city councils.

Board

A board gets its power from an outside authority that says what the board can and cannot do. Examples include an organized society's or company's board of directors and government agency boards like a board of education.

Committees
A committee is a group of one or more persons that is part of a deliberative assembly. A committee is not itself considered to be a kind of assembly.

References

Organizations

Deliberative assembly


Montrain was a Canadian National Railway subsidiary responsible for the operation of the former Agence métropolitaine de transport's (AMT) Deux-Montagnes, Mont-Saint-Hilaire and Mascouche commuter train lines using CN trackage.

Montrain maintained offices in Montreal's Central Station and a warehouse/workshop/maintenance base adjacent to the Deux Montagnes train station.

All operation of the AMT (now RTM) trains and service were taken over by Bombardier beginning July 1, 2017, on an 8-year contract.

References

External links
Montreal Commuter Rail and Public Transit

Canadian National Railway subsidiaries
Transport in Montreal

Montrain


"If I Can't Dance" is a song by British recording artist Sophie Ellis-Bextor for her third studio album, Trip the Light Fantastic (2007). It was written by Ellis-Bextor and Dimitri Tikovoi, while production was handled by Tikovi, with additional production by Brio Taliaferro and Jeremy Wheatley. It is a dance-pop, electropop and disco song and a reference to the famous misquotation of Emma Goldman, "If I can't dance, I don't want to be part of your revolution", which nevertheless summarizes what she did say.

The song was scheduled to be released as the fourth single from the album, which was confirmed by the singer herself; however, a full release did not eventuate. The song was also included on the soundtrack to the 2007 film St Trinian's and received mostly positive reviews from music critics, with many calling it a "delightfully self-aware cut which transport us to a world where the glitter ball never stops spinning."

Background and release
In an interview with Digital Spy in August 2007, Ellis-Bextor announced that "If I Can't Dance" was to be released as the fourth single from her album Trip the Light Fantastic in November 2007. She performed the song live for the first time in July 2007 on the BBC1 Saturday night game show, DanceX. Around this time, Sophie announced that she was unsure if she wished to release "If I Can't Dance", due to the popularity of "Love Is Here" amongst fans, and that after her performance on DanceX, fans had urged her to release "Love Is Here" instead. She then announced plans for releasing "If I Can't Dance" would stay, and that "Love Is Here" would become the fifth single instead. On 9 October 2007, Ellis-Bextor announced that plans to release "If I Can't Dance" and "Love Is Here" had been cancelled, and that her record label would release a new, unreleased song in their place. However, when the song was featured on the St Trinian's soundtrack, which was released on 10 December 2007, rumours spurred that the single would, in fact, be released.

In January 2008, Ellis-Bextor made a shock announcement that the Trip the Light Fantastic era was concluded, and soon after, plans for a Greatest Hits compilation expected for release in Autumn 2008 came to light. Rumours regarding the single's release again became rife when the track was confirmed for inclusion on the compilation, but Ellis-Bextor confirmed in February 2008 the track would not be released as a single. Regardless, on 5 May 2008, a single release of "If I Can't Dance" surprisingly appeared on the iTunes Store without any prior announcement or confirmation, complete with new artwork and backed with the B-side "Can't Have It All". Days later, the single was removed from the store, and since, fans have wondered if the single was listed by Fascination, due to its removal just days later. This also meant the single failed to chart anywhere.

Composition

"If I Can't Dance" was written by Sophie Ellis-Bextor and Dimitri Tikovoi, while production was handled by Tikovi, with additional production by Brio Taliaferro and Jeremy Wheatley. It draws from the dance-pop, electropop and disco genres. The song is a reference to the famous quote from Emma Goldman, "If I can't dance, I don't want to be part of your revolution". Goldman never said these exact words but she did convey this idea in an encounter with a young revolutionary that she mentions in her autobiography Living My Life. Lyrically, it finds Sophie tartly telling her stiff limbed lover, "Oh darling, don't be so unkind / The beat must never be denied".

Critical reception
The song received mostly positive reviews from music critics. Emily Mackay of Yahoo! Music wrote that "'If I Can't Dance', with its jerky, Girls Aloud-esque rhythmm, is sure-footed sparkler." Kitty Empire of The Observer called it "another delightfully self-aware cut which features our ice maiden twitching a buttock to some bloopy percolations", while Talia Kraines of BBC Music wrote that the song "transport[s] us to a world where the glitter ball never stops spinning." K. Ross Hoffman of Allmusic noted that it is a "Xenomania-esque stomp." Nick Levine of Digital Spy commented, "When she declares, halfway through the album, 'If I can't dance, I don't want any part of your revolution', you can't help but wonder, just for a moment, how on earth those pesky Frenchies of 1786 [sic] managed to storm the Bastille without Trip the Light Fantastic as a soundtrack."

Track listing
 "If I Can't Dance" – 3:26
 "Can't Have It All" – 4:11

Credits and personnel
Songwriting –  Sophie Ellis-Bextor, Dimitri Tikovoi
Production – Dimitri Tikovoi
Additional production by Brio Taliaferro, Jeremy Wheatley
All instruments by Dimitri Tikovoi

Credits adapted from the liner notes of Trip the Light Fantastic, Fascination Records.

References

2008 songs
Sophie Ellis-Bextor songs
Songs written by Sophie Ellis-Bextor
Songs written by Dimitri Tikovoi
Fascination Records singles
2007 songs
Electropop songs
Political songs

If I Can't Dance


Sex and Repression in Savage Society is a 1927 book by anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski. It is considered "a famous critique of psychoanalysis, arguing that the 'Oedipus complex' described by Freud is not universal." Malinowski gives a partial explanation of the role of sex in social organization through the synthesis of psychoanalysis and anthropology, considered competing academic disciplines at the time.  The book is considered an important contribution to psychoanalysis, which Malinowski acknowledged was a "popular craze of the day."

I have never been in any sense a follower of psycho-analytic practice, or an adherent of psycho-analytic theory; and now, while impatient of the exorbitant claims of psycho-analysis, of its chaotic arguments and tangled terminology, I must yet acknowledge a deep sense of indebtedness to it for stimulation as well for valuable instruction in some aspects of human psychology.

The book is divided into four parts. In Part 1 (The Formation of a Complex), he lays out the issues related to childhood sexuality through puberty and maternal roles. In Part 2 (The Mirror of Tradition) he examines myth and taboo related to family dynamics. In Part 3 (Psycho-analysis and Anthropology), he examines the rift between the two disciplines and looks at the role parricide may have as a foundation of culture. In Part 4 (Instinct and Culture), he examines how humans made the transition from animalistic instincts to organized society, situating the family as "the cradle of nascent culture." He describes how taboos that develop within a society must then be enforced through authority and repression.

Malinowski's studies of the Trobriand islanders challenged the Freudian proposal that psychosexual development (e.g. the Oedipus complex) was universal. He reported that in the insular matriarchal society of the Trobriand, boys are disciplined by their maternal uncles, not their fathers; impartial, avuncular discipline. Malinowski reported that boys dreamed of feared uncles, not of beloved fathers, thus, power — not sexual jealousy — is the source of Oedipal conflict in such non–Western societies.

In a brief passage in his 1979 book Broca's Brain, the late science populariser Carl Sagan criticised Malinowski for thinking that "he had discovered a people in the Trobriand Islands who had not worked out the connection between sexual intercourse and childbirth", arguing that it was more likely that the islanders were simply making fun of Malinowski. Mark Mosko wrote in 2014 that further research on Trobriand people affirmed some of Malinowski's claims about their beliefs on procreation, adding that the dogmas are tied to a complicated system of belief encapsulating magic into beliefs about human and plant procreation, but he also stated that "the preponderance of ethnographic evidence ... refutes Malinowski's notorious claims of Islanders' supposed "ignorance of physiological paternity"".

References

External links

Sex and Repression in Savage Society full text via Internet Archive

1927 non-fiction books
Anthropology books
Books about psychoanalysis
Books by Bronisław Malinowski
Non-fiction books about sexuality

Sex and Repression in Savage Society


The SET50 and SET100 Indices are the primary stock indices of Thailand.  The constituents of both lists are companies listed on the Stock Exchange of Thailand (SET) in Bangkok.

Calculation
The SET50 Index and the SET100 Index were created "to accommodate the issuing of index futures and options in the future, and to provide a benchmark of investment in the Stock Exchange of Thailand [SET]". Both indices are calculated from the stock prices of companies that are included in the SET Index, but each index consists of a subset of those stocks by a ranking based on large market capitalization, high liquidity and compliance with requirements regarding the distribution of shares to minor shareholders: those stocks ranked as the top 50 such stocks are the component stocks of the SET50 Index and those ranked as the top 100 — which also includes the top 50 — are the component stocks of the SET100 Index.

The calculation method used for these two indices is the same as that used for the SET Index, which is a market capitalization weighted index. The base dates used are 16 August 16, 1995 (SET50 Index) and 30 April 2005 (SET100 Index), which are the respective dates that the two indices were first published and were set to a base value of 1000 points. The base market value is continually adjusted to correspond to changes in the market values of the underlying securities of each index.

Stock revision

The list of component stocks in the SET50 Index and the SET100 Index are revised every six months in order to adjust for any unexpected changes that have occurred in the stock market such as new listings or public offerings. After these adjustments are made, stocks that meet the necessary qualifications are then selected to become part of the SET50 Index or the SET100 Index. Stock selection is conducted semi-annually between December 1–31 and June 1–30. During these two periods, The Stock Exchange of Thailand will select stocks based on its pre-stipulated criteria.
The revised stock lists for both the SET50 and the SET100 will be announced to the general public as soon as the lists become available. New SET100 and SET50 Indices will take effect on the first trading day in January and July of each year. For every revision, both Index calculations will treat stocks which have been withdrawn as a delisting case and stocks which have been added as a new listing case. Whenever a stock is removed from either or both of the indices, a new stock will be added to replace it and to ensure the uninterruption of the indices. Also, adjustments will be made whenever the market value of a component stock changes due to the conversion of convertible bonds, the exercising of warrants, or new shares are issued for capital increase of the component stock, etc.

Constituents

Constituent companies of the SET50 stock index, as of 2023:

See also
 Stock index
 Thailand Futures Exchange (TFEX): SET50 Index Futures

References

External links
Bloomberg page for SET50:IND
Stock Exchange of Thailand
Detailed list of the SET50 companies with description, logo and link to their websites on ASEAN UP Top 50 companies from Thailand's SET50

Stock Exchange of Thailand
Thai stock market indices

SET50 Index and SET100 Index


Indirect presidential elections were held in Panama on 11 October 1978, electing a new President of the Republic.

In September 1978 Omar Torrijos announced that he would step down as Chief of Government when his six-year term expired in October but would remain Commander of the National Guard. On his recommendation, the National Assembly of Community Representatives elected Aristides Royo (a former minister of education and one of the Torrijos–Carter Treaties negotiators) president and Ricardo de la Espriella as Vice-President for a six-year term (1978–1984).

Results

Aftermath
Commander of the National Guard Omar Torrijos was killed in an airplane crash on 31 July 1981. His death created a power vacuum and ended a 12-year "dictatorship with a heart," as Torrijos liked to call his rule. He was succeeded immediately as Guard commander by the chief of staff, Colonel Florencio Flores, a Torrijos loyalist. Although Flores adopted a low profile and allowed President Aristides Royo to exercise more of his constitutional authority, Royo soon alienated the Torrijos clique, the private sector, and the Guard's general staff, all of whom rejected his leadership style and his strongly nationalistic, anti-United States rhetoric. Royo had become the leader of leftist elements within the government, and he used his position to accuse the United States of hundreds of technical violations in the implementation of the canal treaties. The general staff considered the Guard to be the country's principal guarantor of national stability and began to challenge the president's political authority. Royo attempted to use the Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD) as his power base, but the fighting between leftists and conservatives within the party became too intense to control. Meanwhile, the country's many and diverse political parties, although discontented with the regime, were unable to form a viable and solid opposition.

After Torrijos' death, National Guard leaders forged a pact outlining an "agreement wherein they would take turns as presidents and commanders of the National Guard".

Flores completed 26 years of military service in March 1982 and was forced to retire. He was replaced by his own chief of staff, General Rubén Darío Paredes, who considered himself to be Torrijos's rightful successor and the embodiment of change and unity. Without delay the new Guard commander asserted himself in Panamanian politics and formulated plans to run for the presidency in 1984. Many suspected that Paredes had struck a deal with Colonel Manuel Noriega, who had been the assistant chief of staff for intelligence since 1970, whereby Noriega would assume command of the Guard and Paredes would become president in 1984. Paredes publicly blamed Royo for the rapidly deteriorating economy and the pocketing of millions of dollars from the nation's social security system by government officials. In July 1982, growing labor unrest led to an outbreak of strikes and public demonstrations against the Royo administration. Paredes, claiming that "the people wanted change," intervened to remove Royo from the presidency.

With National Guard backing, Paredes forced Royo and most of his cabinet to resign on 30 July 1982. Royo was succeeded by Vice-President Ricardo de la Espriella, a United States-educated former banking official. De la Espriella wasted no time in referring to the National Guard as a "partner in power".

In August 1982, de la Espriella formed a new cabinet that included independents and members of the National Liberal Party and the PRD; Jorge Illueca, Royo's foreign minister, became the new Vice-President. Meanwhile, Colonel Armando Contreras became chief of staff of the National Guard. Colonel Noriega continued to hold the powerful position of assistant chief of staff for intelligence--the Panamanian government's only intelligence arm.

In December 1982, Noriega became chief of staff of the National Guard.

General Paredes, in keeping with the new constitutional provision that no active Guard member could participate in an election, reluctantly retired from the Guard in August 1983. He was succeeded immediately by Noriega, who was promoted to brigadier general.

The resignation of President de la Espriella and his cabinet on 13 February 1984 was barely noticed during the intense election campaign. De la Espriella was forced out by Noriega. De la Espriella had opposed the military's manipulation of the election and strongly advocated free elections for 1984. During his brief tenure, de la Espriella had failed to institute any significant policy changes, and his presidency was lackluster. De la Espriella was succeeded immediately by Vice-President Jorge Illueca, who formed a new cabinet.

References

Presidential
Presidential elections in Panama
Panama

1978 Panamanian presidential election


Roadkill is an animal or animals that have been struck and killed by drivers of motor vehicles. Wildlife-vehicle collisions (WVC)  have increasingly been the topic of academic research to understand the causes, and how it can be mitigated.

History

Essentially non-existent before the advent of mechanized transport, roadkill is associated with increasing automobile speed in the early 20th century.  In 1920, naturalist Joseph Grinnell wrote of his observations in the state of California that "this is a relatively new source of fatality; and if one were to estimate the entire mileage of such roads in the state, the mortality must mount into the hundreds and perhaps thousands every 24 hours."

In Europe and North America, deer are the animal most likely to cause vehicle damage. In Australia, specific actions taken to protect against the variety of animals that can damage vehicles – such as bullbars (usually known in Australia as 'roo bars', in reference to kangaroos) – indicate the Australian experience has some unique features with road kill.

Causes
The development of roads affects wildlife by altering and isolating habitat and populations, deterring the movement of wildlife, and resulting in extensive wildlife mortality. One writer states that "our insulated industrialized culture keeps us disconnected from life beyond our windshields." Driving "mindlessly" without paying attention to the movements of others in the vehicle's path, driving at speeds that do not allow stopping, and distractions contribute to the death toll. Moreover, a culture of indifference and hopelessness is created if people learn to ignore lifeless bodies on roads.

Intentional collisions
A study in Ontario, Canada in 1996 found many reptiles killed on portions of the road where vehicle tires do not usually pass over, which led to the inference that some drivers intentionally run over reptiles. To verify this hypothesis, research in 2007 found that 2.7% of drivers intentionally hit reptile decoys masquerading as snakes and turtles. Several drivers were seen to speed up when aiming for the decoys. Male drivers hit the reptile decoys more often than female drivers. However, 3.4% of male drivers and 3% of female drivers stopped to rescue the reptile decoys.

Road salt accumulations

On roadways where rumble strips are installed to provide a tactile vibration alerting drivers when drifting from their lane, the rumble strips may accumulate road salt in regions where it is used. The excess salt can accumulate and attract both small and large wildlife in search of salt licks; these animals are at great risk of becoming roadkill or causing accidents.

Distribution and abundance

Very large numbers of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates are killed on the world's roads every day. The number of animals killed in the United States has been estimated at a million per day.

The estimated number of birds killed on the roads in different European countries ranges from 350,000 to 27 million, depending on the factors such as the geography of the country and bird migration paths.

Species affected
Mortality resulting from roadkill can be very significant for species with small populations. Roadkill is estimated to be responsible for 50% of deaths of Florida panthers, and is the largest cause of badger deaths in England. Roadkill is considered to significantly contribute to the population decline of many threatened species, including wolf, koala and eastern quoll. In Tasmania, Australia the most common species affected by roadkill are brushtail possums and Tasmanian pademelons. In Bolivia there has been a report of an Andean cat, a critically endangered species, dead by a car collision.

In 1993, 25 schools throughout New England, United States participated in a roadkill study involving 1,923 animal deaths. By category, the fatalities were: 81% mammals, 15% bird, 3% reptiles and amphibians, 1% indiscernible. Extrapolating these data nationwide, Merritt Clifton (editor of Animal People Newspaper) estimated that the following animals are being killed by motor vehicles in the United States annually: 41 million squirrels, 26 million cats, 22 million rats, 19 million opossums, 15 million raccoons, 6 million dogs, and 350,000 deer. This study may not have considered differences in observability between taxa (e.g. dead raccoons are easier to see than dead frogs), and has not been published in peer-reviewed scientific literature. Observability, amongst other factors. may be the cause for mammal species to dominate roadkill reports, whereas bird and amphibian mortality are likely underestimated.

In the United States, over 1 million vertebrate animals are killed by vehicle collisions every day. Globally, the number amounts to roughly 5.5 million killed per day, which when extrapolated climbs to over 2 billion annually.

Insects

A 2007 study showed that insects, too, are prone to a very high risk of roadkill incidence. Research showed interesting patterns in insect roadkills in relation to the vehicle density.

The decrease in insects being killed by cars is known as the "windshield phenomenon". In 2003–2004, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds investigated anecdotal reports of declining insect populations in the UK by asking drivers to affix a postcard-sized PVC rectangle, called a "splatometer", to the front of their cars. Almost 40,000 drivers took part, and the results found one squashed insect for every  driven. This contrasts with 30 years ago when cars were covered more completely with insects, supporting the idea that insect numbers had waned.

In 2011, Dutch biologist Arnold van Vliet coordinated a similar study of insect deaths on car license plates. He found two insects killed on the license-plate area for every  driven. This implies about 1.6 trillion insect deaths by cars per year in the Netherlands, and about 32.5 trillion deaths in the United States if the figures are extrapolated there. The number grows to 228 trillion per year if extended globally.

Scavengers
One rarely considered positive aspect of roadkill is the regular availability of carrion it provides for scavenger species such as vultures, crows, ravens, foxes, Virginia opossums and a wide variety of carnivorous insects. Areas with robust scavenger populations tend to see roadkilled animal corpses being quickly carried off, sometimes within minutes of being struck. This can skew data and cause a lower estimation of the number of roadkill animals per year. In particularly roadkill-prone areas, scavenging birds rely on roadkill for much of their daily nutritional requirements, and can even be seen observing the roadway from telephone poles, overhead wires and trees, waiting for animals, usually  squirrels, opossums and raccoons to be struck so they can swoop down and feed. However, such scavengers are at greater risk of becoming roadkill themselves, and are subject to evolutionary pressure to be alert to traffic hazards.

In contrast, areas where scavengers have been driven out (such as many urban areas) often see roadkill rotting in place indefinitely on the roadways and being further macerated by traffic. The remains must be manually removed by dedicated disposal personnel and disposed of via sanitary cremation; this greatly increases the public nuisance inherent to roadkill, unnecessarily complicates its disposal, and consumes additional public money, time and fuel that could be spent on other roadway maintenance projects.

Research

Roadkill observation projects
The study of roadkill has proven highly amenable to the application of citizen science observation methods. Since 2009, statewide roadkill observation systems have been started in the US, enrolling hundreds of observers in reporting roadkill on a website. The observers, who are usually naturalists or professional scientists, provide identification, location, and other information about the observations. The data are then displayed on a website for easy visualization and made available for studies of proximate causes of roadkill, actual wildlife distributions, wildlife movement, and other studies. Roadkill observation system websites are available for the US states of California, Maine, and Idaho. In each case, index roads are used to help quantify total impact of vehicle collisions on specific vertebrate taxa. Researchers that use data from citizen science platforms may benefit from a large pool of data, specially for iconic, well known conspicuous species. Care must be taken when analyzing data for species that are not easy to identify, as studies have showed that misidentification is not uncommon amongst these platforms.

In the United Kingdom, "The Road Lab" (formerly Project Splatter) was started by Cardiff University in 2012, with the aim of estimating the impact of roads and motoring on British wildlife. Since then it has gathered data on its website, and on several social media platforms including Facebook and Twitter.

In India, the project "Provide Animals Safe Transit on Highways" (PATH) was initiated by the Environment Conservation Group in 2015, to study the impact of roads on Indian wildlife. A team of five wildlife conservationists led by Mr. R. Mohammed Saleem had undertaken a forty-four-day expedition, traveling more than 17,000 kilometers across 22 states to study and spread awareness on roadkill. It is also gathering data on its website, and social media platforms.

In the Czech Republic, an online animal-vehicle crash reporting system Srazenazver.cz is gathering both professional (Police, road maintenance) and volunteered data on roadkill and wildlife-vehicle crashes. The application allows users to input, edit and browse data. The data is visualized in the form of maps, graphs or tables and analyzed online (KDE+ hotspots identification, area statistics).

In Australia, wombat roadkill data is collected by the citizen science project, WomSAT.

State wildlife roadkill identification guide

The first wildlife roadkill identification guide produced by a state agency in North America was published by the British Columbia Ministry of Transportation (BCMoT) in Canada in 2008. BCMoT's "Wildlife Roadkill Identification Guide" focused on the most common large carnivores and ungulates found in British Columbia. The guide was developed to assist BCMoT's maintenance contractors in identifying wildlife carcasses found on provincial highways as part of their responsibilities for BCMoT's Wildlife Accident Reporting System (WARS).

Prevention

Collisions with animals can have many negative consequences:
Death and suffering of animals struck by vehicles
Injury to, or death of, vehicle occupants
Harm to endangered species
Loss of livestock or pets
Vehicle damage
Economic losses (cleanup, repairs to vehicles, etc.)
Being a distasteful sight, particularly costly to locations economically reliant on tourism

Regardless of the spatial scale at which the mitigation measure is applied, there are two main types of roadkill mitigation measures: changing driver behavior, and changing wildlife behavior.

There are three potential ways to change driver behavior. Primary methods focus on changing driver attitude by increasing public awareness and helping people understand that reducing roadkill will benefit their community. The second potential way is to make people aware of specific hazardous areas by use of signage, rumble strips or lighting. The third potential way is to slow traffic physically or psychologically, using chicanes or speed bumps.

There are three categories of altering wildlife behavior. Primary methods discourage wildlife from loitering on roadsides by reducing food and water resources, or by making the road surfaces lighter in color which may make wildlife feel more exposed on the roadway. Second are methods of discouraging wildlife from crossing roads, at least when cars are present, using equipment such as ultrasonic whistles, reflectors, and fencing. Third are mechanisms to provide safe crossing like overpass, underpasses and escape routes.

Although it is not illegal to help wild animals that are in danger of becoming roadkill, stopping on the highway is potentially dangerous and may result in injury or death of the person that is helping them and/or an inattentive driver that collides into their stopped vehicle.

Large animals

In the US, an estimated 1.25 million insurance claims are filed annually due to collisions with deer, elk, or moose, amounting to 1 out of 169 collision damage claims.

Collisions with large animals with antlers (such as deer) are particularly dangerous, but any large, long-legged animal (e.g. horses, larger cattle, camels) can pose a similar cabin incursion hazard. Injury to humans due to driver failure to maintain control of a vehicle either while avoiding, or during and immediately after an animal impact, is also common. Dusk and dawn are times of highest collision risk.

The recommended reaction to a large animal (such as a moose) is to slow down in lane, if at all possible, and to avoid swerving suddenly, which could cause loss of control. If a collision cannot be avoided, it is best to swerve towards the rear end of the animal, as it is more likely to run forward. Drivers who see a deer near or in the roadway should be aware that it is very likely that other members of a herd are nearby.

Acoustic warning deer horns can be mounted on vehicles to warn deer of approaching automobiles, though their effectiveness is disputed. Ultrasonic wind-driven whistles are often promoted as a cheap, simple way to reduce the chance of wildlife-vehicle collisions. In one study, the sound pressure level of the whistle was 3 dB above the sound pressure level of the test vehicle, but caused no observable difference in behavior of animals when the whistles were activated and not activated, casting doubt on their effectiveness.

In Australia, kangaroos are the most common species hit and killed by vehicles, causing significant damage and even fatalities. Another large species hit and killed by vehicles are wombats. Sightings of wombat roadkill can be logged at WomSAT to help support the implementation of mitigation strategies to reduce wombat deaths.

Small animals
Squirrels, rabbits, birds, or other small animals are often crushed by vehicles. Serious accidents may result from motorists swerving or stopping for squirrels in the road. Such evasive maneuvers are often unproductive, since small rodents and birds are much more agile and quick to react than motorists in heavy vehicles. There is very little a driver can do to avoid an unpredictably darting squirrel or rabbit, or even to intentionally hit one. The suggested course of action is to continue driving in a predictable, safe manner, and let the small animal decide on the spur of the moment which way to run or fly; the majority of vehicular encounters end with no harm to either party.

Night driving
Although strikes can happen at any time of day, deer tend to move at dusk and dawn, and are particularly active during the October–December mating season as well as late March and early April in the Northern Hemisphere. Driving at night presents its own challenges: nocturnal species are active, and visibility, particularly side visibility, is reduced. Penguins, for example, are common roadkill traffic victims in Wellington, New Zealand, due to their color and the fact that they come ashore at dusk and leave again around dawn.

Night time drivers should reduce speed and use high beam headlights when possible to give themselves maximum time to avoid a collision. However, when headlights approach a nocturnal animal, it is hard for the creature to see the approaching car (nocturnal animals see better in low than in bright light). Furthermore, the glare of oncoming vehicle headlights can dazzle some species, such as rabbits; they will freeze in the road rather than flee. It may be better to flash the headlights on and off, rather than leaving them on continuously while approaching an animal.

The simple tactics of reducing speed and scanning both sides of the road for foraging deer can improve driver safety at night, and drivers may see the retro-reflection of an animal's eyes before seeing the animal itself.

Wildlife crossings
Wildlife crossings allow animals to travel over or underneath roads. They are most widely used in Europe, but have also been installed in a few US locations and in parts of Western Canada. As new highways cause habitats to become increasingly fragmented, these crossings can play an important role in protecting endangered species.

In the US, sections of road known to have heavy deer cross-traffic will usually have warning signs depicting a bounding deer; similar signs exist for moose, elk, and other species. In the American West, roads may pass through large areas designated as "open range", meaning no fences separate drivers from large animals such as cattle or bison. A driver may round a bend to find a small herd standing in the road. Open range areas are generally marked with signage and protected by a cattle guard.

In an attempt to mitigate US$1.2 billion in animal-related vehicular damage, a few US states now have sophisticated systems to protect motorists from large animals. One of these systems is called the Roadway Animal Detection System (RADS). A solar powered sensor can detect large animals such as deer, bear, elk, and moose near the roadway, and thereafter flash a light to alert oncoming drivers. The sensor's detection distance ranges from  to unlimited, depending on the terrain.

Canopy crossings

The removal of trees associated with road construction produces a gap in the forest canopy that forces arboreal (tree dwelling) species to come to the ground to travel across the gap. Canopy crossings have been constructed for red squirrels in Great Britain, colobus monkeys in Kenya, and ringtail possums in Far North Queensland, Australia. The crossings have two purposes: to ensure that roads do not restrict movement of animals and also to reduce roadkill. Installation of the canopy crossings may be relatively quick and cheap.

Escape routes
Banks, cuttings and fences that trap animals on the road are associated with roadkill. In order to increase the likelihood of escape from a main roadway, escape routes have been constructed on the access roads. Escape routes may be considered as one of the most useful measures, especially when new roads are being built or roads are being upgraded, widened or sealed. Research may be undertaken into the efficacy of escape routes by observation of animals' response to vehicles in places with natural escape routes and barriers, rather than trialing purpose-built escape routes.

Fencing
In the New Forest, in southern England, there is a proposal to fence roads to protect the New Forest pony. However, this proposal is controversial.

Disposal
Removing animal carcasses from roadways is considered essential to public safety. The removal takes away the potential distraction and hazard of the carcass to other motorists. Quick removal can also prevent deaths of other animals that may wish to feed on the carcass, as well as animals that may go into the road to try to move the body of an animal in their social group. Sometimes rather than removal, the carcass is moved to a nearby public right-of-way where it can be consumed by scavengers, but not placed in a ditch or where waterways might be polluted. Covering the carcass with wood chips can aid in decomposition while minimizing odor.

Local governments and other levels of government have services that pick up dead animals from roadways, who will respond when advised about a dead animal.

New York City has an online request form which may be completed by residents of the city. New York State has a process to report dead wildlife to the Department of Environmental Conservation; they are especially interested in marked/tagged wildlife and endangered or threatened species.

In Toronto, Canada, the city accepts requests to remove a dead animal by telephone. If an animal is found along a major highway, depending on who has jurisdiction for maintaining the highway, the request may be directed to the city, the provincial Ministry of Transportation, or a highway operations centre. In Ontario, citizens may keep possession of roadkill in many circumstances, but may have to register their find.

Eating roadkill

If fresh enough, roadkill can be eaten, and there are several recipe books dedicated to roadkill. The practice of eating animals killed on the road is usually derided, and most people consider it not to be safe, sanitary, or wholesome. For example, when the Tennessee legislature attempted to legalize the use of accidentally killed animals, they became the subject of stereotyping and derisive humor. Nevertheless, in some cultures there is tradition of using fresh roadkill as a nutritious and economical source of meat similar to that obtained by hunting.

Cultural references

Music
Songwriter and performer Loudon Wainwright III released his deadpan humorous song, "Dead Skunk (in the Middle of the Road)" in 1972, and it peaked at number 16 on the Billboard Hot 100.

The American band Phish frequently plays the song "Possum", originally from the album The Man Who Stepped into Yesterday''' at its concerts. The song describes an encounter with a roadkilled opossum and includes the lyric, "Your end is the road".

The Horse Flies, an American alt rock/folk band from Ithaca, NY, released an upbeat homage to vehicularly-mediated food security titled "Roadkill" on their 1991 album, "Gravity Dance" exhorting the listener to "Eat what you kill."

Art
Roadkill is sometimes used as an art form. Several artists use traditional taxidermy preparation in their works whilst others explore different artforms. International artist Claudia Terstappen photographs roadkill and produces enormous prints which see the animals floating eerily in a void. American artist Gary Michael Keyes photographs and transforms them into "RoadKill Totems" in his "Resurrection Gallery". American artist Stephen Paternite has been exhibiting roadkill pieces since the 1970s.

Literature
Canadian writer Timothy Findley wrote about the experience of seeing killed animals on highways during travels: "The dead by the road, or on it, testify to the presence of man. Their little gestures of pain—paws, wings and tails—are the saddest, the loneliest, most forlorn postures of the dead I can imagine. When we have stopped killing animals as though they were so much refuse, we will stop killing one another. But the highways show our indifference to death, so long as it is someone else's. It is an attitude of the human mind I do not grasp."

Anthropology

In a 2013 essay, American anthropologist Jane Desmond examined at length the failure of American culture and public discourse to adequately confront the ubiquity of roadkill.  She concluded: "The simplest answer is that these animal lives have little value for most of the populations in the United States, as these animals are unowned, lacking in monetary or emotional value, not pets or livestock, and without the charismatic following that megafauna like elephants and lions in zoos receive. This calculus of devaluation clears the way for such carnage to be ignored in public discourse and legal venues, to be out of mind while insistently in sight."

Video games
There are driving video games where players can run over animals, such as the arcade version of Cruis'n USA, as well as video games where players control an animal that crosses roads to avoid becoming roadkill, such as Frogger and Crossy Road''.

See also

 Bird strike
 Bushmeat
 Deer–vehicle collisions
 Estray
 Habitat conservation
 Habitat destruction
 Habitat fragmentation
 Moose test
 Motor vehicle fatality rate in U.S. by year
 Tree squirrel as roadkill and traffic hazards
 Wildlife
 Wildlife corridor

Further reading

References

External links

Roadkill observation system in the US states of California and Maine
"The Road Lab" roadkill observation project in the United Kingdom
Map Road Kill in Ireland
Just Because It's In Slow Motion Doesn't Mean You Can Stop It - Joy Hunsberger – an artist who has been photographing roadkill as a form of ancestor worship since 1997
Roadkill prevention in the Northern Beaches of Sydney Australia
Hints for the Highway, What Drivers Can Do – prevention tips from Wildlife Collision Prevention Program of British Columbia Conservation Foundation
A Guide to Road Ecology in Ontario – 2010 report by Ontario Road Ecology Group, Toronto Zoo
Caution: Animals crossing – Canada Safety Council prevention tips including engineering solutions
Srazenazver.cz - roadkill observation system in the Czech Republic
KDE+ software - freeware software for roadkill's hotspots (clusters) identification

Road transport
Meat
Wildlife
Animal death
Transport and the environment
Ecological connectivity
Road hazards
Articles containing video clips

Roadkill


Harold Raymond Smith (June 1, 1931 – April 12, 2014) was an American professional baseball player coach, scout and manager. He played in Major League Baseball as a catcher for the St. Louis Cardinals (1956–61) and Pittsburgh Pirates (1965). Born in Barling, Arkansas, Smith batted and threw right-handed; he stood 5 feet  inches (1.8 m) tall and weighed . After Smith's playing career was curtailed by a heart ailment during the  season, he became a longtime employee of the Cardinals' organization as Major League coach, minor league manager and scout. He also served as a coach for the Pirates (1965–67), Cincinnati Reds (1968–69) and Milwaukee Brewers (1976–77).

Career
Smith was a standout catcher for the Cardinals during his six years with them. He was the club's regular receiver from 1956 until his forced retirement. Before the 1957 season, Cardinal manager Fred Hutchinson said "Hal Smith looks like a better catcher." He was selected a National League All-Star in  and .  Smith led NL catchers in throwing out would-be base-stealers in both 1959 and 1960, and in caught stealing percentage in 1960.

On Opening Day (April 11), 1961, with the Cardinals trailing the Milwaukee Braves 1–0 going to the eighth inning, Smith got the team's third hit of the game against Warren Spahn, a leadoff triple. He scored on a Bob Nieman single to tie the game, and the Cardinals eventually won 2–1 after Daryl Spencer hit a home run in the 10th inning. On June 10, 1961, after starting 42 of the Cardinals' first 48 games—and shortly after he celebrated his 30th birthday—Smith complained of chest and upper abdominal pains. He was admitted to Jewish Hospital, St. Louis, where he was diagnosed with a "coronary artery condition."  Smith was forced to immediately retire from playing baseball, and was the Cardinals' bullpen coach in 1962. His disability eventually cleared the way for Tim McCarver to become the Cardinals' new regular catcher.

Four years after his illness forced him to the sidelines, Smith was able to appear in four games in July 1965 for the Pirates as a player-coach on an emergency basis, when Jim Pagliaroni, Del Crandall and Ozzie Virgil were injured. Smith started one game (July 1 against the Cardinals), and was a defensive replacement in his three remaining appearances, catching for 12 total innings. He then returned to the coaching ranks on Harry Walker's staff.

In a seven-season career, Smith was a .258 hitter with 437 hits, including 63 doubles, eight triples and 23 home runs and 172 RBI in 570 games. As a catcher, he appeared in 548 games and recorded 2,810 putouts, 247 assists, and only 33 errors in 2,890 total chances for a .989 fielding percentage.

From 1956 through 1961, Smith was one of two Hal Smiths catching in the Major League Baseball; the other, Harold Wayne Smith, played for the Kansas City Athletics (1956–59) and Pirates (1960–61). Since the Cardinals and Athletics were in two different leagues, the two did not play against each other until 1960, but they met for the first time in 1957 spring training.

Smith is the subject of a biography, The Barling Darling: Hal Smith In American Baseball, written by Billy D. Higgins.

In 2003, McCarver ranked Smith third on a list of the Cardinals' greatest catchers, praising the player's defensive skills. "He could really catch, with soft, pliable hands, and he could throw lasers. He was a lot like Jerry Grote on the Mets, who was the best defensive catcher I ever saw," McCarver said. "All pitchers loved Hal Smith."

Personal life
Smith was good friends with teammate Vinegar Bend Mizell. Both players lived in Florissant, Missouri, and would carpool to Busch Stadium together, often with Wally Moon. Smith and Mizell both attended Florissant Valley Baptist Church, going to the early service so they could make it to Busch Stadium in time for the games. They stayed close friends after their careers had ended.

A United States Air Force veteran during the Korean War, Smith was buried at the Fort Smith National Cemetery.

See also
 List of St. Louis Cardinals coaches

References

External links

 Baseball Library

1931 births
2014 deaths
Albany Cardinals players
Allentown Cardinals players
Baseball players from Arkansas
Cincinnati Reds coaches
Hamilton Cardinals players
Houston Buffaloes players
Lynchburg Cardinals players
Major League Baseball bullpen coaches
Major League Baseball catchers
Milwaukee Brewers coaches
National League All-Stars
Omaha Cardinals players
People from Sebastian County, Arkansas
Pittsburgh Pirates coaches
Pittsburgh Pirates players
St. Louis Cardinals coaches
St. Louis Cardinals players
St. Louis Cardinals scouts
Burials at Fort Smith National Cemetery

Hal R. Smith


Wilhelm Erben (3 December 1864, in Salzburg – 7 April 1933, in Graz) was an Austrian historian, known for his work in the field of auxiliary sciences of history and his studies involving the history of medieval warfare.

He studied history at the University of Vienna, and from 1885 studied with Theodor von Sickel at the Institut für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung (Institute for Austrian Historical Research) in Vienna. From 1888 to 1891 he was an employee of the Monumenta Germaniae historica, and afterwards, served as curator at the Imperial Army Museum in Vienna. In 1901 he qualified as a lecturer, and two years later was named professor of medieval history and historical auxiliary sciences at the University of Innsbruck. From 1917 up until his death in 1933, he taught classes as a professor at the University of Graz. In 1915 he became a member of the Vienna Academy of Sciences.

Selected works
 Die Kaiser- und Königsurkunden des Mittelalters in Deutschland, Frankreich und Italien, 1907 – The imperial and royal charters of the Middle Ages in Germany, France and Italy.
 Urkundenlehre (3 volumes, 1907–11; with Ludwig Schmitz-Kallenberg and Oswald Redlich).
 Ein oberpfälzisches Register aus der Zeit Kaiser Ludwigs des Bayern, 1908 – An Upper Palatinate register from the time of King Ludwig of Bavaria.
 Quellenstudien aus dem Historischen Seminar der Universität Innsbruck, 1909 – Source studies from the Historical Seminar of the University of Innsbruck.
 Die Schlacht bei Mühldorf, 28. September, 1322; historisch-geographisch und rechtsgeschichtlich untersucht, 1923 – The Battle of Mühldorf; historical-geographical and legal history examined.
 Das Salzburger Fragment der Sächsischen Weltchronik, 1924 – Salzburg fragment of the Saxon Chronicle.
 Kriegsgeschichte des Mittelalters, 1929 – War history of the Middle Ages.
 Rombilder auf kaiserlichen und päpstlichen Siegeln des Mittelalters, 1931 – Roman images of imperial and papal seals of the Middle Ages.

References

1864 births
1933 deaths
Writers from Salzburg
Academic staff of the University of Innsbruck
Academic staff of the University of Graz
20th-century Austrian historians
19th-century Austrian historians
Historians from Austria-Hungary

Wilhelm Erben


Lina Pizzolongo (January 25, 1925, Montreal - September 21, 1991, Toronto) was a Canadian vocal coach and concert pianist. She was married to baritone Louis Quilico and was the mother of two children Donna and Gino Quilico, also a baritone.

Career

She studied first at the Conservatoire de musique du Québec à Montréal, with Yvonne Hubert, then at the "École normale de musique" in Paris, with Alfred Cortot and Marguerite Long, and at the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia in Rome with Carlo Zecchi. She performed as a soloist with the Montreal Symphony Orchestra and the CBC Radio Orchestra. She taught as an instructor first at the Montréal Conservatory, and later at the University of Toronto from 1970 to 1987, and the McGill University from 1987 to 1990. As a vocal coach and accompanist, she was the primary influence in the careers of her husband Louis and son Gino.

External links
Lina Quilico (Canadian Encyclopedia of Music)

1925 births
1991 deaths
Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia alumni
Canadian women pianists
Conservatoire de musique du Québec à Montréal alumni
Musicians from Montreal
Academic staff of the Conservatoire de musique du Québec à Montréal
Academic staff of the University of Toronto
Academic staff of McGill University
20th-century Canadian pianists
20th-century Canadian women musicians
20th-century women pianists

Lina Pizzolongo


Makar is a town in Bardaghat Municipality in Nawalparasi District in the Lumbini Zone of southern Nepal. The municipality was established on 18 May 2014 by merging existing Makar and Panchanagar VDCs. At the time of the 1991 Nepal census it had a population of 16,206 people living in 2780 individual households.

References

Populated places in Parasi District

Makar, Nepal